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SUCCESSIONS
MODERN AND ANCIENT
VOLCANIC
SUCCESSIONS
MODERN AND ANCIENT
A geological approach to processes)
products and successions
R. A. F. CAS
Department of Earth Sciences, Monash Uni'versity
J. V. WRIGHT
Consultant, Sheffield, England
Chapman & Hall USA, One Penn Plaza, 41st Floor, New York, NY 10119,
USA
Chapman & Hall Japan, lTP - Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2-2-1 Hirakawacho,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan
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Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia
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600 035, India
A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
The idea for this book carne into being between from volcanological and sedimentological perspec-
1981 and 1982 when J. V. W. came to Monash tives. One of our aims in the book is to provide
University to take up a Monash Postdoctoral geologists with a sound basis for making their own
Fellowship. During this period a short course on well founded interpretations. For that reason we
facies analysis in modern and ancient successions cover not only concepts about processes, and the
was put together, integrating J.V.W.'s extensive nature of the products, but also methods and
volcanological experience in numerous modern approaches that may be useful in analysing both
volcanic terrains with R.A.F.C.'s extensive sedi- modern and ancient successions. Most importantly,
mentological and volcanological experience in we treat the diversity of products in volcanic
older volcanic and associated sedimentary succes- terrains as facies, and we use the method of facies
sions in the Palaeozoic and Precambrian of analysis and interpretation as a means of construct-
Australia. The enthusiastic response from the ing facies models for different volcanic settings.
participants to the first short course, taught in May These models will, we hope, be useful as norms
1982, and to subsequent annual re-runs, encour- for comparison for workers in ancient terrains.
aged us to develop the short course notes into this The only publication which overlaps with this one
book. to any extent is the excellent book Pyroclastic rocks
The idea for both the short course and the book by Dick Fisher and Hans Schmincke.
arose because we felt that there was no single Many people, organisations and institutions
source available that comprehensively attempted to have directly or indirectly contributed to or made
address the problems of analysing, interpreting the production of this book possible. Foremost we
and understanding the complexity of processes, acknowledge our PhD supervisors, George P. L.
products and stratigraphy in volcanic terrains. Walker CJ.V.W.) and Gil Jones (R.A.F.C.) for
Until 15 years ago, volcanic successions received their enlightened and stimulating supervision, and
attention primarily from igneous petrologists with their continued interest thereafter. If anyone in the
principal interests in geochemistry, mineralogy field of physical volcanology warrants special
afld magma genesis. Although a number of books mention as a source of inspiration through a never-
covering many aspects of physical volcanology ending succession of outstanding contributions, it
have appeared since then, none has fully treated is George Walker. No other volcanologist has
the subject by trying to integrate approaches from given so much to the science and its students.
both modern and ancient volcanic successions, and Thank you George. Financial support for our
vii
viii PREFACE
research and other visits to volcanic regions has excellent drafting; Steve Morton and Bruce Fuhrer
come from: Commonwealth Postgraduate Award, for the skilful photography arrd the patience that
Macquarie University, Monash University, ARGS all good photographers have; Tim Watson and
and Otago University William Evans Visiting Barbara Sandys for financial management of the
Fellowship (R.A.F.C.), and NERC, Lindeman resources needed to produce the manuscript;
Trust Fellowship, University of California Santa Bretan Clifford and Stuart Bull for assistance with
Barbara, University of Puerto Rico, American proofreading; and Val Muscutt of BP London for
Philosophical Society and Monash Postdoctoral keeping the mail going between two co-authors
Fellowship (J.V.W.). We would also like to trying to write a book from opposite sides of the
acknowledge other colfeagues who for some years globe. We also sincerely thank staff and students
have co-operated, listened, criticised and encour- of the Department of Earth Sciences at Monash
aged us: Rod Allen, Brian Clough, Keith Corbett, University for their patience, interest and en-
Arthur Day, Warren Edney, Dick Fisher, Chuck couragement, and for providing the friendly and
Landis, Jocelyn McPhie, John Roobol, Steve Self, stimulating atmosphere in which an idea was
Alan Smith, Steve Sparks, Colin Wilson and John transformed into reality. In particular, we thank
Wolff. Bruce Hobbs, Mark Bloom, Mike Etheridge,
This book was written in two years, imposing Larry Frakes, Dave Gray, Bob Gregory, Ian
great personal stresses on our families in the Nicholls, Pat Rich and Vic Wall, for making a
process. In particular, Sue Cas gets special great department. R.A.F.C. also wishes to thank
mention not only for tolerating it all, but for her Professors C. Carron (Fribourg University,
constructive suggestions on style and expression Switzerland) and D. Coombs (Otago University,
when proofreading the entire manuscript. The New Zealand) and their departments for making
book could not have been written in this time facilities available whilst on study leave, to make
without the considerable financial backing resulting final amendments.
from the short courses. In particular, we thank the Although we take responsibility for the content
organisations (especially Aberfoyle Exploration, of the book, various colleagues kindly read parts of
Broken Hill Proprietary, British Petroleum the manuscript and offered many useful sugges-
Minerals, Electrolytic Zinc, Esso Minerals, Gold tions. For this we are extremely grateful to Rod
Fields Exploration, Shell Minerals, Western Min- Allen, Keith Corbett, Arthur Day, Warren Edney,
ing Corporation, and Zinc Corporation) and Ian Nicholls, Steve Self, Colin Wilson and John
individuals who have supported the course and Wolff.
therefore made the book possible. Our extreme We also gratefully acknowledge the very con-
gratitude goes to many people who have assisted, structive comments of Steve Sparks, Peter Sutdiffe
always willingly, with the logistics and mechanics. and Peter Francis in reviewing the manuscript for
In particular, Warren Edney and, in the earlier the publisher at various stages. We also thank Pete
stages, Arthur Day managed and co-ordinated a Kokelaar, Steve Self, Steve Sparks and Colin
large number of people in all the facets of Wilson for providing preprints of manuscripts
producing the final manuscript for the publishers, before publication.
induding typing, drafting, photography, copyright Thanks also go to the editorial and production
releases and proofreading. Without the constant staff of Allen & Unwin for their punctual and
help of Warren and Arthur we would still be friendly assistance. In particular, Roger Jones and
labouring five years hence. Warren was ably Geoffrey Palmer and their staff are thanked for
assisted by Paul Dielemans, whose versatility their extreme efficiency and patience.
proved invaluable. We cannot thank the following
enough: Pam Hermansen, Monica Leicester and Ray Cas
Robyn Sheehan for their impeccable typing skills John V. Wright
and patience; Jenny Purdy and Draga Gelt for the
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ELEVEN
CHAPTER NINE
Crystal-rich volcaniclastics -
Subaqueous pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic or epiclastic? 333
deep-sea ash layers 269
Initial statement 333
Initial statement 269 11.1 Introduction 333
9.1 Introduction 269 11.2 Three types of ash and tuff 334
9.2 Types of subaqueous pyroclastic flow 270 11.3 Possible fragmentation and
9.2.1 Subaqueous pyroclastic flow transportation modes for crystal-rich
deposits 271 volcaniclastic deposits 335
9.2.2 Ash turbidites 275 11.4 Factors influencing high c~ystal
9.3 Hot subaqueous pyroclastic flows and concentrations 337
subaqueous welding of ignimbrites 276 11.4.l Eruption of highly
9.4 Submarine eruption of pyroclastic crystallised magmas 337
flows? 284 11.4.2 Eruption-related crystal
9.5 A model for the passage of pyroclastic concentration processes 338
flows into subaqueous environments 285 11.4.3 Epiclastic crystal
9.6 Deep-sea ash layers 286 concentration processes 340
9.7 Subaqueous base surges? 290 11.5 Several 'crystal tuff deposits and
9.8 Further reading 290 their interpretation 341
11.5.1 Crystal tuffs of pyroclastic
ongms 341
CONTENTS xiii
1l.5.2 'Crystal tuffs' with mixed 13.3 The source vents in flood basalt
pyroclastic and epiclastic plateau and plains basalt provinces 369
ongms 343 13.4 Scoria cones (and pumice cones) 371
1l.5.3 Crystal-rich volcaniclastics 13.5 Maars, tuff rings and tuff cones 376
of largely epiclastic origin 345 13.6 Pseudocraters and littoral cones 382
1l.6 Overview 347 13.7 Stratovolcanoes 382
1l.7 Further reading 347 13.7.1 Morphometry 383
13.7.2 Output rates, repose periods
and life expectancy 384
CHAPTER TWELVE 13.7.3 Eruptions, characteristics
and deposits 386
Classification of modem and ancient 13.7.4 Mass-wastage and epiclastic
volcaniclastic rocks of.pyroclastic and processes 391
epiclastic origins 349 13.8 Intermediate-silicic multivent centres 393
13.9 Rhyolitic volcanoes or centres 395
Initial statement 349
13.9.1 Morphometry 397
12.1 Introduction 349
13.9.2 Output rates, repose periods
12.2 Modern pyroclastic deposits 350
and life expectancy 397
12.2.1 Genetic classification 350
13.9.3 Eruptions, characteristics
12.2.2 Lithological classification 353
and deposits 397
12.3 Classification of lithified, indurated
13.9.4 Caldera sediments and
and metamorphosed volcaniclastic
domes: La Primavera 402
rocks 355
13.9.5 Other craters 403
12.4 Descriptive lithological aspects of
13.10 Submarine spreading ridges and
ancient volcaniclastic rocks relevant to
seamounts 404
determining their genesis 356
13.10.1 Spreading ridges 404
12.4.1 Textural 358
13.10.2 Seamounts 406
12.4.2 Compositional 359
13.11 Intra- or subglacial volcanoes 408
12.5 Use of the terms 'agglomerate',
13 .12 Further reading 409
'vulcanian breccia' and 'tuff in
ancient successions 359
12.6 The consequences of redeposition CHAPTER FOURTEEN
on nomenclature 360
Facies models for ancient volcanic
12.7 Nomenclature of quench-fragmented
and auto brecciated volcaniclastics 360
successwns 413
12.8 Further reading 361 Initial statement 413
14.1 Introduction 413
14.2 Facies geometry and facies -
CHAPTER THIRTEEN stratigraphic relationships: factors
Modem volcanoes and volcanic centres 363 affecting them in ancient successions 414
14.3 Factors affecting original lithological
Initial statement 363 characteristics and depositional
13.1 Monogenetic and polygenetic volcanoes 364 structures 415
13.2 Basaltic shield volcanoes 365 14.3.1 Polyphase hydrothermal
13.2.1 Hawaiian shields 365 alteration 415
13.2.2 Icelandic shields 367 14.3.2 Devitrification 418
13.2.3 Galapagos shields 369 14.3.3 Palagonitisation 420
XIV CONTENTS
2.1 A simple chemical classification for the common volcanic rock types. 17
2.2 Some measured temperatures of erupting magmas. 19
2.3 Summary of estimates of typical eruption temperatures for volcanic rocks. 19
2.4 Results of field measurements of physical properties of basaltic lavas. 23
4.1 Effusion rates of some basaltic lava flows. 62
4.2 Effusion rates of some andesitic and dacitic lavas. 63
5.1 Some measured emplacement temperatures of pyroclastic flow deposits. 97
5.2 Some data on observed eruption columns. 101
6.1 Volume estimates of the three strombolian scoria fall deposits in
Figure 6.9 (excluding volumes of the cones). 134
6.2 Volume estimates of some plinian deposits (highlighting some of the
largest known in modern volcanic successions. 144
6.3 Estimated muzzle velocities and volumetric eruption rates of some
plinian eruptions. 149
6.4 Estimated durations of some plinian eruptions. 149
6.5 Examples of welded air-fall tuffs found on modern volcanoes. 165
6.6 Suggested thermal facies model for pyroclastic fall deposits. 173
7.1 Classification of pyroclastic flow types based on fluidisation behaviour. 183
7.2 Comparison of the densities of pumice and matrix of four flow units
of the Minoan ignimbrite. 189
8.1 Bulk volume estimates of some ignimbrites. 224
8.2 Maximum distances travelled from source by some ignimbrites. 228
9.1 Water palaeodepths of shallow-marine sediments intercalated with
Caradocian welded ignimbrites in Snowdonia, North Wales. 278
10.1 A classification of sediment transport processes. 297
12.1 Genetic classification of pyroclastic falls and their deposits. 351
12.2 Genetic classification of pyroclastic flows and their deposits. 352
12.3 Comparison of various classifications of pyroclastic flows. 352
12.4 Genetic classification of pyroclastic surges and their deposits. 353
12.5 Grainsize limits for proven pyroclastic fragments and pyroclastic
aggregates. 3)4
xv
XVI LIST OF TABLES
2
CHAPTER ONE
An introduction tofacies
analysis in volcanic terrains
Initial statement
Volcanic terrains consist of a greater variety of rock Studies in both modern and ancient volcanic
types than any other surface environment on Earth. terrains have contributed to this growth in know-
They include lavas, deposits of explosive pyroclastic ledge. The approach to describing, documenting
eruptions, primary volcanic autoclastic deposits and interpreting the rock types of volcanic terrains
and deposits resulting from the very significant has benefited much from the equivalent approach
spectrum of sedimentary processes that operate in in sedimentology. In particular, the facies concept
volcanic terrains. Until the 1960s the amount of is proposed as a useful means of documenting and
detailed and systematic work on the physical interpreting the characteristics of rock units. The
processes producing this diversity of rock types was essence of facies analysis is the identification of
subordinate to studies on the chemistry, mineralogy distinctive characteristics that lend themselves to
and petrogenesis of the volcanics. The growing the interpretation of their origins, depositional
need to understand better the processes operating processes and environments of deposition. I~ this
and the peculiar depositional environments of chapter we introduce the facies concept, and
volcanic terrains, in conjunction with major consider the essential parameters useful in the
advances in the field of sedimentology, have led to a description and interpretation of facies.
major growth in research and understanding of the
physical processes.
3
4 INTRODUCTION TO FACIES ANALYSIS
(Ch. 14), and that an understanding of the likely of some type of depositional structure such as
stratigraphic relationships and successions is de- layering, cross-stratification or grainsize grading.
pendent on an awareness of the different character Alternatively, perhaps two or three rock types that
of different volcanic centres and their stratigraphies are regularly interbedded and contain distinctive
(Chs 13 & 14) and of the tectonic settings in which internal depositional structures may have a unique
volcanism occurs eCho 15). appearance that distinguishes them from other
Attempts to make sense of the diversity of rocks, intervals or associations of rock types. The term
processes, stratigraphic models and depositional 'facies' is used for such distinctive intervals or
settings of volcanic successions have been aided by associations of rocks in outcrop. The facies approach
major advances in the field of sedimentology. In is a convenient way of identifying, describing and
both volcanology and sedimentology a systematic interpreting distinctive intervals and/or associations
approach to describing, documenting and interpret- of rock(s) which recur many times in a stratigraphic
ing the character of, and relationships between, succession. Although the concept is most commonly
rock types is necessary. Success is dependent on an applied in sedimentology (see Reading 1978, Selley
awareness of the possible diversity and complexity 1978, R. G. Walker 1984), it is also applicable in
and on a sound understanding of basic physical and volcanic successions, and is even used by meta-
sedimentological principles. morphic petrologists to distinguish different meta-
In this book we hope to provide a comprehensive morphic grades based on significant marker
account of the volcanological and sedimentological minerals or associations of minerals.
concepts and principles that can be used in A facies is therefore a body or interval of rock or
interpreting the complexities of both modern and sediment which has a unique definable character
ancient volcanic terrains. In this chapter we now that distinguishes it from other facies, or intervals
consider the approach we think is needed to of rock or sediment. The definable character may
describe and document the characteristics of rock be compositional or textural, or may be based on
units, and also the basic principles that determine the sedimentary structures or fossils present. A
these characteristics. This is a necessary prelude to facies is the product of a unique set of conditions in
the discussion of the origins of particular deposits, the depositional environment. These conditions
because successful interpretation of the origins is may be physical, chemical or biological in origin,
dependent on making the correct observations in and may include such factors as the topography and
the first instance. Some of the descriptive character- bathymetry; the mechanisms and rates of material
istics of deposits discussed in this chapter are re- release, transport and deposition; the climate and
emphasised in Chapter 14 as a preliminary step to weather; the nature of the source materials (both
developing general facies models for a range of chemically and physically); the prevailing chemical
volcanic settings. In the remaining chapters we condition; and the floral-faunal influences.
address in detail aspects considered to be relevant A facies can be defined at any scale. At a regional
to a full understanding of volcanic rocks, their level stratigraphic units such as groups, formations
modes of formation and depositional and tectonic or members are effectively facies because they have
setting. an overall lithological character that distinguishes
them from other groups, formations or members.
At a more local scale, facies may be defined at the
1.2 The facies concept scale of an outcrop by an interval of several or more
beds which is basically uniform, or even by
Different rock types are distinguished because they individual beds, or by both. The degree of detail
are texturally or mineralogically different in hand used in subdividing a stratigraphic succession into
specimen or in thin section. In outcrop they may facies will largely be controlled by the aims of the
also be distinguished by their general physical study, the information available and the level of
appearance; for example, the presence or absence understanding that is sought.
6 INTRODUCTION TO FACIES ANALYSIS
Even though associated facies may be different, component strata. The preserved geometry of a
they may still be genetically related as parts of the facies is controlled by:
same depositional or eruptive event. For example, a
pre-depositional relief on the depositional surface,
single ignimbrite may contain several facies (Chs 7
volume of material deposited and the way the
& 8). An understanding of the spatial and age
topography accommodates that volume,
relationships between facies is therefore important,
physical properties of the transporting and depositional
and success in the interpretation of facies is
agent,
dependent on an awareness of the possible com-
post-depositional erosion and
plications and of genetically significant associations of
subsequent deformation
facies.
Pre-depositional relief
1.3 Description of facies The relief on the depositional surface is controlled
by the balance between erosion and deposition.
The genetic origins (i.e. mode of formation) of a Erosion will predominate where slopes are high and
facies may not always be obvious. Initially it is the relief is significantly above the base level
therefore better to avoid genetic facies names (e. g. towards which erosion is working (e.g. sea level,
ignimbrite, agglomerate), which are highly inter- lake level, ocean floor). Erosion will produce
pretive, until the origins have been clearly thought negative changes in relief producing valley, gully
out. Descriptive terms such as 'rhyolitic, matrix- and canyon, and ridge and plateau-like morphology.
supported breccia facies' are preferable initially Most depositional units deposited in such a terrain
(also see Ch. 12). Such a facies may be an will be confined within topographic lows, but
ignimbrite (or part of one), a hydrothermal ex- some, such as air-fall deposits, may drape over
plosion breccia or a mud flow deposit, to name but irregular topography (Plate 1). Where the influence
three possibilities. To evaluate which possibility is of erosion becomes subordinate to deposition,
most likely requires careful examination. This depositional processes will smooth out topographic
should involve description and consideration of the differences, so in most instances will produce more
facies properties, derived where possible from a tabular geometries for deposits (Plate 1). Relief may
combination of outcrop, hand specimen and thin also be affected by contemporaneous tectonic
section observations. On-the-spot application of activity and the emplacement of units with very
genetic names may, more often than not, lead to positive relief, usually due to high bulk viscosity
erroneous interpretations. and internal strength (e.g. viscous lavas, debris
Few approaches to facies description and analysis flows, rock avalanches; see below).
have been so systematic and logical as that proposed
by Selley (1978). Selley nominated five facies Volume deposited and accommodation by
descriptors: topography
If the volume of material is low compared with the
geometry topographic relief into which it is deposited, then
lithology this volume will be entirely contained bv the
sedimentary structures topographic depression (Plate 1, Fig. l.la). if the
palaeo currents or sediment movement patterns volume is large compared with the size of topo-
fossils graphic depressions, then the deposit will overspill
the topographic low and produce major variations
in thickness (e.g. lavas, debris or pyroclastic flow
1.3.1 GEOMETRY
deposits which infill a valley and spill over onto the
Geometry describes the three-dimensional form or confining ridge interfluves as a thin veneer; Fig.
shape (including thickness) of a facies and of its l.Ib).
DESCRIPTION OF FACIES 7
- --= -.-.
' '
I;l:::~~~~~'':''':' ~._ ~ 0
.. .
.': :
"~""
.
..
;~:
o c:;:, . - . '
o~
~
',' ..:.... ',.
0 " .
, 0 . .. . ,
I-~~~~~ '0
,
0 0 0 '. '. '4 ' :,.
'.':::>"'::-~':>" ;. 4 #
' .... 0
0 .. . , ~ ..
