THE CAMBRIDGE COMPANION TO MUHAMMAD Edited by Jonathan E. Brockopp Peogsylveia Sate Uniertty CAMBRIDGEContents isto ewes page xt List of maps xi Notes on contebutrs xv Introduction x Part Muhammad in his world 1 The Arabian context of Muhammad’ life 21 2 Muhammad's message in Mecca: warnings, signs and miracles 39 5 Glimpses of Muhammad's Medinan deeale 61 Part I Mubanmad in history 4 The Prophet as laweiver and legal authority. 83 5 Personal piety 105 6 Mubamimad asthe poe of existence 123, 7 The Prophet Muhammad inrtual_ 139 ' Muslim philosopher’ rationalist explanation of Mulammad!s prophecy 158 9 Where earth and heaven meet remembering Mubammad head afetate 1801 The Arabian context of Muhammad's life WALID A, SALEEL ‘Moos the city where Muhammad was bor, lies in the mide ofthe ‘Aablan Peninsula an immense expanse of land abuting the teritories of the most ancient civilisation, Larger than India or Europe, the Are ban Peninslaisalmost xs million square miles’ Mostly desert, apart, from the southwestem highlands of Yerea, nd devoid of any rivers or tasily accesible fesh water, Arabia was impenetrable and impossible focarimies to match through ewas also an inbospitable and unprofitable land, with no agricultural base to tax, Arabia was spared the avarice of ‘mmpeial authorities unt the struggle between Byzantium and Sassanid Inanbecame global and dew Arabia nt it orbit Arabia was thus pec larly unique in proximity to the mos centralized empires ever to exist inthe ancien world, yet never under che diet contol of any. ‘By Muhammad tine the Arabian Peninsla was nevertheless expe- siencng the pressure of che two major emplreson ts sides, the Byzantine Empire tothe north, comfortably Christian if sven by Chrstlogieal Controversies, and the religiously divesse Sassanid Empite tothe east, reviving ambition to take control of the eastern pars ofthe Mediter ‘ann from Byzantim, Caught in bite, long. dining war, che two ‘mpires were polarizing the Nea ast and pulling ll oft into the fight. ‘Any native political dynasties and kingdoms in Yemen or onthe bor ers with Syria and Itag ~ were by then either abolished by the wo temples or under the indieet contol of either Constantinople olan. ech ofthe two empires experimented with bribery and vasa kingdoms tocheck the predatory rude of the nomads nto the culevated aca the "ters deed yah nog ad sce iro Ani ake ‘pnd tt nthe rte mf Boar otc Conf aon eee andthe cement ot balck "bina ea A Ganga peach Jee Seri ric and ima pee Hk "oad ning Anand the ef be le ja of cl nd Sal Wy of he Oe at 9h 303. ping At wor peru wee.22 Walld A. Saleh Fertile Crescent and each sought to use the nomads of Arable as aux: fary troops to theirown advantage, yee immediate direc governance was never fully carried out Arabia was an anomaly inthis sense, impossible ‘ofully integrate in the plitieal structures ofthe region and impossible to ignore. There was no indication that Arabia would ever play a msjor role in the ongoing imperil struggles ofthe region. Nothing in he long, history of the Near ast pointed to what was o come? Muhammad's achievements were thus accomplished despite the limitations of his environment. Not only was he bocn outside the two ‘mires he was bor in the periphery of Arsbiaitsel inthe Hi region, notin Yemen or onthe eastern shores ofthe Persian Glo inthe aes aliacent to ra and Syria, the usu sites of cultural activities, The Hae tea was the most inaccessible part of Arabia tothe empires, an area that seemed anarchic, with no disecrble plies structure when seen ‘om Constantinople oe Cresiphon. Yet the wsualpictre of Arabia a2 untouched by its surroundings is misleading: Arabia was part of ie late antique setting, par ofthe cultral landscape of the aes ven is pagan: ism, embartled as it was becoming, was sil pat ofthe ay of che end ‘The Arabs were not the ignorant lot that later Islamic tradition would like us to believe. They knew Rome, and they knew Ctesiphon. “They were actualy inthe proces of being fly absorbed into the high cultreof he are twasonlyamatteroftime, one might have predicted, ‘until they would convert either Chissinity les ike, to fadaism. Muhammad in a way, almost singlehandedly severed he historical ‘rend, and he reshaped not only Arabia but allo the ancient Nest East ln his own image. Muhammad brought late aneiguty to «surpasing ‘lminstion. “Another important aspect of Arabia at that moments tht its inbab leant considered themselves ethnically related, a ace connected some: how by blood and the Arabic languages peripheral position tits ur roundings and the homogeneous ethnic composition of Arla are pet haps the most determining aspects ofthe envionment of Muhammad. For tis immense expanse of land tobe dssnited or ungoverned isnot ‘exceptional steppes were usually impossible wo subsume under impe- ral rule ~ yet for this expansive area to be linguistically and ethnic cally more or less homogeneous, even when religiously diverse, was 2 the wast a nd came cont of Ana in ltonip Rome and Soni Heel pnd oe Cath owen ner rt ae Fetal rasan al wha we Uw oth Hemant dd roe Stier on the yb lame Maegan “The kmsy fem be Thea bie Pvp, eM One nee Cie ot ard Pano oes Moxey ave Pe, ss 6 ‘The Arabian context of Muhammad's