Shaping Architectural Discourse by Architecture Students at Queen'S University Belfast

130
SHAPING ARCHITECTURAL DISCOURSE BY ARCHITECTURE STUDENTS AT

QUEENS UNIVERSITY BELFAST
Architecture Students at Queens University Belfast Review Selected Books on Person-
Environment Interactions
Ashraf M. Salama
People
The Death Personal
Psychology Space:
The Image and Life Space Defensible The Making
of Great The for
of the City Space and Breaking
American Behavioural Architects
of Human
Basis of
Cities Boundaries
Design
The Meaning
Architecture Meaning of the Built Environ- Architecture
for People: and Environment: mental and Identity, The
Explorations in Behaviour A Nonverbal Psychology Responses to Language
a New Cultural and of Space
in the Built Com- in Building
Humane -munication Techno-logical
Environment Design Change
Environment Approach
While design practices are generally seen as to communicate the same ideas or concepts
a major driver for shaping debates and trends effectively. Whether or not one would agree
in architecture and urbanism, architectural with this view is a different issue. Yet, as a reaction
discourse is typically shaped by discussions in to such a view it is possible to see book reviews
books, journal articles, short essays, and reviews playing the role of short essays or articles which
of design trends or critiques of buildings or design enable readers to grasp the message a book
Reviews and Trigger Articles.
competitions. In many cases however, critical author is trying to convey-yet in a short and quick
essays may have the power to communicate way. In person-environment researchas part
ideas and concepts in a concise manner while of contemporary architectural discoursebook
books can still be seen by some academics reviews are important as they provide significant
or many practitioners as lacking the capacity slices of larger arguments, but enable readers to
Copyright 2009 Archnet-IJAR, Volume 3 - Issue 2 -July 2009 - (130-173)
Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research

Shaping Architectural Discourse by Architecture Students at Queens University Belfast
131
classify, categorize, and relate those arguments behaviours and attitudes.

ASHRAF M. SALAMA
to other discourses on theories of architecture

and urbanism, and thereby comprehending In this article, I discuss the notion of reviews and
the full spectrum of issues introduced through a book reviews, outline the assignment delivered
specific period of time. to architecture students at Queens University
Belfast, then present selected students reviews.
As part of a specialist subject (elective) on Socio- While this article is simply a presentation of
Behavioral and Cultural Factors in Architecture students work, the ultimate objective is to offer
and Urban Design, which I teach to architecture a package of ideas and concepts generated
students at Queens University Belfast, a book in the literature of person-environment
review assignment was delivered. The course interaction as viewed by the students. This is
aims at introducing students to cultural, social, coupled with students articulations of and
and psychological issues in architectural and reflections on how the merits and demerits of
urban design, and their value to successful those ideas and the way in which they relate
design practices. It provides an overview and to such ideas in their reviews. While this article
analysis of the literature and major scholars, does not reflect on students work and does not
researchers, and practitioners. An integral have a conclusion, it calls for a database that
component of the course is an intensive is exclusively dedicated to reviewed books on
discussion of issues that pertain to ways in which person-environment interactions, which could
information about socio-cultural factors and be published online on the web of one of the
environment-behaviour knowledge can be societies or associations concerned with people-
applied to design projects. In more specific environment interactions including EDRA-
terms, the objectives of the course therefore Environmental Design Research Association
encompass: 1) To increase students sensitivity and IAPS-International Association of People-
to the built environment and to break any habits Environments Studies.
of taking the environment for granted; 2) To
acquaint students with particular knowledge of
a variety of environments including residential,
The Notion of Reviews and Book Reviews
work, learning, and urban environments. Since A review is a critical appraisal of a text, event,
our societies are in a continuous process of exhibition, object or product, or phenomenon.
transformation, we must engage in sound Reviews can consider books, articles, entire
future design that would involve the systematic genres or fields of literature, architecture,
examination of the relationship between culture, art, fashion, restaurants, policies, exhibitions,
behaviour, and the environment; 3) To enhance performances, and many other forms (UNC,
students understanding of the core concepts 2009). Essentially, a review makes an argument
regarding human-environment relations and or a polemic. The most important element of
how these concepts vary by different cultures a review is that it is a commentary, not merely
and sub-cultures, 4) To develop students critical a summary or summary of a thrust of a book.
thinking abilities about the role of the built form It allows the reviewer-student to enter into
in fostering, enhancing, or inhibiting cultural dialogue and debate with the works creator
Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

132
and with other audiences. often suggests whether or not the audience
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
would appreciate it.

Typically, a reviewer provides an agreement
of disagreement while identifying exemplary In educational and learning terms, the book
elements or deficiencies in its knowledge and review is assigned to develop analytical skills.
the message it attempts to convey. Also, a First, the student reviewer has to depict the
reviewer should state his/her opinion of the work content, regardless of the type of content
in question, and that statement will probably whether it is research-based, or position-based.
resemble other types of academic writing, with In the subsequent narration the goal of the book
a thesis statement, supporting body paragraphs, reviewer is to discuss the content of the book
and a conclusion. and provide generic analysis of what he or she
had read, and deduce if the author managed
In general terms, reviews are brief. In to reveal the core, whether he or she kept to the
newspapers and academic journals, they rarely thesis or properly achieved the purpose of the
exceed 1000 words, although a reviewer may book. Additionally, the reviewer is to speculate
encounter lengthier assignments and extended on the topic him or herself.
commentaries as required for publishing. In
either case, reviews need to be short and Generally, the objective of a book review is
snappy and to the point. While book reviews to communicate the ideas and sensations
may vary in tone, subject, interest, and style, experienced by the book reviewer to the
there are a number of common features that review reader, while analyzing the content. This
can be exemplified as stated by the writing involves elaborating to the reader on what the
center of University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill precise meanings of the ideas that the author
(UNC, 2009). However, they are dependent on presumed to convey, or what did the reviewer
whether the review is developed for learning, experienced during the reading. In informing
professional, or marketing purposes. the third party of the events, the book reviewer,
then, may be considered as a reporter, who
1. A review is typically expected to offer the informs the third party of the events; the book
reader a concise summary of the content. This reviewer is an analyst, who makes judgments
includes a relevant description of the topic as based on their own experience. Thus, developing
well as its overall perspective, argument, or book reviews requires some special skills, as well
purpose. as obliges with some precise responsibilities.
2. A review offers a critical assessment of the Not only is a professional obliged to read and
content. This involves the reviewers reactions to scrutinize the text, but he or she must also realize
the work under review: what strikes the reviewer concealed, implied meanings the author hinted
as noteworthy, whether or not it was effective or about (Wikipedia, 2009). Skilled book reviewers
persuasive, and how it enhanced the reviewers explanations make the reader feel this that is
understanding of the issues at hand. just what I thought sensation (Wikipedia, 2009).
In a book review, the main points of the book
3. In addition to analyzing the work, a review being reviewed must be expressed. Then, the

133
book reviewer has to decide upon the validity can be exemplified as follows:
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
of the authors arguments. The reviewer is

responsible for judging the work by asking if the Length: The length of the review should be in
writer or author has succeeded in persuading the range of 1200 1600 words (references are
the audience, or if his or her justifications were not included).
insufficient and weak. As such, the reviewer
Content: The review must systematically include
here judges the adequacy of the books topic
the following:
in relation to the content.
Introduction to the subject matter and what
The Book Review Assignment to is happening in the area that the book
addresses.
Architecture Students, Queens University
Belfast Context: For the review to be accessible to as
many readers as possible a review needs to
The assignment given to architecture students
contain something about the context in which
on book reviews was part of the course work
the book is written. If the book is new, how does
required for the elective Socio-Behavioral and
it fit into current thinking on the subject? If the
Cultural Factors in Architecture and Urban
book is more than 10 years old, how does it fit
Design where eighteen students were enrolled.
into the main stream thinking in the time it was
The delivery of the exercise was undertaken
written?
at two steps; the first is book identification and
discussion, and the second is conducting the Audience: Who is the intended audience? Does
review. The selection of the book was based the book address that audience? Does it make
on students interest but constrained by the clear any pre-requisites there are for reading
relation to one or more of the topics covered in it?
the subject matters of the course. Each student
selected a book then a class discussion was Contribution: What is the state of knowledge
undertaken to debate the reasons for book in this subject and how does this book add,
selection as a pre-exercise activity. change or break new ground in our knowledge
of this subject?
In conducting the reviews, students were
asked to develop their reviews based on strict Discussion: A discussion of contents (including
format for consistency purposes. Students were personal interpretation of the issues and
required to offer the basic information about concepts). As well, the discussion would involve:
the book following these headings reviewer/ the strengths and weaknesses of the book;
student name; Book title; author(s) / editor(s); comments on authors style and presentation;
edition / print; year of publication; city of Are the contents, index, glossary and
publication; publisher; number of pages; ISBN; bibliography adequate? Whether the authors
paperback/Hardback; cover Image: and aims have been met and presented clearly in
review text. A number of criteria were given to the book?
the students for developing their reviews; these

134
Production: Are there any particular problems 1980: Meaning and Behaviour in the Built
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
with the form of the book? Are there a substantial EnvironmentGeoffrey Broadbent, Tomas
number of errors (typographical or other) or Llorens, and Richard Blunt (eds.), reviewed by
errors in the technical matter? Leanne Courtney
Conclusion: Would the book be of interest to 1982: The Meaning of the Built Environment: A
colleagues? What is your overall assessment of Nonverbal Communication ApproachAmos
the book? What are its best and worst features? Rapoport, reviewed by Timothy Williams
Would it be recommended it to others? Is it worth
1982: Environmental Psychology in Building
purchasing or recommending to a library?
DesignJohn Brebner, reviewed by Ryan Ward
A total of eighteen books on person-environment 1997-2000: Architecture and Identity,
interactions were reviewed and those selected Responses to Cultural and Technological
here were the best reviews which were marked ChangeChris Abel, reviewed by Lyndsey
based on the criteria given to the students. The Magowan
Selected books are:
2001: The Language of SpaceBryan
1960: The Image of the CityKevin Lynch, Lawson, reviewed by Ronan White
reviewed by Jennifer Montgomery
1962: The Death and Life of Great American The book review assignment is seen as one of the
CitiesJane Jacobs, reviewed by Michael components that contribute to the achievement
Dowds of learning outcomes of this course that can be
exemplified by demonstrating the following:
1969: Personal Space, The Behavioural Basis
of DesignRobert Sommer, reviewed by Awareness of how people respond to
Andrew David Graham different environmental settings
Understanding of theories and methods
1973: Defensible SpaceOscar Newman, that clarify relationships between people and
reviewed by David Montgomery environments
1974: Psychology for ArchitectsDavid Ability to extract implications for planning
Canter, reviewed by David Rushe and design from cultural and behavioral
information
1976: People Space: The Making and Awareness of outstanding projects awarded
Breaking of Human BoundariesNorman for addressing cultural and societal needs
Ashcraft and Albert E. Scheflen, reviewed by
Christopher Bell
References
1980: Architecture for People: Explorations in
UNC-The Writing Center (2009). The writing center:
a New Humane EnvironmentByron Mikellides handouts and links. Retrieved March 14, 2009, from
(ed.), reviewed by Matthew Stewart http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/

135
review.html the citizen can inform it with his own meanings

ASHRAF M. SALAMA
Wikipedia (2009). Book review. Retrieved May 18, and connections. Then it will become a true
2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_review place, remarkable and unmistakable.
Salama, A. M. (2008). Socio-behavioral and At the time of publishing, questions were beginning
cultural factors in architecture and urban design. to appear concerning the development of city
Course Files, Belfast, UK: SPACE-School of Planning, landscapes and their relevance to cultural
Architecture and Civil Engineering, Queens
and economical conditions. However, this
University Belfast.
publication, The Image of the City served as
an innovative text during the context in which it
The Image of the City was developed, and remains relevant to current
Review by Jennifer Montgomery urban design and city planning principles.
The Image of the City
Kevin Lynch Originally aimed at city planners the book
1960 should, at the present time, appeal to a wider
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA range of professions; urban designers, architects,
MIT Press planners and the general city dwelling public.
181 pages
Topics are analysed within this text which,
ISBN 13 9 78 0 262 62001 7
during the 1960s, were not otherwise discussed,
Paperback
it wasnt until the 1980s with the publication of
The Architecture of the City or People in Cities:
What does the citys form actually mean to the
The Urban Environment and its Effects that
people who live there? Lynch discusses and
similar topics were approached and questioned,
analyses the theory of the environmental image,
analysing the effects of personal experiences
and the effect of an individuals perception
and memory on the environmental image and
of the city, in relation to emotional security,
vice versa. However neither of these examples
orientation and personal growth. He distinguishes
provides a concise explanation to which the
the composition of the urban setting into paths,
city can be understood and observed.
edges, districts, nodes and landmarks, all of
which are interrelated with both positive and Lynch begins the book with a general discussion
negative consequences. These visual attributes and explanation of the environmental image,
allow residents to develop mental maps of their describing the city as an object which is perceived,
surroundings, which was materialised on paper and recognising that the image continually
through interview processes in Boston, Jersey changes, or shifts, On different occasions
City and Los Angeles. Examples of these insightful and for different people, the sequences are
maps, drawings and descriptions are included reversed, interrupted, abandoned, cut across. It
within the book content. He then proceeds to is seen in all lights and all weathers. An individual
discuss the city form and the importance of creates and bears their own personal image of
developing clearer environmental images of the city, depending on many factors such as
our surrounding landscapes, if the environment gender, culture, occupation or familiarity. The
is visibly organised and sharply identified, then