Therefore, epiclastic deposits or rocks may contain Grainsize and the grain size characteristics of an
fragments with a proven primary volcanic mode of aggregate are one of the first characteristics seen in
fragmentation (e.g. glass shards, pumice; Ch. 3) an outcrop. The preserved grainsize of a fragmental
which have been transported and redeposited by aggregate is a reflection of the minimum grain size
normal surface processes (e.g. by mud-flows, river available at the source point, the type and efficiency
transport, turbidity currents, etc.) a long distance of fragmentation, the competency of the transport-
from the initial eruption point. We cannot stress ing and depositing medium to carry that grainsize,
enough, therefore, that caution is needed before and the degree of physical abrasion during trans-
deciding that fragmental aggregates or rocks with a portion and deposition. These factors apply for
primary volcanic fragmentation origin have also both pyroclastic and epiclastic aggregates. For
had a pyroclastic rather than epiclastic transporta- lavas, the size of the phenocrysts reflects physico-
tion mode. This must be proven rather than assumed. chemical conditions in the magma chamber and
during the ascent of the magma. Factors which
Composition influence crystal size include cooling rate, melt
Composition refers to the geochemical, minera- composition and structure, nucleation kinetics of
logical and petrological character of a volcanic rock, each mineral type and sorting processes such as
irrespective of whether it is a lava, pyroclastic or crystal settling.
redeposited volcaniclastic. The final composition of For fragmental aggregates, whether pyroclastic
a rock may be the end-result of a complex history of or epiclastic in origin (which has to be evaluated in
processes causing chemical and physical change. each instance), grain size is therefore not a reflection
These processes include pre-eruptive magmatic of proximity to source or eruption point. For
processes, both chemical and dynamic (Ch. 2), and example, huge boulders, metres in diameter, can be
co-eruptive and post-eruptive processes that phy- transported tens of kilometres from source or
sically separate or fractionate physical constituents eruption point by pyroclastic flows, debris flows,
(e.g. glassy ash from crystals and lithics; Ch. 11). rock avalanches or glaciers. None of these trans-
Hydrothermal activity and, in older volcanic suc- porting agents needs to produce any significant
cessions, weathering, diagenesis and meta- signs of abrasion or rounding. Equally significant is
morphism, may have further altered the chemistry that very fine grainsizes are possible for ashes and
of volcanic rocks. In Chapter 2 we briefly consider pyroclastic flow deposits near vent if the explosive
the effects of magma composition on eruptive fragmentation during eruption has been very effi-
behaviour, and also approaches to classifying cient (e.g. during some hydrovolcanic eruptions,
magmas and volcanic rocks according to chemical Ch.3).
and mineralogical composition. Although actual grainsize has no specific value in
palaeovolcanological and palaeogeographic recon-
Texture structions by itself, the use of overall grainsize
The term 'texture' encompasses the physical charac- population parameters has major application when
teristics of the components of a deposit or rock, and dealing with modern unconsolidated volcanic suc-
also its overall characteristics or bulk properties. cessions. Through sieving, the detailed grain size
The textural properties of an aggregate are a characteristics of an unconsolidated aggregate can
reflection of inherited characteristics from the be determined (App. I), and from this information
source, of the mode of fragmentation and of and its graphical representation, statistical grainsize
characteristics developed during or after transport parameters can be calculated. In modern succes-
and deposition. Anyone of these influences may sions the uses of this approach include distinguish-
produce a distinctive textural character. Aspects of ing and classifying different types of pyroclastic
texture that will be considered here in terms of their deposits (Chs 5 & 6).
process significance or environmental significance Although such approaches have added much to
are grainsize, rounding, sorting, shape and fabric. understanding volcanological processes in modern
10 INTRODUCTION TO FACIES ANALYSIS
terrains, they are not usually applicable to lithified, form of a grain. For non-volcanic epiclastic sedi-
consolidated successions because it is not possible ments the shape is largely inherited from the
to dis aggregate the rock into all of its original morphology of the grain in the source, and can be
grains, preserving their shape and size. For these affected by crystallisation shape, cleavage (mineral
successions, only qualitative estimates of grainsize and tectonic) and layering, whether it be sedi-
and grain size parameters are practicable. One mentary, igneous or metamorphic. For pyroclastic
usually has to rely on the field outcrop facies aggregates the mode of fragmentation may also
characteristics in order to determine the genesis and impart distinctive shape-morphology properties
the palaeovolcanological and palaeogeographic (Ch. 3).
significance (see App. II). Rounding is the degree to which sharp corners
Sorting is a reflection of the degree to which the and edges have been abraded during transportation
transporting agent has been capable of separating or deposition, or both. Generally, rounding is
grains of different hydraulic properties and deposit- better in sediments that have been subjected to
ing together grains that are hydraulically equivalent. constant energy levels during reworking. However,
The hydraulic behaviour of a particle is a measure rounding can also be produced by pyroclastic
of the way in which the particle responds when processes (Chs 3, 8 & 12). (Most sedimentological
acted on by a fluid, whether the fluid be water, texts refer to 'roundness' properties rather than
wind, mud or volcanic gas. Factors that affect the 'rounding' properties.)
hydraulic behaviour of particles include their den- Fabric is a consideration of the relationships
sity, weight and shape. In normal epiclastic or between, and arrangement or packing of grains in,
terrigeneous sediments most grains, being mineral an aggregate. Depositional fabric is clearly a reflec-
or rock fragments, have approximately equal den- tion of the transporting mode and depositional
sities and are generally equidimensional. As a conditions, and is mOJ;"e fully discussed in Chapter
result, currents acting on such a sediment popula- 12 and Appendix II.
tion sort grains according to weight, as reflected by
grainsize. In such situations it is not uncommon to
l.3.3 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
talk of size sorting . However) once sediment popula-
tions of differing shape) density and weight are mixed) Sedimentary structures are probably the most
well developed size sorting becomes impossible even important analytical tool in facies analysis. They are
though the populations may be hydraulically well produced before deposition (e.g. erosional features),
sorted. For example, a beach sediment consisting of during deposition (e.g. current generated struc-
rounded quartz grains and blade-like shell frag- tures) and after deposition (e.g. soft-sediment
ments is likely to be poorly sorted by size, but will deformation, bioturbation) of sedimentary aggre-
be hydraulically well sorted. In volcanic settings, gates, and can be referred to as being pre-, syn- and
not only are there major variations in the shape, but post-depositional in timing, respectively. They are
also in the densities of the components (e.g. extremely important because they, together with
crystals, shards, pumice, lithics). As a result, textural aspects, most immediately reflect the de-
volcaniclastic aggregates, whether they be pyro- positional conditions, and the modes of transport
clastics or reworked and/or redeposited volcani- and deposition. If the structures are produced by
clastics, are likely to be poorly sorted according to fluid flow, then they are especially important
size, but may be well sorted hydraulically. It is well because they reflect the fluid dynamics of the host
known that sorting for pyroclastic deposits is poorer environment and its transportational and de-
than for non-volcanic epiclastic equivalents of the positional agents.
same overall grainsize class. The short duration of As discussed in Chapter 10, particles of mineral
many pyroclastic transportation processes also or rock can be transported in particulate fashion
reduces the importance of hydraulic sorting. (i.e. one by one) or by mass-movement (i.e. bulk
Shape is an assessment of the three-dimensional aggregates of particles moved instantaneously as
FACIES ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 11
one). Particulate movement of granular sediment flowing into water (e.g. Fig. 4.16) can be used to
(coarser than clay) produces an assemblage of assess lava flow directions for basaltic lavas.
tractional structures (cross-stratification, dunes, Cummings (1964) described eddies in flow banding
ripples, etc.). Mass-movement processes frequently that develop on the downstream side of inclusions
deposit a massive, structureless aggregate, although in rhyolitic lavas. For pyroclastic flows, flow
low sediment concentration, low viscosity mass directions have been variously determined using
flows or the trailing tails of mass flows may also pumice clast alignment and imbrication (Elston &
produce tractional sedimentary structures. Trac- Smith 1970, Kamata & Mimura 1983), alignment
tional sedimentary structures are therefore not of logs (Froggatt et at. 1981) and, more commonly,
exclusively associated with processes involving by contouring average maximum lithic clast sizes
particulate sediment transport, or with environ- (e.g. Kuno et at. 1964, G. P. L. Walker 1981a;
ments that are 'shallow-water' in aspect. Each case App. I). For pyroclastic surges, structures such as
has to be evaluated on its merits. dunes, low-angle cross-stratification, and chute and
Pyroclastic processes also involve particulate and pool structures (Fisher & Waters 1970; Ch. 7) are
mass-movement of clastic aggregates. The grain useful if present.
types and shapes are different as, frequently, are Dispersal directions for epiclastic successions are
the transporting media and their fluid dynamic largely topographically controlled. This may also
properties compared with those of epiclastic process be the case for pyroclastic successions, but the flow
regimes. Such differences should produce distinc- mechanisms may be so energetic that they may
tive differences in the types of structures and largely ignore and surmount topographic highs.
textures produced, and these will be highlighted in Nevertheless, flow directions will mainly be radial
Chapters 5-9 inclusive. from the vent, and they may be useful in palaeo-
geographic reconstruction of the volcanic centre
(Chs 13 & 14).
l.3.4 SEDIMENT MOVEMENT PATTERNS
The directions of current flow or sediment transport
l.3.5 FOSSILS
directions can be measured where asymmetrical
structures such as ripples, dunes, angle of repose The use of both body and trace fossils as palaeoen-
cross-stratification and imbrication, and sole struc- vironmental indicators is essentially the same for
tures, such as flutes, can be used to determine local both volcanic and non-volcanic successions. How-
directions of movement of sediment or palaeo- ever, the most critical thing is to establish whether
current flow. Over a larger area, numerous readings the fossils are in situ or have been transported and
can be used to reconstruct the palaeogeography, redeposited, especially in marine successions,
and to trace palaeogeographic changes as they have where downslope redeposition is common. Even
influenced current flow and sediment transport redeposited fossil remains may be useful in indi-
pathways. Furthermore, distinctive regional palaeo- cating the nearby environmental conditions if the
current patterns develop in certain sedimentary ecological affinities of the organisms are known.
environments (e.g. radial patterns for alluvial and
submarine fans and deltas, bimodal for nearshore
marine settings, etc.) (Selley 1978). 1.4 Facies analysis and interpretation-
Flow direction indicators in primary volcanic the importance of associations of facies
facies can be used in the same way as structures in
epiclastic sediments. However, the structures will Having carefully documented and described indi-
be different, as discussed above. For example, vidual facies, it is also necessary to look at the
Waters (1960) recognised that downstream trailing association of facies and the relationships between
pipe vesicles in lavas, inclined foreset beds pro- them to evaluate to what degree they are genetically
duced by lava deltas and quench-fragmented lavas related. Different facies may be the products of one
12 INTRODUCTION TO FACIES ANALYSIS
event (e.g. the diverse facies of ignimbrite-forming (Fig. 1.2), and to associations of facies to assess to
eruptions, Chs 5-9). Assessment of the spatial and what degree spatially related facies are genetically
age relationships is therefore important before related. By doing this, models of the deposits
general models of the deposits and sequence of produced by particular events can be developed,
deposits of specific events can be formulated. On a and clearer pictures of the depositional processes
larger scale, particular types of volcanic centres and and environments emerge.
settings may consistently produce similar associ-
ations of facies which can then be used to formulate
general facies and stratigraphic models for those 1.6 Further reading
settings (Chs 13 & 14).
Standard texts that contain a good coverage of
sedimentological principles are Blatt et al. (1980),
1.5 Summary G. M. Friedman and Sanders (1978), Leeder
(1982) and Selley (1982). For detailed discussion of
Since there is such a diversity of rock types and the facies concept see Reading (1978) and R. G.
processes in volcanic terrains, the interpretation of Walker (1984). For comprehensive discussion of
their origins has to be addressed with care. In the sedimentary structures and their formation see
first instance, this is dependent on careful docu- Allen (1982), Collinson and Thompson (1982),
mentation and description, for which the approach Conybeare and Crook (1968) and Potter and
to facies description and analysis used in sedimen- Pettijohn (1963). For further, more detailed dis-
tology is useful. Having described and interpreted cussion of the characteristics of volcanic terrains,
individual facies, consideration needs to be given to the processes that operate, their products and their
the spatial and age relationships between them interpretation, read on!
Plate 2 Vertical aerial perspective of Big Glass Mountain, an obsidian flow complex in the Medicine Lake Highlands, east of
Mount Shasta, USA. Flows have high viscosity with steep flow-fronts and irregular tops dominated by concentric ridges called
ogives. (After Greeley 1977a.)
14
CHAPTER TWO
15
16 MAGMA PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO THEIR BEHAVIOUR
2.1 Magmas - an introduction to their that source in terms of previous thermal, meta-
diversity and character morphic and melting events, the degree of partial
melting of the source rocks, the degree of crystallis-
Magmas are molten or partially molten rock ma- ation in the magma, the extent of segregation of
terials. They are chemically complex, multi- magma from crystals, the amount of contamination
component silicate systems which have varying by wall rock and the degree of magma mixing
compositions, temperatures, crystal contents and before eruption. Discussion of all of these is beyond
volatile contents, and therefore varying rheological the scope of this book, but as a result of these
properties (McBirney & Murase 1984). These factors volcanic rocks can have a diversity of
properties have an important bearing on the mode chemical and mineralogical compositions, and
of eruption. physical characteristics (the reader is referred to
Magmas can have widely different histories. Hargraves (1980) for a more comprehensive dis-
They may be generated within the Earth's crust or cussion).
upper mantle. They may then crystallise at depth as Two important topics that we must now consider
an intrusive body (to form plutonic or subvolcanic are:
rocks), or be erupted at the Earth's surface to form
classification
volcanic rock. The erupted products may vary from
magmatic associations
pure liquids to essentially pure solids. Magmas
which erupt may undergo considerable changes
during their rise to the surface. They may, for
2.1.1 CLASSIFICATION
instance, reside for some time in high level sub-
volcanic magma chambers where crystallisation The classification of igneous rocks (and hence the
may occur along the margins of the chamber, or magmas they represent) can be approached in two
removal of crystals (phenocrysts) from the melt ways - one based on the chemistry of the magma or
may occur through settling. Petrological and rock, and the other on observable modal miner-
chemical changes will result from such fractional alogy. Noone scheme can be regarded as ideal for
crystallisation. However, it is now becoming in- all purposes, and the approach used will be
creasingly apparent that some magmas can have governed by the desired purpose of making the
much more complex histories than this. The new classification.
awareness that many magma chambers may be For a discussion of magma properties we can
periodically replenished, periodically tapped and adopt a simple chemical classification. The most
continually fractionated, and that they are open abundant chemical component in most igneous
systems, questions some conventional geochemical rocks is Si0 2 , which can range from <35 to nearly
interpretations based on closed and 'static' systems 80 wt%. Volcanic rocks can be initially divided
(see O'Hara & Matthews 1981). Replenishment can into:
give rise to the mixing of magmas or the develop-
(a) High silica types (>63% Si0 2), which can be
ment of compositional zonation. Many volcanic
called silicic or acidic.
products show evidence of this. Sometimes this
(b) Intermediate types (52-63% Si0 2).
mixing is thought to trigger eruptions (Ch. 3).
(c) Low silica types 52 to >45% Si O 2 ) which
Understanding the fluid dynamic behaviour of
can be called basic.
magmas in chambers is a rapidly developing field
Cd) Magmas or volcanic rocks with <45% Si0 2
(see J. S. Turner & Gustafson 1981, Huppert &
are called ultra basic .
Sparks 1984).
Many factors control the compositional and Several rock types occur within each of these silica
mineralogical characteristics of an erupted magma. classes. These can be distinguished on the basis of
These include the nature of the subsurface source their variable alkali contents. A complementary
rocks where melting occurs, the earlier history of way of subdividing igneous rocks chemically
MAGMA DIVERSITY AND CHARACTER 17
Table 2.1 A simple chemical classification for the common volcanic rock types.
AI 20 3 saturation classes
intermediate
57-63 andesite
t +
phonolite
52-57 mugearite
tholeiitic basalt
hawaiite
basIc 45-52 alkali basalt
basanite
ultrabasic <45 nephelinite.
leucitlte
(especially acid to intermediate rocks) is to evaluate Examples include phonolites, which have potas-
the relative abundances of molecular Al 20 3 to total sium-rich alkali feldspar and minor feldspathoids,
alkalis and calcium (Na20 + K 2 0 + CaO), i.e. the basanites with plagioclase, alkali feldspar and feld-
degree of alumina saturation (Shand 1947, K. G. spathoids, and nephelinites and leucitites, which
Cox et ai. 1979). The common volcanic rocks are are feldspar-free ultrabasic rocks. Within the range
categorised in Table 2.1 using this approach. of basalts, tholeiites may be slightly oversaturated,
Variation in silica and alkali contents is reflected while alkali basalts tend to be slightly under-
in the mineralogy, particularly the feldspars and saturated.
feldspathoids. Acid and intermediate rocks such as A comment should be made here on the distinc-
dacites and andesites are dominated by plagioclase tion between the terms 'basic and ultrabasic' and
feldspars, whereas rhyodacites and latites have 'mafic and ultramafic'. The former terms are used
subequal proportions of potassium feldspars and to describe igneous rocks with low Si0 2 contents,
plagioclase, and rhyolite and trachyte are domi- the latter are used for rocks with high modal ferro-
nated by potassium feldspars. Pantellerites and magnesian mineral contents. Similarly 'silicic' and
comendites are alkali-rich (peralkaline) sodic rhyo- 'acidic' refer to high Si0 2 contents, whereas 'felsic'
lites which, compared with more aluminous rhyo- and 'salic' are used for igneous rocks with high
lites, develop Na-rich feldspars with Na-amphibole modal contents of light coloured minerals (quartz,
or pyroxene. The acidic and more silicic inter- feldspars). Some mafic rocks can be ultrabasic (e.g.
mediate rocks (>57% Si0 2) are usually silica- nephelinites) and ultramafic rocks can be basic (e.g.
oversaturated, and the acid rocks in particular will pyroxenites), but generally most basic rocks are
contain free quartz crystals or grains, i.e. modal mafic and acidic rocks are felsic or salic.
quartz. Where magmas are undersaturated in SiOz, For studies based on field observations of volcanic
feldspathoid minerals (e.g. analcite, nepheline, rocks, an entirely chemical approach to classification
leucite) may occur at the expense of some feldspar. is not practical. It also ignores useful mineralogical
18 MAGMA PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO THEIR BEHAVIOUR
and textural information. A chemical scheme is abundances not only reflect magma chemistry, but
also of limited value where rocks have undergone their textural relations give additional information
alteration due to hydrothermal or fumarolic activity, about the eruptive and cooling history of volcanic
weathering or, in some ancient terrains, regional rocks. (Useful atlases of igneous rocks and their
metamorphism. In many cases a more tangible textures include MacKenzie et al. (1982) and
means of classifying rocks based on mineralogy is Moorhouse (1970), and detailed interpretations of
therefore required. Even in chemically altered textures can be found in Hatch et al. (1972) and
rocks, the primary mineralogy and textures can K. G. Cox et al. (1979).)
still be identified in many cases. Mineral types and Rock names have traditionally been given
according to mineral content, and many classifi-
Q
cation schemes have evolved. The most recent
attempt at a standard scheme based on mineralogy
is that presented by Streckeisen (1979) shown in
Figure 2.1. Here, volcanic rock types are allocated
fields on the QAPF diagram, and are classified
according to the relative modal abundances of
their felsic minerals. This presents problems in
pantellerite,
comendite
distinguishing the members of the mafic-
ultramafic rock spectrum. These are distinguished
quartz
tholeiite by the abundance of mafic minerals (Fig. 2.1).
'high-AI I For many volcanic rocks modal mineral contents
basalt
p ~hno~eiite
cannot be accurately determined because of the
m---\-'.:..::..:;~:........2L....--=r"-'----L---f--f....... alkali microcrystalline or glassy texture of the ground-
basalt and
hawaiite
mass. Where phenocrysts are the only recognisable
minerals, and if rock names are based on these
alone, then the prefix 'pheno-' should be added.
Thus, a rock containing plagioclase and quartz
phenocrysts in an undetermined groundmass
would be a 'pheno-dacite'. Where plagioclase is
the sole felsic phenocryst, the rock is a 'pheno-
andesite' or 'pheno-basalt', even though a complete
loidite (analcitite modal or chemical analysis could show it to be a
nephelinite
leucitite) dacite. On the other hand, rocks with abundant
F
plagioclase together with clinopyroxene phenocrysts
Figure 2.1 Names and modal (mineral volume percentage)
compositions of volcanic rocks recommended by the lUGS
may either be andesite or tholeiitic basalt, depending
Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks (after on the total proportion of mafic minerals present.
Streckeisen 1979) with slight amendments. Minerals at the Some very glassy rocks (80-100% glass) are given
corners of the OAPF diagram are: 0 = silica minerals special names such as obsidian or pitchstone, for
(usually quartz); A = alkali feldspar (including albite); P = glass of rhyolitic composition.
plagioclase; F = feldspathoids (e.g. analcite, nepheline,
leucite). Rock names are determined by ignoring mafic
In ancient volcanic terrains metamorphosed or
mineral contents and recalculating quartz, plagioclase, alkali meta so mati sed volcanic rocks in which feldspars
feldspar and feldspathoid contents to 100%. The sum of are sericitised or albitised and mafic minerals
mafic mineral modes (M) is used to distinguish basalt (M = replaced by chlorite, epidote, serpentine or talc,
35-90) from andesite (M = 0-35). and basanite (> 10% etc., may be given the prefix 'meta-' whenever
olivine) from tephrite 10% olivine). Mafic minerals include
olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas. Most mafic
original textures and mineralogy can be deter-
volcanic rocks plot along the P and F sides of the OAPF mined. Some special names which have been used
diagram. for rocks in ancient terrains include spilite (albite-
TEMPERATURE 19
chlorite rock) for a meta-basalt, and keratophyre into a lava flow or lake, or by means of an optical
and quartz keratophyre (albite, quartz and minor pyrometer (which is especially useful for measuring
chlorite, epidote and iron oxides) for meta-andesite the temperature of lava fountains). A large amount
or dacite. However, the rock names in Figure 2,1 of temperature information is available for Hawaiian
should be retained where possible, regardless of lavas and some of this is summarised by MacDonald
alteration state or geological age. (1972). Hawaiian tholeiitic basalts approach the
surface between about 1050C and 1200C (Table
2.1.2 MAGMATIC ASSOCIATIONS 2.2). For silicic magmas there are fewer data
available because such eruptions have not fre-
Volcanic rocks can be grouped into vanous quently been observed this century. An optically
'associations', 'series', 'suites' or 'clans' based on determined temperature for the 1940 dacite dome
petrological and chemical distinctions. Examples of Santa Maria and a thermocouple measurement
include the tholeiitic, alkaline and calc-alkaline of the Mt St Helens 1980 dacite dome indicate
associations. These may have restricted spatial substantially lower eruption temperatures than for
distributions and be restricted to specific volcano- basaltic lavas (Table 2.2). Estimates of the typical
tectonic settings. For many years petrologists and eruption temperatures of the major magma types
geochemists have attempted to relate the petro- are given in Table 2.3.
genesis of modern and ancient volcanics to their
tectonic setting using, in particular, their trace Table 2.3 Summary of estimates of typical eruption
element and isotope chemistry. We discuss re- temperatures for volcanic rocks.
lationships between volcanism and tectonic setting
Rock type Temperature (OC)
in Chapter 15.
For a detailed consideration of the petrological rhyolite 700-900
characteristics of volcanic rocks, see igneous dacite 800-1100
andesite 950-1200
petrology texts such as Carmichael et al. (1974),
basalt 1000-1200
K. G. Cox et al. (1979) and Hughes (1983).
by mineral pairs which may have crystallised after 900 1100 1300 1500
I.
seconds (S~l).
.1
There are very few estimates of the viscosities of
x magmas. MacDonald (1972) summarised a number
of measurements from lava flows. However, nearly
.. dx /dt
all of these assume Newtonian rheology. In most
of these cases, and in subsequent work, lava
/
/ t=J/
I
viscosities have been calculated from the Jeffreys
equation:
/
/
I
i7
t--t ~=
gQ sin ad2
nV
(2.4)
I I I
/ t-/ where ~ is the viscosity, g the acceleration due to
I 1/
~ r gravity, Q the density, a the slope angle of the
terrain, d the thickness of flow, n = 3 for broad
flows or 4 for narrow flows and V is the velocity of
velocity of plate (u) = dx/dy
flow.
velocity gradient du/dy
More recent field and laboratory measurements
Figure 2.5 Diagrammatic representation of parameters
have indicated that at sub-liquidus temperatures,
used to define viscosity in a liquid. Application of a shear
stress a to the upper plate confining a liquid induces a lavas and common igneous melts generally have
velocity gradient du/dy. non-Newtonian rheologies (Robson 1967, Shaw et
al. 1968, Shaw 1969, Murase & McBirney 1973,
Pinkerton & Sparks 1978, McBirney & Noyes
For fluids it is not practical to measure dB/dt. A
1979, McBirney & Murase 1984). This behaviour is
more practical parameter to measure is the vertical
due to the presence of dispersed crystals and gas
velocity gradient, du/dy, induced by applying a
bubbles, and possibly due to the development of
shear stress, 0 (= PIA), to the upper plate of two
molecular structural units in a silicate melt. At
plates of known equal area (A) which confine a fluid
above-liquidus (supra-liquidus) temperatures
(Fig. 2.5). The viscosity of the fluid can be written
Newtonian rheology is applicable.
as
By assuming Newtonian behaviour, lower appar-
ent viscosities (Fig. 2.3) are calculated by the
~= 0 / ~~ (2.2)
Jeffreys equation for faster-moving flows. For a
non-Newtonian lava, which is say pseudo-plastic,
This equation is valid for pure Newtonian fluids. its apparent viscosity decreases with increasing
r
Equation 2.2 can also be written as strain rate (Fig. 2.3). Hence, a fast-moving lava will
appear less viscous or more fluid than when moving
o = 00 + ~ ( ~~ (2.3) more slowly.