Iie 23 ore ” . Mi ci eo Map The Arsbian Peni, showing importa poplatin center. ‘remarkable, Muhammad was born into a tabe in a eal city in sea of tribes sot speak, but he belonged already toa elasively homogenous landscape, which he would come to reshape “The basi form of socal organisation in Arabia was the ibe, pts- Lively blood related group tha acted a social economic, and military ‘nit. The cofesivenes ofthe tbe was essential for ite surviva. Loyal tothe tribe was a matter af uumost pide tots members loyalty was not ‘coerced sentiment but rather the vrs that defined ebespeople. This ‘vasa unique political structure to belong to ~ it was not conducive to24 Wolid A. Saleh stable political organization but was very dynam. As reeborn mem bor of see, one would have been reared in a feray proud tradition of fighting and defiance. Honor and reputation, courage and generos tty, love of ane’ kin and fealty to the ancestors were the cornerstones of one's constitstion. Defiance ws thus «defining character, Such ‘member would be imposible co integrate into a ax smposing imperial) controlled system lke the ones in the ares adjacent to Arabia. Fecdom. from subservience and loyalty tothe tebe were such that any large polit seal structares were constructed through temporary alliances among the ‘ore or less equal ties alliances chat were ep and broken by each tribe at wil. Yet inner Arable, the land where Mubamamad grew up, ever knew a complex political structure until he arrived onthe scene. Inthe impoverished envionment of Arabia, apart ftom the riches ofthe Syrian Desert the Iraqi bordes, or the Yemeni highlands, where ‘wealth was easy to’come by, poetry played ¢ major role in the cul tural Landscape. Even before the appearance of the Qur'an, there was highly developed langage of communication that could he used in the ‘whole land of Arabia and was universally cherished and cultivated In fact, as Jamen Montgomery has stated, "Arabic qasida poetry i @noc- essary chough by no means sufficient condition for the miracle of an ‘Arabic Quo’n.” Poetry wa the medium for expressing the deals ofthe socal structure, the register ofdeds, and the Beare of lor. Eloquence, courage, generoiey, and fereeneas were the standards one served «© ata, and poetry chronicled these traits fr each tribe "Much of what we know of Arabia before Islam is based onthe anal ‘ysis ofthe pre Islamic pocty that wae preserved by estly Muslims. The poetic medium was highly complex by then, and it reflected a heroic ‘thos that placed personal virtues at the center of the world Two ‘complementary tats were cultivate hl "febearanc,” “reasonable- ‘ness and jab arogance,” “overbearing haugheiness of a bal man, the spirit of stubborn resistance agains al that shows the slightest sign of injuring their sense of honour or destroying the traditional way of [en the face ofthe agi fe there was heroic stance. One defied ‘everything in defense of one's tribe and honor. The poety pores the tubal Arab as unbowed and unben, fearful of nothing (Garth Foveen had these various cultural overlays in mind when he assessed the significance ofthe rise of Islam: "The Islamic Empire pe nu ses ncn yam sey Mal A Sell, Der ‘rar Many Cs Wea ety Pm) "Te ne, stv eles Coe e Or onsd el Uae re sos ‘he Asabian conten of Mubaramaa’s Iie 25 ‘vas impliet in late antiquity, bue nothing quite ike it had ever been ‘cen befor."* The same could be ssid about the life of Mubammad fit came to be told by Muslims in the Siz, the Titrature writen Shoot Muhammad by hie companions and followers. His life mierored the expectations one woul find inthe biogrephies of ly men from ate “antiquity and fashioned them in uniquely Arabic fashion, oreshadow- ings mirsculon birth, protected childhood, isons, miraculous deeds 1 band of followers, and an afinity with the cosmos were all woven together to presen life superior to any presented before ad able to ‘measure t hat of Moses, Jess, and Alexander the Great. Mubammad’s Iie was presented in vniveral terms, reflecting the niversalism ofthe late antique culture that Muslims eame to inert. His life was consid ed the culmination of history, understood by Muslims tobe the history (of Rome and Irn combined. Mulammad’ fe was the meaning ofthe Inumen history that started with Adam and culminated in the coming ‘feat The ambitions of Rome pele before the heights erly Muslims tered to Muhammad. orthe pst 150 yeas historians have been tying to unearth the his. serial Mhammad, and in many respects, this endeavor is continuing Ieis clear, however, thatthe poitialeaecr of Mubammad as presented by dhe Sit is historically ft inorescliale than the Sivas presentation cof his birth, ealy childhood, and fe before he became a public figure. ‘Yet these mythical pars of his biography, the early phase witen he was not yet a prophet, came eventually o symbolize the meaning of his life fd caecy, in this sense, myth was far more able eo eaptare the signif icanee of Mulpammad’s carer than were the mere concrete historical taumphs fis iteresting cet, to medieval Muslims, Mebamimad’s lie was mainly seen thzough its cosmic, symboladen events, which invariably were mythielly eonsructed, and not through ts more mun- lane histoncal