136
importance of a vivid environmental image typically from home to workplace, it is evident

ASHRAF M. SALAMA
in personal orientation, which is created and that the environmental image nearer the home
produced through a combination of immediate is clearer, vivid and more detailed, providing
surrounding sensation and the memory of more interest and pleasure for the individual,
past experience, is identified throughout the as they approach their workplace this image
book, let the mishap of disorientation occur, becomes greyer, more abstract, unclear and
and the sense of anxiety and even terror that conceptual.
accompanies it reveals to us how closely it is
linked to our sense of balance and well-being. Lynch moves on to classify the city into five
Ultimately the environmental image is analysed elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and
by Lynch into three components: identity, landmarks.
structure and meaning.
Paths are the channels along which the
Three American cities are then studied to observer customarily, occasionally, or potentially
gain a first hand understanding of the role of moves. Edges are the linear elements not used
environmental images in urban lives. Boston or considered as paths by the observer.
is unique in character among American cities,
Districts are the medium-to-large sections of the
being both vivid in form and full of locational
city, conceived of as having two dimensional
difficulties. Jersey City was chosen for its
extent, which the observer mentally enters
apparent formlessness, for what seemed, on
inside of, and which are recognisable as
first observation, to be its extremely low order of
having some common, identifying character.
imageability. Los Angeles, on the other hand, is
a new city, of an utterly different scale, and with Nodes are points, the strategic spots in a city
a gridiron plan in its central area. Interestingly into which an observer can enter, and which
Lynch states that there is not one city throughout are the intensive foci to and from which he is
America that could be considered a great travelling. and;
example of urban design. Two basic forms of
analysis were carried out within each city Landmarks are another type of point reference,
lengthy interviews with a small sample of city but in this case the observer does not enter
residents and systematic field reconnaissance within them, they are external.
by trained observers. Lynch admits that the
Each of the elements converse and respond
samples of city residents may be biased,
to one another, forming an interesting pattern
although rich in suggestion, unfortunately
within the cityscape, this weaving of components
forcing the reader to immediately question
is then utilised to form individual environmental
the content. The methods by which people
images. The elements do not simply resonate
shape images are intriguing, often recalling
with positive effects; they can also conflict and
spaces and elements through a journey they
destroy themselves, ultimately they all operate
have completed, confusion and disorientation
together, in a context.
appear constant, occurring at similar points for
different individuals. Throughout these journeys,

137
When discussing the future of the environmental The principal of this concept is to weave the
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
image, Lynch examines cases outside America, separate elements of the city together to form
which proves more interesting for a European a sense of interconnectedness at any level or
reader, as the examples become identifiable. in any direction.
The crucial development of stronger images is
discussed on an international level, including The ideal approach to future design, with
further examination of the city elements. the aim of a powerful city image, is then
Including interesting analysis of the edge, An established, considering the problems posed by
edge may be more than simply a dominant discovering and preserving the strong images,
barrier if some visual or motion penetration is solving perpetual difficulties, and, above all,
allowed through it... It becomes a seam rather drawing out the structure and identity latent in
than a barrier, a line of exchange along which the confusion. Lynch states that we need an
two areas are sewn together. Form qualities for environment which is not simply well organised,
future urban design are distinguished: singularity, but poetic and symbolic as well. It should speak
form simplicity, continuity, dominance, clarity of the individuals and their complex society, of
of joint, directional difference, visual scope, their aspirations and their historical tradition,
motion awareness, time series and names and of the natural setting, and of the complicated
meanings. All of which should work together functions and movements of the city world. But
in the creation of identity and structure, Thus clarity of structure and vividness of identity are
a region would be unmistakable which had a first steps to the development of strong symbols.
simple form, a continuity of building type and use, By appearing as a remarkable and well-knit
which was singular in the city, sharply bounded, place, the city could provide a ground for
clearly jointed to a neighbouring region and clustering and organisation of these meanings
visually concave. Here Lynch is prescriptively and associations.
trying to establish the ideal conditions for the Lynch satisfies his original aims, but the process
creation of a perfect environmental image, this is unfortunately inefficiently arranged, general
may not be applicable to the present, however, discussions and examples of mental maps
it is a potentially interesting topic of research and personal navigation are placed in the
during initial design stages. appendixes at the end, as opposed to an
introduction to the general topic at the start.
The metropolitan form is then organised as a
However, the arrangement of the body of the
sequence or temporal pattern, similarly to music,
book is effective, clearly establishing discussion
drama, literature or dance. Routes through
topics within the page margins and following a
the city are examined further, discussing the
stimulating order.
potential to reverse, change direction or halt, a
broken journey through the city is compared to Overall, Lynch describes the visual attributes
a piece of music, which might lead us from the of cities with impressive clarity, arranging
classic start-climax-finish form to others which the firsthand information in a readable and
are more like the essentially endless, and yet effective manner. The text facilitates the
continuous and variegated, patterns of jazz. formation of a creative design perspective at a

138
city level, useful whether you are submerged in References

ASHRAF M. SALAMA
a design project or simply walking around your

Rossi, A. (1984). The architecture of the city.
environment and observing the elements. Whilst Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
progressing through the text the reader begins
to apply the concepts and theories to their Krupat, E. (1985). People in cities: The urban
personal surroundings, pinpointing landmarks, environment and its effects. Cambridge, UK:
nodes and districts. Cambridge University Press.
Lynchs approach to the discussion is somewhat The Death and Life of Great American
romantic, continuously linking observations Cities
to individual experiences and memory and Review by Michael Dowds
examining how this affects personal intensity of The Death and Life of Great American Cities
life. It is the manner with which he links practical Jane Jacobs
surveillance and theoretical existences that First Edition
result in a powerful text. 1962
Once the reader progresses past the unusual London, United Kingdom
layout and somewhat dated language the Jonathan Cape Publishers
truly human content, which tackles urban 448 pages
design, personal actuality, city composition and ISBN 9780679600473
individual perceptions, becomes apparent. This Hardback
then provides motivation for further investigation My attention was first drawn to Jane Jacobs,
of the topics covered; perhaps an examination and her book The Death and Life of Great
of the extent to which city forms can heighten American Cities after reading an essay entitled
the observers attention and enrich their The Open City. It was written by Richard Senett
experiences and existence. and appeared in the book The Endless City,
Ultimately I would recommend this book to both produced by the Urban Age Project and first
my colleagues and anyone with an interest in published by Phaidon in 2007. The book looks
the subject of creating communities, whether at the situation of cities around the world
it is read to understand a specific element or (in 2007) and Richard Senetts essay looks in
for personal interest I feel it will prove useful particular at what kind of architectural forms
at some point in their careers, particularly might promote the experience of time abet
the comprehension of the five city elements social relationships that endure through being
which proposes a clear understanding of the given the opportunity to evolve and mutate.
city ingredients. It will prove equally useful in Describing his three strategies for doing so, he
encouraging the reader to look at their city, gives full credit to Jacobs as the philosophical
town or general surroundings an education base of his work. The themes Sennette describes
in seeing, which is equally important as the are so current and important in contemporary
reshaping of what is seen. discussions regarding urbanism that I was
surprised to find that Jacobs book The Death

139
and Life of Great American Cities was first lower socio-economic brackets of society the
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
published almost four decades ago (1962). I was benefits of proximity to nature and abundance
equally astonished by the correlation between of space available to the rich (mostly white)
the urban issues faced in 1960s American cities, inhabitants of the idealic suburbs. This was at
and those encountered in todays globalised least the thinking, one might say zeitgeist, of the
world. time.
Reading Jacobs book in 2008, it is difficult to Jacobs dissents from this view and is unrelentingly
fully appreciate its radical nature given the frank in doing so. She traces the phenomenon
context that it was written in. In the late 1950s of urban renewal back to the works of Ebenezer
and early 60s great urban centres were not Howard. Working as an English court reporter
seen as the desirable places of excitement, in late 19th century London, Howard despised,
opportunity and experience that they are and rightly so Jacobs admits, the squalid
today. Although it has always been a strain conditions of the city. He envisaged something
in American thought, Jeffersonianesque different, that is the Garden City. Jacobs
philosophies regarding society and cities may scathingly describes it as being based on the
have been experiencing somewhat of a revival English country estate model, except with the
in post World War 2 America. This is particularly manor house replaced by a community centre
interesting considering the emergence of ideas and work provided by factories hidden behind
surrounding greater social awarness like FDRs a screen of trees. She saw this as being not only
New Deal and Michael Harringtons 1962 The urban planning, but a model for a paternalistic
Other America: Poverty in the United States. political and economic social system. Jacobs
The unprecedented growth of the middle then goes on to describe how this vision of
classes and the accompanying consumber urbanism links directly to that of the Modernist
boom, combined with a greater sense of social movement, she cites Le Corbusiers Plan Voisin
responsibility lead to the rather schizophrenic as an example par excellence of what she calls
urban model of suburban sprawl and inner- the Radient City. This is the basis upon which
city renewal. This was the can-do baby boom many inner-city urban renewal schemes, what
period, the mantra was out with the old, in with became known as the projects, were created.
the new. From Chicago to Boston to Philadelphia and New
York City, Jacobs describes examples of slum
Given the freedom granted by the newly clearance and their replacement with high-rise,
ubiquitous automobile, the aspirant middle high-density and low footprint apartment blocks
classes deserted city neighbourhoods for the set amidst open space. She then proceeds to
space, privacy, security and all-round improved describe and explain the problems caused by
standard of living available in the vast tree these socially minded schemes, problems like
lined suburbs. At the same time, inner-city slums crime, social disenfranchisement and perpetual
would be cleared and replaced with high- poverty. A paragraph in the book that describes
quality, high-density and high-rise apartments the response a social worker in the East Harlem
set amidst civic parkland, giving to those in the projects received when she asked why residents

140
wanted to remove a particularly despised lawn, system of the time, by sorting the elements of
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
describes the problem suscinctly: society (residential, industrial, age, income

and thus de facto ethnicity) combined with a
Nobody cared what we wanted when they national mortgage lending system, had lead
built this place. The threw our houses down to a situation where finance was restricted to a
and pushed us here and pushed our friends particular ideology rather than ability to repay.
somewhere else. We dont have a place around In effect, people living in what were considered
here to get a cup of coffee or a newspaper slum areas by city planners could not get
even, or borrow fifty cents. finance to improve their living standards in a
(Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great piecemeal and organic way. Money would
American Cities, 1962) only be granted to catastrophie projects. That
is, slum clearance and radiant city rebuild.
Jacobs then contrasts this with what she feels
to be a well constituted neighbourhood and On a more cynical note, Jacobs describes how
uses as example her own, Greenwich Village the politics of finance affect the city. Naturally,
(NYC), The Back-Of-The-Yards (Chicago) and always wishing to increase their tax revenue,
the North-End (Boston). She continues to use governing authorities would have a motive for
these as examples throughout the book. She slum displacement. That is, clearing the area
describes successful neighbourhoods and and replacing it with land uses (more residential
cities as being those that are untidy, highly or other) that would garner greater tax rescripts.
complex, surprising, favour walking, biking and For slums are by their nature money receivers
public transport and above all are diverse. rather than generators.
She describes how a high degree of diversity
of people (economic, cultural, ethnic, age, From this discussion, Jacobs proposes an
income, etc.) and buildings (size, age, use, alternative vision of urban renewal, what
etc.) set in an environment that encourages she calls unsluming. It is not a catastrophic
social interaction, is the fundamental basis intervention by the state, but more an aid to
of city life. That is the chance encounter, the naturally occuring unsluming processes. Her
unexpected discovery and innovation, she proposal is sophisticated and involves financing
explains that these things occure in diverse and reforms, planning reforms and political will, a
highly pedestrianised neighbourhoods because brief summary would not do it justice and so
of what she called the eyes on the street. That I will refrain from trying to give one. I mention
is the passive suveillance afforded to streets political will in particular as the methods she
that have a great number of users, increasing advocates are piecemeal and subtle, as such
security and encouraging further visitors to the they would inherently lack the public relations
street. Although the work is highly insightful impact of big urban regeneration projects.
throughout, this is perhaps one of the two most Polticians willing to forego short-term electoral
outstanding contributions. gain for long-term societal gain are few on the
ground. Thus, in some ways, it is as ideological
The other relates to finance and its impact on as the radiant city or garden city approaches
the city. Jacobs describes how the planning that she so aphores.

