10/7/2017

What is Structural Geology, and Why Study It?

Structural geology- the study of rock deformation.
Study of how the lithosphere is bent, broken, and deformed during plate
tectonics.

Structural geology is important for understanding:

1) The locations of earthquakes.

2) The formation of mountains.
3) The tectonic history of the earth.
4) How to safely building structures such as bridges and dams.

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Strike The layer of sandstone is tilted

to the West at an angle of
and about 30 degrees. The dip and
strike are 30W/180.
dip
Planes can be defined in space by their inclination or
dip and their strike, the bearing of the line of
intersection of the plane and a horizontal surface.
Notice that the bearing of the projection of the dip on a
horizontal surface is in a direction at right angles to the
strike. This is called the dip direction.

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Folds result from the plastic deformation of rocks at low strain-rates,

usually under elevated temperature and pressure conditions.

Fold Folds are broadly subdivided

into anticlines (upwards convex)
and synclines (downwards convex).

and
Folding

An anticline is a fold that is arched upward to form Parts of a Fold

a ridge; a syncline is a fold that arches downward
to form a trough.

Anticlines and synclines are usually made up of Folds are classified on the basis of :
many rock units that are folded in the same pattern.
The center axis of a fold is called the hinge line and Symmetrical character
lies in the axial plane that separates the rocks on
one side of the fold from the rocks on the other side Upward or downward bend
that dip in the opposite direction.
Occurrence of plunge
One side of the fold is called the limb; a side-by-
side syncline and anticline share a limb. The curved Uniformity of bed thickness
portions of the fold at the top and bottom are called
crest and trough Behaviour of the fold pattern with depth

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The tighness of folds can be described as The orientation of the axial plane relative to
open (limbs dip gently), tight (limbs dip the horizontal together with the orientation
steeply) or isoclinal (limbs are parallel). Folds are classified on the basis of fold limbs allow subdivision into upright
of several geometric factors:
Folds are classified on the basis (axial plane vertical, limbs symmetric),
of several geometric factors: overturned (axial plane moderately
Tightness of folding
inclined, one limb overturned), or
Orientation of axial plane
Tightness of folding recumbent (axial plane near horizontal, one
Thickness of folded beds
Orientation of axial plane limb inverted).
Thickness of folded beds

Thickly-bedded, brittle units tend to form

concentric folds with the bed thickness
preserved normal to bedding surfaces.
Thinly-bedded, clay-rich units have a
Folds are classified on the basis tendency to develop a foliation parallel to the
of several geometric factors: axial plane and form similar folds with the
vertical distance between top and bottom of
Tightness of folding the unit preserved through the deformation.
Orientation of axial plane
Thickness of folded beds

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Folding may be either due to tectonic causes or due to non-tectonic

causes.

By tectonic causes is understood folding taking place as a response of

Symmetric plunging anticlines and synclines produce characteristic "bulls-eye"
outcrop patterns. In synclinal folds, the beds at the centre of the pattern are the
youngest formation and the beds get older formation in a radial direction. Such
structures are called basins. In anticlinal plunging folds, the beds increase in age
towards the centre of the pattern. Such structures are called domes.
the rocks to various forces originating from within the body of the earth.
Mainly, the compressive and shear type of tectonic forces are
responsible for folding phenomenon. Igneous intrusions of viscous
magmas such as laccoliths and lopoliths also contribute of folding.
The non-tectonic folding is bending or warping of rocks due very
conspicuously to superficial processes like landslide, creeping,
differential compaction and isostatic settling.

Rocks respond to stress by deformation, which is the change in shape and

volume of a rock under load. Rocks behave either by brittle deformation and
fracture, or by ductile deformation and flow.
Up Stream Side
Down
Stress and strain - terms used to describe the type of rock deformation Stream Side
Stress: force applied to a body/unit area T
Strain: Deformation or change of shape a rock body experiences when R
under differential stress. W W
Rock Layer 1
-Permanent Strain
Rock Layer 2
Rock Layer 3
When stress exceeds the strength of the rock, the rock will bend or fold On horizontal bedded rocks
When rock is stressed beyond elastic limit and when stress is Stable condition
removed, object remains deformed by bending Plastic Stain causes Fold

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Upstream Side Down Up Stream Side Down

Stream Side
T Stream Side
T
R
R
W W W
W

On downstream dipping rocks - unsafe On upstream dipping rocks safe against R

Up Stream Side Up Stream Side Down Up Stream Side

Down Down
Stream Side Stream Side Stream Side
T T T
R R R
W W W W
....
..
. . .
W W

..
... ..
..

Dam over narrow vertical beds -Unsafe Dam over wide vertical beds -safe

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Folds at the Tunnel site Anticline Syncline

Younger Formation older Formation
Folds are the deformation of the influence of tectonic forces. Hence
the folded rocks will be under considerable strain. When excavations
for tunnels are made in folded rocks, such rocks get the opportunity to
release this energy. Such a release may occur in the form of rock
bursts or rock falls or bulging of the sides or the floor or the roof.
Thus complications of such a kind are likely to occur when tunneling is
made in folded regions.
Younger Formation
In folded region, the tunnel alignment may be parallel or perpendicular older Formation
or oblique to the axis of folds. Anticlinal Fold parallel to the axis of Synclinal Fold parallel to the axis
folds. of folds.

Anticline Syncline

High High High Pressure

Low Low
Pressure Pressure PressurePressure Low Low
Pressure Pressure
Anticlinal Fold low pressure in Synclinal Fold high pressure in
middle region middle region