parts His guasi-mirgcslous bre would lom larger than ny event his tip to heaven (ms) his communion with the cosmos, find his supernatural qualities came to play far more significant role ‘when his story was retold. The etical realm of his character was also ‘emphasized: Muhammad was the prophet of meres. The celebration of "ch ow ap comme Crvnas fo Lt ‘Sang en, Nf once Une Ps 9 3 ‘Torneo i oar ee 8 Pear Meher Onis of Ma [acy Se Univer cw er oh Hut, Te eo UG Mohammed: To oe te ere al ch Secale mon ting seo tne o mys gay an le of ‘irene ohana the Cole Bough Roses [nec ps og: ncn eiesty Pes 13826 Walid A Saleh Fig Amen pone sowin Mobs seri nis cotton tops pobt wsAlom ht eh we Pon Rc hon “Natvig’s Muslim poster collection, University of Bergen. : ‘ha arabion conten of Mubaraa’s if 27 _Mubammad' life eventually took place on is birth dat, andthe maw ‘wae hymnal celebration of what the universe experienced when he was bom" ‘THE BIOGRAPHY OF MUHAMMAD “The bogey of Muhammad is old not nthe Cur‘ but athe in «biography seriten by Ibn Ihiq (4. 150/767) « hundsed years or more ser Mubatanads death.” Ieieanitherspswlingnareasve- The English teanelaton of Ibn Ishaq’ orginal text occupies eight hundked pages “Aleady there ie definite structure apparent a the ling, a structure that ets through much of ary Islamic narratives: the before and the terol the hija, The life of Mubammad and, moe important, the mean- ‘ngof the Qu?an were mapped ont this decisive moment-his migration {fom Mora to Medina in 622 CE. Such was the significance of this event ‘hat history began ith i,t the extent that his immediate followers ‘would look bak nd reckon an Ilamie calendar that started with this ‘event. The life of Muhammad was ot only fashioned by how the early {encrationofhis followers understood its significance, however. Already ‘hecan see the pull on Muhammad's fe by paradigms established in the Cultures that suerounded Arabia: he has to measure up tthe nacatives ‘of Moses and Jesos,even hugh i his pliialeacer in Medina that ‘was deemed the most imporant. As such, the biography saw tot that ‘Mubammad’s bith and childhood and death were elevated tobe con sistene with events in the last ten years of his Ife. There were chs tensions in the Sita of Muhammad that reflected the diferent demands of competing paradigms. "The work of Ib Ishq grew out ofan already active teary trad tion that was eetempring to reseed the lf af Mshemmad, The heroic “Mulpammnad was the fire tobe celebrated, and all evidence points to the foe that eaiy Mulia kept the memory of his deeds as a mil tary leader and asthe head ofthe community in Mdina His exploits ‘were recorded in what we call maghdat literature Soon, sis truncated * Foran ey ml, se Chap 3 i von Freeones ys Chnperyinthtoine weaso N16 tap hema’ ‘ata eo ny ao al, yp en KT tne te Pepe Mma Deena Pi Sot a anes Rae Peet Thay hei Mana: A Tt eh’ Stas A, ens ‘une Onn Ox Unt Pr, 9 Sap me nen The Chay oh aA ea Suey Ban of28 Wali A, Soleh telling of Muharnmad’s life was unsatisfactory. A more linear and cam plete lfe was presented and this chapter is dedicated to the ealy part ‘of his life as porrayed inthe Sita and historical erature writen by ‘Muslims, We know that Mehsmumad was an orphan snd the Ques, ina rare reference to Muhammat’s etl ile, mentions tis fact s well ss his poverty [Q 936-11) He was hor in Mecca to the tbe of Quraysh, toa branch ofthe family called the Band Hashim. They were a noble lineage, lke all ofthe Quraysh ee, but they were not che wealthiest of ‘the be. The Sia presents Mubaramad's father as possessing light on ‘ig Forehead, aight apparent to many, especially to other women, that disappear after he sleeps with Amina, his wif. Like many motifs in the Sea, the light can function oa many symbolic level, rom its mere contrast with darkness to the Gnostic notions, es this admit use of symbols chat made the Site a potent medium. Eventually, Muhammad's sence was ted to preexstent light, he fst entity tobe created by God, and to his staure as the perfect human being The light was also onsected to visions that Muhatnmnad's macher saw while pregnant. A light wold shine from her belly that lit up Syria rather faraway fom Mecca. A vole ordered her to dedeate the newly bom child to the One God and to name him Mishammad* Another iportant aspect of Mubanmmad’s bith i tha ews, Cri tans, Zooastsians, and pagan Arabs predicted his coming. Each was represented inthe Ska by an episode that had 4 rabbi, priest, a son of a Magi priest, ota soothsayer predicting the birth of an important Individual. In this sense, every denomination rom the Near Est) was bearing wienes 2 his coming. Beaving witness to Mubammas great ness and prophetic fuure is @ constant theme inthe Size Asa child, he wat inspected, andthe signs of his prophetic carer were verified by experts, who were invariably Christians. The most famous episode ss the eneounter ofthe boy Muhammad with a Christan monk who Jnspected hit forthe sgn of prophecy, a sel between the blades ofthe "+o the ym ih sd i by Hina eatin Mami Chaps nchvolane nse Un at, "reece Lig Aap the one ot Nte heme a net Sts ans 2-9. “ima feo abana ‘The Arabion content of Muhammad's Iie 29 shoulders These wer alo ominous