141
I am aware of the significant impact that Jane helpful.

ASHRAF M. SALAMA
Jacobs, and this book in particular, has had on

urban planning discourse and our understanding This is certainly a book I would recommend to
of cities. However, the aformentioned is one of my architect colleagues as the matter-of-fact
several related critisisms that could be made of approach to Jacobs arguments is a refreshing
the book. The crisisms are not necessarily of what departure from the more poetic styles that
is discussed, but of what is not. Jacobs makes subsequent texts addressing similar issues have
the assumption that suburban development taken. Jacobs sets out her stall clearly, concisely
is the result of poor urban planning strategies and in such a way that the reader can then use
rather than a genuine lifestyle choice. Such her point of view to assess the urban environment
an assertion is unscientific, but it would not be around them.
inherently flawed had she considered or given
acknowledgment to the counter argument References
and explained why she felt it was wrong. This I
Dreier, P. (2006). Jane Jacobs radical legacy.
felt was a flaw apparent throughout the book, Shelterforce Magazine, 146.
that is assertions were made, then backed-up
with selected examples but no consideration Senett, R. (2006). The urban age project: The endless
of counter arguments or examples that did not city-the open city. Berlin, Germany: Phadon.
fit the trend were given. Supplementary to this,
little if any quantitative data was given and Personal Space, The Behavioural Basis of
there were circumstances where this would Design
have been useful. Review by Andrew David Graham
Personal Space, The Behavioural Basis of
That is not to say that the contents of the Design
book were wrong, simply that the arguments Robert Sommer
could have been framed in a more scientific First edition
manner. However, the wrtting style of Jacobs 1969
is engaging and witty. Some daming critiques Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA
warrant genuine laughter, which is a tall order Prentice Hall, Inc.
for a book addressing argueably mundane 177 pages
issues like urban planning. This may go some ISBN-13: 978-0136575771
way to explaining why some of the things that Paperback
I have identified as problems are present. The
contents of the arguments though sophisticated The investigation of human spatial behaviour
and subtle are wholly accessible. One would and the effect which space, buildings and
not need to have had an education in urban the arrangement of environment has on the
planning or architecture to appreciate and individual is still a very important topic in todays
enjoy the main thrust of the book, though some society. Much discussion has occurred recently
background knowledge, particularly on Le regarding social interaction in the world of
Corbusier and the Modern movement may be virtual reality and multi player game simulations.

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As recently as August 2008 a complete issue other under the current conditions in the hospital.
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of Space and Culture was devoted to the The nature of his research was ground breaking
investigation of interaction in the virtual world. at the time as much of the research up to that
Also, within architecture, many points argued point in social psychological theory, took place
by Sommer have still not been applied by the in controlled labs, overlooking the physical
majority and only the few consider the effects conditions under which interaction takes place.
of the environment on the behaviour of the The findings were published in Sociometry in
individual in the design process. This book, 1959 and this new avenue of investigation
although written in 1969 when the study of how opened up the subject of social psychology to
design affects behaviour was just beginning other fields such as architecture, interior design
to emerge, is still as relevant to all who would etc. This research work culminated in the writing
seek to create space where social interaction, of the book which is the subject of this book
whether virtual or physical, takes place. This is review; Personal Space, The behavioural basis
highlighted in the fact that the book has been of design.
republished this year by Bosko Books with an
updated introduction to address the current The book itself is divided into two parts. The
situation within environmental design. first section lays the foundation to the book,
where Sommer explains the various theories
The book itself is considered as one of the of environmental design, how users interact in
key texts on user centred design in regards space and with each other. The theories are
to the built environment and since its original interwoven with statistics and research which
publication, it has stimulated a lot of research do not overwhelm the reader, but add weight
into interpersonal and social interaction in and authenticity. Sommer covers topics such
various spaces and configurations. as privacy, territoriality, and personal space,
how each relate to each other and how they
Sommers investigation into human special become manifest in the physical environment
behaviour began when working at a mental through user behaviour.
hospital in Canada. The hospital had a catalogue
of design defects including poor lighting, long Sommer calls on the writings and knowledge of
corridors and poor ventilation. In an effort to many anthropologists, such as Edward T. Hall,
improve the quality of the environment, Sommer and sociologists, such as Erving Goffmann, to
endeavoured to investigate the relationship help explain the various points he raises in these
between architecture and behaviour in hospital chapters. Sommer makes use of much research,
environments but found a lack of information not only from his own personal investigation, but
available on the subject. from various other sources.
It is interesting to know that more is known about The second half of the book explores various
animal than about human special behaviour. man made environmental systems including
Sommer began to investigate human spatial schools, prisons and student accommodation.
behaviour of how patients interacted with each In many ways, I am of the opinion that the

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author stops short, as he does not offer specific Knowledge about mans immediate
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design solutions for each example. Perhaps environment, the hollows within his shelters that
this is due to the nature of my education as an he calls offices, classrooms, corridors and hospital
architecture student, where one always wants ward is as important as knowledge about outer
facts, statistics, the door width, the required space and under sea life. For too long we have
thickness of the wall, the ideal dimensions of accepted physical forms and administrative
the table and the optimum colour palate. The arrangements based upon outdated views of
author rebukes this method of thinking and human activity.
has made a conscientious decision to stay
clear of creating rigid formulated detailed In our profession, there is still a great need to
laws as each building should be a separate abandon the presupposition of what each
case study as each geographical, social and building type requires. Much of the design work
cultural setting will have different outcomes and is undertaken without the consideration of how
different user requirements. Instead of a long list people actually engage with the space, and
of best practices and data banks the author how the space affects the individual. All too
liberates the designer by equipping the reader often our designs are based on our opinions and
with the tools and the means by which one can our preconceptions. We place ourselves in the
objectively and validly obtain data through place of the end user and design based on our
research specific to each individual design. values, our goals, our ideals and do not consider
the vast range of users, which will inhabit and
The author has made this book very accessible interact in the space. There is a need to remove
to all by not overcomplicating the book with ourselves, our opinions and our utopias from
extensive statistics and he has also employed the design equation and instead factor in the
an accessible language which can be easily requirements and the needs of the end users.
understood. The author claims that the book is
not intended exclusively for architects, designers Frank Lloyd Wright put forth the doctrine
or city planners, although many of the chapters that form follows function, which became a
are aimed in their direction. Sommer implies in useful antidote to needless ornamentation.
his writing that the book is for all who help shape Yet it is curious that most of the concern with
our buildings, social spaces and private space functionalism has been focused upon form
whether that be the janitor, the nurse on night rather than function. It is as if the structure
duty, the patient or the architect. The book is itself-harmony with the site, the integrity of the
certainly not aimed exclusively at experts in the materials, the cohesiveness f the separate
field of environmental psychology, but instead is units, has become the function. Relatively little
aimed at those on the periphery of the subject emphasis is placed on the activities taking
in an effort to engage and help the reader place within the structure.
consider the user requirements and the effect
Sommer goes on to argue that we so often
of spatial design on the individual.
analyse buildings based on a glossy print, void
of any human life or reference. The idea that

144
we create three dimensional sculpture in order and psychological impact of the spaces we
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for it to be catalogued, marvelled and admired create.

through a two dimensional media is absurd.
The success of our architecture cannot be Good design becomes a meaningless
measured solely by its aesthetic appeal. The tautology if we consider that man will be
flavour of the month architecture will change, reshaped to fit whatever environment he
but whether a building will endure depends on creates. The long range question is not so much
how it engages with the end user and the quality what sort of environment we want, but what
of the environment that it creates. For the sake sort of man we want.
of our profession and the sake of our society we
Design shapes people not just buildings; it shapes
must engage in research of user requirements,
the atmosphere in which we live; it shapes who
we must research how the buildings we design
we are and who we become. As architects
affect the building occupants. We must learn
we do not just build structures or spaces. We
from our mistakes and the errors of others in
create the fabric on which life is lived, the fabric
order to ensure that we produce the best design
on which people interact and socialise. We
solutions. Considering how users react with the
must strive to undertake more research on an
environment, not as a series of individual items,
individual design basis, to insure that individual
such as desks or chairs, but as an ecosystem, as
needs of the user and goals of society are met.
a whole.
As a profession we must design holistically and
One may become slightly disillusioned when not only consider the physical requirements, but
reading this book at various points. The author also the physiological impact of the spaces and
continually refers to how people interact with spatial arrangements we create.
space and objects within space, how users prefer
In my opinion this book is very useful as an
a certain chair for example, or a certain place
introduction to the subject of personal space,
at a table, a certain size of desk. However the
environmental psychology and the behavioural
point is continually made that users will adapt
basis of design. The author engages the reader
to their situations, they will grow accustomed
in a very interesting and valuable subject and
and will often not question the environments
communicates in such a way that the subject
in which they are placed. One example is
can be easily understood. The book is well
of how patients will adapt to a new spatial
structured and contains a helpful index and
arrangement within a hospital lounge, or how
detailed footnotes. I would recommend this
students will use their bed as a study space if the
book to anyone involved in design of spaces
provided desk is inadequate. One wonders from
and to anyone who has a general interest in
time to time in the book if the author is voiding
anthropology.
his own argument. All these fears are expelled
however in the final paragraph in the closing
words of the book which serve as a rallying cry References
to designers everywhere to consider the social Altman, I. (1975). The environment and social
behaviour. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing

145
Company. renewal. Governments across the world that had

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implemented en masse urban renewal programs

Bardzell and Odom, W. (2008).The experience
of embodied space in virtual worlds. Space and
containing high rise residential schemes were
Culture, 11, 239-259. realising the problematic consequences
associated with them. The infamous scheme at
Sommer, R. (1959). Studies in personal space. Pruitt-Igoe in St Louis, when demolished in 1972
Sociometry, 22, 247-260. due to the local authoritys inability to control
Sommer, R. (1969). Personal space, Englewood Cliffs, crime and anti social behaviour was heralded
NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. as the death of modernism. Urban theorists
and writers such as Elizabeth Wood and Jane
Defensible Space Jacobs argued the social problems caused by
Review by David Montgomery such radical changes to a cities urban makeup
Defensible Space and were focusing on ideas of maintaining
Oscar Newman neighbourhoods, intimacy of communities and
2nd edition increasing diversity of use and smallness of
1973 scale. Newmans Defensible Space builds on
London, United Kingdom the ideas of Jacobs in her book The Death and
Architectural Press Life of Great American Cities using statistical
264 pages data to examine a correlation between poor
ISBN: 0 85139 136 2 physical design in new residential projects and
Hardback crime rates within the area they are situated.
Defensible space broadly examines how Defensible Space is aimed at a broad

human perception of the built environment audience. While initially intended for housing
can affect ones behaviour. The book attacks developers, architects, city authorities and
current ideas and methods at the time of urban the police the manuscript was rewritten as the
and residential design, focusing on exploring a author wanted to appeal to a wider readership
link between how the breakdown of reading such as residents and associations wishing to
and practicing of instinctual social and cultural implement defensible space schemes in their
symbols, such as thresholds and defined spaces neighbourhoods. The book encompasses a
absent in much modernist architecture, can wide range of subjects such as architecture, law,
increase crime rates and social malaise in psychology and sociology as well as theoretical
residential areas. and technical concepts. However Newman
has made much effort to describe issues in a
The book was written at a time when there thorough and balanced manner which not only
was an emergence of opposition towards the facilitates the general reader but avoids over
mainstream thinking throughout the 1950s and generalizing in areas of social class or ethnic
60s of modernist planners such as Robert Moses, background which is an attractive option to
Head of New York City Planning in the mid 20th many to explain increases in crime rates.
Century, who favoured such policies as urban