The most accurate published field determinations
where 0 is the total shear stress and 00 is the stress of lava viscosity are given by Shaw et al. (1968)
required to initiate flow (= the yield strength of a and Pinkerton and Sparks (1978). Shaw et al.
Bingham substance). For pure Newtonian sub- (1968) used a rotating shear vane to measure the
FACTORS CONTROLLING VISCOSITY 23
Data from the Makaopuhi lava lake are from Shaw et al. (1968) and Etna 1975 from Pinkerton and Sparks (1978). Compared
with the Hawaiian lava, the Etna lava was at a lower temperature and had a higher phenocryst content, which would be
responsible for its higher yield strength and plastic viscosity.
viscosity in the tholeiite of the 1968 Makaopuhi Figure 2.6. Sub-liquidus viscosities are only
lava lake, Hawaii. Although Pinkerton and Sparks apparent viscosities (Fig. 2.3).
(1978) used a variety of methods to measure the Empirical methods have also been developed for
rheological properties of small lava flows erupted calculating the viscosities of silicate melts from
on Mt Etna in 1975, the results in Table 2.4 are their chemical composition and temperature
only from a specially developed penetrometer. (Bottinga & Weill 1972, Shaw 1972). According to
Results from both Makaopuhi and Etna indicated Me Birney and Murase (1984), the validity of these
that the lavas behaved in a pseudo-plastic manner, estimates is only established at supraliquidus
but could be approximated closely to a Bingham temperatures, i.e. for crystal-free magmas. How-
model with a definite yield strength (Table 2.4). ever, viscosity contrasts between different compo-
Bingham or plastic viscosities of the lavas have been sitions can be represented in a qualitative way.
determined (Eqn 2.3), and these are also shown in Viscosity and yield strength are important in
Table 2.4. There are no field measurements of controlling not only fluidity and lava mobility, but
Bingham viscosities for more-felsic or salic lavas. also the resultant geometry and morphology of
Viscosities obtained experimentally for five rocks lavas (Ch. 4).
of varying compositions at varying temperatures
from Murase and McBirney (1973) are given in
2.5 Factors controlling viscosity in
1500 magmas
~
1400
~
Not all of the factors that control viscosity III
U
~
(1800) 1070 850 89Q.,. ~
~
magmas are well understood, nor is the way in
Q) 1300 ~ .... ""~ which they all interact. The principal factors that
.... 6~
--
~
~ (4500) 318!) ........ \\<~\)\ contribute to viscosity that have been studied
c ........
Qj 1200 include:
a.
E
Q)
r- 1100 pressure
temperature
volatile content, especially dissolved water
1000 .---':-10--1'-5-----='"20::----::'25
L--..J5
content
Pressure (k bar) chemical composition
Figure 2.6 Viscosity of an andesite melt with varying crystal content
temperature and pressure. Numbers indicate the viscosity of
bubble content
the melt in poises; those in parentheses represent the
viscosity of the same melt at 1 atm pressure calculated by
the method of Bottinga and Weill (1972). (After Kushiro et al.
1976.)
24 MAGMA PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO THEIR BEHAVIOUR
2.5.1 PRESSURE
In a series of experiments carried out in a piston
cylinder apparatus at supra-liquidus temperatures
Kushiro (1976, 1978, 1980) and Kushiro et al.
(1976) showed that in natural and synthetic melts,
the viscosity becomes lower with increasing press-
-
Q)
.!!!
0
10 10
:> 10 5
(a) As pressure increases at constant temperature,
the rate at which the viscosity becomes lower
in basaltic magma is less than the rate in
andesitic magma (the viscosity of basaltic
magma is initially significantly lower anyway).
(b) The viscosity of an andesitic melt with 4 wt% 500 1000 1500
H 20 is lower by a factor of 20 than in its Temperature (OC)
anhydrous equivalent at the same temperature Figure 2.7 Relationship between viscosity and tempera-
and pressure. ture for some volcanic rocks. The rhyolite was glassy or
(c) The viscosity of a NaAISi 20 6 (jadeite) melt liquid through the entire temperature range. The rocks are
decreased by an order of magnitude more the same as in Figure 2.2. (After Murase & McBirney 1973.)
than a melt of Na2Si307 did with increasing
pressure, which Kushiro relates to a change fixed temperatures the viscosity of a particular
in the co-ordination number of Al from four magma becomes lower with increasing water
to six, implying that the melt structure is an content, especially for more silicic magmas (Shaw
important influence on viscosity. (Note: al- 1963, 1972). The solubility of water in magmas is
though the viscosity became lower, the controlled by temperature, pressure, the presence
density increased with an increase in pressure.) of other volatiles (H. Williams & McBirney 1979)
and the presence of exchangeable cations (those
not in tetrahedral co-ordination sites; Burnham
2.5.2 TEMPERATURE
1979, Mysen et al. 1982). The solubility of water
Viscosity is very dependent on the temperature of in magma increases with decreasing temperature
the magma (Fig. 2.7). Both field and experimental and increasing pressure, and decreases with in-
data show that the viscosity of all magmas creasing abundance of other volatiles. Burnham
increases significantly on cooling (H. Williams & (1979) indicated that the effect of water on a
McBirney 1979), partly due to crystallisation. silicate melt is to depolymerise the melt by
However, at equivalent temperatures and pressures breaking Si-O-Si bridges. A H+ ion exchanges
different magmas have different viscosities, sug- with cations not in tetrahedral co-ordination sites
gesting that compositional aspects are also im- (e.g. Na+), hydrolysing one of the tetrahedral co-
portant in determining their viscosities. ordinating oxygens to OH-. Stolper (1982) showed
that dissolved water exists in both hydroxl (OH-)
and molecular (H 2 0) forms in silicate glass, and
2.5.3 VOLATILE CONTENT
by inference in silicate melts. At low total water
Dissolved water content has a marked effect on the contents 3 wt%), the rate at which hydroxyl ion
viscosity of magmas (Fig. 2.8; H. Williams & concentration increases and melt viscosity decreases
McBirney 1979, McBirney & Murase 1970). At are both high. However, at higher water contents,
FACTORS CONTROLLING VISCOSITY 25
dioxide has a low solubility at low pressures, but because of the effect of Na+ and K+ in lowering
its solubility increases markedly in the presence of the degree of melt polymerisation. Similarly, basic
H 20 (Mysen 1977, Burnham 1979). However, magmas (higher overall NBO: Si and more net-
CO 2 increases polymerisation, and therefore vis- work modifiers) will have lower viscosities than
cosity, in melts by forming CO~- complexes acidic ones will at the same temperature and
(Eggler & Rosenhauer 1978, Mysen et al. 1982). volatile contents.
Some minor components can have opposing
effects. For example, Ti0 2 reduces silica activity
2.5.4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
and the degree of polymerisation, whereas P 20 S
The overall composition of a magma affects its increases silica activity and the degree of poly-
viscosity in a complex fashion. The elements in a merisation (Ryerson & Hess 1980, Mysen et al.
magma can be divided into network formers and 1982).
non-network formers. Si4 + and to a lesser extent
AI3+ and Fe3+ are the principal cation network
2.5.5 CRYSTAL CONTENT
formers. Silica content is important in contributing
to the viscosity of magmas, because Si-O bonds are The effect of crystals suspended in a magma is to
the strongest cation-anion bonds in a magma, increase the effective or bulk viscosity of the
mineral or rock. Even well above its liquidus magma (discussed further in Ch. 11). The effective
temperature, a magma has a well defined structure viscosity can be estimated from the Einstein-
(Burnham 1979, Hess 1980, Mysen et al. 1982), Roscoe equation (McBirney & Murase 1984):
and its strength and shear resistance can be
lJ = lJo(1 - R<j-2.S (2.5)
attributed to intermolecular bonds, and particularly
Si-O bonds. AI-O bonds are also important in this in which lJ is the effective viscosity of a liquid with
regard, since they are also much stronger than other a volume fraction of <j> suspended solids, lJo is the
cation-oxygen bonds, though not as strong as Si-O viscosity of the liquid alone and R is a constant
bonds. 0 2- is both a network and non-network whose best estimated value for lavas is 1.67 (Marsh
former. In the former role, its principal function is 1981, McBirney & Murase 1984). However,
to form cation-oxygen tetrahedra with Si4 +, AI3+ results calculated using Equation 2.5 are frequently
and Fe3+. Mysen et al. (1982) suggest that silicon- at variance with values of lava viscosities measured
oxygen tetrahedra represent the basic building in the field, due to the larger sizes and higher
block to a range of network structural units, these concentrations of crystals than those for which
being SiO~- (monomers), Si20~- (dimers), Si20~ Equation 2.5 was designed (McBirney & Murase
(chains), Si20~- (sheets) and three-dimensional 1984). To overcome this McBirney & Murase
units. Overall this sequence of units corresponds to (1984) designed a computer program for calculating
increasing degrees of polymerisation and viscosity. effective viscosities in crystal-bearing magmas.
The type of network structural unit present depends
on the ratio of non-bridging oxygens to silicon
2.5.6 BUBBLE CONTENT
(NBO: Si) and the types of non-tetrahedrally co-
ordinated cations present, which are called network The effect of bubbles on the bulk viscosity of the
modifiers (Mysen et al. 1982). magma can be variable, depending on the degree
If the NBO : Si ratio decreases, magmas will be of vesiculation, the size and distribution of
more polymerised. Similarly, the higher the field bubbles, and the viscosity of the magma interstitial
strength of the network modifying cations, the to the bubbles (see Sparks 1978a). As described
more polymerised the melt will be at a given above, dissolved water contributes significantly to
NBO: Si ratio (Mysen et al. 1982). Peralkaline lowering magma viscosity. When the water ex-
magmas with relatively high Na+ and K+ ion solves, the magma viscosity begins to increase.
concentrations will be of relatively low viscosity However, the exsolved phases, are very low
FLUID FLOW CHARACTER 27
viscosity fluids, which may affect the overall bulk occurs for example during explosive growth of
viscosity. In low viscosity magmas such as basalt, bubbles when the gas pressure exceeds the tensile
exsolution of volatiles may have relatively little strength and surface tension force of the magma.
effect on bulk viscosity because the low viscosity is The latter can occur, for example, when vesiculated
largely due to the effects of temperature and magma is crushed by a velocity-induced shear
composition. The presence of abundant fluid stress that exceeds the shear strength of the
bubbles, may enhance the already low viscosity. In erupting mass, when magma discharge rates are
more acidic magmas however, the viscosity of the high. The mechanics of fragmentation will be
magma is initially high, and may be significantly discussed further in Chapter 3. Units of strength
affected by exsolution. Vesiculated rhyolite, for are the same as stress or force units (dyn cm- 2 ,
example, will have a very high, bulk viscosity, Pa, etc.).
irrespective of the degree of vesiculation, unless it
is peralkaline in character. By contrast, the
mechanical strength of the rhyolite may be low 2.7 Fluid flow character
due to the high vesicle content and overall physical
heterogeneity, especially if bybble walls are thin. The physical properties of magmas, and of
Hence in spite of the overall high bulk viscosity, aggregates of pyroclastic and epiclastic debris, will
such a vesiculated rhyolite, may be very susceptible control to a large extent the nature of resultant
to mechanical, explosive fragmentation, as dis- flows of lava and debris away from the source.
cussed in Chapter 3. Viscosity, or bulk viscosity (for heterogeneous
aggregates), is especially important in controlling
not only flow mobility and form, but also the fluid
2.6 Strength flow state. There are essentially two fluid flow
states:
Volcanic products, like all substances, can deform
laminar flow
in a ductile or brittle manner when subjected to a
turbulent flow
stress. Given the great diversity of physical states
of erupting volcanic materials (liquids to solids), In laminar flow, fluid streamlines are smooth and
the deformation takes many forms, including parallel, and no mixing of streamlines occurs. The
highly plastic as reflected by lava flow, to fluid is therefore free of eddies and vortices. In
essentially brittle, as reflected by explosive dis- turbulent flow, streamlines are highly irregular and
ruption or fragmentation of a rhyolite dome. Given are dominated by eddying, so high degrees of
the wide range of physical states, volcanic materials
therefore have very diverse mechanical strengths.
The mechanical strength of rock decreases rapidly as
the degree of partial melting increases (van der
Molen & Paterson 1979, Shaw 1980), the converse
also being true. Therefore as a magma crystallises,
its strength increases (in an uncertain relationship -
McBirney & Murase 1984) as the proportion of
crystals increases. Consideration of mechanical
strength is most significant in the context of
explosive fragmentation, because the greater the
Figure 2.9 Reynolds' experiment, in which a dye streak is
mechanical strength of the erupting material, the
injected into a steady flow of water through a glass tube to
greater the tendency to resist explosive disruption. define (a) laminar flow and (b) at increased flow velocity
In this regard, fragmentation can be effected by above a critical value. turbulent flow in which eddies
both tensile stresses and shear stresses. The former disperse the dye and eventually colour the whole flow.
28 MAGMA PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO THEIR BEHAVIOUR
mixing of the fluid occur. In 1883, the English where B is the Bingham Number, which is given by
physicist Reynolds first defined the criteria dis-
(2.9)
tinguishing the two flow states in experiments
carried out by passing Newtonian fluids through where 1'( is the strength of the substance and the
pipes (Fig. 2.9). The defining parameter f~r other parameters are as defined in Equation 2.6.
Newtonian fluids, the Reynolds Number (Re), IS Equations 2.6 and 2.9 may be combined to produce
given by a criterion for turbulence in Bingham substances,
Re = UDQ/'Y] (2.6) known as the Hampton Number (Hiscott &
Middleton 1979):
where U is the average velocity, D the pipe
diameter, Q the density and 'Y] the viscosity; Re is (2.10)
dimensionless. For open channel flow (e.g. rivers,
The critical point about the Reynolds Number is
lavas), D is replaced by R, where R is the hydraulic
that it is inversely proportional to the viscosity, and
radius = A (cross-sectional area) /P (wetted channel
directly proportional to the velocity. Because of
perimeter), so that
this, lavas may move by laminar flow or turbulently,
Re = URQ/'Y] (2.7) but generally, because of their relatively high
viscosities, most lavas flow in laminar fashion. Only
For flows in both pipes and channels, the transition
low viscosity, highly fluidal magmas experience
between laminar and turbulent flow lies between
turbulent flow, and then usually only where
Re values of 500 and 2000.
relatively high terrain slopes cause acceleration
For non-Newtonian Bingham substances, such
to relatively high velocities (but see Section 4.12
as debris flows and lavas, the Reynolds Number
on Archaean komatiite lavas). High viscosity lavas
criterion for turbulence is inadequate because of the
move at low velocities, even on steep slopes,
high strength and viscosity of the substance
because of their high internal yield strength. Flow
(Hampton 1972, Hiscott & Middleton 1979). For
banding, which is characteristic of rhyolites (Fig.
such substances the criterion for turbulence is
2.10), is a reflection of laminar flow. It is usually
Re ;?; 1000 B (2.8) preserved only in very viscous, highly siliceous
RIGID PLUG
bedrock constitutes the channel walls, but where 2.8 Further reading
flow occurs on an unconfined surface, the lateral
edges of the flow solidify and become the de facto An excellent summary of the properties of magmas
channel walls. More will be said about lava flow that affect their rheology is given by McBirney &
types and resultant characteristics in Chapter 4, Murase (1984). Other physical properties of
about pyroclastic flows and their deposits in magmas have been adequately reviewed by Murase
Chapters 5 and 7-9, and about epiclastic mass and McBirney (1973), H. Williams and McBirney
flows in Chapter 10. (1979) and Hargraves (1980). A good review of the
rheological variables of magmas (including lunar
magmas) is given by Whitford-Stark (1982) and
detailed review of the factors controlling the
structure of silicate melts is given by Hess (1980)
and Mysen et al. (1982). The peculiar properties of
Archaean komatiite lavas are briefly ~onsidered in
Chapter 4, Section 4.12.
Plate 3 The township of Vestmannaeyjar on the island of Heimaey, 1973, half buried in tephra fall-out from the eruption
column. A basaltic lava from the new active volcano flows to the left into the sea and fragments. The older 5000-6000-year-old
volcano. Helgafell, stands watchfully in the background to the right. The stark contrast is produced by a recent snowfall which
has melted and been buried around the volcano and lava flow Note houses that are partially buried beneath snow covered
tephra deposits. (After S. Jonasson in Gunnarsson 1973.)
32
CHAPTER THREE
Volcaniclastic deposits:
fragmentation and
general characteristics
Initial statement the deposits from each process, and on whether the
deposits have been redeposited from the site of
Volcanic successions can consist of both coherent fragmentation. Nomenclature of volcaniclastic rocks
lavas and a range of volcaniclastic deposits. Lavas, is then further discussed in Chapter 12.
their characteristics and the parameters which
control their characteristics, are discussed in
Chapter 4. In this chapter we consider how 3.1 Introduction
volcaniclastic deposits (particularly those formed
by primary volcanic processes) are formed, and The fragments in volcaniclastic rocks can be
some of their general characteristics. The use of the produced both by primary volcanic processes
non-genetic term 'volcaniclastic', opens the way to (those that are essentially contemporaneous with
explore the range of origins of all fragmental eruption) and by secondary surface processes
volcanic rocks. Although some have explosive (weathering, erosion, mass-wastage). Both of these
pyroclastic origins, many do not. Misinterpretation groups of processes can produce generally similar
of fragmental volcanic deposits as explosive pyro- textural types (e.g. breccias, sand-sized aggregates,
clastic rocks is commonplace, and usually results mud-sized aggregates). To facilitate discussion of
from a lack of understanding of the types of specific differences and a logical treatment of the
fragmentation processes and the characteristics of processes and products, it is now appropriate to
33
34 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
1
500 LIQUID \
." 1000
a
VAPOUR 4
\
\
phreatomagmatic explosions eruptIOns volcanic
quench- or chill-shatter fragmentation autoclastic processes .0 1500 6 E
...
.lI:
flow fragmentation (autobrecciation) .processes Q)
1
~
a.. 2500
10
Q)
0
-
carbon dioxide and water to begin exsolving from
the magma and become separate fluid phases. The be determined using the relationship
depth at which this occurs depends on the magma
type, the actual volatile content and the vapour Qcrghe = (~r P s' (3.1)
pressure of the dissolved water and carbon dioxide
relative to the confining pressure (e.g. Burnham where Qcr is the crustal density (kg m - 3), g is the
1972; Fig. 3.1). Exsolution will commence when acceleration due to gravity, he the depth of
the vapour pressure equals the confining pressure. exsolution (km), n the total weight fraction of
The higher the magmatic volatile content, the exsolved volatile water, P s' the pressure at the
EXPLOSIVE FRAGMENTATION 35
surface (bars; 1 bar = 105 Pa) and s is a constant This type of boiling is called second boiling (F. ].
(= 0.0013) found from the solubility of water Turner & Verhoogen 1960, Burnham 1972) or
relationship nd = sP, where nd is the weight crystallisation-induced exsolution-vesiculation, and
fraction of water dissolved at pressure P. is a very significant event. Vesiculation in a
If the exsolution of the volatile component is not magma could be produced by both first and
induced by crystallisation, it is called first boiling or second boiling. Under certain circumstances, sec-
decompressional exsolution-vesiculation. Its im- ond boiling alone, caused by crystallisation, could
mediate effect is to increase the viscosity and initiate exsolution and vesiculation. Burnham
strength of the magma, because in the case of (1972) has calculated that an andesitic magma with
water it no longer contributes to lowering the no 'more than 2.8 wt% water will become saturated
viscosity. First boiling should be reflected by the with water at about 2 km below the Earth's surface
presence of vesicles, however small. This ex solved (== 500 bars; Fig. 3.2). If the magma rises further,
phase has a vapour pressure, which has the cools or cools and crystallises, then the water will
potential to explosively disrupt the magma if it separate as a high temperature liquid or steam (or
continues to increase. The vapour pressure is both). The exsolved phase causes an enormous
essentially dependent on the initial volatile content increase in pressure within the magma chamber
of the magma, and on its temperature. In basic (Burnham 1972) and the potential increase in
magmas both carbon dioxide and water are volume of the system during this crystallisation
relevant in this regard; in more-acidic magmas and boiling can be up to 53%.
water is more important because of its higher Once a magma has evolved to this stage, there
abundance. are two distinct situations in which explosive
Crystallisation has the effect of concentrating the fragmentation of the magma due to exsolution of
dissolved volatile components in the remaining volatiles can occur:
liquid magma, and this will result in higher
vapour pressures. The latent heat released through a sealed near-surface magma chamber or conduit
crystallisation will also help to maintain high an open vent, erupting vesiculating magma
temperatures and keep vapour pressures high.
These effects could lead to boiling if the vapour
3.2.1 EXPLOSIVE FRAGMENT AnON FROM
pressure becomes equal to the confining pressure.
A SEALED, NEAR-SURFACE MAGMA
CHAMBER OR CONDUIT
If the magma chamber pressure equals or exceeds
the minimum principal stress in the country rock
500
and the tensile strength of the country rock, then the
1000 4
roof of the magma chamber and the volcanic edifice
...
iii ;0'
E.
will fail, possibly in a major explosive event. In the
0 1000 0- E example that is cited above for an andesitic magma
- -
;9 c: 6
SOLID ~
...
Q)
::J
2000 a
ell
0
8
.c with 2.8 wt% water, Burnham (1972) calculated that
VI LIQUID N
0.
Q) as crystallisation and cooling proceed, the internal
...
VI
-
(p 0
Q)
2500 VI
::J 10
pressure of the magma chamber should theoretically
Q.. "0 ~
3000 0 ~
increase until at the point of full crystallisation
VI
:r. 12 (700C) the internal pressure will have reached
3500
'0 13 x 107 Pa (or 1300 bars). This would be far in
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 excess of the confining pressure of 5 x 107 Pa (or
Temperature (Oe) 500 bars) and the typical tensile strength of the
Figure 3.2 Solid-liquid-vapour fields for an andesitic country rock (- 1.5 X 107 Pa or 150 bars). There-
magma with 2.8 wt% H2 0. (After Burnham 1972.) fore, before this stage, fracture and failure of the roof
36 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
of the chamber, and probably explosive disruption magma into the bubbles and (b) by the rate at
of the magma and the volcanic edifice, will have which the confining pressure falls as the bubble or
occurred. Such an event could happen at any time in the magma, or both, rise. In the case of an open
the history of a volcano when the magma chamber or vent, the confining pressure is essentially the
conduit is sealed (i.e. the vent is closed or blocked magmastatic pressure of the magma column. Sparks
off) as long as a volatile-rich magma is being (1978a) calls the lowering of the magmastatic
supplied to the chamber or conduit. For a sealed pressure during bubble or bubble and magma rise
magma chamber or conduit which is also overlain by decompression. Growth rates due to diffusion are
a body of water (ocean, lake), the hydrostatic controlled by the composition, solubility, concen-
pressure of the water column, added to the litho- tration and the degree of supersaturation of the
static load, also contributes to the confining volatiles. Decompressional growth of bubbles is
pressure constraining exsolution and vesiculation. controlled by the rise velocity of the magma, the
rate at which the magma is disrupted and removed
at the free surface in the vent, and by the rise of
3.2.2 EXPLOSIVE FRAGMENTATION OF A
the bubbles within the magma body (Sparks
VESICULATING MAGMA ERUPTING
1978a). In practice, both diffusion and decom-
FROM AN OPEN VENT
pression may operate together.