encounter, forthe Sita repress the boy Michammad as always in danger of losing his if, and only the rotection of his God would se to that he be saved and sale Judaism, ‘Christianity, and Zoroastianema were i danger of losing their preem iene, and their representatives inthe Sira were evidently not happy “with the coming of this new prophet ‘Much ofthe casting ofthe story ofthe eaely Ie of Muhammad has the purpose of elevating tothe eal ofthe mysterious. ewasalso tied to universal pln for the salvation of humaniy le was not an orinary lif, end the people around him sere made aware of his larger than ie character. His wet nurse, his servant, his employer and future wife), and his uncles all diferent times were made witneses to Mubammad’s cetraninary powers Chief among the stratogis used to cevat his ie ‘vas the portayal of ts afinity with the commos: dhe inanimate world ‘vas made to respond to Mohammad asif it were animate Thus, cloud ‘would follow hm in his travel to shade im. The rocks would man for him, and the world sesponded to his commands Pethsps che most enigmatic ofthe episodes tha the Sia recounts is the epitode ofthe opening f Mubammads chest. Two mysterious sngelic figures, and there are also reports chat they were two birds, ‘uted the child Muhammad fb Ishq repeats his story at later point, when Muhammad was an adult), opened his chest, and performed {ritual ofclemnsingofhisheare. Muhammad, wearemadetounderstand, ‘was rendered pre or, theologically worded ifalibe. The story hasbeen ‘died extensively, and its shamanisic resonance has been noticed by Scholars” It play «central role inthe presentation of Muhammed in the Sits flly human yet substandally diferent, this isnot deification but transformation of essence all the same. Moreover, this episode connects the Mubamaad ofthe Sia tothe Misbammad ofthe Qur'an, tits uelly recounted in interpretations of Q 94. in contrat to these miracle stores from Ibn Ids, ehe Quran Is emphatic about what I would call he mundane characte of the human ‘Mulbaminad He isa messenger, a warner, agude, a deliverer ofa mes sage, but he se emphatically a Dasha, a human being, The Chelstolog jeal background for this humblenes deafening, a humbleness that oon early Muslims would shed. He is certainly nota mirsle worker fn the Que’ln, and many ofthe arguments in the Qur'an attempt to redefine miracles and reste che tempeation of performing mirscles as ° Bond, he apd fhe Opening of Madan ut a Ara ‘agree rer Ne sap rn 935)30 Walid A Saleh ‘vindication of prophecy. Yet the Sir is replete with « miraculous and ‘minacle-working Muhammad. The Sha as expected, coming at oes ser the Quran, gets the upper hand, The Mobammad we have i fash foned bythe Sir, and @ remapping ofthe Quy’ is eaeied out on the ‘miraculous presentation ofthe Sra Ths, for example, the phys seal ‘of propiey, birthmark that Mubammad is supposed to have had on his body, which che Christian monk inpected, i connected tothe Qu nie joneept ofthe sal af prophets ttle given to Mubammad in Q 33:40. ‘The Sta thus is emphatic about therle of mythology in presenting the significance of Muhammad, andi ee Qu’in war not 0 obliging ints regard twas made tobe; Key words in enigmatic Quine verses were tied to major mythical nareaives, and a ch, the Sta stood butested by the Quraa, “The shadow ofthe historical Muhammad is, however, not fr fom the picture presented by thn Ibi A decene youth with «good septa ‘on, Muhammad comes across a8 respectable member of his comm- nity, if not par ofthe elite. He is willing to setle down and mary 4 widow, who clearly made the fist move. In sens, the sensible Mulammad is quite on display. ts against this background thatthe ‘swelling tide of transformatian that Muhammad experiened is pre- sented. He was as surprised with ie prophetic experience as his people ‘were at first bemused It snot so much is shocking elect on his tbe ‘that mattered but i effect om him. Both the Sia andthe Qua agree ‘that Multammad was initially pained byhisroleas messenger as pub Ti figure with a call® Ths, of couse, «familia rope, the prophet ‘who is unwilling carry out his mission, but nthe esse of Mubamma, there was the added layer of prophet who eame ta people who didnot sie bythe paradigm he was presenting himself in,» prophecy with & divine mestage. The Arshs were not expecting pophe, and they were notin the habit of listening other, or according them authority, mor ox politi. But ifthe Qur‘n is slight on the dtl of Mularmmad’ if dering this period, i s quite explicit abot the reaction of the Ata to his pretching, In numerous passages, the Qur'an repores thet words vee tim before responding it dd not help that what animated Muhammad ‘was incomprehensible to the Arabs. Mubammad was alzeady speaking = Aiscouse that was alten to them, not that they didnot know the ables ofthe old lastir ab-awwala, as they called the series of Jews and ‘Sezai Sdn ced dare elon 936 ‘The Arobian conten of Muhammad's Ife 31 Christians, but so be aroted by the claims of «prophetic mission sent to them was too much to bea [Q 383) Why did he not ministor ther ‘na foreign language, they quipped, s his entre message seemed alien to their pagan world (Q 41:44) prophets god for Jows