146
When it was first published, the state of Newman makes a strong argument for his
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knowledge in the areas of crime prevention concept of defensible space early in the book
through urban design and in architectural making it clear to his audience what it is. He
psychology in general was quite small. However identifies clearly the problems with the current
it was not completely alien. W. Russell Ellis methods of urban planning and residential
states the book met a felt need among some design; the anonymity of the city and the
architects and law enforcement... has been destruction of community and the affect this has
gloriously reviewed in the New York Times and on increasing crime rates before explaining how
Wall Street Journal. Since the 1970s much work defensible space works through a number of
has been published in the area of architectural mechanisms to exploit the physical design of the
and environmental psychology. However built environment in such a way as to empower
Newmans work, focusing on crime prevention residents, increase their sense of territoriality,
through physical design, can be considered provide opportunities for surveillance and create
as the first major comprehensive study in this pride in their community. Newman stresses the
area of environmental psychology that uses importance of community action throughout
statistical data to back up his own theories and the book as the most important aspect of
contribute to theorists before him. The work defensible space as he states When people
also contributed to the creation of a new sub begin to protect themselves as individuals and
discipline in criminology that has come to be not as a community the battle against crime is
called Crime Prevention through Environmental effectively lost.
Design. Indeed his work is held in such high
regard that it is contributing to public policy in While these views have been seen since by
the United States. The US Department of Housing some as narrow minded in approach, a threat
and Urban Design (HUD) along with Newman to personal privacy and individual autonomy
produced a Casebook in 1996 of projects using and the creation of gated communities within a
defensible space as an example for planners modern city context, Newman does not come
and architects. Even today Defensible Space across this way in his style of writing and tone nor
is impacting Architectural Education as Byron does he propose such ideas. The confusion over
Mikellides states that Defensible Space is the his work can be seen as a criticism of targeting
most referenced book by UK Architecture it to too wide an audience who may not fully
Students studying this field . The book also understand the concepts he is proposing. He
contributed to the work of Alice Coleman in her links his ideas to basic human psychological
Book Utopia on Trial. However Coleman created concepts of influencing space through subtle
a lot of controversy and apparently failed measures of reading thresholds, determining
to understand the full concept of Defensible feelings of public and private space and
Space. Mikellides quotes Newman himself as quality of design. Such measures can be seen
saying Utopia on Trial does not pay sufficient in precedent typologies such as the terraced
attention to social factors interacting with the house. These practices, if operated through
physical as causes of housing dysfunction the physical design of the built environment

147
from an individual level, to a community level to vulnerable members of our society namely
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allows individuals to come together to increase the poor as government agencies decide the
a sense of territoriality and provide natural design of their residential projects.
surveillance. It offers a way for the community
to effectively police itself passively and in fact is A large variety of statistical data is referred to
not threatening to personal privacy but actually at various intervals throughout the text and
upholds it. the author goes to great lengths in explaining
and interpreting it. There is poor graphical
For thousands of years defence influenced representation of statistics and typographical
decisions on orientation and arrangement of errors that make referring to it confusing, but
buildings among small communities of people there is a very comprehensive methodology
willing to deter intruders. Grouping buildings within the appendix of the book which could be
together or locating beside a river or on a hill are used as a basis for conducting similar research
all collective decisions to create a defensible into this subject area.
space. This need to feel safe is instinctual and is
as valid today as it was in the past. While the author was able to support his theories
in general throughout the book using statistical
The author is able to compare real residential data there are some discrepancies in his
projects in order to support his claims referring to discussion of modifying existing environments
clear graphical material such as photographs, to make them more defensible. The author was
plans, sections and sketches throughout the able to provide practical examples of areas
book which complements the in depth and in need of modification but no results from the
balanced discussion of the subject. modifications themselves making the exercise
quite irrelevant to the reader.
His attack on high rise residential towers and
preference for three storey walk up apartments I think however that the author was able to
seems very justified given the crime statistics for meet his aims in providing statistical information
both types. However he is able to link these back regarding how the physical design of the built
to social issues regarding anonymity, territoriality environment affects social issues of territoriality,
and surveillance which are influenced by the natural surveillance, civic pride and the effects
physical design of the buildings. He does not this has on crime rates and social malaise.
lose sight of his initial arguments and keeps Thus he justifies a need for defensible space
clarity of vision. practice within architecture and urban design.
A summary and series of recommendations
The author shows a very open minded approach are provided at the end which could be used
in touching on broader social and political as series of design principles for planners and
issues related to crime and housing, and unlike architects interested in this area.
Coleman, realises that the physical design of the
urban environment is not the sole contributor. He Overall this book is excellent in that it provides a
makes the point that decision making is limited strong theoretical basis of information for referral

148
and a thorough methodology for carrying out The book that I have chosen to look at for the
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statistical analysis into the issues of urban design book review is Psychology for Architects, which
and crime. This book would be of use to students was written by Professor David Canter, then of
of architecture as an introduction to the the University of Surrey England.
concepts of defensible space and defensible
space practice. It could be referred to during The book, published in 1974, and from the
similar studies of the urban environment and its outset Canter states that this book is not a
influence on crime in a thesis project. However it detailed account of the research which
also serves in discussing and providing examples psychologists have undertaken in order to assist
into basic designs of threshold and public and design, the book attempts to inform the reader
private spaces which could be employed in about human beings interaction with the
studio projects. I would also recommend this environment and the effects on architecture
book to others interested in the more general and come to comprehend the behavioural and
field of environmental psychology and think it mental processes of human beings and their
is worth while purchasing or having in university interrelation with architectural approaches.
libraries. This is achieved by the use of examples of
wide-ranging psychological processes such
as Gestalts Pragnanz (Figure Ground) Theory,
References Stevens Power Law to Machiavellian musings.
Russell Ellis, W. (1974). Book review of Defensible The book aims at introducing the reader to
space: Crime prevention through urban design by a number of areas, but in a manner that is
Oscar Newman. Journal of Architectural Education, accessible and that can be easily understood
27(1), 11-12. for the casual reader.
Mikellides, B. (2007). Architectural psychology 1969
2007. Oxford Brookes University ejournal of learning Professor Canter developed environmental
and teaching, 2(2). psychology, and set up the Journal of
Environmental Psychology, which he still edits.
The Theory of Place, which he developed in
Psychology for Architects the 1970s, has become one of the underlying
Review by David Rushe themes of research in this area. He is currently
Psychology for Architects working in the School of Psychology at the
David Canter University of Liverpool.
Series Editor: Henry J. Cowan
First edition The book, written in the 1970s, is an attempt
1974 to correlate the basic elements intrinsic to
Essex, United Kingdom psychology and how they can inform architects
Applied Science Publishers Ltd decision in building and place design. The
165 pages discipline of environmental psychology started
ISBN: 0 85334 590 2 in the 1960s when problems and options of
Hardback humanitys future had gained importance due

149
to increasing industrialisation. The division of and try to discover other viewpoints. Ultimately,
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the individual in relation to the built environment Professor Canter is aiming his book at everyone
had changed, Canter displays this widening gap from the trained psychologist to the architect
by looking at an office block and shows how and most notably, the layman by counteracting
the view of the built object differs greatly from using specific terminology (some would say,
the finance group financing the project and jargon) without being fully prepared to explain
whose concern will be the economic viability its meaning to the layman.
of the project the development company
The format of the book is broken into ten
who are more concerned with the ease of
chapters covering different topics, with each
letting offices and at the bottom of the pile is
chapter acting as an introduction to the main
the group referred to as the building users.
thinking behind psychological theories and
The change in societal values and quality of what Canter does in each chapter is to draw a
life, along with the rapid industrialisation and parallel between these and architecture.
capitalistic attitude amongst some towards
Canter first discusses the topic of research and
the built environment and its injuriousness to
how through research, one can develop a
the user, were issues that many involved in the
catalogue of information from which one can
emergence of environmental psychology such
reference. The strength of science lies in the
as Robert Sommer (Professor of Psychology
fact results are built upon one another and that
Emeritus at the University of California, Davis
just like the architect has a number of design
author of Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis
aspirations he wishes to investigate, a research
of Design 1969) Leanne Rivlin (Originator of the
worker has a number of assumptions which
Environmental Psychology Doctoral Program,
he is trying to test. From here Carter explains
CUNY Graduate Center author of Environmental
the ideas of reliability and validity and how
Psychology: Man and His Physical Setting 1970)
the methods for controlling the variables are
and Professor Canter to name but-a-few.
important in conducting research, with issues
Professor Canter states from the offset that this such as age, sex and skill sets are paramount.
is not a textbook, it is instead a book which Canter believes that architects must have
might be read in conjunction with a textbook. some understanding of psychology so that their
His aim for the book is to communicate the basic interests in design concepts can influence the
principles of psychological concepts to help course of psychological research.
inform design decisions. Canter attempts not to
take an unfair advantage of the ignorance of Canter then introduces the reader to the area
his intended readers lay-people, by choosing of perceptual judgements and how they relate
material without the help of a generally to context effects. Within this frame, Canter
accepted viewpoint to assist with this selection. introduces the issues of ones perception on
Instead he wishes the book to have a general a given context that can differ according to
and open-ended approach that will allow the the social situation we see them. The main
reader to consider the issues for themselves area incorporated into the theme if contextual

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effects is that of sensations, as in directly relating into the areas of schedules of reinforcement,
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
to one of our five senses. transfer of training and experience and how
these can help create a cognitive map for the
If one is to conduct an investigation into inhabitant of the building. The use of visual cues
this realm, one must be aware that these to trigger a familiarity with the built environment,
descriptions can be shown to be inaccurate Canter believes, can encourage healthy use
because no sense organ could be influenced and understanding of a building for the users.
by a group of people. Carter does not mean that architects should
He looks at the importance of Gestalts only produce buildings similar to those which
Pragnanz (Figure Ground) theory and already exist, instead use precedent, context
how seeing objects in terms of figures on a and what is familiar to help inform the language
ground as an important contribution to our of the proposed design.
understanding of perception. The importance
Canter speaks mostly on childrens development
of Gestalt helps the reader grasp the concept
in this chapter and of the role of development
of perception and how this can be informed
next, and how almost all aspects of behaviour
in other aspects, such as perception of scale,
can be shown to relate to age. Canter speaks
space and even attention play an important
of the role of the environment in creating an
role in perception and needs to be taken into
upstanding new generation that can integrate
account of when considering the design of
into society to maintain order, he highlights that
actual environments.
some aspects of behaviour are learned and
The uniqueness of perceptual judgements is that they develop through the interaction with
that its reference to context and what is familiar the environment.
to the user it can help inform an architectural
Formal operations, as Canter quips, are directly
language that is based on precedent, rules,
related to aspects of Jean Piagets Adaption,
often of proportions, in perception which
whereby the person assimilates aspects of
determine what form or combination of forms
the environment... or accommodates those
will be beautiful.
structures in order to incorporate some novel
In Chapter 4, Canter looks at the role of learning aspect of the surroundings.
in the role of psychology and architecture. He
deals with this in the main, by dealing with the In looking further at the idea of development,
cognitive map topic. In doing this, he mentions Canter points out that sensori-motor intelligence
the place learners led by Tolman and the is intrinsic to perceptual development and how
response learners by Hull. Canter speaks of one can understand and use an environment.
the ability of a user to draw a mental map Canter points out that architects must consider
to locate certain disciplines, regardless of the the users needs, even at different ages to
circumstances, much like the rat. further help their development as they are likely
to demand different things at different stages of
Developing this theory of learning, Canter delves their development.

151
In Chapter 6, we are introduced to the area a broad range of potential users and behaviours
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of underlying dimensions, and how through in his building and not make the common
questionnaire analysis, albeit through a points assumption that most people are similar to
marking system or textual preference means, himself. The use of space is where Canter
we can deduce the success or failure of an takes us next, and here he speaks of territorial
environment that can then inform how we can behaviour and how these social mechanisms
improve in the future. usually take the form of defence of specific
areas or territory. He looks at the location of
This form of investigation is very efficient, space, and how something like the location of
however as Canter points out, one problem a bench or structural column, can determine
which arises when applying it in architecture relationships people take up in respect to
to deal with when buildings other than private other people. This then feeds into the area of
homes are to be considered. It results in the interpersonal distance, and how if eye contact
designer having to make some generalisations and head movement do influence interaction
that at least refer to groups of users if not it might be expected that the angle of the two
to the whole population of users. However people from one another was important.
that said, the use of underlying dimensions by
means of factor analysis, can help construct Canter concludes that these individual elements
an understanding of the environment via user relate to human territoriality and as such, when
feedback and allow for a greater understanding added up, are innocent in small behavioural
of said environment. contexts. However he does point out that
beyond these interpersonal distances is much
What is important about the opening of Chapter more problematic.
7 is that Canter points out one of the strongest
arguments which laymen feel they can bring In Chapter 9, Canter talks about the organisation
to bear against the possibility of a scientific and defines it to be whenever two or more
psychology is that everyone is different. people need to work together in order to
achieve some common goal then we have an
The area is one that cannot really be pinned organisation.
down, no formula to cater for all can be
written, instead Carter speaks of the users He looks at the various level of organisation, from
differences in the form of age, sex and class two people to a large group where one person
field dependence (an individuals ability delegates, to a situation where larger groups
to distinguish stimuli from the context in which come together and share knowledge and
they are presented), cognitive complexity, information in multi-disciplinary work. It is thus
extraversion and neuroticism and creativity and apparent that it is difficult to study organisations
intelligence. without considering communication. He says
that adaptability, stability and identifiability are
While this subject is somewhat broad, Carter all key ingredients for a building to survive, but
points out that the architect can then consider the most important aspect of this is satisfaction

152
of workers. interested in getting a basic knowledge of the

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subject. I would also recommend it to the lay-