There are two separate situations to consider here: Other factors which affect bubble growth are
properties of the magma; density, surface tension,
subaerial vents and viscosity, and the solubility and diffusion coef-
subaqueous vents. ficient of the gas in the magma. Some relevant
equations relating these factors for H 20 follow.
Subaerial vents
-IOglO D = IOglO YJ + 5.82 - 4100lT (3.2)
Studies of the way in which explosive expansion of
volatiles fragments a magma in an open vent have where D is the diffusion coefficient, YJ is viscosity
been made by Verhoogen (1951), McBirney (1963, and T is the temperature in Kelvin (Sparks 1978a).
1973), McBirney and Murase (1970) and Bennett This equation was derived from the experimental
(1974). Other studies have contributed to a better data of Scholze and Mulfinger (1959) using
understanding in indirect ways. However, the artificial silicate melts at 1 atm pressure
most significant study is that of Sparks (1978a), in (-10 1 kPa) and at temperatures between 1000 and
which there is both a critical evaluation of the 1400C. Sparks (1978a) comments that the re-
previous studies and an attempt to evaluate lationship should be used with care because of the
quantitatively all of the factors involved in bubble particular compositions, viscosities and tempera-
formation and growth in magmas. The discussion tures used. Nevertheless, it implies that diffusion
here is a summary of some of Sparks' excellent is dependent on viscosity, and that diffusion rates
review. Another useful discussion is given in H. in basic magmas should be higher than in silicic
Williams and McBirney (1979, their Ch. 4). melts. The estimates of Sparks suggest that for
Consideration of nucleation theory is beyond the basaltic magmas at 1100-1300C, D = 10- 5_
scope of this discussion (readers are referred to 10- 6 cm 2 S-I, whereas with rhyolitic melts at
Sparks 1978a), but if a magma becomes even 750-850C, D = 1O- 7_1O- x cm 2 S-I for H 2 0.
slightly supersaturated with volatiles, then nu- Burnham (1983) expresses the relationship be-
cleation of bubbles will occur. Observations of tween diffusivity and viscosity, slightly differently:
natural pumices and scoria show that vesicles are
rarely less than 5 flm in diameter, suggesting that logloD = 2 IOglOT - l.33 IOglOYJ - 5.74 (3.3)
this may be a minimum stable nucleation size. The
Vesicle size is related to diffusivity by
growth of a fluid bubble thereafter is controlled by
(a) the diffusion of volatiles dissolved in the R = 2~(Dt)' (3.4)
EXPLOSIVE FRAGMENTATION 37
/
(d) ....
VI
o
iIll(C)
.0
0
(b)
E
Fig. 3.7).
However, the effect of a solute such as salt is to 100 , - . . - -_ _ _ 2.0
raise the pressure of the critical point (Sourirajan
& Kennedy 1962, G. Green pers. comm.; Fig. 3.8),
,,
~
200
the critical pressure increasing with increasing
II)
'-
C
NaCI content. In sea water the concentration of .0
\
NaCI is about 3.5%, and this raises the critical
, \
300
Q)
'- \ \
pressure of sea water to about 315 bars, corres- ::J \
,,
II)
\ \
ponding to water depths of about or slightly less
II)
Q) \ \
,, sooe
'- 400
than 3150 m, given the slightly greater density of a..
sea water. Therefore, for subaqueous eruptions in
sea water explosive fragmentation is not possible
500
\
,
1000C
.05
'900C
~ 200
::J
II)
II) 500
Q)
a..
'-
150
Figure 3.7 Gas to liquid ratios (solid lines) at varying
magma temperatures (broken lines) for magmas with
100
varying magmatic water content at different pressures. (a)
Basalt. (b) rhyolite. (After McBirney 1963.)
50
greater depths than those corresponding to the
critical pressure, but the growth rate of such
100 200 300 400 500 600
vesicles will be insignificant. It is only below the
critical point that the growth rates can be rapid
Temperature (OC)
enough to cause explosive expansion and disrup-
Figure 3.6 Graphical representation of the critical point of
tion.
pure water (after Kokelaar 1982) Numbered curves are the
P-T paths of equal volume change. Note that beyond the The foregoing discussion of the constraints on
critical point these curves no longer converge to define a subaqueous explosive eruptions is a representation
liquid/vapour phase boundary. of the 'conventional wisdom', as first discussed in
40 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
have shown that many magmas are not simple (b) Where a rhyolitic magma with a moderate
closed systems, and that their chemistry and volatile content is injected by a basic magma
eruptive history are controlled by the mixing of from below, the superheating of the lowest
separately formed or separately evolved magma part of the rhyolitic magma will induce
batches (Sparks et ai. 1977, O'Hara & Matthews convective uprise of this magma. Also, such
1981, Huppert et ai. 1982a). superheating of the rhyolite will by itself (to a
The realisation that eruption history and the certain extent) increase the volatile vapour
triggering of explosive eruptions may be controlled pressure in the magma, even without decom-
by magma mixing stems from the recognition of, pression, and may cause further exsolution of
and the frequent occurrence worldwide of mixed the remaining volatiles. As it rises, it decom-
pumice fragments in largely silicic pumice fall and presses, volatiles exsolve and the gas pressure
ignimbrite deposits (Sparks et al. 1977; also see and the total fluid pressure in the chamber
Eichelberger 1980; e.g. Fig. 3.22, Chs 5-7). Mixed may rise sufficiently to cause explosive erup-
pumice is pumice that contains a streaky, fluidal tion.
layering of salic and more-mafic components. The (c) The rising injecting basic magma may contain
mechanics of magma mixing are adequately dis- relatively high volatile contents, which exsolve
cussed in Huppert et ai. (l982a), and the references during uprise and are transferred by convec-
therein, so will not be discussed further here. tion, diffusion and mixing into a low volatile
However, the way in which magma mixing could rhyolitic magma, leading again to fluid pres-
initiate eruption, especially explosive eruption, will sure build-up and explosive eruption.
be briefly reviewed here. Cd) As a hot basic magma comes into contact with
The basic essence of magma mixing in triggering a colder rhyolitic magma, transfer of heat from
eruptions is that two magmas at different tempera- the basic to the rhyolitic magma will cause
tures and with different volatile contents come into rapid cooling of the basic magma, which may
contact in a subsurface magma chamber. Many cause crystallisation and so lead to exsolution
mixed pumices in rhyolitic fall or ignimbrite in the residual basic fluid, again building up
deposits contain mixed rhyolite-basaltic or andesitic the total chamber fluid pressure.
phases, suggesting that basic magma has come up
into a chamber of rhyolite magma. The actual The circumstances causing eruption can involve
eruption may be initiated under one of several any or several of the foregoing. Varying degrees of
different circumstances (Sparks et al. 1977, Huppert mixing of the magmas may be produced by
et ai. 1982a, J. S. Turner et al. 1983): turbulent transfer of heat, and by density changes
in the magmaCs) caused by crystallisation and
(a) First, the addition of a volume of magma to a exsolution of volatiles. However, much of the above
chamber may cause the total magma chamber discussion is speculative at present, and has been
fluid pressure to exceed the minimum princi- little tested on a case-history basis. Mixed pumice
pal stress and the tensile strength of the eruptions may also occur without the triggering
country rock, leading to fracturing of the roof effect of injection of a more basic magma into a
of the chamber and release of the magma. If more silicic chamber. For instance, withdrawal of
the combined volatile content of the magmas magma from a stable, zoned chamber (e.g. rhyolite
is high enough, then the release of confining to andesite, or phonolite to latite) could result in the
pressure may precipitate increased exsolution mixing of the two layers (Blake 1981a, b).
and bubble growth to produce explosive
eruption. Where volatile content is low, per-
haps due to previous degassing of the magma
during earlier eruptions, lava eruption, with
little or no explosive activity, may occur.
42 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
3.4 Phreatic or steam explosions and phre- water: magma mass ratio is low (less than about
atomagmatic eruptions 0.2, Fig. 3.9) then the external water mass contri-
butes very little to the fragmentation of the magma.
The interaction between hot magma and water In such a case, explosive eruption of the magma can
produces what can collectively be called hydro- be driven only by magmatic volatiles (magmatic
volcanic activity, and produces a range of volca- explosions), given the constraints discussed above,
niclastic products. The water could be a substantial or the explosive activity is confined to the eruption
subsurface groundwater reservoir or a surface body of steam, and little or no solid ejecta. Steam
of water (e.g. crater lake, caldera or non-caldera explosions are called phreatic explosions and sig-
lake, sea water). The immediate effect is to cause nificant proportions of country rock fragments may
superheating, boiling, volatolisation, build-up of be erupted by these. Where the interaction between
gas pressure of the external water and, confining external water and magma produces significant
pressure constraints permitting, explosive ex- explosive eruption of magmatic ejecta driven by
pansion of the gas produced. By this, the heat both external and magmatic volatiles, the explosions
energy of the magma is transferred into the are phreatomagmatic. Such eruptions are thought
mechanical energy driving explosion. The intensity to occur where the water: magma mass ratios are
of the activity is controlled by the water: magma equal to or slightly greater than 0.3 (Fig. 3.9;
mass ratio and the amount of superheating of the Sheridan & Wohletz 1981, 1983, Wohletz 1983,
water (Sheridan & Wohletz 1981, 1983, Wohletz Wohletz & Sheridan 1983), and are caused by
1983, Wohletz & Sheridan 1983, Colgate & Sig- major increases in the degree of superheating and
urgeirsson 1973). Fragmentation probably occurs as a energy transfer. As a result, the degree of magma
function of both quenching and explosive activity. The fragmentation is likely to be very high (Fig. 3.9;
quenching occurs as a consequence of the contact e.g. Self & Sparks 1978) and explosive activity will
between hot magma and 'colder' bodies of water, be very intense. Large volumes of pyroclastic
steam, debris and rock. detritus can be formed, and significant eruption
The ratio of water mass to magma mass controls columns or plumes may be produced. However L.
the type of resultant activity (Fig. 3.9). If the Wilson et al. (1978) point out that because much of
OO.------,----S-UR-T-S~EY-A-N--,-----~
the thermal energy of the magma is used in
STROMBOLIAN ? 9
superheating the external water, the mechanical
efficiency is less than that of a magmatic eruption.
Eruption columns for hydrovolcanic eruptions are
therefore likely to be smaller than for magmatic
explosive eruptions with equivalent eruption rates.
Nevertheless, hydrovolcanic eruptions can be
equally as devastating as magmatic ones. According
to Sheridan and Wohletz (1981), where water
: magma mass ratios are greater than 0.3 the level
of superheating and energy transfer is less efficient,
Hz 0 : mel! moss ratio and the intensity of resultant explosions will be less.
Figure 3.9 Efficiency of transfer of thermal energy to
Not only does the relative degree of interaction
mechanical energy resulting from the interaction of hot between water and magma control the degree of
magma with cold water as a function of the mass ratio of fragmentation and explosiveness (Fig. 3.9), but it
magma to water. The curve also shows approximate median will also control the physical character of the
grainsize of melt fragments. The maximum on the curve transporting agent and the field facies character-
corresponds to maximum efficiency of energy transfer and
therefore explosiveness (water: magma mass ratio -0.3).
istics that are produced (Chs 5-9; Sheridan &
For ratios less than 0.1, fragmentation of magma by external Wohletz 1983, Wohletz 1983, Wohletz & Sheridan
water will be minimal. (After Wohletz 1983.) 1979).
PHREATIC EXPLOSIONS AND PHREATOMAGMATIC ERUPTIONS 43
Where the interaction between magma, or quen- explosive hydrovolcanic eruptions are essentially
ched magmatic debris, or both, and water is the same as for magmatic explosive eruptions:
explosive and self-sustaining, it is called a fuel-
a magma rising in the subsurface, without an
coolant interaction (Colgate & Sigurgeirsson 1973,
open vent or conduit, interacting with ground
Peckover et al. 1973, Wohletz 1983, Sheridan &
water
Wohletz 1983). The explosive energy results from
the sudden transfer of heat from the magma to the a magma in an open vent leading to a body of
water producing instantaneous vaporisation and water (lake, ocean)
explosive expansion of the water. The interaction
a lava flowing into a body of water or over water-
between the water and the magma, and the mode of
saturated sediment
fragmentation can both occur in several ways, and
have been studied experimentally. The processes a pyroclastic flow moving into a body of water or
can be viewed as a cycle consisting of distinctive over water-saturated sediment
stages, and have been summarised by Wohletz
magma rising to heat subsurface hydrothermal
(1983), based on the models of Buchanan (1974),
fluids already at temperatures near boiling
Board et al. (1974) and Corradini (1981).
point
Stage 1. The initial contact between magma and
water produces a vapour film between the magma
and water. 3.4.1 INTERACTION WITH GROUND
WATER
Stage 2. The vapour film expands, but at its outer
margin, at the contact with the water, condensation In this situation a magma encounters a ground
of the vapour can occur, and the film may collapse water reservoir. The gas pressure produced by
in places. Expansion and collapse can occur several superheating of the ground water, and the resultant
times, until the energy associated with collapse expansion of the ground water as it changes phase
causes fragmentation of the magma. Film collapse from water to steam must equal or exceed the
and fragmentation can occur in several discrete minimum principal stress in the country rock and
ways, including the penetration of linear jets of the tensile strength of the country rock before
water into the magma; impact of a volume of failure of the overburden and explosive eruption
collapsing water with sufficient intensity to create a can occur. Kokelaar (1982) discussed the intrusion
stress wave capable of caving in the magma surface; of hot magmas into water-saturated unconsolidated
direct water-magma interaction leading to quench- sediments, emphasising that, even if explosive
ing, vaporisation and explosive expansion; and the activity does not occur, the sediments could be
development of an unstable fluid interface associ- extensively mixed as the interstitial fluid is heated,
ated with the transmission of a shock wave. expands, begins to convect, perhaps even being
locally vaporised, and fluidises and turbulently
Stage 3. The mixing of the collapsed vapour film
mixes the sediment. Quench-fragmentation of the
with the magma increases the surface area of the
magma may also occur to varying degrees as it is
interface between the two.
intruded into cold, water-saturated sediments (Fig.
Stage 4. Stage 3 facilitates rapid heat transfer as 3.10). Dynamic mixing of the quenched debris and
water encloses melt fragments. the sediment could occur if the pore water boils and
fluidises the clastic pile, producing deposits called
Stage 5. Formation of a new vapour film as water is
peperites (see Section 3.6). Intrusive interaction is
suddenly vaporised by superheating, which then
also capable of producing pillow-like pods of
leads to a reversion to stage 2.
magma (Fig. 3.11) and spectacular soft-sediment
Several situations exist in which hydrovolcanic deformation structures (e. g. Kokelaar 1982), in-
eruptions can occur, but the constraints controlling cluding load cast-like features.
44 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
Nairn (1979) discussed a special type of hydro- The principal aim of this section is to introduce the
volcanic explosive eruption involving hydrothermal components of pyroclastic deposits and their chara-
fluids in considering the 1886 Rotomahana- cteristics. No attempt will be made to discuss the
Waimangu eruption in New Zealand. Although it transportational and depositional modes, the aggre-
appears that the interaction of basaltic magma with gate properties and field characteristics of different
water-saturated lake sediments and lake waters may pyroclastic deposits, which will be dealt with in
have been the source of some of the explosive Chapters 5-10 and 12, or the nomenclature of
activity, as evidenced by the mixture of basaltic volcaniclastic aggregates (Ch. 12).
fragments and lake sediment in the eruption However, it should be pointed out that the
deposits, the Rotomahana area had a long history of mechanics of fragmentation by pyroclastic proces-
high-level hydrothermal activity before the 1886 ses, as outlined above, are not the only processes by
eruption. Nairn (1979) proposed that if the hydro- which volcanic fragments are formed during erup-
thermal fluids at depth were already near to boiling tion. Fragments also form in the vent through
point when hot basaltic magma was injected from physical collision and abrasion, and the term
below, which is likely, then the extra thermal input 'milling' is sometimes used to describe such abras-
from the basalt would have been sufficient to boil ive processes. Once ejected from vent, large frag-
the hydrothermal fluids. Flashing of these fluids to ments may further fragment on impact with the
steam and induced steam pressures greater than the Earth's surface.
litho static load would have produced explosive Pyroclastic deposits are composed of pyroclasts,
activity. Lowering of overburden pressure by initial which is a loose term for any fragment released in a
explosions would produce instantaneous boiling in volcanic explosion or eruption. Pyroclasts can have
the highly pressured, high temperature, subsurface a wide range of sizes, irrespective of their origin.
hydrothermal reservoir system, so producing sig- Fragments greater than 64 mm in diameter are
nificant, wholly hydrothermal explosions. Because called blocks or bombs, those between 64 mm and
of the high temperature of subsurface hydrothermal 2 mm in diameter are called lapilli, and those less
fluids, the efficiency of energy transfer from ther- than 2 mm in diameter are called ash (see Table
mal to mechanical energy would be greater in these 12.5). The classification of pyroclastic deposits is
circumstances than in the previously discussed further treated in Chapter 12. Tephra is a collective
situations involving contact between hot magma term for all pyroclastic deposits, including the
and cold surface water or ground water. deposits of pyroclastic flows, surges and falls (Self
Although some hydrothermal explosions are & Sparks 1981) and are discussed in Chapter 5.
fuelled by rising magma, others such as those Three principal kinds of pyroclasts or components
associated with the Kawerau geothermal field in are found in pyroclastic deposits:
New Zealand (Nairn & Wiradiradja 1980) are not.
These explosions were apparently due to a reduction juvenile fragments
of fluid pressure in the hydrothermal system, crystals
leading to the flashing to steam of the superheated lithic fragments
water. Products include a breccia of hydrothermally
altered ignimbrite, rhyolite and tuff in a silty
3.5.1 JUVENILE FRAGMENTS
hydrothermal clay matrix.
Juvenile fragments represent samples of the erupt-
ing magma. They may therefore be partially cryst-
allised, or un crystallised , depending on the pre-
eruptive history of the magma. On eruption they
48 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
Figure 3.16 Basaltic scoria. Note the highly vesicular and delicate angular form of the scoria fragments. Some larger
fragments may have a ropy or stringy surface texture. (a) Large clast about 10 cm across from Tower Hill, Victoria, Australia.
(b) Coarse scoria from Mt Napier, Victoria, Australia.
so VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
o Scm
generally have densities of less than or about
1. g cm - 3, and hence may float if deposited in
water (see Fig. 10.21). Slightly denser juvenile
fragments can be distinguished, as for example in
Figure 3.20, by terms such as semi-vesicular
andesite. Pumice clasts from within a single pu-
miceous pyroclastic deposit will show a range in
density, and this is controlled by two factors. First,
there is variation in the degree of vesiculation of
clasts; this is illustrated by Figure 3.21 a, which
shows the range in density of pumice clasts within a
limited size range. Secondly, there is variation of
density with grainsize of pumice clasts; average Figure 3.19 Vesicular pumice from the Recent Taupo
density of pumice clasts increases with decreasing plinian pumice fall deposits, High Level Road, east of
grain size (Fig. 3.21b) as the volume of unbreached Rotorua, New Zealand.
PRODUCTS OF PYROCLASTIC ERUPTIONS 51
~ 'Seml-Yellculared andesite-pumice Shard, glass shard and ash shard are terms often
W poorly s"uIOl.d ondes". used to describe the angular ash-sized glass particles
which result from the magmatic explosive fragmen-
df nse andesite
tation of pumice vesicle walls (Fig. 3.23). We
40 restrict 'shard' to glassy (vitric), usually microscopic
magmatic fragments, and we do not use the term to
~ describe fragments of broken crystals (or lithics),
-
!..
!II unlike as has sometimes been done by workers
! II
(0 )
(b)
~
!.. '",
-!II E
u
-
! II
0
U
01
10
0
.~ 1. 0
.... !II
Q) c:
.0 CD
"0
E
:J Q)
Z u
E
:J
a.
c:
o
Q)
~
20 40 60
Dens ity (9 cm- 3) Distance (km)
Figure 3.21 Variation in density of pumice fragments in one pumiceous pyroclastic deposit. (a) Range in pumice density
measured in clasts >32 mm at vent. (b) Variation in average density of pumice clasts with grainsize and distance from the
vent, The example is the pumice-fall deposit erupted from Askja volcano, Iceland in 1875, (After Sparks et a/. 1981,)
52 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
Figure 3.23 Photomicrographs of glass shards with typical cuspate and branched forms. (a) Non-welded redeposited shards
in the marine. Tertiary Dali Ash. Rhodes Island. Greece. Area shown is about 1.7 mm across. (b) Welded shards from the
Pleistocene Kaingaroa Ignimbrite. North Island. New Zealand. Area shown is about 2.5 mm across.
PRODUCTS OF PYROCLASTIC ERUPTIONS 53
Figure 3.24 SEM photomicrographs of glass shards (from >63 [!m size fraction). (a) and (b) Pumice-flow deposit, Mt Pelee.
(c) Lower Bandelier ignimbrite, New Mexico.
the perimeter is planar, rather than concave or To such rocks the term 'peperite' is given, derived
convex, are likely to be of quench origin (Honnorez from the Italian 'peperino', suggesting a spotty,
& Kirst 1975). According to Honnorez and Kirst pepper and salt-like texture. The formation of
(1975), plots of the percentage of the grain margins peperites could also involve significant phreatic and
that are planar, against the numbers of corners and phreatomagmatic explosive activity, and peperitic
inflection points, are more discriminating than the textures could even be formed when pyroclasts
previous method of assessing the percentage of the from local phreatomagmatic and phreatic explosions
perimeter that is planar. This approach has some are ejected into the air and fall into unconsolidated,
weaknesses, in that it assumes that all quenched water-saturated sediments.
debris are derived from magmas which are non- The interpretation of peperites, particularly at
vesicular at the time of quenching, and that all the type locality at Gergovia volcano in the Auv-
vesiculated debris with convex or concave margin ergne region of France, has been debated for many
segments and corners (remnants of vesicle walls) years (see J. G. Jones (1967a) for a critical review).
are phreatomagmatically fragmented. Neither as- Originally the term 'peperite' was introduced by
sumption is necessarily true, and there may be Scrope in several of his publications (e.g. Scrope
many situations where partially vesiculated magma 1858) for basaltic breccias with a carbonate clastic
is quenched, or where quenching and magmatic or matrix, resulting from explosive eruption and air-
phreatomagmatic disruption occur simultaneously. fall deposition of basaltic pyroclasts into a lake in
This could be the case with some of the specimens which carbonate sedimentation was occurring, a
used by Honnorez and Kirst (e.g. Fig. 3.12). view strongly supported by J. G. Jones (1967a).