and Christians (9 6156) Why did not his God send an angel instead? He would have been more reliable (Q 68-9), Why was Muhammad chosen in the fist place? Certainly a more renowned or noble Meceanindiwidual was pos sible (Q 45:32) Is Muhammad not surely confused 43:3? Perhaps he tsa pou, lke many a poet before hima (Qa) A priest, one of us, who ‘shaving visions (Q 2:39 Peshaps possessed, bythe many finns roam. ‘ng the desert. But wity a prophecy when such things were not fr the ‘Arabst In this ens, his opponents were as cruel as they were accommo- ating: trying to see him as having an Arable experience, one that they ‘ould accept What they were nt willing to concede ie authority t his ‘voice, eventhough Muhammad was geninely unaware ~at fist -of the connetion between prophetic clams and polities! authority (Q $240) 8:22; 38:86. Prophecy entailed power, andthe Meccans were not going to be pushed around, despite the rassurances of Mubammad that he ‘was not afer power, MUHAMMAD'S PROPHETIC EXPERIENCE “The Siza presents Mecca at the time of the coming of Mubammad as clearly aware ofthe shortcomings of paganism. Sensible individuals span out in the worl in search of truth The ira els the sory of four such inquisitive indvidualo, each i eying to find che er tligion, and most end up converting to Christianity. However, we areal into ‘duced to che concept ofa monotheistic original religion, an religion, ‘the faith of Abraham, the Lanafiva The proud Mezcan Arab ended up rediscovering ths faith, the faith that cele ancestors nied to profess sfterall, the Sra presents the Arab as descendants of Abraham through Ishmael. There are several ways in which the notion ofan orginal rl sion ofthe Arabs funetions; the most significant isi seems, attempt to mitigate che severity ofthe brea with the past. Mchammad does come across in the Qur'n a6 mere bringer of old tides, nothing the Jews and the Christians did not have. Apparently, e was what the Arabs atone time also had but no mots, the Sia claims, The Arabs were once ibe feof Mab 610. > Redes ote ont Ue ai, any an Ka Anlagey mathe Asin Pca un of Din he oman Sein be sis sapere42 Walid A. Ste the followers of the religion of Abraham, and Muhammad is bringing that religion back Clea, the ita is taking ts cue from the Quin when it argues that the stumbling block forthe Pagans was che break with che past. There ‘rae «profound sense of seandal about what Muhammad wanted the “Meccan odo forsake theirfathers-which, in chescale of hings, was far ‘more disturbing chan wanting them to forsake their gods. By connecting ‘Muhammad to the hanfiv, this pristine, pure monotheistic religion, the Sie presents Muhammad as accommodating the Meccan, allowing thea fel that they were stil honing cei fathers and, atthe same time, escaping the religions oftheir feared neighbors: Muhammad was tasking them to become either Chistins o Jews but someting very simile ‘Muiammad the Sia insists, was himaelfdissataied with the situ ation of his eit. He took to contemplation and would scale the moun- tains around Mecea to be alone and reflect on the state of his town. He Fhad turned forey by che time that things escalated. He started having reams that always came true. He alo started obe greeted by rocks and luce ~ or atleast to hear greetings, dhe to curn only to find cree and rocks Ina sense, che inanimate world wat alzeady aware of his rank a6 1 prophet. His fies prophetic experience took place in a cave. The Sica informs us, while reeounting he event of his rst prophetic experience, that Mubammad’ mission was univers, meane fr all humankind. The futeast of Moca was sent to humanity, and atm time does the Sia fr fet to emphasize that. As we can ser, al these details ease suspicion: forty the age of perfection, and dhe cave isa reminder of Plato cave, and it was too ealy in ie mission to make claim to universalism. The ‘Sia is presenting the significance of dhe events concomitant with their telling [Ar mentioned previously, the first angelic vision happened when Mulbarmaiad was asleep in 2 eave on ¢ mountain, The angel Gabriel ‘brought with him a book and ordered Muhammad to read. Having ordered Muharamad to read three tines, Muhammad finally responded, Ma and b-gde [What shoo Tread). Gabel then recites what is considered the fist section tobe revealed ofthe Qur'an 96:51" “Another understanding of the event isto take Mukamamads response © Inean that he was notable to read. Hence, what he was telling Gabe] ‘was "Tea rea?” instead of asking "What abou Tread?” The Arabic sl Ont Sees) Ge 23-30 on hii soe ati ‘Sat ae ag. ‘The Arabian content of Mubammed's ie 33 ‘Phrase i ambivalent enough to mean both. At est this seems eather ‘inconsequential. Is the Sia claiming that Muhammed is overwhelmed by the experience, ori it claiming that he i literate? Soon it would ‘come apparent that the notion ofan ilterate Muhammal was fa damental in the presentation ofthe prophetic character of Mubamma. “The Aras were not Gens ummalya) asthe Quran insisted (Q 62:2, they were literate (ummiyin as che Sia now understands the word the same word means something diferent rom is Qurnic usage The pore literate of the Arabs was, of course, Muhammad, Unable to ‘write, he could