The satisfaction of workers includes many person for a highly topical conversation piece
aspects from self-fulfilment to financial reward at a dinner evening. This is as it should be.
and to the overall role within the organisation. Buildings are for people. People build them, use
It is important to acknowledge these fields them, administer them and pass them by.
as the structure of communications within
the organisation and the satisfaction of the
members which motivates them to continue to
People Space: The Making and Breaking
be members and see the long-term success of of Human Boundaries
the organisation. Review by Christopher Bell
People Space : The Making and Breaking of
Canter concludes overall by making two stand- Human Boundaries
out relevant statements, he concludes that Norman Ashcraft and Albert E. Scheflen
psychology could have a profound influences First Edition
both for the form of our buildings and for the 1976
way of life which they delineate. New York, USA
Anchor Press
Having read the book, I found that it does give 185 Pages
me an insight to the role of psychology within the ISBN: 0-385-11229-7
built environment, and the references he makes Paperback
to architecture at the end of each chapter
maintain that thematic link. Since reading the This book explores the concepts of human
book, I feel that I now have a good platform to behaviour in space, with particular focus on
start from should I wish to further my knowledge how behaviour and cultural backgrounds and
on the subject of environmental psychology. attitudes impact the use of space and the results
Canter makes many references to the work and of these impacts. The text investigates subjects,
theories of others, Bromley, Mowrer, Hull, Gestalt, such as territories, privacy and crowding, that
and Altman to name a few. The book provides are important phenomena within the field of
an excellent appendix at the back of the book, environmental psychology. Environmental
with all references documented with author psychology can be defined as the science that
and book titles allowing the reader to seek out deals with the psychological study of human
knowledge from highly regarded sources. The behavior as it relates to the everyday physical
effort on Canters part to remove the jargon environment. (Salama, 2009)
from psychology worked as the books content
is accessible, however there were some The book, written in 1976, builds upon the
occasions where I felt that I did need to take authors collaborative research starting in 1970.
Canters advice and read this in conjunction Collaborative research between the fields of
with a textbook. Overall, I would recommend psychology, sociology, and anthropology were
this book to a fellow student of architecture common at this time as identified by Stokols

153
when he states, the 1970s were a time in contrast to this, the style of the text, i.e. the method
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which researchers from several different fields in which the research has been communicated,
came together to forge new theoretical and suggests a much wider scope for the intended
methodological approaches to the study of audience, encouraging transdisciplinary
environment and behaviour (Stokols, 1995). consideration of the information.
The book deals specifically with phenomena,
considered as behavioural activities, which can Positioning the text within current knowledge of
be positioned within the field of environmental the subject leads to a view of this text as basic
psychology. Environmental psychology had in nature, almost stating observations about the
emerged recently to the publication of this selected elements of human behaviour. Such
book, focusing attention on human behaviour concepts are long established and knowledge
and environment. Proshansky, Ittelson, and in this subject area has greatly advanced since
Rivlin (1970) presented the emerging field of this book was written. However, positioning the
environmental psychology in their first published text within its context gives rise to the significance
volume, titled Environmental Psychology: Man of the content. Although the phenomena
and His Physical Setting (Bonnes, Bonaiuto, explored in the text had been identified and
2002). discussed prior to this book being published, as
indicated by the authors references to other
This book was written during a period of significant research material, this text considers these
research in the field of environmental psychology phenomena in an alternative way, emphasising
as, hundreds of experimental studies on topics the links between human culture and behaviour
such as crowding, personal space, territoriality, and the built environment.
environmental cognition, and environmental
stress were conducted during the 1970s, A strong awareness of the research methodology
(Stokols, 1995) and whilst aligning itself with is evident and openly discussed on a number
the mainstream thinking at the time, it also of occasions, with the authors noting the
gives rise to considerations of the implications importance of objective observation along with
of behaviour in terms of repercussions, such questionnaires and interviews. In the context
as violence and urban crowding. How such of the research being carried out during the
implications can be addressed through the 1970s and the emergence of new research
design of the built environment has been a methodologies, this reinforces the conclusions
central focus in the continuing development of in the text by defining its scope and identifying
environmental psychology. its limitations.
No pre-requisites for reading the text have The authors state in the preface that the
been identified. The content of the text, i.e. present collaboration is not just another effort
the exploration of personal space and social to summarize research findings, as important
interaction based on specific research, suggests as that may be (Ashcraft, Scheflen, 1976) and
those closely associated with environmental it is interesting to consider this in relation to the
psychology to be the intended audience. In volume of similar research studies at this time.

154
The use of pertinent examples to elaborate on methodologies. This reinforces the conclusions in
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
the research and observations of the authors the text by defining its scope and identifying its
makes the text accessible and communicates limitations. The authors suggestion that in fact,
the application of the research in a descriptive walls and other built structures are extensions
manner, permitting a degree of reader of the much older rules of human interaction,
interpretation but more importantly stimulating aligns itself with Robert Bechtels later statement,
thought regarding further application. This style, there is no such thing as the design of space,
combined with clearly defined and relevant only behaviour is enclosed by architecture. This
contents, index, notes and bibliography provides is a central theme in the authors approach to
a rich source of information on the subject. the subject matter, as they discuss and explore,
firstly the elements of human behaviour and
The aim of the book is to explore how people then its consequent impact on spaces.
use space in various contexts, how this use is
repeated and replicated at various points of A further important and clearly developed
interaction, whether in an open public space or consideration is that of how measurements
in the confines of ones home, and how this use affect culture, identifying the underlying
is repeated and replicated from the level of the measurement principles that define our
typical conversational settings to the layouts perceptions of spaces. This consideration links
of rooms, houses, neighbourhoods and cities through to a rather interesting discussion arising
(Ashcraft, Scheflen, 1976). in appendix B of the comprehensive notes on the
text, which is particularly relevant to architects.
This aim has been met through a systematic The authors query the suitability of placing
consideration of the various elements identified units of measurement on human behavioural
by the authors. The book has been divided into activities, noting the numerous variations of
two sections, the first relating to using space uses in relation to culture and behaviour. This
and the second relating to repercussions. discussion reflects the peremptory nature of
Within this framework the authors identify and the text, as it underpins some key phenomena
draw conclusions from their research as to how of environmental psychology while, at the
people use space and, through specific case same time, prompting further investigation and
studies and examples, clearly link these to the consideration of these elements as they relate
situations of rooms, houses, neighbourhoods to design.
and cities.
The simple design and graphic layout of the
A strong awareness of the research methodology book is well suited to the content, providing a
is evident and openly discussed on a number clear structure to the text and illustrations. The
of occasions, with the authors noting the text contains very few typographical errors and
importance of objective observation along with errors in the technical matter are not evident.
questionnaires and interviews. In the context
of the research being carried out during the This book provides a clearly structured
1970s and the emergence of new research consideration of how people use space, forming

155
an introductory basis for the ongoing research in Architecture for People: Explorations in a
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
the field of environmental psychology. Although New Humane Environment.

the content is not entirely contextually relevant, Review by Matthew Stewart
I would suggest that it would be of interest to Architecture for People: Explorations in a New
my colleagues in the field of architecture. The Humane Environment.
subject matter is one that has an ongoing Byron Mikellides, Editor
influence on architects as they consider the Contributors
design of spaces for human occupancy. The Byron Mikellides, Aldington and Craig,
use of examples, especially of the situation of Darbourne and Darke, Herman Hertzberger,
the family on the beach, which is referred to Bruce Allsopp, Oscar Newman. Nicholas K.
in a number of the topics, describing real life Humphrey, Peter F. Smith, Rikard Kuller, Carl-
situations, makes the findings and conclusions Axel Acking, Charles Moore, Robert Maguire,
more tangible and more readily applicable Mats Egelius, Kenneth Frampton, Lucien Kroll,
to the reader. I would recommend this book Walter Segal, Peter Stringer, Gosta Ehrensvard.
to others as a basic exploration of the human 1980
use of space, which concludes and illustrates London, United Kingdom
some of the core concepts of behavioural Studio Vista
factors in design. This is a text which is not worth 192 pages
purchasing but that should be available in a ISBN 0 289 70865 6
library catalogue. Hardback
References Often criticized for their lack of responsibility

to context, social factors and the way we live
Ashcraft, N., and Scheflen, A. E. (1976). People in buildings, architects have a responsibility to
space: The making and breaking of human
the people who use their buildings. The built
boundaries. New York: Anchor Press.
environment is not just a backdrop to life and
Bonnes, M., and Bonaiuto, M. (2002). Environmental human activities but influence how we behave
psychology: From spatial-physical environment and live in our environments. As designers we
to sustainable development. In R. B. Bechtel, A.
need to be aware of the social consequences of
Churchman, and A. Tsertsman (Eds.), Handbook of
environmental psychology (Chapter 3). New York: J.
what is built and realise the need to understand
Wiley. humane individuals as well as how human
behaviour relates to everyday built form.
Salama, A. M. (2008-09). Socio-cultural and
behavioural factors in design, Lecture Notes for QUB The necessity of designers to understand human
Space. behaviour and human needs in buildings
Stokols, D. (1995). The paradox of environmental birthed the study of architectural psychology
psychology. American Psychologist, 50(10), 821-837. or alternatively environmental psychology
or environmental perception. Mainstream
psychology or sociology was considered to
be uninspiring or irrelevant to the practice of

156
architecture and so in March 1969 in the House Image of the City by Kevin Lynch published
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
of Black Dell at Dalandui in Scotland the first in 1960. The book sits comfortably in an area
conference of Architectural Psychology was of specialised knowledge in architectural
held and the presentations were published psychology which began in the 1970s with
by the RIBA and edited by David Canter in notable titles as Psychology for Architects by
1974. Research has grown rapidly seeking to David Canter published 1974 and Perception of
understand human behaviour in relation to the the Visual Environment by Neil Praks published
built environment and how to better design with 1977. Architecture for People is one of the first
people in mind to make happier and healthier books to take social psychology into the field of
places for people to live in. architectural Psychology.
Architecture for People was first published Architecture for People has an intended
in January 1980. The study of Architectural audience of all people practicing or studying
Psychology was approaching its 10th year in the discipline of architecture. The book is
of research; this book may be considered directed towards architects and constantly
young in relation to current research. The challenges the designers preconceived ideas
book was compiled at a period when modern of suitability and quality of design for users. The
architecture had been strongly criticized for its book is intended to promote self evaluation
lack of response to human need. Carl-Axel wrote in the way we respond to human needs and
technical-economic and solely functional encourage designers to ask if their buildings
aspects have been allowed to dominate. are suited to users needs as well as they think
The book is a timely response to the character they are. The book would also be an important
of architecture at the time when designers part of architectural education and particularly
committed themselves to functionalism with relevant to students studying how to design and
new materials and cost effective solutions which seeking to develop a person philosophy and
resulted in many modern buildings proving an increased awareness of responsibility to the
impossible to use effectively. Architecture humane environment.
was failing to respond to human need and to
provide comfortable pleasant environments. The contribution of Architecture for People
This was particularly significant at the time and was considered pioneering early in the
was one of the first books to raise concern and subject of architectural psychology. The book
awareness for the need to understand human is edited by Byron Mikellides, Senior lecturer
behaviour for the practice of architecture. in Environmental and Social Psychology at
The book follows a period which witnessed Oxford Brooks University. Mikellides was one of
a move towards an understanding of social the pioneer researchers of the new discipline
psychology and personal space with such of architecture psychology since 1968. He has
notable and influential titles as The Psychology lectured extensively in Europe and the United
of Interpersonal behaviour by Michael Argyle States and still publishes on this area of research
published in 1967, Behaviour in Public Places today. Mikellides book Architecture for People
by Ervin Goffman published 1963 and The along with another highly regarded book Colour

157
of Architecture have greatly contributed to the This clever introduction reveals the importance
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
subject of architectural psychology and are still of architectural psychology to the reader and
referred to in research papers published today. promotes the self evaluation by humbling
the reader to acknowledge the necessity of
The book was constructed by Byron Mikellides by understanding the reality of behaviour rather
inviting different authors and researchers from than unsupported conclusions.
around the world, each a specialist in various
areas including architectural psychology, Considering the context of when this book
biology and aesthetics as well as the practice was written, author Bruce Allsop continues
of architecture. Each considered leaders in to set the tone by condemning the social
their area of architectural thought bring an utilitarianism and functionalism of the 1950s
international perspective on the subject. A architecture quoting its seems that socialism
balance is struck between chapters of theory without art, when applied to buildings does
and practical experience but each read as an not satisfy basic needs. This move towards
individual essay contribute to the wider vision of a more poetic architecture that considers
this book. human needs at an emotional and sensual
level however is not left unanswered. Nicholar
The book begins with a critical tone of current K. Humphrey a prominent young scientist from
architectural design thinking and sets a pace the Department of Animal Behaviour, University
of optimism for the topic which when fully of Cambridge offers scientific observations to
explored will endeavour to improve the quality be drawn from the stimulation and enjoyment
of design in our build environment. As Mikellides of the natural environment and how the brain
establishes this challenge suggesting we could forms the foundation for aesthetic perception.
do better than we have been doing so far in From a different perspective the emotion
making our homes, our cities, our biosphere of pleasantness is addressed from urban
worthy of man in all his biological, social and aesthetics where rhythm, patterns and balance
cultural peculiarities. and harmony present a theoretical model
to understand how these urban environment
From the outset the book questions the way characteristics stimulate the brain and its ability
designers draw assumptions on various aspects to respond emotionally.
of human design requirements and psychology
decisions made on the behalf of the users. I am very much encouraged by the idea this
Through a playful technique of presenting 10 book promotes, the poetic side of architecture
statements and obvious conclusions on factors as art and pays homage to emotional stimulus
affecting the user behaviour the reader is lead while maturely acknowledges the conflict
into a false confidence in their ability to make architects face between art and life. Robert
architectural psychological conclusions. The Maguire observes the problem that architects
10 statements are again presented along with face between choosing the values of art as
researched conclusions and largely contrasts the the architect or the values of the user when
original assumptions confirmed by the reader. compromise has to be met. We do well to be