Pichler (1965) points out that for viscous, silicic Michel-Levy (1890) and Michel (e.g. 1948) con-
magmas the processes of quench-fragmentation and sidered the peperites to have formed from intrusion
autobrecciation (see Section 3.7) may also be of basalt into the carbonate sediment, presumably
closely interrelated and contemporaneous. For accompanied by quenching or explosive activity, or
shallow-water settings, hydrovolcanic explosions both, together with mixing or redeposition, or
may also occur simultaneously. However, below both.
maximum depths of about 3150 m (sea water) only Schmincke (1967a) has interpreted peperites
quench-fragmentation or flow brecciation can ac- from the Ellensburg Formation of Washington as
count for fragmentation of magmas, because the resulting from the flow of basaltic lavas over water-
hydrostatic pressure of the overlying water body saturated former lake sediments and partial in-
prevents explosions. trusion of parts of the base of the lava into the
However, not all lavas that erupted subaqueously sediments, resulting in quench-fragmentation, local
or by flowing into water are fragmented (e.g. steam explosions, and mixing of the basalt and
basaltic pillow lavas). In these situations, lava must sediment to produce deposits with peperitic texture.
be insulated from the cold water body by a It is therefore apparent that the term 'peperite'
boundary layer. The boundary layer may be a should be used with care, and not in a genetic
quench-fragmented carapace of granulated glass, sense, because of the possible diverse origins of
which insulates the inner part of the lava body from deposits with peperitic texture (Ch. 12).
quenching (Pichler 1965), or a superheated layer of
water vapour (H. Williams & McBirney 1979,
Kokelaar 1982), or a composite of both. 3.7 Flow fragmentation (autobrecciation)
Where quenching results from the interaction of and its products
either an intrusion or a lava flow with wet,
unconsolidated sediment, the quenched debris and If a viscous congealed lava continues to flow, or if
the wet sediment may be dynamically mixed as the the congealed viscous crust of a lava is moved by
pore water is superheated, boils, fluidises the continued flow of the inside of the lava, this
aggregate and turbulently mixes it (Kokelaar 1982). congealed lava becomes stressed, deforms and may
56 VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS
stretch plastically and break into slabs or blocks wastage, chemical and physical weathering, and
(e.g. aa lavas, Ch. 4), or it may fracture in a brittle transportation processes involving wind or water.
fashion if the viscosity and strain rate are high More details of epiclastic processes and products in
enough, to produce smooth faced blocks and volcanic terrains will be discussed in Chapter 10.
blocky lavas (MacDonald 1972; Fig. 3.27). The Their influences and relative significance should
blocks may be free to tumble, or they may be never be underestimated.
sintered together, or be enclosed in non-fragmented Epiclastic processes are capabl~ of producing
magma. fragments of all sizes, and of transporting them, as
well as fragments produced by primary volcanic
processes (this chapter), well away from source.
3.8 Epiclastic fragmentation Therefore, a volcanic composition by itself does not
mean that the deposit is pyroclastic or near-vent, no
In most volcanic terrains, huge volumes of volcan- matter what the size of the fragments or the
iclastic debris are also produced and transported by angularity of the fragments (Chs 1, 10 & 12).
processes which are not of primary volcanic origin -
i.e. they are not vent-related processes. Such
processes are collectively called epiclastic processes
(epi = upon, referring to processes at the Earth's
surface) and include gravitational collapse or mass-
FURTHER READING 57
58
CHAPTER FOUR
Lavaflows
Lavas are flows of coherent magma that are erupted The principal requirement for the effusive eruption
at the Earth's surface during effusive volcanic of magma as coherent lava is that the eruption not
activity which is essentially non-explosive, or, for be explosive or that it be a relatively small fire
some basaltic lavas, that are fed by lava fire fountain of lava. This requires that the exsolved
fountains. Lava flows show great variations in size volatile content (Ch. 3) of the magma chamber
and shape, and in their surface and internal immediately before eruption, and of the magma
features. In this chapter we describe these variations during eruption, be sufficiently low to prevent the
and discuss the different controls on lava mor- build-up of a gas pressure which could cause fully
phology, such as effusion rate, physical properties developed explosive fragmentation (Ch. 3). With
(particularly viscosity and yield strength) and the possible exception of some basic and ultra basic
environmental factors. Many of the differences magmas, most subaerially erupted magmas could
between lava flows can be treated by initially potentially contain sufficient magmatic water to
dividing them into low viscosity (low silica) and cause explosive eruptions, given the initial avail-
high viscosity (high silica) types. The characteristics ability of sufficient water in the magma source
of the flows are thereafter controlled by the nature regions. Therefore, for most volcanoes, and except-
of the environment into which they are extruded, or ing basaltic volcanoes, the volume of volcaniclastics
the nature of the environment into which they then erupted far exceeds the volume of coherent lavas.
flow, or both. However, basaltic volcanic centres are usually
59
60 LAVA FLOWS
extensive phonolite and trachyte flows that have Figure 4.1 (a) The 1783 Laki basalt lava flow in southern
been described from the East African Rift can also Iceland erupted from 115 craters along the 25 km fissure
(after Thorarinsson 1969). (b) The Columbia River flood
be considered as flood lavas. Such lavas are erupted
basalt plateau with the distribution of the Roza Member and
from large fissures, which are laterally continuous its fissure vent system (see also Fig. 13.7) (after Swanson et
fractures that can be called line sources (see below). at. 1975).
SIZE AND FORM 61
The largest historic lava of this type is the 1783 covered a minimum area of 40 000 km 2 (Fig. 4.1 b).
Laki basalt flow (Fig. 4.1a) which travelled about All of the flows were probably erupted over a
40 km and has a volume of 12.3 km 3 (Thorarinsson period of a few hundred years or less, but individual
1969). Very much larger flood basalts over 200 km flows are thought to have been erupted in a matter
long are known in the geological record. In the of days and are themselves (except the thin near-
mid-Miocene Columbia River Plateau of the western vent flows) still extremely large. The largest indi-
USA, flows of the Roza Member (Fig. 4.1b) vidual lava flows must have volumes up to 700 km 3
travelled 300 km and its volume exceeded 1500 km 3 (Swanson & Wright 1981).
(Swanson et al. 1975). This and other lavas in the The average thickness of single lava flows in
Columbia River Plateau (e.g. Swanson & Wright measured sections of the Columbia River Plateau
1981) are volumetrically three to five times larger basalts is between 15 and 35 m (Waters 1961).
than many of the world's largest stratovolcanoes Comparable lava flow thicknesses are found in the
(Ch. l3). For a general description of flood basalt flood basalts of the Deccan Traps in Central India
'volcanoes' and provinces, see also Chapter l3. (Subbarao & Sukheswala 1981); Choubey (1973)
The largest lava unit that has been described is, found average thicknesses of between 15 and 30 m.
indeed, that of the Roza Member in the Columbia In the flood basalts of eastern Iceland, G. P. L.
River Plateau. The Roza Member actually consists Walker (1963) found that the average flow thickness
of a small number of lava flows and, typically, was 17 m.
stratigraphic sections show one or two thick flows, Other basaltic lavas can be considered to be
but sometimes three or more. Also, a number of erupted from central volcanoes, point-source vents
thinner flows (or flow units; see Section 4.3) occur or small restricted fissures. These lava flows are
near vent. Cumulatively these flows originally much less voluminous and cover much smaller
9 ..
800 3"
.IM
H
]
::::.
VI 400
VI
.. .::
..__
~
c:
.:.:
IJ '
:.c: ~ ........0;-.-: ,ISO
f-
o Diameter H (km) 10
o 2 5 10 20 50
I I I I I I
Area covered (km 2 )
CTI rhyohl., (n.176) }
r--:l high 'IOco,ily
~ trachyte", andeslfn, dOCItfoS (n 239)
Figure 4.2 Dimensions of lavas of different compositions. The two scales along the x-axis give the
area covered by the extrusion and the diameter of a circle having this area. The broken lines give the
aspect ratio VIH. The dotted lines cgive ttfe volumes of circular disc-like bodies of the dimensions,
shown as a rough guide to the volumes of the lava extrusions. (After G. P. L. Walker 1973a.)
62 LA VA FLOWS
areas. For example, since 1535, Mt Etna in Italy 4.3 Factors affecting the morphology of
has erupted <4 km 3 of lava; the largest single flow subaerial lavas
was 0.5 km 3 (Wadge et al. 1975). On Mauna Loa
historic flank eruptions of basalt along the south- The shape of lava flows can be related to three main
west and north-east rifts range up to 0.5 km 3 in controls:
volume (Lipman 1980).
effusion rate
More-silicic lavas are usually small volume flows,
physical properties
and are not as extensive as basaltic ones. Flow
slope
distances are in most cases less than a few kilo-
metres, although intermediate lavas (especially) can However, in reality the controls of lava shapes are
flow in excess of 25 km. Rhyolitic lavas generally likely to be many, and they are complexly inter-
do not travel further than 3-4 km and do not related. For instance, effusion or lava discharge rate
exceed about 1 km 3 . A notable exception is the is itself dependent on a large number of factors:
Chao dacite flow from Chile, which travelled 12 km vent shape and dimensions, viscosity, yield strength
and has a volume of 24 km 3 (Guest & Sanchez and magma pressure gradient within the volcano.
1969). Andesites, dacites and rhyolites can be up to
a few hundred metres thick.
4.3.1 EFFUSION RATE
The extensive phonolites and trachytes in East
Africa (King 1970) are, however, very different, G. P. L. Walker (l973a) considered effusion rate to
and compositional factors (alkaline and peralkaline be the most important controlling factor on lava
affinities) suggest that these lavas may have been form. He showed that the distance travelled by lava
erupted with viscosities close to those of basalts. flows was proportional to the effusion rate. It was
A parameter frequently used in the description of thought that this was due to the effect of cooling.
lava geometry is aspect ratio. This can be defined as Lavas erupted at higher rates would travel further
the ratio of the average thickness (V) to the before cooling would lower their viscosity and
horizontal extent (H), i.e. VIH, where H is taken as inhibit movement.
the diameter of a circle with a surface area equal to The effusion rate observed in lava flows of more-
that of the lava. In practice, thickness and surface basic compositions ranges from <0.5 to 5000 m 3
area are measured with a grid superimposed on S-l (Table 4.1). G. P. L. Walker (1971) suggested
topographic maps of the lava. G. P. L. Walker that basaltic lavas extruded at high effusion rates
(l973a) plotted aspect ratios for a large number of form far-reaching flows composed of a single flow
lavas. He distinguished low viscosity, low aspect unit, termed simple lavas (Fig. 4.3), whereas those
ratio lavas (mainly basalts) from high viscosity,
high aspect ratio lavas (trachytes, andesites, dacites
Table 4.1 Effusion rates of some basic lava flows.
and rhyolites; Fig. 4.2). Note that the convention
we have adopted is to refer to a high aspect ratio Eruption Average volumetric
lava as one being thick in relation to its area, and a effusion rate
low aspect ratio one as being relatively thin, which (m 3 S-l)
(a) Two simple lava flows thousands of flow units) and how new boccas (small
openings) feeding new flow units commonly
.... formed at the fronts of mature flow units which had
. .. otherwise ceased to flow .
Large single flow unit flood basalts found in the
... .
. i I
. . . . ........- soil
geological record are believed to be erupted at very
I .1 . i . i . I . I I.
5;
..................... ~ ",,,"Ok
the Roza Member) for each of what appears to be
two main lava flows (see Section 4.2), an eruption
duration of seven days and a length of 100 km for
:~ ';/ the fissure vent system. This leads to an effusion
.. ~ ... ~ .. rate of 1 x 106 m 3 S-1 for the whole vent system or
i l l 1 i
1 x Wi m 3 S-1 km -1. These estimates of discharge
(e) rate for the Roza flood basalt flows are comparable
with those estimated for highly explosive ignim-
II -", "" } block brite-forming eruptions (1O'i_l07 m 3 S-I, Ch. 8).
A survey of historic more silicic, higher viscosity
o ~I07 .......... " ..................... .
lavas (Table 4.2) shows that average effusion rates
".s'/h; }
extruded at low effusion rates produce flows com- Eruption Average volumetric
posed of small flow units which pile up close to the effusion rate
vent and produce compound lavas. The Laki 1783 (m 3 S-l)
silicic lava which began in 1922 and continues to flowing lava at any given point, and this will have a
grow to date; it now consists of at least 14 marked effect on the yield strength. An increased
recognisable flow units (Rose 1972a). effusion rate would increase the temperature, and
therefore reduce the yield strength, at any particular
point in the lava.
4.3.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Hulme (1974), who modelled lavas as Bingham
4.3.3 SLOPE
substances (Ch. 2), indicated that the principal
factor governing their shape was their non-New- Flow width varies inversely with ground slope
tonian rheology. His theoretical analysis and exper- (Hulme 1974). However, the effect of slope on lava
iments with kaolin suspensions, which are close to length has been shown to be small compared with
Bingham substances in rheology, showed that other factors (G. P. L. Walker 1973a).
aspect ratio was mainly dependent on yield stress.
For a Bingham substance to flow downhill, it
must form a layer deep enough for the shear stress 4.4 Eruption of subaerial basaltic lavas
at the base to exceed the yield strength. Close to the
lateral margins the depth is not great enough for Basaltic lavas are erupted from either fissures or
downhill flow to occur, and dead zones of stationary central (also called point source) vents. Fissure
fluid form levees along margins. The depth and systems that feed large flood basalts may be very
width of a flow, and the width of each dead zone, large (e.g. >100 km in length, Fig. 4.1b). Central
are related to five independent initial parameters: vents are typical of larger basaltic volcanoes, scoria
effusion rate (F), the slope (a) and three properties cones and other types of smaller basaltic volcanoes.
of the fluid - Bingham viscosity (11), yield strength However, these smaller centres are commonly
(00) and specific weight (gQ, where g is the associated with fissures, and even on the large
acceleration due to gravity and Q is the density of volcanoes fissures may control flank eruptions.
the fluid). The critical depth (dc ) which must be Many eruptions of basaltic lava may begin along a
exceeded for any flow to occur is given by large length of a fissure, but activity quickly
localises to a few point sources or 'nodes' (L.
(4.1)
Wilson & Head 1981, Delaney & Pollard 1982).
For lavas with higher yield strengths, de is therefore Even for the large flood basalts this also seems to be
larger, and the thickness of the lava flow is greater. true eCho 13).
The aspect ratio of a lava flow can be predicted Basaltic lavas can issue from vents as:
from
(a) coherent flows from small boccas (openings),
aspect ratio =
ool(Fll) 25 (gQ)075 (4.2) or from the overspill or breaching of a lava
lake ponded in a crater or
Aspect ratio therefore depends mainly on yield
(b) fire fountains of lava that reconstitute around
strength. Equation 4.2 predicts that lavas with low
the vent and then flow away.
yield strengths, such as basalts, give rise to flows
with lower aspect ratios, and more-silicic lavas with Many eruptions of basalt lava flows begin with a
higher yield strengths will occur as higher aspect phase of fire-fountaining of gas-rich magma, suc-
ratio flows, which is in general agreement with field ceeded by the extrusion of coherent flows of
observations (Fig. 4.2). relatively gas-poor magma. There would also be
From Equation 4.2, aspect ratio would seem to periods when lava is issuing as coherent flows and
be insensitive to changes in effusion rate, but in fountains at the same time, either from the same
reality this is more complicated because of the effect vent or separately along a fissure. Flows formed
of temperature variations. A change in effusion rate from agglutinated lava spatter are associated with
will lead to a change in the temperature within spatter cones and spatter ramparts (Fig. 4.1a, Chs 6
FEATURES OF SUBAERIAL BASALTIC LAVA FLOWS 65
vesicles, though it is not uncommon to find parts of low preservation potential in the geological record
flows with 50% vesicles. (e.g. Fig. 4.5i). Ropy surfaces and toes may be
Swanson (1973) described several different types preserved, especially if quickly covered over by
of pahoehoe lava flow formed during the 1969-71 another lava flow or flow unit (e.g. Fig. 4.5h). If
activity from Mauna VIu in Hawaii. A very found, convex trains of pahoehoe ropes can be used
vesicular, cavernous type, called shelly pahoehoe as palaeoflow direction indicators, although caution
(Figs 4.5c & d), formed when gas-charged lava is required in determining flow direction based on
welled out of a fissure with little or no accompanying only one or two occurrences, since some pahoehoe
fountaining. A relatively smooth and denser type ropes may be a response to local eddies on the flow
formed from the fall-out of fire fountains >300 m surface (MacDonald 1972).
in height. The third type, characterised by over- When a thickened crust forms on a flow, lava
lapping, denser 20% vesicles), pahoehoe toes tubes commonly form internally (Fig 4.7). Lava
and lobes (Fig. 4.5g), formed when largely degassed tubes are almost exclusively restricted to pahoehoe
magma issued from tubes several kilometres from flows. They can range in size from less than 1 min
the vent. diameter to large caves >30 m wide and 15 m high,
The ropy type of pahoehoe (Figs 4.5e, f & i), and can form large distributary networks which can
although perhaps the most distinctive, is actually carry lava below the nearly stationary lava surface
quantitatively limited in extent (MacDonald 1972). for distances of many kilometres. Some of the best
The ropes consist of a regular train of corrugations examples that have been described are from the
a few centimetres in height, their long axes being Quaternary basaltic provinces in Australia (e.g.
perpendicular to or convex to the local direction in OIlier & Brown 1965, OIlier 1969, Atkinson et al.
which the flow is moving. Fink and Fletcher (1978) 1975; Fig. 4.7), and Atkinson et al. (1975) report a
have done a structural analysis of these features. system of lava tubes which may have extended tOr
They can be interpreted as folds which develop at more than 100 km in north Queensland. Tubes
the surface of a fluid whose viscosity decreases with may later collapse to produce large open channels
depth. The braided appearance and more-complex and depressions on the surface of older flows (Figs
structures found in many pahoehoe flows can be 4.7b & c).
explained by the superposition of two or more Lava tubes are important because\ they inhibit
episodes of folding. radiative heat losses from the surface of a flow, and
These pahoehoe surface features generally have a enable the flow to travel long distances. Tube-fed
FEATURES OF SUBAERIAL BASALTIC LAVA FLOWS 69
(b)
Figure 4.7 (a) Cave formed by lava tube on Mauna Iki. (b)
Collapsed lava tube on Mauna Iki. (c) Cave exposed by
collapse of lava tunnel roof. Byaduk Caves. Victoria.
Australia.
pahoehoe flows can achieve lengths much greater flows are hornitos, pressure ridges and tumuli (lava
than aa flows of equivalent effusion rate. blisters; Fig. 4.8). Hornitos are small, rootless
Peterson and Swanson (1974) observed lava spatter cones up to several metres high formed by
tubes forming during the 1970-1 activity of Mauna explosions due to, for instance, trapped ground
Vlu, Hawaii. They were observed to form by: water. Pressure ridges are elongate uplifts of the
lava crust, occurring subparallel to the flow direction
(a) gradual roofing-over of a lava stream from its
at flow margins, but perpendicular in central
levees by the accretion of lava spatter along the
portions. They are thought to be due to upward
edges and
pressure from still-liquid lava flowing beneath the
(b) cooling of a lava surface to produce a crust,
solidifying surface. Tumuli are small mounds or
beginning at the levees and growing inward
dome-like blisters up to 20 m or more in diameter
and downstream.
on the crust of a lava flow, again caused by pressure
Oilier and Brown (1965) previously suggested that from underflowing lava, or pressure associated with
thick flows would develop shear planes, and that volatilisation of groundwater.
only the hottest, thickest layers would keep flowing, Aa flows are generally thicker (from 2 to 3 m, up
leaving voids or tubes. However, Peterson and to about 20 m) than pahoehoe flows and advance
Swanson (1974) found no evidence for this in much more slowly. The jagged flow-front (Fig.
Hawaii. 4.4b) creeps forward and steepens until a section
Other surface features that occur on pahoehoe becomes unstable and breaks off. Collapse IS
.... Figure 4.6 Aa lava flows on Hawaii. (a) 1868 lava flow on Mauna Loa. (b) Detail of fragmented clinker top to the 1868
Mauna Loa flow. (c) Spinose top of pre-Missionary flow from Mauna Loa.
70 LA VA FLOWS
(b)
repeated as the flow slowly advances in caterpillar- ments of aggregate gradually complete the transition
track fashion over an auto brecciated layer of to aa.
fragmented lava. Internally, aa lava is characterised However, aa lavas also form at vent. When lavas
by irregular elongate vesicles that are drawn out in have a moderate to high viscosity, pahoehoe lavas
response to internal flow, and a stratification will only form at low effusion rates, whereas aa will
consisting of a solid massive lava body sandwiched form when effusion rates have exceeded a critical
between layers of fragmented clinker that may be value (this was 2 x 10- 3 m 3 S-1 on Etna in 1975:
welded together (Figs 4.4b & 6). Sparks & Pinkerton 1978). On the other hand,
The transition from pahoehoe to aa is generally lavas with low initial viscosities will form pahoehoe
regarded to result from the increase in viscosity even at high effusion rates (there is no limiting
caused by cooling, gas loss and greater crystallinity effusion rate).
with time. Peterson and Tilling (1980) made a Both pahoehoe and aa lavas form levees. In a
detailed study of the transition, which occurs at study of levees formed by lavas of Mt Etna, Sparks
some critical point in the relationship between et ai. (1976) found four principal types of levees
viscosity and rate of shear strain. If the viscosity is (Fig. 4.9). Initial levees are formed because of the
low, then the transition only occurs if there is a high yield strength of the lava, as indicated by the
rate of shear; for example, as caused by flow over a studies of Hulme (1974) (see Section 4.3.2 above).
steep slope. If viscosity is high, only a low rate of These form in both pahoehoe and aa flows.
shear is required. At the transition, stiff clots form Accretionary levees were observed near boccas, and
in parts of the flowing lava where the shear rate is consisted of piles of clinker accreted to smooth
greatest, and remaining fluid adheres to these. pahoehoe lava channels. The clinkers weld them-
Also, fragments of solidified pahoehoe crust are selves together to form a steep, solid levee. In flows
incorporated into the flow, and masses and fra..g- where aa has developed fully, the flow front
FEATURES OF SUBAERIAL BASALTIC LAVA FLOWS 71
~
in orientation. Well defined intersecting joint sets
may produce regular polygonal columns. The joint
faces (and columns) propagate inwards from the
~
Inl',ol accretionary
cooling surfaces as the 'cooling front' advances
inwards . This progressive propagation may be
(c) (d) reflected by complementary sub-horizontal joints
within columns, or by a segmentation pattern on
the vertical joints, reflecting successive propagation
stages (Fig. 4. lOb). Columnar jointing can exhibit a
rubbl. ov.rflow two- or three-tiered arrangement (Spry 1962,
MacDonald 1967, 1972; Figs 4.10b & d). The
Figure 4.9 Cross sections through four different type s of
lava levee observed on Mt Etna . Heavier stipple is massive bottom consists of thick, usually well formed
lava; sparsely stippled areas represent flowing lava. (After columns normal to the base of the flow. Above this
Sparks et al. 1976.) colonnade, a layer of thinner, less regular, often
chaotic columns essentially normal to the flow top,
advances and the sides also expand by avalanching but highly irregular in structure, is found. This
of aa debris . These rubble levees are at angles of layer is called the entablature. There may be an
repose of 30-35. The fourth type, overflow levees upper colonnade above this. Two-tiered columnar
form when lava repeatedly floods over existing jointing is common in the Columbia River basalts
rubble levees. Most levees on Mt Etna are hybrids (e.g. Swanson & Wright 1981 ).
of two or more of the four types. Thus, although Recently, Kantha (1980, 1981) proposed that
Hulme's (1974) theory of levee formation was columnar jointing in basalts results from a fluid
confirmed by these observations, accretionary, dynamic process operating in the lava during
rubble and overflow levees nucleate and modify cooling. Double-diffusive convective processes,
initial levees. due to temperature and chemical differences be-
tween the top and bottom of a stagnant melt, are
thought to drive columnar 'finger' motions in the
4.5.2 FLOOD BASALTS
melt. When solidification eventually occurs, con-
Flood basalts form extensive sheets of lava with traction cracks would have preferred propagation
very low aspect ratios (Plate 4, Fig. 4.10a). Com- paths along the boundaries of adjacent 'basalt
positionally, these lavas are dominantly tholeiitic fingers', giving rise to columnar jointing. Similar
(e.g. Swanson & Wright 1981) , although commonly 'salt fingers' can be produced experimentally, and
they can be alkali basalts, e.g. in the Ethiopian also occur in nature in the oceans. Kantha (1980,
province (Mohr 1983; Ch. 13) and in the Deccan 1981) pointed out the striking similarities of basalt
Traps of India (Krishnamurthy & Udas 1981). columns to these. Although Kantha's ideas are very
They are pahoehoe flows , and sometimes ropy interesting, not all columnar jointing can be attri-
surface features are preserved . Many of the larger buted to 'finger motions'. Welded tuffs, for ex-
flows of this type must have ponded as vast lava ample, often display very well developed columnar
lakes , taking years to tens of years to solidify, as jointing (Ch. 8) which cannot be explained by this
indicated by the well developed massive columnar process.
jointing (Fig . 4.10). Lava tubes, lava channels, and other large scale
Cooling is accompanied by contraction, and flow features are generally lacking in flood basalts.
takes place from the cooling surfaces (principally This may be because they did not form, or because
the top and bottom of the flow) inwards. The they were destroyed by later movements within the
Figure 4.10 (a) Flood basalt lava flow of the Picture Gorge Basalt in the Columbia River basalt plateau. Oregon. (b) Icelandic
flood basalt with lower columnar Jointed colonnade and upper entablature. Note hOrizontal segmentation pattern on vertical
jOints (see text) (c) Top of columnar jointed flood basalt lava in Iceland showing polygonal form of columns. (d) Two-tiered
columnar jointing, Campaspe River, Victoria, Australia. (e) Large uniform columns in a thick, massive flow, Organ Pipes,
Victoria, Australia.