not have forged the Quan “Thonarratvesof the Sia af Tb Ishaq are usually homogencous, and swe ae not offered alternative parallel stories tothe version presented. ‘Bur the boader uadition has preserved a rich amount of material chat fers alternative vacations of almost every event from Muhammad’ cly life The study of the variant versions of an episode has added Jmmently to our understanding of how diferent groups of Masins saw and understood te caret of Muamamad.” “The Qur’n, in this instance, has corded what appears to be arf rence tothe same event, Muhammad’s first vision, Sir 53, the only {stance ofa vision mentoned inthe Quan, clearly indicates that what [Muhammad ssw was God himself and noe Gabel. Ia either eat, the vision was overwhelming and so profound that its main effect was to convince Muammad ofhis missin, The figure filled the horizon. What ‘Misbammad experienced was also a revelation, wala dis sense the ‘most nportant aspect of Mubammad’s experience was therecevingofa Coherent verbal revelation tht he fle compelled to proclasn, Whatever ‘was the nature of the experience, its verbal echo was the most impor ‘ant ert, nd Mubammad wat soon keenly aware ofa message being sliver to im, "The Site and the tradition oa the whole, including the Qurtn, do not record anyother vision of he divine at such, pare rom a vision of {Godin the asceason story jm vision that is atested only outside the Que‘, The narratives mostly present Muhammad's experience as auditory, ¢ trance that usually resulted in a new revelation that was "0g the te smn “eae leet” se ih Cle “The ete ‘ks As nguiy le evcponst log ee Ta hae bra 7 bot sr + Pes them er sci a on et sed ty Mai ke ‘Est Ra ue Kiar nd flim Se el Ue a Te Bf he [else The of Munna o Vowel Mae aon34 Walid A. Saleh proclaimed to his followers. What is intresting aboue this revelation, ‘hich was called Quran, ists self-referential nature its constant cross referencing of motif and themes, As such, the compositional coherency of Muhammad’ revelation is qulte sking, Much later in the career of Muhammad, in Medina, during the famous Bate ofthe Trench (3/67), Muhammad is supposed to have uttered some words that demonstrate the quality ef the man. This was he nade of his military caver, Medina was besieged, and che situs: tion was ertcal. There was every indication thatthe end ofthe saga ‘of Mulan was at hand. Mecea amassed a age army in an attempt finally to eliminate Muhammad. Eventually, che teaches dug by the ‘Muslims successfully defended the ety, and the army of Mecca, made ‘up mostly of nomadic tribes, could not sustain theslege for more than month, Thoared in their effort, they could not conquer she ty, but ne ‘her were they defeated, having hardly any casuals. Yet Mohammad saw # shift in the Balance of power: seeing the semis of his enemies ‘eteat, he sd, "Now we will ud dhem and they wil ot rad" ‘A prediction that proved all too true. Mecca Tost its nerve and soon ‘Muammad proved invinlbe, historian i, of coure justified in ae Ing doubte about the historicity ofthis statement, though he szaezic ature ofthe utterance points to a cold, measured military analysis of ‘the stuaton and nota prophecy, But whether tue or Hcitous, i sums ‘up Muhammad's command of his envionment Even athis weakest, he seemed to se through the fog to formulate his next step. The Meccans id not lack in resolve; they simply were no math for him. Even when ‘he misjudged ther, Muhammad wae willing to adealy ater is strat- ‘py. The Meccans proved themselves adaptable te change and willing to leaen, but they were slower, thee ino doubt about who was the ‘revolutionary visionary in this story ‘Mubammad stared his prophetic creer in Mecca, which he had to leave after almost a deade of preaching, and the accounts of his Azparcure make clear that only a handful of Qureysh members followed him to Medina. The pagans were not deserting thelr gos fora proper 38:6). As such, there isn escaping the conclusion that Msbamimad’s ‘mission in Mecca was a faire. His arguments, style, and preaching all, “+ ome Sih of Bo chapter te pil ae uted yf Dens of ‘Reibleheeas l soth 8 ‘The Arabian context of Maammad’s fe 35 proved in vain. Why di his stint in Mecea fit Was there way hati ‘oul have succeeded! These questions are aise to understand fully the ‘thetorcal nature of the Qurale revelation ~ because the Quin i ll ‘hati fe for us of his preaching to his Mecesn fellow tibespeple- In ‘what way did the Qur'an understand the environment ie was preaching ‘0, and in what way dd refuse co accommodate i The answet, of course, will always remain troncate, for paganism did not survive £0 “wet ts point of ie ‘Te Sira presents Mubammad as desperately hoping for an accom, ‘modition with his tribe. The event that depicts such willingness 10 accommodate isthe episode ofthe Satanic Verses, The episodes famous, and here I give the minimum outline ofthe story, Mabammad is sup posed to have praised the thee godeses of the Mescans in his Q's, nly to have che verses removed the nextday, claiming thatthe verses were whispered by the devil himself. instead, a seathing ridicule was offered ofthese fase gods Apart from this one-day lps, which was excised from the text the Quran is