158
reminded by Rikard Kuller that a sensitive and greatly contribute to the understanding if the
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
thoughtful treatment of sensory characteristics overall text.

is an important ingredient for the user of
architecture, who not only sees the front of a I would recommend this book to my student
building as an illustration but literally enters into colleagues but perhaps to be read in
it, takes possession of and lives behind it. I conjunction with other titles in line with the most
commend this statement supporting the view recent research on the topic of architectural
to look beyond the image of architecture and psychology. However Byron Mikellides seeks
consider the quality of the environment and to raise awareness of the importance of
how it betters the experience for the user. architectural psychology and to encourage
self evaluation about considering user needs
The books fundamental tenet of considering as well as own agenda in creating a piece of
architecture and the users highlights the art. The book is successful in emphasising the
importance of this topic in architectural importance of improving the quality of the
education. Most of our architectural schools humane environment though understanding
are geared towards turning out the occasional architectural psychology.
genius-the future master of the new style-the next
generation of tastemaker. His competence in References
addressing his clients needs is given secondary
Mikellides, B. (1980). Architecture for people:
importance. Explorations in a new humane environment. London,
Studio Vista.
The book promotes the study of this field for
architecture students and I would further agree Mikellides, B. (1970). Architectural psychology 1969-
that it benefits education and has become an 2007: Theory, practice and education. The Brooks
important part of architectural curriculums to eJournal of Learning and Teaching (BeJLT), 2(2).
the present day. However the book offers a
token of encouragement through Walter Segal, Meaning and Behaviour in the Built
There is in Britain a wealth of talent and vital Environment
energy which if properly tapped can produce Review by Leanne Courtney
astonishing results from its people. It suggests Meaning and Behaviour in the Built
architectural psychology key to releasing this Environment
talent in architecture. Editors: Geoffrey Broadbent, Tomas Llorens,
and Richard Blunt
As the book tries to cover many different topics First edition
and perhaps seeks to cover too much in the mere 1980
collection of essays, the chapters are interesting Bath, Avon, United Kingdom
when read individually but many of the issues The Pitman Press
are overlapped by authors due to the nature of 372 pages
the editorial script. Some essays meander from ISBN: - 0 471 27708 8
the topic of architectural psychology and dont Hardback

159
The subject matter studied by Broadbent et al struggle for theory in the studies presented
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
(1980) is that of Meaning & Behaviour in the Built throughout the book.
Environment. This book is one of two devoted to
this study. The study of meaning as Broadbent This book is twenty eight years old. At this time,
et al (1980) state relates to the built environment the mainstream thinking of architecture and the
and its relation to all those other things in life rationale behind the publication of this book
which people attach significance and value was to encourage and develop architecture
including their purposes, their conceptions, their which carries relevant meaning.
ideas and beliefs.
The target audience is those architects
What is happening in the area that the book and environmental psychologist wishing to
addresses is that there is a gap in communication encourage architecture with meaning. The
between the architect and the layperson author addresses the audience continuously
about the interpretation of meaning in the built throughout the literature making clear pre-
environment. This popular misconception was requisites for reading the book. Broadbent et
studied by Hershberger (1972) who compared al (1980) state the study of meaning as Eco
responses by architects, architectural students Succinctly put it in (1973) is the study of logic
and non-architects. He concluded that if of culture. Hence to study the meaning
architects are to communicate successfully their and behaviour in the built environment an
intentions to laymen they need to restructure understanding of the logic of culture is required
architectural education so that architects do as Broadbent et al (1980) state that Culture is
not have their own set of meanings. The book mans medium... it has developed mechanisms
also highlights that although there has been a which have given man the experience of
rapid progression in the study of meaning and constancy in the face of change. Furthermore
behaviour in the built environment. There is an Broadbent et al (1980) stipulate that it is
ongoing need for study in this area and due to fundamental to understand that the studies
the fact that the field is so extensive there is a which are contained within the book do not or
need for researches to impose limitations on this do not intend to present a representative picture
area of study. of the literature it samples. In addition the
authors denotes that the division of the papers
The editors of this book include Geoffrey in the volume should be considered as largely
Broadbent, Richard Blunt and Tomas Llorens. speculative, as the majority of the theoretical
Broadbent was a key figure in architectural suggestions that link up (or go) beyond those
education and research. His dissatisfaction with advanced in the fourth section.
various developments in architecture had led
to the context in which this book is written. This The state of knowledge in this subject is that
book was published in 1980. architecture needs meaning to survive. In order
to sustain meaning in architecture it is necessary
At the time of publication Broadbent et al to research best practices in this area. The book
(1980) highlight that problem is apparent in the offers an awareness of environmental psychology

160
and the built environment and a collection of a certain progression in the argument. This
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
studies. However it could be argued that it ordering enables one who may have not have
contributes little to the development of the field a background in the psychology of environment
as it contains collections of studies which could to progressively build an understanding of
be found elsewhere therefore what does this the issues and concepts presented in the
volume offer to the study of meaning of the built study of meaning and behaviour in the built
environment? Osterberg (1982) states in review environment.
of the volume Having read Broadbents closing
comments it is difficult to understand why this As one advances through the book the author
anthology could not have greater relevance poses a number of questions to the reader
for the reader. Furthermore Osteberg suggests which initiates the author to ponder on the
If the collection were concise, meaningful, and key concepts and issues related to the built
critical to the development of the field, then this environment. A personal interpretation of
volume would be useful for all those teaching the issues and concepts within this book is that
and researching in the area. there is a need for meaning in architecture
and an interpretation of an environment is
The contents of this book are divided into four based on an individuals perspective thus will
sections presenting material from a wide range affect and formulate behaviours within the built
of publications in the study of environmental environment.
psychology in the built environment. Section
one deals with the prototypes of empirical The strengths of this book is that the studies
science. This section summarizes individual presented within the documentation use a wide
concepts of the built environment. Section two range of data collection, research techniques,
and three focus on the applications of specific methodologies and analysis techniques.
theoretical categories of a more specific and Varying from subjective to objective studies
complex character than those within the field particularly with reference to the study of the
of personal construct theory. Both section two correlation of objective faade measurements
and three consider structure relative to the with subjective facades ratings.
relationship between human behaviour and
At the beginning of each study Broadbent et
built environment. Section four focuses on
al offer a clear description on the methodology
discussion of theoretical problems. This section
of the experiments carried out in the study.
is the largest of the four, however as the authors
Furthermore, the authors critically point out the
suggest it is not representative relative to the
flaws of the study methods and throughout
proportion of papers within the environmental
the book reaffirm the studies which are not
psychology as a whole. Section five is a
representative. The authors concisely draw
historical account of architecture psychology
conclusions at end of each study as to the
which dates to 1927.
findings of that study. The book presents a
The ordering of the papers within the book is range of studies which offer a sound basis for
as Broadbent et al (1980) affirms to manifest others to advance further in these areas.

161
However the weaknesses of the book are that difficult to achieve given that such meanings
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
the studies are not representative as mentioned may or may not be held in common by
previously. Another weakness of this book those who experience architecture; indeed,
to pioneers in the study of architecture and that fundamental differences in human
meaning is the year in which it was published experience will cause fundamental differences
as more recent research could be retrieved. in the meanings people attribute to their
Furthermore this book contains no glossary. environments.
The authors style would lead one to question In conclusion, this book would be highly
whether the book looks at the field from an recommended to colleagues as they would
external point of view as was the authors benefit from its knowledge. The book would
intentions from the beginning, Broadbent et also be resourceful for researchers as it provides
al (1980) state, This volume sets out to look at detailed methodologies of previous research
the field from an external point of view, with in this area. Overall assessment of this book
the hope of revealing a hidden pattern, or is that the authors took a holistic approach
argument, which probably would have not to exploring meaning and behaviour as they
been revealed with sufficient clarity from within examined various different environments and
the field itself. Broadbent et al (1980) appear the direct effect it had upon the individual. The
too attached to the studies by use of the words best features of the book include: the layout,
I and me throughout the book, this method the comparison of different research, and the
of writing makes the literature appear very valid opinions examined. The worst features
subjective. include the exclusion of a glossary, and the fact
that the authors stipulate that the book does
The contents are concise, clearly stating the not provide ...a representative picture of the
author, title and page number of each study. literature it samples.
On examination of the index this proved to be a
valuable resource. I would recommend to others and it would be
worth purchasing to a library in the hope that it
This style of writing makes clear the purpose would create an interest for future research in
of the each of the studies and questions that this area. As Broadbent et al (1980) state The
require answers. The book contains no glossary. curtains are hardly drawn on the vast amount of
The bibliography is found at the end of each research which could be done in this area.
study rather than the end of the book, given
that each study was carried out by different
researches this placement is appropriate. References
Broadbent, G., Blunt, R., and Llorens, T. (1980). Meaning
This book aims to reveal a hidden pattern and behaviour in the built environment. Chichester:
or argument for meaning and behaviour in Wiley LTD.
the built environment. There is an apparent
struggle for theory however this aim may be Broadbent, G., Blunt, R., and Jencks, C. (1980). Signs,
symbols and architecture. Chichester, Wiley LTD.

162
Osterberg, A. (1982). Meaning and behavior in the Rapoport discusses how humans react to the
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
built environment book review. Journal of Society of meaning the environments have for them and
Architectural Historians, 41(1), 80-81. aspects of functions that give an understanding
Salama, A. M. (2008-09). Socio-cultural and behaviour of how environments work. He describes
factors in design. Lecture Notes. meaning is not something apart from function
but itself a most important aspect of function.
The argument of this book hinges on the main
The Meaning of the Built Environment: A distinction of the meaning for whom? What
Nonverbal Communication Approach meaning does the built environment have
Review by Timothy Williams for architects and designers? What meaning
The Meaning of the Built Environment: A communicates to the public or inhabitants
Nonverbal Communication Approach and users?. Perceptual and associated
Amos Rapoport aspects of the environment are discussed.
1982 Rapoport goes on to describe architects and
Tucson, Arizona , USA designers as perceptual thinkers, whereas
The University of Arizona Press the public, the users react to environments in
253 pages associational terms that are culture specific
ISBN: 0-8165-1176-4 and hence culturally variable with the aspect
Paperback of personalization. Within the book, Rapoport is
more concerned with what and how meaning
The meanings which buildings, their contents, conveys messages to the users of the of man-
and their inhabitants convey had been environment interaction, which to the date of
neglected for many years until this book was publication was undiscovered and is of central
completed in 1980 and originally published in importance to explore for the success of this
1982. This was due to an attempt to be more subject area.
scientific in previous research which led to the
neglect of the soft aspects of environmental Originally aimed at architects, this book can
meaning. appeal to wider professions such as city planners
and urban designers. Due to the simple layered
In what ways and on what basis do people approach set out by the author, this book can
react to environments? appeal to the general public who is interested
in self-assessing questions of perception within
Attitudes towards the built environment can be this field.
seen as self-evident on the basis of how you feel
about them and what you like and dislike about Jurgen Ruesch and Weldon Kees, Nonverbal
them. This is the main aspect of the book, in which Communication Notes on the Visual Perception
Rapoport calls man-environment studies, that of Human Relations, published in 1959 was one of
discusses the nature of such mechanisms that the first books to concentrate on the pragmatics
link people to their environments. and stresses of visual cues and observations.
It also was a starting point in the discussion of

163
how physical environmental arrangements behaviour of that environment such as spatial