SUBMARINE BASALTIC LAVAS 73
'!ormplf shrifr
Palaeoflow direction in flood basalts can be flow
ba.al chillod lono -:;:",""=~,,"-;::=:;:-;::;:::::::::::::::1
determined if spiracles or pipe vesicles are present. flal b a s e - ~~~q~ p,IIow lava
These are concentrations of vesicles in small, c>00oe:>00
curved pipe-like structures found at the base of
flows. They form when bubbles of steam from
heated ground water rise into the lava, and are then compl ..
hool flow
stretched in the direction of flow as it continues to
move (Waters 1960, MacDonald 1967). -,~r-P
ba.ol pi1lowod lon._~ (\ <>
~
4.5.3 PLAINS BASALTS
compl..
sheel flow
Although these are large basaltic flows, Greeley
(1977b, 1982) grouped them as a separate type from
flood basalts. Plains basalts have characteristics of
undUlaling~
~(""'j
baso-~C6~~
both flood basalts and the smaller shield-building P,IIows-db
5Ka~~.
0
pillO W al va
quenched glass
4.6 Submarine basaltic lavas (palagonl!e)
filling Interlillial cav,ty
~
Galapagos rift valley (Ballard et al. 1979). These
may have a variety of surface features, including
folds and whorls like subaerial pahoehoe, or they
may be flat or broken. The transition from pillowed
AI to massive morphology, within a single flow or
between flows (Fig. 4.11), could reflect an increased
discharge rate. Ballard et at. (1979) interpreted
sheet flows as analogous to modern subaerial
unchannelled pahoehoe flows erupted at high dis-
charge rates, and pillow basalts as analogous to
tube-fed pahoehoe lavas erupted at much lower
Figure 4.13 Plan view of, and three orientated cross
discharge rates.
sections through, pillow lavas. (After Hargreaves & Ayres Submarine basaltic lavas are erupted either along
1979.) fissures at mid-ocean ridges or from central vents at
SUBAERIAL BASALTIC FLOW INTO WATER 75
/
,;"---....... ,... ~--
o
(e) of pyroclastic flows (Ch. 13). Eruptions of these
types of lavas have been common this century and
in historic times (Table 4.2).
Lavas of these compositions typically occur as
small-volume, short block flows (sometimes with
mOS"lvt 10'11'0 ~ f lo w-tOOT breccta
well developed levees), and as domes (Fig. 4.18);
Figure 4.17 Structural relationships in successions of an exception already mentioned is the large Chao
basalt flows which have flowed into water during periods of
dacite flow in northern Chile. Some andesite and
vertical movement of water level or of the volcanic pile.
Relationships are valid for vertical scales ranging from 1 cm
dacite lavas form spectacular spires and pitons with
= 10m to 1 cm = 100 m. (After J. G. Jones & Nelson very high aspect (Figs 4.1Sd & e). These lavas must
1970.) have been extremely viscous and have had very
SUBAERIAL ANDESITIC AND DACTIC LAVAS 77
(b)
Figure 4.18 Andesitic and dacitic lavas. (a) Andesitic block lava erupted high on Colima volcano. Mexico in 1975. Note the
well developed levees. (b) Dacitic block lava on Nea Kaimeni. Santorini . (c) The 1981 Mt St Helens dacite dome (after M. & K.
Kraft in Christiansen & Peterson 1981) (d) The 1902 dacitic spine of Mt Pelee (after Bullard 1976). (e) Gras Piton (dacitic). St
Lucia. West Indies.
78 LAVA FLOWS
E
o
2
mOSSl ye columnar
andesi te (b) , - - - - - = -- --------,
100m
Figure 4.19 Section showing flow-front of pre-historic 380m
andesite lava exposed in the north crater wall of Soufriere,
St Vincent. (After Sigurdsson 1981.)
200
high yield strengths; some even have striated and ~--1---------------------~ 100
Original surface
gouged margins, showing that they were nearly
solid when extruded (e.g. Fig. 4.18d). These lavas Figure 4.20 (a) Contour map of the 1945 Showa-Shinzan
cryptodome of Usu volcano, Hokkaido, Japan. (b) Profiles
generally have very high crystal contents. showing growth of the cryptodome. (After Minakami et al.
Andesite and dacite lavas have steep flow-fronts 1951.)
with screes of autobrecciated lava. Sigurdsson
(1981) described the flow front of a short andesite placed as cryptodomes. A cryptodome is a dome-
lava on Soufriere volcano, St Vincent. This consists like uplift of the surface rocks in a volcanic area,
of columnar jointed lava lobes surrounded by a seemingly caused by a near-surface intrusion. Some
thick and irregular layer of blocky and scoriaceous of the best-documented occurrences of cryptodomes
lava rubble (Fig. 4.19), and forms about one-third are those described from Usu volcano, Japan
of the 900 m flow. Expansion of the flow-front as (Minakami et al. 1951; Table 4.2). This volcano has
the lava moved required the outward bulldozing of an historic record of major ground surface changes.
the block and scoria rubble, which is tens of metres During 1910, 1943-5 (Fig. 4.20) and 1977-8, areas
thick. The lava lobes in the flow-front may have of up to 1 km diameter were uplifted 150-200 m by
originated by injection of lava into the collar of the intrusion of lava at a shallow depth. The precise
rubble. thickness of sediment overlying the 1943-5 crypto-
Internally, behind their flow-fronts, andesitic dome is uncertain, although in the final stages of its
and dacitic lavas are usually massive, with columnar growth lava could be seen glowing through large
or blocky jointing. Andesitic lava flows sometimes cracks in a thin mantling layer 3-10 m thick. In this
have a well developed, often flat-lying, sheeted case the lava was a hypersthene dacite. Other
structure with aligned tabular and platy pheno- recorded cryptodomes include the Roche's lava on
crysts. This flow foliation is generally attributed to Montserrat, West Indies (Rea 1974), which has
shear partings developed during laminar flow. In locally uplifted tuffs and fossiliferous limestones on
ancient rocks this can sometimes be confused with the flanks of the volcano. A similar cryptodome,
textures developed in densely welded tuffs (Ch. 8). Brimstone Hill on St Kitts in the Lesser Antilles
(Crystals in the lavas should have euhedral regular (P. E. Baker 1969), has dragged up on its flanks
shapes, and not be broken and fragmented as in the patches of Plio-Pleistocene limestone which are
pyroclastic rocks.) Dacite lavas often have a steep now dipping outwards at about 45.
flow layering which may be flow folded.
Andesites and dacites are also commonly em-
SUBAERIAL RHYOLITIC LAVA FLOW: ERUPTION 79
4.9 Eruption of subaerial rhyolite lava Mexico (Fig. 4.21a). R. L. Smith and Bailey (1968)
flows suggested that extrusion of rhyolite lavas commonly
follows resurgence of magma after climactic ignim-
As far as we are aware, there has only been one brite eruptions which result in caldera subsidence
observed historic eruption of rhyolite lava. This (Ch. 8). In many of these situations it seems that the
was during the 1953-7 activity which formed the lavas have been extruded around the ring fault or
Tuluman Islands, two new islands in the St Andrew fracture on which caldera collapse took place. At
Strait, northern Papua New Guinea CM. A. Rey- Mono Craters an arcuate line of rhyolite lavas is
nolds & Best 1976, M. A. Reynolds et al. 1980). thought to represent activity over part of an actively
The final phase of the eruption, beginning in developing ring fracture system around the foun-
November 1956, produced subaerial lava flows. dering roof of a large crustal magma body in a pre-
Earlier phases were characterised by dominantly caldera stage of evolution (Hermance 1983, Rundle
submarine activity, and produced fields of floating, & Eichelberger 1983). In some examples (e.g. La
vesicular lava blocks. Many rhyolite lavas and Primavera, Fig. 4.21a) the caldera may become
domes often occur in arcuate distributions about filled with a lake, and these post -caldera rhyolites
central calderas or volcanic depressions, as seen, for are emplaced in association with lacustrine sedi-
example, in the Taupo Zone of New Zealand, the ments of the caldera. However, the geology of
Valles and Long Valley calderas and Mono Craters rhyolitic volcanic centres will be expanded upon
in the western USA and La Primavera volcano in later, in Chapter 13. The Tuluman Islands also
L-_ _ _----J'5km
rhyOllle lavas
wllh 09,.e. caldera lake sediment. ~ la t. stage explosion crofer
Figure 4.21 (a) Map of the distribution and surface features of the rhyolite lava flows of La Primavera volcano. Mexico. Some
of the linear features are faults; curved features are ogives (see Plate 2 and text) (after Clough 1981). (b) Map of the rhyolite
domes of southem Lipari, Aeolian Islands (after Richardson 1978).
80 LA VA FLOWS
seem to occur on an arcuate line of rhyolite lavas, Many rhyolitic lavas are associated with pyro-
but here M. A. Reynolds et ai. (1980) have clastic deposits, each lava being almost invariably
speculated that these lie above a ring fracture associated with preceding phases of explosive pyro-
developing above a mantle hot spot. clastic activity. The style of explosive activity can
In other areas, rhyolite lavas do not seem to be vary from mainly phreatic eruptions, producing
obviously associated with a caldera, e.g. the spec- rings of lithic breccias surrounding the lava, e.g.
tacular concentration of rhyolite domes in the Panum Crater (one of the Mono Craters), to highly
southern part of Lipari in the Aeolian Islands, Italy explosive plinian and ignimbrite-forming eruptions.
(Fig. 4.21b), and in Papua New Guinea on the During such explosive phases a pumice cone or tuff
D'Entrecastreaux Islands and at Talasea in New ring can be built-up around the vent (e.g. Fig.
Britain (I. E. M. Smith 1976, Smith & Johnson 4.22e). Even while the rhyolite lava is growing,
1981, Lowder & Carmichael 1970). explosive eruptions may continue, and evidence for
(b)
(e)
Figure 4.22 Rhyolitic lavas. (a) Mt Guardia dome. Lipari (photograph by S. Hall). (b) Cerro EI Chato dome. La Primavera
volcano. (c) Cerro EI Colli mesa lava, the youngest of the La Primavera lavas (after Clough 1981). (d) Mesa EI Majahuate mesa
lava, La Primavera volcano. (e) Coulee of La Primavera volcano which has flowed to left from a vent at the summit of the
pumice cone seen to right (after Clough 1981).
SUBAERIAL RHYOLITIC LAVA FLOW: FEATURES 81
tiona I crater (preceding pyroclastic material being which are generally termed 'intrusive rhyolites' by
more widely dispersed from the vent), but it is workers in ancient successions, based on demon-
possible that such a feature could have been strable intrusive contacts. The Devonian Boyd
completely submerged beneath the succeeding Volcanic Complex in Eastern Australia shows
dome. excellent examples of such intrusive rhyolite lavas.
Rhyolite lavas also commonly form cryptodomes, Some of the rhyolite domes of La Primavera
SUBAERIAL RHYOLITIC LAVA FLOW: FEATURES 83
Figure 4.23 (facing page and above) Lithologies of subaerial rhyolite lava flows. (a) Flow-banded obsidian from a glass flow,
Newberry Crater, Oregon. (b) Platy jointed obsidian dome, Okataina Complex, New Zealand. (c) Interbanded obsidian and
spherulitic layers, Rocche Rosse flow, northern Lipari. (d) Flow-folded obsidian (now partly perlitised), La Primavera volcano. (e)
Flow-folded Upper Devonian rhyolite lava at Tathra, New South Wales, Australia (photograph by S. Raiser). (f) Stony rhyolite
lava with basaltic inclusions, southern Lipari (photograph by S. Hall).
volcano which are found in contact with caldera Black, vitreous obsidian sometimes occurs as
lake sediments (Fig. 4.21a) are thought to have thick foliated layers, often interbanded or as lenses,
formed as crytodomes (Clough et ai. 1981, 1982; within layers of the other lithologies (Fig, 4.23),
Ch. 13). Caldera lake sediments are locally folded This layering, or flow foliation, is frequently
and faulted, and invariably dip away from the folded, Obsidian usually forms a chilled glassy
rhyolite lavas. carapace around rhyolite lavas, commonly about
10 m thick over the top and around the flow front,
with a thinner layer along the base (Fig. 4.24). The
4,10.2 LITHOLOGY
cores of many lavas usually consist of stony
In rhyolite lava flows a variety of lithologies and rhyolite. Some of the thinner 'obsidian flows' and
textural features can be found: obsidian, layers 'glass flows' may be obsidian throughout their
containing spherulites, pumiceous layers, horizons interiors.
of stony rhyolite (lithic rhyolite), and in lavas where Spherulites are radiating aggregates of alkali
hydration of obsidian has occurred, perlite, feldspar, with or without cristobalite and tridymite,
84 LAVA FLOWS
o
they are usually superimposed on flow structures, oj<
and the flow foliation can be traced through, and is $ ~
not deflected by the spherulites, showing that
.; fI
'" glassy obsidian
differences in composition of the obsidian (trachytic have spacings of tens of metres. Ridges on rhyolite
obsidian hydrates much more rapidly than rhyo- lavas have been variously interpreted as ramp
litic), and partly to differences in climate. structures (MacDonald 1972), folds on the surface
In older rhyolites the obsidian is divided into of the lavas (Loney 1968, Fink 1980a) or as
small rounded kernels of structureless obsidian 'squeeze-up' extrusions through cracks during
about 1 cm across, surrounded by concentric cracks stretching of the flow surface.
in light grey friable perlite (this can be seen in the Loney (1968) described the Southern Coulee of
flow-folded obsidian in Fig. 4.23d). The cracks Mono Craters, in which ogives there were open
(called perlitic cracks) which subdivide the glass are anticlines within the flow foliation caused by
probably created by thermal stresses set up during longitudinal compression of the lava stream due to
cooling of the lava. Water then diffuses from these external resistance in their advance, and the analogy
cracks into the bordering glass, and an hydration was made between these features and the compres-
front advances on the residual kernel of non- sion waves in glaciers. Fink (1980a) suggested that
hydrated obsidian. The front is visible in thin some surface ridges have a similar origin to
section because the refractive index of the hydrated pahoehoe ropes, and presented results of folding
glass is lower than that of the non-hydrated glass. analysis to show them to be compatible. The
It is also becoming increasingly apparent that wavelength and amplitude of the folds are depen-
many rhyolite lavas contain a very small, but dent on the temperature gradient, the contrast
significant, proportion of basic inclusions. Basaltic
inclusions are found in several of the lavas of La romp structure
(0) S.Giuseppe 200
Primavera volcano, in some of the rhyolites in
dome
southern Lipari (Fig. 4.23d) and in some from the
Late Devonian Boyd Volcanic Complex, south-
eastern Australia. These basic inclusions exhibit
varying degrees of original fluidity. Some show
embayed and crenulate margins, indicating that the
inclusion was still fluid while the host obsidian was (b) MtGuordio
400
liquid. In other examples the basic inclusions show domes
300
angular contacts, showing that they had cooled
sufficiently to solidify while the lower melting 200
temperature obsidian was still capable of flowing. 100
The inclusions within La Primavera lavas are very Om
similar to the basaltic-andesite lavas which have
erupted around the volcano. Although these basic
inclusions, with their fluidal characteristics, form (c) Growth of
o dome
only a volumetrically small proportion of their host
lavas, their presence indicates that these are mixed
lavas resulting from the coexistence of rhyolitic and
basaltic magma (Ch. 3). This bimodal association is
characteristic of rhyolite volcanoes (Ch. l3).
Figure 4.27 Ramp structure in the Rocche Rosse obsidian coulee. northern Lipari (photograph by S. Hall).
between the surface and interior viscosities and the (see below) rather than surface folds. Fink's analy-
ratio of the compressive stress (due to flow) to the sis can only apply to a limited period during the
gravitational stress (due to the weight of lava). emplacement history of a rhyolite lava flow. Once
Fink's analysis also allows calculation of the mini- the surface is cold, it will behave in a brittle
mum viscosity of many flows, for which such data manner, and fracturing and ramping could then be
are unavailable. important and superimposed on these earlier
The predominant flow foliation orientation on features.
the surface of La Primavera rhyolite lavas (Fig. Other surface features of rhyolite lavas include
4.21a) is subvertical (Clough 1981). The same is pumice diapirs. Fink (l980b, 1983) described in
true of the rhyolite lavas of Lipari (Figs 4.26-28). detail pumiceous diapirs in the Big and Little Glass
This suggests that in these cases the ogives are an Mountain obsidian flows, northern California
outer manifestation of an internal ramp structure (Plate 2). These rose from the basal pumiceous
surfact breccic
basal breccia
SOOm
Figure 4.28 Cross section through the length of the Rocche Rosse obsidian coulee. with generalised flow foliation patterns.
(After Hall 1978.)
SUBAERIAL RHYOLITIC LAVA FLOW: FEATURES 87
layer of the flows, due to the gravity instability 1968, Benson & Kittleman 1968, Fink 1980a & b,
caused by the density inversion inherent in the 1983, Huppert et al. 1982b).
flow. Dome spacings of between 50 and 70 m were Early ideas suggested that rhyolite domes were
measured, and elongation and surface folding of the viscous extrusions from a central vent and were
diapirs indicates they emerged before the flows endogenous, that is, formed by addition of lava
stopped moving. Crevasses may be common, and from within the lava body. Ideally, such bodies
these form by thermal contraction during cooling of should have a concentric structure, and this was
the surface and by radial expansion near the outer produced experimentally by Reyer (in H. Williams
margin of the advancing flow (Fink 1980b). 1932) by squeezing a viscous substance through a
At their flow-fronts rhyolite lavas are steep, and narrow aperture. However, in most cases, the
are typically terminated by talus aprons of brec- internal flow-foliations of the lava, while concentric
ciated lava and pumice blocks. These are built at the margins when viewed in plan, are either
partly by autobrecciation of the lava and, like some vertical or steeply inclined in the core and dip
andesite lavas, advance in bulldozer fashion. Later inward at low angles at the basal margin. This is the
gravitational collapse of the unstable steep flow so-called ramp structure (Fig. 4.26). As lava is
front would also be an important process in the repeatedly injected into the growing dome, the
building of such aprons. ramp structures move outwards, both radially and
tangentially (Fig. 4.27). With time, each fraction of
lava becomes progressively attenuated, due to
4.10.4 GROWTH AND INTERNAL
stretching and shearing, especially in the basal part
STRUCTURE
of the dome. Slickensides found on ramp structures
Flow foliation in rhyolite lavas consists of inter- indicate movement directions on the foliation sur-
banded and foliated layers of varying crystallinity faces, which must have cooled to be solid enough to
(obsidian and stony rhyolite), spherulite content allow such structures to form.
and vesicularity. Different lithological layers are Rhyolite coulees often contain very well devel-
thought to have been batches of physically hetero- oped flow foliations. Again, these often seem to
geneous lava with attendant variations in water develop ramp structures, steep at the top of the
content, crystal content and, perhaps, temperature. flow, curving down to be asymptotic against the
The prominent foliations are then generated during base in the upflow direction (Fig. 4.27). Once the
stretching, shearing and attenuation during flow. width and height of the coulee is established, most
Recently, Nelson (1981) suggested that lithological of the movement is concentrated in a thin zone of
differences in rhyolite flow banding could result shearing at the base. The normal situation will be
from thermal feedback (and temperature increases) for rhyolite flows to be compressive, as lava builds
in layers, due to shear stresses in the moving lava. up behind the brecciated flow-front which retards
Local temperature increases would have the effect the advancing flow. By analogy with the analysis of
of reducing local water solubility, increasing dif- similar structures and the stress distributions found
fusion rates, and increasing nucleation rates and in glaciers, slip or shear planes will be inclined back
growth rates of gas bubbles, thus causing highly towards the vent, and it is these that are the ramp
vesicular bands to parallel shear planes. structures (Hall 1978). If the flow became exten-
Flow directions and flow history of rhyolite lavas sional (such as just in front of a sudden increase in
can be determined by structural analysis of the slope) shear planes would have the opposite dip.
orientation of foliations, folds, vesicles, tabular and Hall (1978) has described these features in the
platy crystals, and stretched-out volcanic glass. Rocche Rosse coulee in northern Lipari (Fig. 4.27).
Late-stage movements of cooled lava are indicated
by slickensides and tension gashes. However, there
are only a few studies of this kind documented in
the literature (Christiansen & Lipman 1966, Loney
88 LAVA FLOWS
4.11 Subaqueous silicic lavas reported within the hyaloclastites. Also, stratified
units of hyaloclastite material are found and attri-
When silicic lavas are erupted into shallow water, buted to sedimentary redistribution, while some
ice- or water-bearing sediments, then domes and explosive activity at the surface could also have
small lava bodies surrounded by quenched and formed pyroclastic deposits.
fragmented volcaniclastic debris form (Fig. 4.29). De Rosen-Spence et al. (1980) described sub-
Pichler (1965) extended the term 'hyaloclastite' to aqueous silicic lavas in the Rouyn-Noranda mining
cover the quenched and fragmented silicic rocks area, Canada. The lavas form domes, lobes and
formed in subaquatic environments (Section 3.6). tabular bodies that are somewhat larger than those
However, descriptions of acid hyaloclastites are not described by Pichler (1965). The largest lava is
common in the literature (Pichler 1965, de Rosen- 10 km long and 400 m thick. Hyaloclastites are
Spence et al. 1980, Fumes et al. 1980). associated with small tongues and lobes of lava.