simply unrelenting. unaceonamo- dating, and outright despsing of papunism, Rud Pre, in his study of ‘one of the shortest of sas in the Quran (Q 16), brilliantly captures the resolve of Muhammad to demareste himself from his tribespeople ‘The gulf bevweun the two was insurmountable. The owo systems vere ‘mutually exclusive. sone vese seater: "They wished you would relent, they would then have relented” (Q 689) But ofcourse neither di, and the belligerence exelated. ‘The voice preachingin che Quan is thusuncompromising, ebooks no dissent with its fundamental message: one God, a destruction of the work resurrection ofthe des anda judgment of deeds. Humans were ‘o humble themselves before the Lod at fearfully and observe acne ofbchavior dictated by God and not by dhe honor ofthe tribe. The pagans kept complaining chat Muhammad ws dicing thelr reaon, insulting ‘heir ancestors and pitting kin against inn every respect, Mubammad ‘was contravening the very foundations of che moral word of his city He even had the audacity to proclaim a new history, «before-andater * Fathead Sah Abd Tn Tympani ne ‘ee aunt gph Sn. Rh ae "Si 1" De m9 9) 17-0, whee Be ae hat he se ‘oun los wt Se King we oma oo te chp Sern, ila cre se re ‘iim ho of Gare usta the er ef walang ape choad a et Son, cd mal Me eer ‘ed tne Gare36 Walid A. Sate him jhiliyya the eme of she bl ethos that he came to put an end to. He compared them to cattle, made in ol thet respect for hei ances: tors. He declared blood eis useless. A solidification of Mibamimad's message was accompanied by «realization ofthe flit of conversion, ‘and soon the Qur'an is resigned to the new reality those who saw the Ligh converted those who didnot wil live tose the datnnaton of Go, eis almost alle, because now the discursive nature of his presching is far more pronounced. The Quran has more time telaborteon the points of contention, both aware ofthe futity of any arguments and Insitent on arguing ts own point of view. In this regaed, Muhammad veasprescing above the heads of the ‘Meccan i snot clear when he came tothe conelsion that his tis- son to his city was a fale, bute mast have done so or else he ‘would not have prepared a way out. The radical uncompromising voice ofthe Qur'an must then reflect his eaiaton: because als lost, only the full articulation of the erath i to really matter. The Qur'an as ‘ot anymore interested! in converting the pagans so much as reading 2 judgment against them. Ie also wanted to make sure thatthe small band of believers could sustain the misery of thei isolation (Q 6:33~ 2). There were moments wien the Qur'an di not even cate to explain ‘eselfto Muhammad -wehave to remember thtt hetorialy the Quein ‘dresses Muhammad, and che Quan i a persona in the dialogue. The ‘Quran, quoting Muhammad regretting the complicated situation he i tn eproaches him “you donot hike the gull separating you fom hex, Wwiay oe fly into Uae heavens, ox bore a tunnel into earth (Q 635) A miracle i not worth his enemies weight, even if miracles were what God had granted before. A. MECCAN MANIFESTO Sra 6 in che Qurn isin many respects summation of moet of the argument ofthe Mecean Quran's, ny opinion, the last man\- {esto of Mubammad in Meccs, radically uncompromising and yet earful to reague each point ofthe whole mission, Rhetoricaly i fashions & ‘unity by making Mubammad utter the same prayer, mote o less, at the beginning snd a the end of che Sire. Maammad is ordered to recite t at the beginning f the Sora [0 6-14) and once again at che very end ofthe ‘Sora this me making sure that Abraham is mentioned as the ancestor of his faith (Q 6161-4). This is, moreover, the same prayer of Abraham that is mantated inthe middle ofthe Sars (Q 678-9). The prayer isthe ‘essence of Muammad!s message: a radical monotheism and surrender to the One God. Rematably the story ofthe conversion of Abraham ‘The Arabian context of Muhammad's Ife 37 ‘is the only nerative in dis lng chapter, a ather sak deparere frm the pacice of the Que, which usally narates biographies fromthe lives of other prophets. The Quran here has resigned eset and simply lists the prophets names instead of thei stories In essence, there sone rmessrge, and it is what Abraham believed in, anda he prophets after Im preached the same message (2 685-90), ‘The bone of contention inthe Sir is the demand fr a miracle to ‘ouchtafe the versity of Muhammad's mission, ln his eg he arg ‘mentsofthe pagans ate unimpeachable: Mubammad hadmadeit a point to eonnett himself eo Moses and Jesus, hd praised thelr miracle working 15a sgn of Godt is only natural thatthe Meccan should ask forthe Same. leis this demand fora miracle that becomes the backbone of Sara § [ond as « mater of fac, of much ofthe anxiety ofthe shetorcal erg rents inthe Quyey a each inerval a specific demand is mentioned, ‘only fr the challenge to be rejected. What would prevent she Meecans ‘om claiming thatthe misace is aot sorcery [Q 637)" A matetalzation fof a miracle, the Qurn declares, tantamount to carrying out Gods chastisement. T force God's hand is incur His wrath smltancously (06:8) They are simply incapable of seeing or hearing or understanding, they deny every sign and argue instead with Muhammad, mockingiy