ASHRAF M. SALAMA
of settings influence social interaction and relations, body language, movement, facial
expresses various identities. Due to the book expressions, eye contact and so on.
being published prior to most of the research
carried out with the field, the book lacks some of Rapoport states that the environment is
the theoretical and methodological complexity encoded with information and thus needs
of more recent work. to be decoded. Considering Perceptual
and associated aspects. Perceptual being
A framework of thinking is set out to demonstrate noticeable differences drawing attention
some of the working process towards a particular to themselves through contrast of different
way of approaching problems. How one thinks environments. Associated aspects being,
and what one considers is direct and simple the decoding of the meaning of the relevant
way for us to understand the meaning of the elements and behaviour patterns, in relation
built environment. Based on an early modified to culture, context and situation. One begins
neuro-cultural model by Ekman and Friesen, to observe and understand the environment,
1969b; Ekman, 1972, Rapoport, develops his a catalogue of cues start to appear. Then it is
own approach avoiding problems presented by straightforward to identify a set of noticeable
symbolic approaches found in Ekmans model. differences between the environmental
examples and make inferences about them.
Rapoport uses a nonverbal communication Rapoport stresses about effectiveness of the
approach that has been least tested within this meaning of the environment depend on
field, which is a simpler and direct approach redundancy and clarity. A definition of the
that provides relatively easy observation and location, the expected functions of behaviour
interpretation that has developed in other fields will give location of people in social space and
such as psychology and anthropology. The therefore give meaning. What I found within
author describes environments to provide cues the analysis and descriptions is how easy it
for behaviour. The behaviour aspect of the cues seems. Using ones senses and thinking about
thus helps us understand the meaning of that what you perceive, read and observe the
particular environment. A set of three distinctions environment and making social inferences,
of cues that is set out within the book gives us provides clarity in the understanding of non-
guidance within the observation, recording and verbal communication.
analysis of that environment. Firstly, fixed feature
elements that are basically fixed or that change The meaning of the built environment clearly
rarely slowly such as walls, ceilings and floors and depends on the broadest possible samples
that generally communicate much less than the in space and time on all cultures, forms and
other distinctions. Secondly, semi-fixed feature periods. Meaning can also be seen as part of
elements that change quickly and easily, that the culture and context of the environment.
are under control of the users, communicating Throughout the book, Rapoport uses an
meaning, relating to personalization. Thirdly and extensive use of examples to discuss the subject
finally, non-fixed feature elements related to the area clearly. The examples uses are of are own

164
time and western culture, with cross referencing This is a book at the time of publication filled a
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
examples from more exotic cultures. There also significant gap within the field of the meaning
can be seen a comparison between traditional of the built environment and that of essential
and modern contexts. Rapoport puts his reading. I would ultimately recommend this book
method into action into two subject areas, small to both my colleagues and anyone interested
scale and urban examples. Within small scale with this field. It has a clear and simplified
examples, the author looks at the importance approach that can be easily understood by
of spatial organisation that communicates anyone. The book opens up questions within
on a semi-fixed level that shows patterns and my mind about perception of things, something
relationships. Within urban examples, he looks that we architects may take for granted due
at the level of homogeneity and heterogeneity to the self-evident nature of any environment.
of an environment to determine the meaning We architects find ourselves looking too much
and character. to the context of the modern movement which
had seen an attack on the users meaning.
The extensive use of examples, are very useful We need to step back, consider a non-verbal
throughout this book, however some of the communication approach to each project and
examples given can be hard to relate to in implement to prove successful architecture.
certain circumstances where a different culture
or religion is given. This may be due to the reader
from another culture who has no knowledge or Environmental Psychology in Building
experience of that culture described. Looking
Design
back on the examples used there is a cluttered
amount of images within my head that
Review by Ryan Ward
Environmental Psychology in Building Design
sometimes can amount to confusion.
John Brebner
Rapoport within this book has achieved his goal First edition
to set out this approach as clear as possible to 1982
relate and bring together previously unrelated Essex, London, United Kingdom
findings and facts. The author has first been Applied Science Publishers Ltd
specific due to the simplistic and direct approach 211 Pages
that non-verbal communication has to offer. It is ISBN: 0-85334-969-X
thus simple and straightforward to use. The use Hardback
of cross-culture examination adds to the clarity
and strengthens the effectiveness of decoding The author of Environmental Psychology in
characteristics of fixed, semi-fixed and non-fixed Building Design, John Brebner, is a psychologist
elements and cues can quickly be discovered at the Department of Psychology, University
and understood. A general approach to the of Adelaide, South Australia. He has written
method of communication can be seen which this book as a psychologist, aimed at people
relates to that of all products of human culture within the design discipline, with the hope of
and that is easily referenced. drawing attention to psychological factors and

165
their impact in the effectiveness of the built members of the architectural design team, such
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
environment. The book, published in 1982 by as planners, engineers and surveyors. He also
Applied Science Publishers Ltd, Essex, was part mentions that he hopes the book will help forge
of a series called Architectural Science Series, interactions between people within different
which looked at the application of the physical fields of study. As a psychologist, he was
sciences to architectural design. However, setting out to put across his area of expertise to
Brebners book, like several other books in the members of a completely different profession,
series, for example, Sound, Man and Building by whilst also bearing in mind that we all have a
Prof Schaudinischky, was different because it collective goal; that is to maximise design and
was concerned with social science and design. function throughout the built environment to
However Brebners book was to take a further the satisfaction of the people using them.
step by merging both the applications of social
and physical science to architectural design I do not believe that Environmental Psychology
within one book. As Henry J. Cowan states in in Building Design broke any new ground when
his foreword, Dr Brebners book is therefore it was written in 1982, however I do feel that
particularly welcome because it combines, as by trying to merge both physical and social
far as I know for the first time, the application science within one book, Brebner was trying
of physiological and psychological principles to bring together different areas of research
to architectural design. The book, now sixteen within the built environment and make people
years old, was clearly bringing together for from separate fields come together and use
the first time, two principles which in the real their collective knowledge to gain a greater
world are connected, yet until this book had overall understanding of how we use the built
been considered separate in the design world. environment.
However, as stated in the book, at the time
science had not advanced enough to answer The book begins by looking at the issue of
many of the points he brings up in the book, but ergonomics and human cycles; anthropometrics,
it asks questions which we as designers must types of movement and the frequencies of
answer to satisfy users and their environment. body functions. Brebner makes the point that
there is a lack of up to date data available to
It is evident from the books title, Environmental designers within this field, particularly as there is
Psychology in Building Design, and indeed no such thing as an average person. Brebner
throughout the book, that Brebner has aimed looks through the differences in gender, country
his work at a specific audience. In Henry J. of origin and general ethnicity and how these
Cowans foreword he makes a note to the need to be accounted for throughout the
audience, Few architects today doubt the design process. Although an understanding
relevance of physiology and psychology to of these factors will not overcome all problems
their work. I felt it was clear throughout that the within a building, he does suggest that it will
book was aimed at people within the design minimise general mistakes and risks in a design,
industry and more specifically design within the giving many examples, such as a chair and a
built environment, for example, architects and desk, and the relationship between heights of

166
arms, legs and movement of a user at a specific effective sound communication.

ASHRAF M. SALAMA
height of desk.
Throughout the book, Brebner constantly refers
Brebner then goes on to look at psychological to the working environment, and in the next
factors, and how we as people arrive at our chapter examines the workable environment
individual interpretation of the world. Brebner in detail. This chapter is primarily concerned
talks about our long term memory and short term with ergonomics and general elements within
memory and how these affect our perception a working environment. Brebner examines
of the environment we live in. Although it is objects like keyboards, switches, levers and
only a brief overview of how we store memory, handles, as well as looking at postures. He also
it is an interesting topic, which Brebner backs investigates how ergonomics can affect spaces
up with two very simple yet stimulating picture and how people use such spaces, by examining
exercises. I feel the use of these exercises is an how individuals move through a building, for
effective way of bringing a theory based topic example, through a corridor.
into the minds of a more visual profession, such
as an architect. Brebner finally focuses on how interactions
between people and objects within a built
Because vision is the principal source of environment shape the human behaviour that
information about the world around us, the occurs there. I feel this is the first area in the
scope and limitations of this system, according book where ergonomics and environmental
to Brebner, are key factors for ergonomics, psychology merge, as he states that the
general lighting and visual performance within interaction between people within a space
a building. To understand their effects he needs to be borne in mind as much as the
gives us some details on the structure of the arrangement of objects and spaces. As Brebner
eye. We then move on to illumination, and is a psychologist I had expected these points
he makes the point that illumination cannot to be picked up on a lot earlier in the book,
be taken as a single variable, but it is linked to whereas initially the main focus seemed to be
the workings of the eye among other variables, on the discipline of ergonomics.
such as the variability in peoples vision. These
topics all come under the heading of ambient Early in the book, Brebner occasionally uses
conditions. Brebner also mentions the effects diagrams, pictorial experiments and photographs
of temperature and humidity, explaining how to back up his arguments. As he was aiming
an individuals performance deteriorates if he the book at a mainly visual profession, that is,
or she has to increase, conserve or lose heat. designers, I feel it is one of the strongest elements
Noise is the last issue within this topic, making of the book. I do feel however, that Brebner
the issue that noise is unwanted sound, yet could have continued this throughout the book.
psychologically it makes no difference, as the Overall I found the book relatively easy to read,
process of hearing both are the same. Brebner and I liked Brebners direct approach with his
makes the point that the key with ergonomics is writing and his constant use of examples to
to reduce the effects of noise and to maintain place his thoughts into a built reality.

167
I believe this book is an interesting read for any the complexities of architecture, often visiting
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
architecture student, and certainly one I would various parts of the world in search of answers
recommend to my fellow classmates. However, and asking new questions, which have led to
I feel that if people are looking for answers to invaluable insights. His commitment to increase
questions they have regarding ergonomics or the responsiveness of architecture is evident
behavioural factors, this particular book may throughout. This book provides an informative
not provide the answers they are looking for. insight into the technological advances and
Brebner constantly asks intriguing questions and the global perspective on the changing nature
makes statements within the issues, yet he has of modern architecture.
no conclusions to the points raised. I certainly
feel this book could be of value to any student of First published in 1997 with the second edition
design, be it architecture or any other form, as it in 2000, it is a recent book in which the author
is a book that makes you consider, and indeed discusses his ideas on diverse issues such as
reconsider, your own preconceptions on the history, technology, philosophy, science and
role ergonomics and environmental psychology environment.
can play within the built environment.
Abel refuses to be constrained by any
single analogy or line of thinking and clearly
demonstrates the importance of the advances
Architecture and Identity, Responses to
of technology in architecture design. He
Cultural and Technological Change engages the reader about diverse ideas
Review by Lyndsey Magowan spanning a range of topics.
Architecture and Identity, Responses to Cultural
and Technological Change The book is aimed at architects, developers,
Chris Abel planners and students. Abel has strong views
Second edition concerning the way in which architecture
1997 (1st.) 2000 schools are run and states that, more radical
Oxford, United Kingdom educational and administrative solutions will
Architectural Press: An imprint of Butterworth- be required to bring architecture schools into
Heinemann line with industry and practice. He goes on
261 pages to stress the importance of links with industry
ISBN: 0750642467 and practice, and strongly believes more is
Paperback needed to better equip the graduates with the
interdisciplinary skills required.
The book is compiled of a series of theoretical
discussions and case studies, which reflect the In his essay about bio-tech architecture he
authors mode of thinking at the time of writing. explains how it uses smart technologies to
There are recurrent themes throughout the book; achieve a dynamic, interactive relationship
these include, identity, analogical thinking and between a building, its users and its environment.
the use of metaphors in architecture. The author Although very informative, it was difficult to
is concerned with understanding and explaining understand and grasp the concept.