Pichler (1965) described shallow-water sub- Deposits resembling flow-foot breccias are found,
marine silicic lavas and hyaloclastites from the and these are believed to form by avalanching at the
Island of Ponza, Italy (Fig. 4.29). They are flow front as the lavas advanced. Volcaniclastic
rhyolitic to quartz-latitic in composition. The lava turbidites also occur suggesting a relatively deep-
bodies occur as dykes and stock-like masses. The water setting, although no specific depth is in-
outer parts of these are glassy and extensively dicated.
brecciated and jointed, with radial prismatic cool- Subglacially erupted rhyolite lavas and hyaloclas-
ing joints. Hyaloclastite formation may be a con- tites have been documented from Iceland (Fumes et
tinuous process, with fresh magma being intruded al. 1980, de Rosen-Spence et al. 1980) and, as
into the water-bearing hyaloclastites, and chilling of previously mentioned, rhyolite lavas thought to be
the glassy selvedge, which then bursts into frag- erupted into a caldera lake or water-bearing sedi-
ments with the influx of new magma. This process ments occur in La Primavera volcano (Clough el ai.
would be continued until the flow of lava had 1981). These two examples are discussed further in
ceased. Pichler thought that there was a close Chapter 13. Also, as pointed out at the beginning of
connection between the formation of hyaloclastites Section 4.9, the only observed eruption of rhyolite
and auto brecciation of the quenched surface of the lava, at the Tuluman Islands, was mainly sub-
lava. The silicic hyaloclastites mostly occur as marine. Some of the coarse volcaniclastic deposits
unstratified, loose glassy sand-sized fragments con- illustrated in photographs (M. A. Reynolds et ai.
taining angular juvenile lava blocks, often vesicu- 1980) may contain a high proportion of quench-
lated. (Previously, these were generally referred to fragmented debris.
as volcanic conglomerates and tuffs, pumiceous Large volume, deep-water submarine silicic lavas
agglomerates or lava breccias.) The hyaloclastites seem to be very different in their characteristics,
on Ponza are associated with calcareous shallow judging by an example from Australia (Cas 1978a),
marine sediments, and marine fossils have been namely the poorly vesicular dacite-andesite and
rhyodacite porphyries of the Merrions Tuff. Two of
SUBMARINE EXTRUDED
SILICIC DOME these porphyries form thick, regionally extensive
sand slud
hyoloclasltle
units (> 1200 km 2) in the mid-Palaeozoic Hill End
Trough of New South Wales (Fig. 4.30). The
sediment sequence in this trough consists of thick
mass-flow deposits and turbidites (5 km thick)
deposited in a deep-water environment. The por-
phyries do not show cross-cutting relationships to
enclosing sediments, and there is no evidence for
Figure 4.29 Geology of a silicic lava extruded into shallow
water. Thickness of dome depicted is of the order of 200 m. them being post-sedimentation sills - indeed, there
(After Pichler 1965.) is evidence that the porphyries were exposed to
KOMA TIITES 89
Figure 4.30 (a) Isopach maps of the three extensive silicic 4.12 Komatiites - peculiarities of the
lavas within the Merrions Tuff. Australia. These are con- Archaean
structed relative to the unfolded configuration of the
formation. isopachs in metres. (b) Inferred sequence of The discussion about the physical properties of
emplacement and spatial relationships of the lavas. Not
magmas in Chapters 1 and 2, and of the features of
shown are the deep-water marine sediment horizons
separating each unit. (After Cas 1978a.) lavas and their eruptions discussed in this chapter
so far, have been relevant to 'normal' or penecon-
temporary magmas and lavas of the Phanerozoic,
erosion accompanying the emplacement of sedi- and even the bulk of the Proterozoic. However,
ment overlying one of the units, and their presence during the Archaean there was a unique, but
has influenced later patterns of sedimentation. common group of magmas and lavas called koma-
Texturally, the porphyries show no evidence of tiites. Their unique character appears to have been
vitric1astic texture, broken crystals, pumice or not just compositional, but also in terms of their
foreign lithic fragments, which may suggest they physical properties and behaviour as lavas.
were deep-water welded ash flows or ignimbrites Komatiites are ultra basic volcanic rocks - either
(see Chs 8 & 9). In places the units have fragmented lavas, tuffs, hyaloc1astites or autobreccias (Arndt &
margins, thought to be partly quenched and partly Nisbet 1982). Compositionally, komatiites are
autobrecciated. unique because they are extremely high magnesian
Aspect ratios of the two larger units are very low, rocks, with MgO contents greater than 18% (Arndt
90 LAVA FLOWS
(0) (b)
Overlying
,
flow unll
~ , AI IlowlOP breCCia
-
. ".~ ;I ~.
.~. ~
,
A2
Zone
, of
I Schlieren
I
I Irani Ilion ZOIle
I
I 8
gabbro
I
I
I
I
I
I pyro.ent cumulale
I 8m
~ 84 ~
,,;; Underlying r
flow unll ollYlne cumulale
o 2metres
Figure 4.32 Facies models for (a) komatiite lavas and (b) komatiitic basalt lavas, highlighting the internal textural zonation.
(After Arndt et al. 1977.)
92
CHAPTER FIVE
93
94 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
(0) Fall
Figure 5.2 Several separate pyroclastic fall deposits form-
ing the bedded sequence mantling erosional topography.
Hills and valleys are cut into older massive pumiceous
pyroclastic flow deposits of the Oruanui ignimbrite
(20000 years BP)' near Lake Taupo. New Zealand.
~
... .. . .. deposits are generated in part from ash elutriated
.
"' ''.~.
. .
~
out of the top of moving pyroclastic flows forming
ash-cloud derived fall deposits; examples of this type
Figure 5.1 Geometric relationships of the three basic types
of pyroclastic fall deposit can be more voluminous
of pyroclastic deposit overlying the same topography. (After and may be further dispersed than those of ash
J. V. Wright et al. 1980) from eruption columns (Section 5.2).
INTRODUCTION 95
(a) Figure 5.3 (a) Mdq,/oq, plot often used to show grainsize
characteristics of unconsolidated modern pyroclastic
deposits. The grainsize distribution of a sample is first
determined by mechanical analysis (App. I) Cumulative
curves of the distribution are then drawn on arithmetic
probability paper and the two Inman (1952) parameters of
median diameter and graphical standard deviation, which is a
measure of sorting, are derived. Solid lines labelled 1% and
4 % are contours for the field of pyroclastic fall deposits and
within these 99% and 96%, respectively, of sieve analyses
of fall deposits occur (based on over 1300 analyses) (after
G. P. L. Walker 1971). Broken lines are similar contours for
flo w
the field of pyroclastic flow analyses (based on about 800
lo ll analyses) (after G. P L. Walker 1971, G. P. L. Walker et al.
5 .uro. (.. nole lom lnoe) 1980). (b) Example of an Mdq,/oq, plot. All of the samples are
Sc .uroo (cor. lompl.)
,..-;--.--., from the products of one large Mexican eruption. This
, /
ilu"" l'
lC.
produced pumiceous pyroclastic fall. surge and flow
\
._------'-:...-;: ..
''''''~~''l',
Xil-rryll'
deposits. The pyroclastic flow deposits are called the Rio
, .~/ Caliente ignimbrite (after J. V. Wright 1981).
02 ': Sc". '
,- J: ...... ~---;
.~
.r:.
~oL-~::~:===~~~:=::~::~c:~~::~L
(!) -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 (~)
256 64 16 4 I 1/4 1/16 1/64(mm)
~~:)
pyroclasllC lo ll depo."
20cm Ih,ck j ma,or highways
5.1 .2 PYROCLASTIC FLOW DEPOSITS: "\ approximale limll at
DEFINITION \. loll depa.,1 conlour Inferyal 500 merrn
c::r pyracla"ic lIow deposal.
These are the deposits left by surface flows of
pyroclastic debris which travel as a high particle Figure 5.5 Distribution of pyroclastic flow deposits from
the 1974 eruption of Fuego volcano, Guatemala. The
concentration gas-solid dispersion. They are grav-
pyroclastic flo w deposits fill canyons and valleys on the
ity controlled, hot and, in some instances, may be lower slopes of the volcano. Their distribution contrasts with
partly fluidised (Ch. 7). As a general rule, deposits the pyroclastic fa ll deposits produced in the same eruption .
are topographically controlled, filling valleys and (After D. K. Davies et al. 1978a, Rose et al. 1978.)
depressions (Figs 5.1, 5 & 6) . However, certain
'violent' pumiceous pyroclastic flows emplaced at which the fine-ash fraction has been lost by gas
extremely high velocities are known to form a streaming through the moving pyroclastic flow, or
topography mantling pyroclastic flow facies. We after the flow came to rest (c. J. N . Wilson 1980;
will discuss this special facies in Chapter 7. Ch. 7). Such gas streaming produces pipes and
Internally, pyroclastic flow deposits are generally other pods enriched in heavier crystals, lithics or
massive and poorly sorted ( 0 4) ?'! 2.0) , but some- larger vesicular fragments, which are important
times show grading of larger clasts known as coarse- features that distinguish these primary pyroclastic
tail grading (Fig. 5.6) . Poor sorting in flow deposits mass-flow deposits of pyroclastic debris from epi-
is attributed to high particle concentration, and not clastic flows of volcanic material.
to turbulence, with the dominant flow mechanisms Pyroclastic flows are emplaced at high tempera-
probably being laminar or plug flow, or both (Ch. tures (Table 5.1) . Evidence for a high emplacement
7). The superposition of a number of flow units temperature is also very important in distinguishing
(each flow unit being regarded as the deposit of a pyroclastic flow deposits from epiclastic debris flow
single pyroclastic flow) can give the appearance of deposits. This evidence would include the presence
internal stratification (e.g. Fig. 5.16a, below); of:
however, a diffuse layering is occasionally observed
within individual flow units, and is due to internal (a) carbonised wood,
shearing during transport. Pyroclastic flow deposits (b) pink coloration due to thermal oxidation of
sometimes contain 'fossil fumarole pipes' or gas iron, or dark coloration due to crystallisation
segregation pipes (e.g. Fig. 5.15c, below) , from of finely-disseminated microlites of magnetite
INTRODUCTION 97
(c)
Figure 5.6 Pyroclastic flow deposits. (a) Filling a valley on the lower slopes of Fuego after the 1974 eruption (Fig. 5.5). Note
the poor sorting and the large lava blocks showing overall reverse grading. The new channel cut through these deposits is
approximately 40 m deep, and this was incised in two wet seasons (after Vessell & Davies 1981) (b) Pumiceous pyroclastic
flow deposit (ignimbrite) ponded over a steeply dipping pumice-fall deposit. The pumice-fall deposit mantles former
topography and is internally stratified. This is called the Granadilla pumice, and the pyroclastic flow was erupted later in the
same eruption on Tenerife. A younger, thin pumice-fall deposit overlies the flat top of the pyroclastic flow deposit and this is
capped by a palaeosol (photograph by J. A. Wolff). (c) and (d) Thick deposit of a single pumice flow which choked a large valley
cut into older volcanics at Micoud, St Lucia, Lesser Antilles. Contact is to the right of scale figures.
Upper Bandelier ignimbrite 550-800 welding experiments R. L. Smith and Bailey (1966),
Ch. 8
(or other iron or manganese oxide minerals), 5.2 Eruptions producing pyroclastic falls
which may be oxidised to haematite, producing
the pink colour, Upward transport of pyroclasts high into the
(c) a zone(s) of welded tuff and Earth's atmosphere may occur in two ways:
(d) a thermal remanent magnetism (TRM; Hoblitt
& Kellogg 1979). in eruption columns accompanying explosive
eruptions
Carbonised wood is common in pyroclastic flows
in ash clouds accompanying pyroclastic flows
erupted from volcanoes in tropical or wooded
temperate areas, but is absent or scarce in those
erupted from volcanoes in dry climates.
5.2.1 EXPLOSIVE ERUPTION COLUMNS
Although the term 'ignimbrite' is widely used for
the deposit of any pyroclastic flow, we reserve it for The eruption columns produced by explosive
the deposits of pumiceous pyroclastic flows (see eruptions may take many forms (Figs 5.7 & 8), and
Section 5.4.2 and Ch. 7). their energetics and dynamics have been discussed
recently by Settle (1978), L. Wilson et al. (1978),
Sparks and L. Wilson (1982) and Sparks (1986).
5.l.3 PYROCLASTIC SURGE DEPOSITS:
The height reached by an eruption column, together
DEFINITION
with the atmospheric wind velocity profile (which
A surge transports pyroclasts along the surface as may vary with height, e.g. Fig. 13.28), controls the
an expanded, turbulent, low particle concentration dispersal ofpyroclasts (Fig. 5.8). Observed eruption
gas-solid dispersion. Deposits mantle topography columns have attained heights between 2 and
but are also topographically controlled, and they 45 km (Table 5.2; L. Wilson et al. 1978). Plume
tend to accumulate, or are thickest in depressions height is a function of vent radius, gas exit velocity,
(Fig. 5.1). Characteristically, they show unidirec- gas content of the eruption products and the
tional sedimentary bedforms: low angle cross- efficiency of conversion of thermal energy during
stratification, dune-forms, climbing dune-forms, the entrainment of cool atmospheric air (L. Wilson
pinch and swell structures, and chute and pool et al. 1978). In all highly explosive eruptions, the
structures have all been described. Deposits are thermal energy released is completely dominant
often enriched in denser lithics and crystals. Indi- over the initial kinetic energy released from decom-
vidual laminae are generally well sorted, but core pression and expansion of the gas phase. The style
samples incorporating a number of laminae can be of explosive activity is also important in controlling
poorly sorted (Fig. 5.3). They can contain small gas the character of the eruption column. Discrete
segregation pipes, produced by gases escaping from instantaneous explosions produce transient plumes,
preceding flow deposits, and carboni sed wood. whereas prolonged release of fragmented magma in
Of course, surges are a type of flow, but the term a steady state eruption forms a long-term, main-
pyroclastic flow has traditionally been associated tained plume. If discrete explosions occur in rapid
with the high concentration flows, and it is appro- succession (within seconds to a few minutes) a
priate to classify the fundamentally different types maintained plume may also form.
of deposits produced by flows and surges separately, Eruption columns can be divided into three parts
even though there may essentially be a spectrum (Sparks & L. Wilson 1976, Sparks 1986):
(see Ch. 7 for further discussion on the distinction,
(a) an initial gas thrust part, due to rapid decom-
and the debate surrounding this).
pression of the gas phase,
(b) an upper convection plume which is driven by
the release of thermal energy from juvenile
particles. In this region buoyancy is dominant
and the top is defined by the level of neutral
ERUPTIONS PRODUCING PYROCLASTIC FALLS 99
buoyancy, H B , where the column bulk density (E. Blackburn et al. 1976, Self et al. 1979). For
equals that of the surrounding atmosphere maintained eruption columns the range is from a
and few hundred metres to a few kilometres in some
(c) an umbrella region (also called a downwind eruptions (1.5-4.5 km for initial gas velocities of
plume), where the column spreads radially or 400-600 m S-I; L. Wilson 1976, Sparks & L.
downwind, or both, to form an umbrella Wilson 1976). Rapid deceleration of the gas thrust
cloud. The umbrella cloud extends from phase occurs between these heights, above which
height HB to height HT , the level to which the particles are incorporated into an eruption column
column continues to rise due to its momentum driven by convection. A maintained convecting
(Sparks 1986). eruption column could reach heights of greater than
40 km during some large explosive (plinian) erup-
The height of the initial gas thrust phase varies tions (L. Wilson et al. 1978). A convecting plume
with the style of the activity (Ch. 6). In most will rise until it reaches a level in the atmosphere
eruption columns, the lower gas thrust part makes (H B ) with the same density, and then it will
up less than 10% of the total column height (L. mushroom, spreading radially or laterally, or both,
Wilson et al. 1978). For discrete explosions (strom- downwind (Figs 5.8 & 9). In eruption columns that
bolian and vu1canian eruptions; Ch. 6) this ranges form from discrete explosions, convective recovery
from a few tens of metres to a few hundred metres only takes columns to heights of a few kilometres,
100 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
(0)
WEST EAST
30
25
E.><
20
E
.~ 15
Q)
J: 10
30 20 10 o 10 20 30 40 50
(b)
~
oo _ _ ~ ~TISH _C OLU_MB IA _.-_~~DA _ _ - - - - - - -
~~fg~84 00 UNITED STATES
12900 I 1
25 -14 500
.... 174 00
2~1680
6500 Spokon. \
I
I !
I '
Moy 18 I
16 00 11 4 5
I
E
I,
=
-
~
0>
15 Mt St Helens
.... . ./ ------
~Porllond
'iii
J:
10
OREGON
IDAHO
oL
' . . ._ _
100 200
,'-----"_~'
300km
o L.....I.--'----'----'-~-'
o 20 4 0 60 80 100 120
Wind veloc ity
unless explosions occur in quick succession, 10 where H T is the height of the column in metres and
which case a maintained plume forms. Qis the steady rate of release of energy in watts. Q
L. Wilson et al. (1978) and Settle (1978) have is related to the eruption conditions at vent by:
independently shown that the maximum height of
an eruption column (H T ) is proportional to the
Q = ~vJt?s(8 - 8a )F (5.2)
fourth root of the rate of release of energy, and in which ~, v, sand 8 are, respectively, the bulk
hence the fourth root of the mass eruption rate. For density, velocity, specific heat and temperature of
maintained eruption columns the height can be the erupting fluid, 8 a is the temperature to which
predicted from the eruption products ultimately cool (-270 K in
most cases), r is the vent radius and F is an
(5.1)
efficiency factor (discussed below). The bulk den-
(after Morton et al. 1956, L. Wilson et al. 1978), sity, ~,is related to the density of the magmatic gas,
ERUPTIONS PRODUCING PYROCLASTIC FALLS 101
(el
CANADA _-----
;;----------,1----
\ UNITED STATES
--"
WASHINGTON I I- 0'o~ ---",
MONTANA
3] 9. :S--~_
_____ ~ O.I --'",',
~
' : 0 2
. 5-' " '
~ ----, , '
~.2/:. 1.0,,"-,-', "", \ \
~-;~ ~C-::~ '-'
,. __ -:-r.CV~~5-,
,':.r...' _--'" \ I \ \
I
mOil mum ~.~
~ 0.25-->-Y-- I I
thICkn ... 20cm ' .,,' ...-, 0.1 --'--- .I I
--------
----
' ? -'.......... /
'~J~ '" __ ) 005~
MI SI Helens --- ... _---_""\.
\. "'--"""" "J'". '.... --' '"
P.rt lon d I
\
\
OREGON \ ~--
; ' ....
\ ,-....J
WYOMING
IlopaChs in em
I IDAHO V- I
o
'
, --_ ...' - _....
100 200
' -----'.
300km
~ \
Figure 5.8 Development of the eruption column, downwind plume and dispersal of pyroclasts in the 18 May 1980 eruption
of Mt St Helens. (a) East-west profile schematically showing early vertical growth and lateral expansion of the plume. (b)
Isochron map showing maximum downwind extent of the edge of the plume carried by the fastest-moving wind layer (as
observed on satellite photographs). On the left an average wind speed profile measured at Spokane at 16.00 h is given.
Circular wind diagram shows average directions to which wind was blowing at different altitudes, and were again measured at
Spokane at 16.00 h. (c) Isopachs of the 18 May pyroclastic fall deposit. Note the secondary thickening of the air-fall deposit
300 km downwind; the significance of this will be discussed in Chapter 6. (After Sarna-WOjcicki et a/. 1981.)
Volumetric eruption rates are given in terms of dense rock equivalent (App. I).
Plume heights are above the top of the volcano, not sea level.
The data on Hekla 1947, refer to the first 30 min of the eruption.
The data on Heimaey refer to the first few weeks of the eruption.
Information is taken largely from L. Wilson et al. (1978), with data on Santa Maria (1902) from S N. Williams and Self (1983),
Mt St Helens (1980) from Harris et a/. (1981) and Sarna-WojcICki et al. (1981), and Soufriere, St Vincent (1979) from Sparks and L.
Wilson (1982)
102 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
50
height and volumetric eruption or discharge rate of
-
E
40
Bezymianny 1956
0",
./;,j magma calculated from Equations 5.1-5.3, together
with the heights of some observed eruption columns
(Table 5.1). The calculations coincide well with
'0 ..,
oX
o recorded column heights. The efficiency factor, F,
+- 30
.c
c> measures the efficiency of conversion of heat to
Q)
.c potential or kinetic energy, and curves with values
20
of F = 1.0,0.7 and 0.3 are used in Figure 5.9. F is
Q)
E
::J
a:: mainly controlled by the degree of fragmentation of
10 the magma in the explosive event. Here we are only
considering magmatic eruptions, not the special
case of explosions generated by magma-water
10
interaction (which will be discussed below). In
Volumetric eruption rate (m 3 5- 1) eruptions which generate a higher proportion of
Figure 5.9 Relationship between plume height and volu- ash-sized ejecta, virtually all of the magmatic heat
metric eruption rate. The theoretical curves for F-values of can be converted to mechanical energy. Many
1.0, 0.7 and 0.3 are discussed in the text. Observed plume
plinian deposits have a substantial proportion of
heights for ten eruptions are plotted from Table 5.1. (After L.
Wilson et at. 1978.) fine-grained particles, and Sparks and L. Wilson
(1982) estimated at least 70% efficiency in the
Qg' the density of the pyroclasts, Qm, and the weight conversion of heat in selected plinian columns. On
fractions of gas and pyroclasts, Nand Xm: the other hand, strombolian eruptions produce a
1 Xm N comparatively much higher proportion of coarse
-=-+- (5.3) debris (because of a lower degree of fragmentation;
B Qm Qg Ch. 6), and columns are likely to be much less
If it is assumed that the predominant gas is water efficient in the conversion of heat. Consequently,
and that the erupting fluid is at atmospheric observed eruption columns from this type of
pressure, then for 8 = 1200 K, Qg is 0.18 kg m- 3 . activity should fit a theoretical curve with a low F-
The thermal properties of magma are dominated by value, and this seems to be the case for the 1973
the solid phase for gas contents of a few per cent by Heimaey eruption in Iceland (Fig. 5.9).
weight, and the value of s, the specific heat, is taken The maximum theoretical height expected for a
as 1.1 X 10- 3 J kg- I K- 1 . stable maintained eruption plume is about 55 km
The maximum height of the eruption column, (L. Wilson et al. 1978). This corresponds to an
H T , can also be expressed as a function of the initial gas velocity of 700 m s- I (greater muzzle
volume discharge rate of magma (Sparks 1986; Fig. velocities are unlikely to occur on Earth; McGetchin
5.9): & Ullrich 1973, L. Wilson 1976), which leads to a
volume eruption rate of 1.1 x 106 m 3 S-I.