calling the Qur'n dhe fables of the old (Q 6:25 ‘The Qurn then invokes God ae a witness fr its own veracity, calling itself by its own name, the Quran, a revelation sent 9 warm the Meceans that there is only one God and that worshiping other gods beside him wil only cause damnation [CQ 6:0) Early Life i declared frivolous game, «nothing compared to che fe to come [Q 63, in the face of Meccan insistence thatthe ony rel lifes this one (Q 625) God Is certainly capable of producing a miracle for Muhammad i they are ignorant not to know that (© 637} God is already manifest in che worl, and His chastsement will come o prove His will Once more the nature ‘of prophecy is adumbrated: prophets are messengers with good tidings and warnings they are not empowered beyond tha, they have no riches ‘ortreasres and they ae not kings they fllow what seveaedto chem (Q 6:g8-sal fe is God who i che master ofthe world, He Wil judge Indeed, judgment wast Muhantmads wil he would have brovgheit- bt God is nt willing to Jet «human judge other humans, «cles sgn of Goda mere (0 654, 8 Nonetheless, God's chastizement will come all the same, and an unrelenting horror awaits those who refuse to abide by God's message ‘Aeer long foray into wht i eit and what isnot the Sor then sums up the moral commande of the Meccan Quin [Q 6151-3) the (Quen is declared a book ike the book of Moses, despite the Meccan38 Walid A Saleh protestation that ony the two sets (meaning ews and Christians) were known tohave such boks (6156) But God will ome with His angels, tnd then nothing will benefit those who veere unwilling to believe [@ 6158), Iris clear hat Sora 6 is noe envisioning s polity ora com: munity of believers as such, orf it i ot fr the Muslims. The calli for a personal conversion and personal responsibilty. Mubammad had realized the limits of his mision in Meces, CONCLUSION: MUHAMMAD THE PROPHET IN LATE ANTIQUITY ‘Muhemmad wasnt only productof his environment like a classic revolutionary character, he was also eapable of transcending his limita tions. na tba pagan envionment, he dated to preach asalviireligion, high imperial eult~ and monotheism was then thecal of sn empire land he wanted to ead the barariam ofthe Arsh, Tae Arsbs were to ‘be mae similar tothe peoples of the empire, he Raz, the Romane up ‘orth, witha book, and pat of the legacy of Abraham. es noe nig cant chat Mulpammad was rooting forthe Romans in their wars with ‘Seseanid ran (Q sos) le is also worth noting that Alexander the Great ‘became part of the salvific history of the Qur'an: empire building and ‘monotheism are one (Q 18, Muhammad wanted tobring Rome o Arabia and, having been too successful, ended up taking Arabi to Rome, Ruther reading ‘Wown, Pett The Rise of Westen Chustendom, snd e, London: ackwell, owe, Gath pie to Commonweal: Consequences of Months in “Tate tiquey.Pneeon, N-Prinston University Pa 293. ‘ena, Toshiik, fico Relilous Concepts in he Quran, Mente: MEG Mok, Hal, of. The iogaphy of Mubammad: The Ise ofthe Souces, ‘ion Bll aon, Petes, FE Muhammad and he Origins of lam, Albany State Univ of "New York Pes 10 ‘etkevyh Jean Muhammad and ch Galen Bough: Reconstocting Ae ian Myth, Bloomington: Indiana University Pes, 196. 2 Muhammad’s message in Mecca: warnings, signs, and miracles Inthe previous chapter, Walid Sslch describes the many portents frm Mubsmnmad’s carly ie chat st the stage for his ultimate oe as prophet to Arabia, Such miraculous events resid iohave continued throughout ‘the Prophee'sfe, confirming his mission and demnonstratinghis personal ‘connection to Ged. The presen chapter loks more closely at the difer: ‘ences between the two major sources for Mupammad' fe, namely the (Quen, om the one hand, and the extra-Qur'éne sources, onthe ocher hha, The later include the compilations of tse (Qur'inic exegesis, Sia [Muhammad's biography), and hadith (tradition. Te comparative ‘snalsis wil focus on Muammad's image ax emerging in his Meccan peviad which suetches rom the moment when he fist recived revels sion, through isis attempts at preaching God's warning and promise ‘othe pople of Mocca and upto thei final jection of him. This ree: sion resulted in Mohammed’ ight [iia tothe oasis of Yat, later to be known as Medina, ‘When we read the Qudnic Meccan passages alone, without Benefit ofpost Qurnicinterpretation, Muhammad emerges asa mortal prophet ‘who til ha no miracle other than the Qar'n, the book he received fom Goi over che last ewenty-two years of his ile, fst in Mecca 610-62 (CE) and then in Medina (622-533). Muhammad appears in these pas- sages a8 a man who both warns of the oncoming Jadgment Day snd ‘rings God's message of mercy. But inthe post-Quy‘anle souees, a di ‘erent Mulammad emerges, these sources move avy from the mortal (Qurnie emer toward an ideal hero whom later generations of devoted belevers have shaped and read back into the Qurén by means ofits exe vin, “The hase diferences between the Quranic Mubammad and the ost Quranic one will be brought out in this essay by looking closely tone event, the splitting ofthe moon. This evene i efered #9 in wo ‘eres a the Quen [54-3 that form part of Qu nic excatoloy, bt ‘when ateran the sme event idzcuseedin the pos Quranelierature,