168
The essays presented cover an unusual range between each chapter; each chapter taking
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
of topics and contain substantial undertones of on a different topic.

the state-of-the art of architectural theory at
the time. He has tested his ideas against a vast Generally, the language used by Abel requires
range of cultural and geographical situations the reader to have prior knowledge of
across both developed and developing world. architecture to fully appreciate the dense and
Through the book he further explores and adds detailed analysis of information. Many of the
to diverse ideas. chapters require a more in depth philosophical
understanding of his architectural premise.
When discussing Decentralization in the
chapter entitled, Urban chaos or self- In part one, he creates a particular interest
organization, Abel explains that the major in how the bio-tech architecture workshop
forces of urbanisation in recent years have was created in response to the isolation,
meant defragmentation of the traditional city complacency and lack of vision which generally
form into a dispersed pattern. This breakdown governs architectural education everywhere.
of form stems from fundamental changes in We gain a greater understanding how to equip
technology, income levels, family status and students with the use of responsive technologies
consumer taste. He provides further insight which can be used to design buildings specific
and explanation into difficult theories and for place, purpose and climate.
shows a well-travelled appreciation of images
Throughout, he articulates clearly how the
and pictures from all over the world and also
language analogy in architecture is used
evidence of extensive research, which applies
to extend our knowledge. Analogies and
on a global scale.
metaphors are used as, creative tools to
In general the book was well structured and instigate thought and structure research.
formatted. I liked the way the book was broken
In referring to architecture as a language, he
down into three parts. Part one focused on
portrays it as a voyage of discovery into the
new ideas in science and technology and the
unfamiliar territory of architectural meaning.
chapters aimed to increase our awareness and
He further demonstrates how architecture is
understanding of the complexities of human
multidisciplinary and often hard to define and
behaviour. Part two was a combination of
highlights the problem when analogies are
essays concerning architectural theory, criticism
taken too literally, and stresses the importance
and analogical reasoning. Part three contained
of striking a balance between reasoning and
essays which were concerned with issues on a
criticism.
larger cultural and global scale, for example,
Globalization and localization. The index and At times I found his style of writing quite difficult
bibliography were more than adequate and I to follow for example when he relates back to
found them useful and informative. However, Darwin and his theories of evolution. Nonetheless,
one point of contention is that there does not I did find some of his concepts enlightening in
seem to be an obvious flow or connection particular his comparison of Hans Scharouns

169
Philharmonie and Mies Van der Rohes National clear that there is an emergent interest in
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
Gallery, each as language of organic and architectural identity. This recurrent theme in
classical architecture respectively. He compares the use of analogies represents the function
the two buildings as crossing between different of architecture and the formation of personal
worlds of reality. Each building is a masterpiece and social identities. Abel states that the
of its own kind but Scharouns concert hall is principal metaphors used are architecture as
better appreciated from the interior whereas a language and architecture as space but
Van der Rohes is better appreciated from now more recently architecture as identity.
the outside. He states that when we compare He proceeds to give examples of various writers
one building with another, we compare analysing their ideas of which have stressed
distinct languageseach offering a different the importance of the ability to act with
interpretation of reality. architecture in a personal way. Writers include,
Amos Rapaport, John Turner, David Appleyard
When discussing new attitudes towards the and Clare Cooper Marcuse. Abel states that
integration of modern architecture with the some of the most dramatic evidence of the
natural environment, Abel describes Renzo complex relations between architecture and
Pianos work as a good example of how he human identity may be found in processes
integrates advanced technology into historical of cultural exchange. He provides colonial
settings in his urban renovation projects. He architecture as an example as he explains how
strikes a successful balance between technology this is a process where people recreate familiar
and nature, achieving contemporary design as environments in alien locations, in doing so
well as integration with culture and tradition. they retain part of their identity. He describes
architecture as a way of being and therefore
I feel the authors aims have been met through use it as a way in which we know ourselves.
his writing as he effectively conveys meaning
especially through his understanding of the use Analogies and metaphors are used extensively
of metaphors. Metaphors are commonly used in through his writing, he refuses to be constrained
architecture criticism, and the intent is to make by any single analogy or line of thinking. The
full use of the emotional responses that words essays, which comprise the book, make it a
can arouse, so as to enrich the description manageable read. I only came across one
of a building. I feel he provides a way to spelling mistake/misprint, when describing
increase the meaning and responsiveness of Jan Kaplickys project for a semi-underground
architecture through his intellectual approach museum integrating modern architecture
and his persuasive yet assertive writing. with the natural environment and how it
makes effective use of proven energy-saving
Abel claims that the most successful examples techniques, tucking the glass-roofed structure
in contemporary architecture are those that neatly into the base of the hill.
abstract from the past what is still relevant
todayby a process of analogy, project a In conclusion, Abel describes the architects
vision of the futures out of the present. It is role as needing to empathise with people and

170
place in which they live in order to give form to The Language of Space
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
that identity. In the final essay on Asian urban Review by Ronan White
futures, he interprets the ideas and concepts The Language of Space
of four accomplished architect-planners. This Bryan Lawson
provides an informative and enlightening First edition
discussion on how they hold similar yet differing 2001
approaches on development planning and Oxford, United Kingdom
urbanization. Abel states that their approach is Architectural Press: An imprint of Butterworth-
a composite of western and eastern ideas and Heinemann
values, reflecting a continuous process of cross- 246 pages
cultural exchange. ISBN: 0 7506 5246 2
Paperback
The best feature of the book is the format as it is
a manageable read: divided into parts. It is well
illustrated with photos and drawings and has a The Language of Space is a discussion of
helpful appendix and bibliography. There are human psychology and architecture. It deals
notes and references for every chapter, which with the practical and fundamental principles
is helpful. The worst feature is that many of the within architectural design, and places much
chapters require a more in depth philosophical emphasis on how architects need to have more
knowledge and a glossary to explain some of interest in the building occupants rather than the
the key terminology. Overall, I feel it was an building itself. The following quotation emphasis
informative and interesting read, which I would the importance of such thinking, We shape our
recommend to my colleagues. buildings, and afterwards our buildings shape
us (Churchill 1943, as quoted in; Lawson, B., The
Finally, I feel that Abel is successful in providing Language of Space, Architectural Press, 2001,
an up to date knowledge on various issues pg 194).
concerning architects and designers today.
He conveys this on a global perspective. He Although written by an architect the book
demonstrates a wealth of experience and often criticises architects, and how they need
knowledge and through his style of writing one to get their buildings nearer to peoples needs
can sense he is passionate about his ideas and than they often do. In one particular chapter it
wants to convey these effectively to the reader even indicates that the origins of legal disputes
through his persuasive writing. between neighbours are a result of the work
undertaken by architects and planners.
The Language of Space was first published

in 2001. In relation to the subject of human
psychology and architecture it is a relatively
new publication, as the majority of books
within this subject area having been written

171
around the 1960s when criticism of the modern increase their understanding of space, and give
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
architecture began. One could argue that the them a different approach on design, thus with
current thinking on the subject has not changed an outcome of better designed buildings.
greatly since 2001, although when compared
As I got into depths of the book I began to realise
to the 1960s publications, architectural trends
that the issues being discussed were common
and styles have certainly changed, today
knowledge on how humans respect each other
architecture is not only about the surface
in space. When I say common knowledge, I
appearance, although it is about people and
mean this in relation to our behavioural manner
context, as The Language of Space discusses.
in space everyday. We actually do perform
Analysis of The Language of Space would in space as the book describes, although
indicate that its intended audience is students. we never realise. I can clearly say that since
Not only is it written in a language that can be reading this book it has broke new ground in my
easily understood, although throughout the knowledge of this subject; not only have I began
book the author often refers to architectural analysing my behavioural manner, although I
schools, students and the work they have have began analysing the behavioural manner
undertaken. Within chapter eight (Space and of others also. As it is my ambition to become
Time), the author also discusses how students of an architect, understanding human behaviour
architecture often aim to work out what their is the key to organise and structure space. I
tutor wants them to do, and he believes that in take the stand that buildings are not primarily
doing so, the students thinking of architecture art, technical or investment objects, but social
can become remote from how people behave objects (Markus, T., 1993).
in a building. A student as the intended The contents of the book are very well broken
audience is expected, as the author is Dean of down, with chapters, sub-chapters, illustrations
the Faculty of Architectural Studies at Sheffield and diagrams which in my opinion give the
University. reader a greater understanding of the particular
discussion.
One could also argue that as the book is written
in the non architectural jargon, it would be The chapters in the Language of space vary in
quite suitable for a lay person, (a person from a relation to what they discuss. The earlier chapters
non architectural background) to understand. place greater emphasis on understanding
One example of how the complex terms are human psychology whereas the later chapters
broken down would be in Chapter four (Ways begin to relate this to architecture.
of Perceiving Space), where the author refers to
the air traffic controller to describe redundancy Throughout the book, the author speaks to
in architecture. the reader in a very personal manner. In one
particular chapter he discusses how he would
In addition, The Language of Space would be a rather describe this topic face to face with the
recommended book for practicing architects/ reader, or in a lecture, rather than write the
professionals to analyse, it would certainly book.

172
He also describes in this personal manner, how approach of function following form, although
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
the book was rewritten and redrafted several I feel this approach will take time to evolve.
times. Although only a minor weakness, I felt This aspect and indeed other aspects that the
its drafting to be slightly confusing in relation book addresses are becoming increasingly
chapters overlapping. Or how the author evident in recent architectural designs, Europe
would start to describe a particular topic, and in particular, with a large emphasis on context,
then indicate that he will look at it in greater and creating spaces that respond to our
depth in a chapter to follow. If a take an behavioural needs. One such recent example
example of behavioural setting, this reappears would be the Universita Bocconi, Milan, (by
as a sub-chapter within both chapters one Grafton Architects Dublin), which received
and two, although in Chapter six (Proxemics), world building of the year at the first ever World
it is discussed again in relation to furniture, and Architecture Festival 2008; It seems locked into
how furniture can restrict the occupants ability place (Stern, R., 2008, the chairman of the
to create the behavioural setting needed to super jury). Although one could argue who was
undertake the task involved. on the jury, was it persons from the architectural
profession or people who actually use the
Before reading particular chapters I had building? I can inform you that it was persons
preconceived ideas of its discussion from the from the profession; do I need to say more?
title, although these ideas often turn out to be
incorrect. An example of which is discussed in This leads me to discuss a topic in chapter one
chapter two (Space and the Human Dimension). (Space as a Language). A section in this chapter
Within this chapter the author discusses identity. focuses on how architects establish a jargon
I automatically assumed that this would relate and communicate in a different language to
to how each individual has their own identity that of a lay person. Even if the Jury at the World
and this does not change. Although I soon Architecture Festival had consisted of architects
came to discover that spaces created within and lay persons, would they have been able to
architecture changes ones identity, and how reach a unanimous decision through using this
architects can control the identity of others. The architectural jargon, or would the architects
author uses an example of a waiter and how he have had to adopt a different language that
changes his identity from the dining room to the others could understand.
kitchen.
Apart from the minor overlapping issue which
In chapter eight (Space and Time), the author I discussed earlier, the book is extremely well
discusses how architects usually have a design formatted, the subsections within each chapter
approach that form follows function. He help break down the content therefore making
indicates that the problems associated with the book more legible. In addition there are a
such approach are that architects do not range of diagrams and pictures within the book
understand function as well as they think. which are very useful tools to achieve a better
The author expresses that a good first step in understanding of the topics.
changing design theories would be to take an

173
All in all I thoroughly enjoyed the content of book on Architectural Education: Designing the Design
ASHRAF M. SALAMA
and I have no doubt that it will be of benefit to Studio (USA), Human Factors in Environmental Design
me in my architectural career. (Egypt), Architectural Education Today: Cross Cultural
Perspectives (Switzerland), Architecture as Language
Not only would I recommend The Language of Peace (Italy), and recently, Design Studio Pedagogy:
Horizons for the Future (United Kingdom). He is member
of Space to architectural minds like my
of the scientific boards of several intl. journals including
colleagues, although I also recommend it to the Open House International, Time Based Architecture
non architecture mind (a lay person) to read. In International, and the Chief Editor of Archnet-IJAR.
doing so the lay person could understand the He can be reached by email at asalama@gmail.com
jargon used by architects, and therefore be or ijar@mit.edu.
able to become more involved in the design
process, thus the outcome: a better designed
building. In addition it would also help the non
architectural mind realise that there is more to
architecture than what is seen from the external
appearance.
References
Markus, T. (1993). Buildings and power: Freedom and
control in the origin of modern building. London, UK:
Routledge.
Stern, R. (2008). The Architects Journal, 8.
-----------------------------
Ashraf M. Salama
Ashraf Salama holds B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in
Architecture. He is Professor of Architecture currently
holds a Reader in Architecture position at Queens
University Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. He
taught and conducted research at Qatar University
(2006-2008), was Associate Professor at KFUPM (2004-
06), and was the Director of Consulting at Adams
Group Architects in Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
(2001-04). He is licensed architect in Egypt received
his training at Al Azhar University in Egypt and North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA. Salama chaired
the Department of Architecture, Misr International
University in Cairo (1996-01). He has published numerous
papers and authored and co-edited five books

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SHAPING ARCHITECTURAL DISCOURSE BY ARCHITECTURE STUDENTS AT

Copyright 2009 Archnet-IJAR, Volume 3 - Issue 2 -July 2009 - (130-173)

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research

classify, categorize, and relate those arguments behaviours and attitudes.

to other discourses on theories of architecture

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

would appreciate it.

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

of the authors arguments. The reviewer is

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

review.html the citizen can inform it with his own meanings

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

importance of a vivid environmental image typically from home to workplace, it is evident

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

city level, useful whether you are submerged in References

a design project or simply walking around your

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

describes the problem suscinctly: society (residential, industrial, age, income

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

I am aware of the significant impact that Jane helpful.

Jacobs, and this book in particular, has had on

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

for it to be catalogued, marvelled and admired create.

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Company. renewal. Governments across the world that had

implemented en masse urban renewal programs

Defensible space broadly examines how Defensible Space is aimed at a broad

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

of workers. interested in getting a basic knowledge of the

subject. I would also recommend it to the lay-

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

the field of environmental psychology. Although New Humane Environment.

References Often criticized for their lack of responsibility

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

thoughtful treatment of sensory characteristics overall text.

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

how physical environmental arrangements behaviour of that environment such as spatial

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

arms, legs and movement of a user at a specific effective sound communication.

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 2 - July 2009