HT = 5.773(1 + n)-3/8[a<ps(S - Sa)]! (5.4)
Equation 5.1 strictly applies to the vertical rise of
where <I> is the volume discharge rate In cubic an eruption column into a still atmosphere with no
metres wind. This should be broadly applicable to most
per second, s is the specific heat, S is the initial large explosive eruptions, where upward velocities
temperature of the erupting material, Sa is the of a particle-rich plume are likely to be much
atmospheric temperature at sea level, a is the greater over much of its height than the transverse
magma density and n is the ratio of the vertical wind velocity. For strong winds and moderate to
gradient of the absolute temperature to the lapse small eruption columns the effect of wind on
rate. column height can be significant, and this is
Figure 5.9 depicts theoretical curves showing the discussed by Settle (1978). A standard atmosphere
relationships between maintained eruption column with a vertical decrease in temperature (environ-
ERUPTIONS PRODUCING PYROCLASTIC FALLS 103
mental lapse rate) of6SC km- 1 is also used in the (1972) and Sparks and Walker (1977) have demon-
calculations of the theoretical curves in Figure 5.9. strated that enrichment of crystals is a typical
However, substantial departures from standard feature of ignimbrites, and must be accounted for
atmosphere can occur, and the scatter in the data by substantial volumetric losses of the vitric com-
from observed eruptions in Figure 5.9 may partly ponent of the original magma which is deposited in
reflect variations in vertical atmospheric tempera- associated air-fall ash deposits. Much of this ash is
ture gradients (L. Wilson et ai. 1978). These effects elutriated out of the moving pumice flows by gas
have again been illustrated by Settle (1978). streaming through and up, out of the flows. The
To estimate the rise height of a plume generated ash rises above the pumice flows in an upper
from a discrete explosion, another equation must be turbulent ash cloud, which is taken to great heights
used: by huge convective plumes (Fig. 5.7b). Because the
ash particles are very fine-grained (nearly all
(5.5)
< 1 mm), there may be nearly 100% efficiency of
(Morton et ai. 1956). This has the same form as conversion of heat to convective energy to drive the
Equation 5.1, but Q is the total energy released in plumes.
joules. The types of air-fall ash deposits which result are
During ph rea to magmatic eruptions, a great deal variously termed layer 3 deposits (Sparks et al.
of heat, that in normal magmatic eruptions would 1973), co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits (this is our
be used to drive a convective plume, is used instead preferred term; Sparks & Walker 1977), and vitric
in the conversion of water to steam (the heat of air-fall ash deposits 0. V. Wright et al. 1980). What
vaporisation of water is 580 cal g-l (1 cal = 4.18 J) is significant here is that these deposits can be very
at atmospheric pressure and 298 K) (L. Wilson et extensive, and can have volumes which are com-
al. 1978, Self & Sparks 1978). The thermal energy parable with those of ignimbrites. It is now thought
used in vaporisation can only be recovered by that many of the extensive large ash layers found in
condensation of the steam. Consequently, eruption deep sea cores are of this type (e.g. Ninkovich et al.
column heights should be lower in a phreatomag- 1978, Sparks & Huang 1980). We will describe co-
matic eruption than in a magmatic eruption with ignimbrite ash-fall deposits in more detail in
the same volumetric rate of discharge. Sparks and Chapter 8, but will first consider other types of
L. Wilson (1982) indicated that the effects of steam deposits from ash clouds associated with pyroclastic
in controlling column height are probably small flows (Section 5.6.2).
except where the mass of steam is comparable with As a final comment on eruptions producing
the mass of ash. pyroclastic falls, the high plumes generated, par-
ticularly during plinian-type and ignimbrite-
forming eruptions, must penetrate the level of the
5.2.2 ASH CLOUDS ACCOMPANYING
tropopause in the atmosphere (at heights of <6 to
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
18 km, depending on latitude and season) and
During pyroclastic flow-forming eruptions, much contribute fine ash and gaseous species to stratos-
of the explosively ejected fragmented magma par- pheric dust veils. Some climatologists have there-
ticles may fail to be included in the resulting fore thought that volcanic eruptions might promote
pyroclastic flow deposit. Hay (1959) first showed periods of climatic cooling. The topic is beyond the
that an enrichment of crystals took place in a small scope of this book, but two critical reviews, by
basaltic andesite pyroclastic flow from the 1902 Rampino et al. (1979) and Self et al. (1981), have
eruption of Soufriere, St Vincent, and he attributed suggested that volcanic dust veils are only likely to
this to the selective loss ofvitric ash. Lipman (1967) cause short-term 10 years) very minor tempera-
found a similar enrichment in crystals in a pu- ture fluctuations (in the order of <0.5C), and are
miceous rhyolitic ignimbrite erupted from Aso unlikely to trigger ice ages or glaciations, or even
caldera, Japan. Since these studies, G. P. L. Walker minor fluctuations in the 10-100 year range.
104 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
Rampino et at. (1979) even suggested that it may be spatter cones and scoria cones. They can be very
climatic variations (leading to stress changes in the coarse-grained, with the predominant grain size
Earth's crust) that augment volcanic eruptions >64 mm, and contain large ballistic bombs, in-
rather than vice versa. cluding irregularly shaped bombs and spatter
fragments (Ch. 3). Away from the cones, scoria fall
deposits are finer-grained and usually <5 m thick.
5.3 Pyroclastic fall deposits: types and Pumice-fall deposits (Fig. 5.4b) are composed
description largely of vesiculated high viscosity magmas (ande-
site to rhyolite, phonolite and trachyte). They form
The description and interpretation of pyroclastic widely dispersed sheets, and are the sub-plinian,
fall deposits can be approached in a number of plinian and ultraplinian deposits in Walker's scheme
ways. The most useful for the volcanologist working (Ch. 6). Deposits of one eruption are rarely> 10 m
on modern pyroclastic deposits has been the thick, but very close to the vent deposits as thick as
quantitative scheme of G. P. L. Walker (1973b), 25 m are known. At vent, the predominant grain size
and we will use this as a basis for a detailed may be >64 mm, and the deposits contain large
description of pyroclastic fall deposits and their lithic and pumice blocks and bombs.
explosive mechanisms in Chapter 6. This is a Ash-fall deposits can be formed by a whole
genetic scheme and divides explosive magmatic spectrum of pyroclastic processes. Phreatomagmatic
eruptions from open vents into two groups. The eruptions characteristically form fine-grained de-
first represents a spectrum of increasing dispersal posits and these often contain accretionary lapilli
and fragmentation: hawaiian, strombolian, sub- (Section 5.8). Co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits can
plinian, plinian and ultraplinian. Phreatomagmatic be very extensive examples. They may also contain
eruptions constitute the second group, for which accretionary lapilli caused by rain flushing, and
two types have been described: surtseyan and would be difficult to distinguish from silicic phrea-
phreatoplinian. These two types have extremely tomagmatic (phreatoplinian) ash-fall deposits in the
high degrees of fragmentation, and are, respectively, absence of field criteria (Ch. 6). Dense-clast pyro-
generally basic to intermediate, and acidic in clastic flows may produce equivalent lithic ash-fall
composition although air-fall type and composition deposits. Vulcanian eruptions typically produce
cannot be considered in mutually exclusive terms. ash-fall deposits which may range from dense lithic-
Vulcanian air-fall deposits generated by explosion rich to scoriaceous types. Close to the vent, these
from closed vents are also defined in the scheme. deposits may contain abundant ballistic blocks and
However, before discussing this scheme and the bombs. Phreatic eruptions produce lithic ash-fall
resultant deposits (Ch. 6), are there any simpler deposits, and ballistic blocks may be very abundant
divisions we can use that still retain some genetic around the vent. As well as these, pumice and
considerations to distinguish modern pyroclastic scoria fall deposits have ash-fall dep6sits as their
fall deposits in the field? Three types of pyroclastic distal equivalents, and their character depends on
fall deposits can be distinguished on broad litho- downwind aeolian fractionation processes. Air-fall
logical and genetic grounds: ash deposits range in thickness from < 1 mm near
vent, to > 1 m thick more than 100 km away for co-
(a) scoria-fall deposits,
ignimbrite ash-fall deposits and phreatoplinian
(b) pumice-fall deposits,
deposits.
(c) ash-fall deposits.
An alternative non-genetic approach uses litho-
Scoria-fall deposits are composed largely of logical descriptions based on dominant grain size
vesiculated basalt to basaltic andesite magma (Fig. and component types, as shown in Tables 12.5 & 7.
5.4a). These are the deposits characteristic of For example, in this case most pumice-fall deposits
hawaiian and strombolian explosive activity (Ch. would be pumice lapilli deposits. Most of the
6). Near the vent they are associated with lava coarser near-vent equivalents of the deposits dis-
PYROCLASTIC FLOW-FORMING ERUPTIONS 105
cussed above would then be called volcanic breccias. studies of older Quaternary deposits suggest that
We will discuss the use of these two terms in the larger flows (forming ignimbrites) have travelled
Chapter 12. distances of > 100 km from vent, and theoretical
analysis based on measurements of the heights of
mountains climbed by pyroclastic flows suggests
5.4 Pyroclastic flow-forming eruptions that average speeds of > 100 m S-1 are common
(Ch. 7).
Pyroclastic flows (Fig. 5.10) are potentially the Pyroclastic flows are generated by a number of
most destructive of all volcanic phenomena, due to different mechanisms (Fig. 5.11). From what we
the large distances that some types are capable of understand of observed modern eruptions, these
travelling and to their high temperature. Serious can be split initially into two main types:
loss of life has been caused by several small historic
pyroclastic flows. Small historic flows have been lava-dome or lava-flow collapse
observed to move up to about 20 km from vent at eruption column collapse
speeds as high as 60 m s - 1 (J. G. Moore & Melson
1969, D. K. Davies et al. 1978a). However, field
Figure 5.10 Two pyroclastic flows. (a) Towering ash cloud 4000 m above a pyroclastic flow moving down the Riviere
Blanche from Mt Pelee during an eruption in December 1902 (after La Croix 1904) (b) Pumiceous pyroclastic flow erupted on
7 August at Mt St Helens in 1980. This flow travelled at speeds in excess of 30 m S-1. (After P W Lipman In Rowley et al.
1981.)
106 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
Figure 5.11 Mechanisms generating pyroclastic flows. The pyroclastic flow proper is a high particle concentration underflow.
The ash cloud gives rise to other deposits (Fig. 5 .13).
PYROCLASTIC FLOW-FORMING ERUPTIONS 107
5.4.1 LAVA-DOMEORLAVA-FLOW Here we must also ask whether the 1980 eruption
COLLAPSE of Mt St Helens should be considered to be another
This mechanism typically operates on steep-sided example of an explosive dome collapse. The ex-
andesitic volcanic cones, but also occurs during the plosive eruption of 18 May was initiated when a
eruption of silicic domes not related to major giant landslide, triggered by an earthquake, re-
edifices. Fragmental flows of broken lava are leased the confining pressure on a rising dacitic
generated when an unstable, actively growing lava- dome (or cryptodome; Ch. 4) which was intruded
dome or lava-flow collapses from the summit or high into the north flank of the volcano (Christiansen
high on the flanks of the volcano. Collapse may be & Peterson 1981). A large rockslide avalanched,
simply gravitational (which is not strictly pyro- and was quickly followed by an explosive directed
clastic), or could be an explosively directed blast blast (Fig. 5.11c; also see Fig. 10.6). Explosions
(Figs 5.11a & b). However, pressure release within were generated by flashing of superheated ground
a dome due to an initial gravitational collapse could water as well as release of magmatic gases when the
lead to explosive collapse so, in some cases, both dome and its hydrothermal system were exposed
processes may have occurred. Explosions could and depressurised by the landslide. The avalanche
also be triggered by contact of the growing dome formed a relatively 'hot and dry' volcaniclastic
with ground water. Such an eruption could there- debris flow consisting almost entirely of older
fore be considered to be phreatomagmatic. This volcanic rocks with little juvenile material 1%;
also leads to the possibility that phreatic explosions Voight et al. 1981). At the time of emplacement
could generate pyroclastic flows containing no much of the deposit was as hot as 100C, and it is
juvenile fragments (e.g. Sheridan 1980). It is perhaps debatable whether it should be termed a
therefore important to realise that different proces- pyroclastic flow deposit. What to call the deposit of
ses may have occurred at about the same time, and the blast has again been somewhat debatable, but it
the relative importance of each is, perhaps, difficult has been widely regarded as a pyroclastic surge
to distinguish. (Section 5.6) and, more recently, as a pyroclastic
These types of pyroclastic flow we will term flow (Section 7.12). Although the eruption was an
block and ash flows, but other terms in use are lava explosive dome collapse, the eruption and its
debris flows, hot avalanche deposits (P. W. Francis deposits seem to be more complicated than those
et al. 1974) and nuees ardentes (see Ch. 12). Block generating the block and ash flows that we have
and ash-flows are small-volume pyroclastic flows, described previously. The events at Mt St Helens
and even the deposits of many separate flows or also triggered a nine hour dacitic plinian eruption
flow units accumulated during the same eruption with pumice flows forming an ignimbrite (Section
typically have volumes <1 km 3 . 5.5).
Examples of historic eruptions during which There may have been several historic eruptions
explosive lava-dome or lava-flow collapse was in which there has been a collapse of a sector of the
observed are the eruptions of Mt Pelee, Martinique volcano similar to the one observed at Mt St
in 1902 and 1929-32 (La Croix 1904, Perret 1937), Helens. The eruption of Bezymianny in 1956
Merapi, Indonesia in 1942-3 (van Bemmelen (Gorshkov 1959) produced a directed blast and
1949), the eruptions of Hibok-Hibok, Philippines pyroclastic flows (as well as a very high eruption
(1951) (MacDonald & Alcaraz 1956), Mt column dispersing air-fall ash; Fig. 5.9), and is
Lamington, Papua New Guinea (1951) (G. A. sometimes given as an example of explosive dome
Taylor 1958), and Santiaguito, Guatemala (1973) collapse (e.g. J. V. Wright et al. 1980). The
(Rose et al. 1978). Historic examples where simple 'agglomerate flow' of Gorshkov (1959) may have
gravitational collapse of a dome occurred are the been a similar volcaniclastic debris flow to the Mt St
eruptions of Merapi in 1930 and 1942-3 (Neumann Helens rockslide avalanche, containing a large
van Padang 1933, van Bemmelen 1949) and proportion of non-juvenile material, judging from
Santiaguito in 1967 (Stoiber & Rose 1969). the horseshoe-shaped amphitheatre that was left
108 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
considered for the eruption of scoria flows. Many of 'bubbled over' (Fig. S.IIt).
the local people who had observed the eruption It thus seems likely that so-called 'column
described it as 'a pan of rice boiling over'. This collapse' that sources pyroclastic flows can take
suggests that these pyroclastic flows may have different forms. These include variations ranging
originated directly out of the vent, and formed from discrete column collapse of high, well main-
without the collapse of an eruption column, or from tained columns to partial collapse events from the
a column so dense that it only rose a small height margins of an unstable, but established, column, to
above the vent and instantaneously collapsed and discrete collapse followed by essentially continuous
110 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
fountaining of pyroclastic debris, to a more passive The model is also appealing because it explains why
boiling over, directly out of the vent. many ignimbrites are underlain by plinian pyro-
It is now also thought that block and ash flows clastic fall deposits (Fig. S.6b, Chs 6 & 8).
may be produced by collapse of eruption columns However, observations of the Mt St Helens 1980
(Fig. S.l1g). Fisher and Heiken (1982) suggested eruption suggest that many of the pumiceous
that some of the explosions in the early stages of the pyroclastic flows, which under our definition form
Mt Pelee 1902 eruption were vertical rather than ignimbrite, were not generated by collapse of a high
directed laterally. Collapse of a vertical column, or eruption column (Rowley et al. 1981), but from low
a slug of lava debris out of it, generated block and columns. Many pumice flows seemed to spread out
ash flows rather than a directed blast. It was from bulbous inflated masses of pyroclasts as they
eruptions of this type that occurred on 8 and 20 upwelled a short distance above the vent. The
May 1902, and led to the destruction of St Pierre, sequence of photographs in Figure 5.12 of activity
and the death of 30 000 people. on 22 July illustrate this particularly well, showing
The deposits of pumiceous pyroclastic flows are the development and instantaneous collapse of a
termed ignimbrite, and some of these can be very fountain about 500 m high. Descriptions such as a
large volume deposits (> 1000 km 3). Few ignim- 'pot boiling over' were given (Rowley et al. 1981),
brites have been erupted this century. Those that and there are obvious similarities to the eyewitness
have are only small-volume deposits (Ch. 8), and descriptions given of the Cotopaxi eruption in 1877.
there is little observational information for these. During other periods of activity, partial gravi-
The generally known examples are the Valley of tational collapse of the margins of maintained
Ten Thousand Smokes ignimbrite erupted from columns was observed. None of the Mt St Helens
Katmai, Alaska, in 1912 (c. N. Fenner 1920, pumice flows travelled very far, and all are minor in
Curtis 1968), those formed during the eruptions of volume.
Komagatake, Japan, in 1929 (Aramaki & Yamasaki These new observations suggest that column
1963) and those from Mt St Helens in 1980. Two collapse as the only mechanism for the generation
notable, and larger, ignimbrite-forming eruptions of ignimbrites may have been overemphasised in
occurred last century: Krakatau, west of Java, in recent years, as suggested above. In some instances
1883 (Self et al. 1981) and Tambora, also in 'spluttering' or 'frothing' at the vent may be more
Indonesia, in 1815 (van Bemmelen 1949, Self et al. important. We will develop and expand these ideas
1984). on eruption mechanisms of ignimbrites through
Small-volume pumice flows, like scoria flows, are Chapters 6 and 8.
perhaps in many cases generated by interrupted
column collapse. Nobody has yet observed a 1arge-
volume ignimbrite-forming eruption, although as 5.5 Pyroclastic flow deposits: types and
early as 1960, R. L. Smith (1960a) suggested that description
they could be formed by an eruption column
collapse mechanism, but on a larger scale. Sparks Most pyroclastic flow deposits are composed of
and L. Wilson (1976) and Sparks et al. (1978) more than one flow unit. Each flow unit is usually
presented a theoretical model for the formation of regarded as the deposit of a single pyroclastic flow
ignimbrites based on the continuous gravitational (Fig. 5.13), one of perhaps several or many
collapse of a plinian eruption column (Fig. S.l1h). generated during the course of the same eruption
This models helps to explain many features of (Sparks et al. 1973, Sparks 1976). However, it is
ignimbrites (Chs 7 & 8), and has since become certainly possible that as a pyroclastic flow advances
popular among workers in this field. Continuous it could split into several subflows (R. L. Smith
collapse of plinian eruption columns from heights 1960a; and observed at Mt St Helens), each
of several kilometres could account for the large represented in the field by a discrete depositional
volume and wide distribution of some ignimbrites. flow unit. In the field pyroclastic flow units may be
FLOW DEPOSITS: TYPES AND DESCRIPTION III
3b 01( - 'a ll ash dopoSl' flow. No welded examples are known to us,
o.n- cloud surgo dopo,,'
30 although Sparks (pers. comm.) repon;; one on the
o . o
.
'0 " southern flanks of Mt Pelee.
:0:. ":'.
2 : ~ : :-." pyro clas1 1c flow uni t
Homogeneous clast composition, hot blocks and
011
gas segregation pipes are the field criteria for
distinguishing these pyroclastic flow deposits from
ground ,urge types of sedimentary debris deposits such as rock
depoSl '
avalanches and debris flows (Ch. 10).
Figure 5.15 Block- and ash-flow and scoria-flow deposits. (a) Reversely graded block and ash-flow deposit, formed by
collapse of a rhyolitic lava flow. This was erupted towards the end of the 700 years BP Kaharoa eruption of the Tarawera
volcanic centre. New Zealand. Top of spade handle is base of block and ash-flow deposit. other layers are earlier co-eruptive
products. (b) Hot block in block and ash-flow deposit. San Pedro volcano. northern Chile (after P. W. Francis et al. 1974). (c)
Gas segregation pipes in the 1902 block and ash flow deposits erupted from Mt Pelee (after Fisher & Heiken 1982). (d) Scoria
flow deposit erupted from Mt Misery volcano. St Kitts. Lesser Antilles. Note the concentration zones of scoria which seem to
be associated with flow unit boundaries and coarser-grained pipes which have been emphasised by rain washing. Arrow
points to a carbonised log from which a 14C age of 2860 years BP was obtained (photograph by M. J. Roobol). (e) and (f) The
scoria flow deposits (dark) erupted in 1975 at Mt Ngauruhoe. New Zealand. Note thin lobate flow front and dense juvenile
fragments with more scoriaceous clasts.
FLOW DEPOSITS: TYPES AND DESCRIPTION 113
Figure 5.16 Some general features of pumice-flow deposits. All of the photographs are from non-welded ignimbrites or non-
welded zones of welded ignimbrites. (a) Stacked thin flow units of the Rio Caliente ignimbrite, Mexico. Flow unit boundaries
are picked out by fine-grained basal layers (after J. V. Wright 1981). (b) Flow units of the Rio Caliente ignimbrite interbedded
with fluviatile reworked pumice (R) and erosion surfaces (E); arrow points to two flow units filling in small channels cut into the
succession. No soils are present, and field evidence elsewhere shows that these erosional events must have been local and
short-lived, and occurred during the same eruption. Height of cliff section is about 16 m (after J. V. Wright 1981). (c) Thick,
massive flow unit of the Oruanui ignimbrite in New Zealand, which is poorly sorted and texturally very homogeneous
throughout the thickness seen (horizontal lines are bulldozer scrapings). (d) Coarse, poorly sorted pumice-flow deposit on St
Lucia, Lesser Antilles. (e) Close-up showing poor sorting in an ignimbrite. This is from a flow unit of the Acatlan ignimbrite.
Mexico. Dark clasts are lithics.
114 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
Figure 5.18 Phreatomagmatic eruptions producing base surges. (a) At Capelinhos in October 1957. Height of vertical column
to top of photograph is about 2200 m. US Air Force photograph (after J. G. Moore 1967). (b) Capelinhos in September 1957.
Steam has blown downwind to expose a dense debris-laden central column collapsing to feed a base surge. On the right-hand
side of the photograph the surge is moving across the ocean surface (after Waters & Fisher 1971). (c) East Ukinrek maar in
1977. Note chevron shape of base surge cloud (moving to the left) which in this case was directed by lows in the maar rim
and shallow valleys (after J. Faro in Kienle et al. 1980).
of andesitic stratovolcanoes with crater lakes, and Smith & Wright unpub. data). The rhyolitic base-
other volcanoes with caldera lakes. Phreatic and surge deposits form part of a thicker pyroclastic
phreatomagmatic eruptions from the crater lake of sequence generated during an ignimbrite-forming
Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand, have been com- eruption. Rhyolitic base-surge deposits are also
mon this century, and base surges were observed in known in association with phreatoplinian phases of
the eruption of April 1975 (Nairn et al. 1979). The the Askja, Iceland, 1875 eruption and the Minoan
1979 eruption of Soufriere, St Vincent, which was (1470 BC) eruption of Santorini (Self & Sparks
through a crater lake, also produced base surges 1978; Ch. 6). Phonolitic base surges also were
(Shepherd & Sigurdsson 1982). The Quill strato- generated late during the AD 79 eruption of
volcano on St Eustatius, also in the Lesser Antilles, Vesuvius, when large amounts of water from a deep
has a long history of phreatomagmatic activity, and aquifer under the volcano gained access to the
base-surge deposits form an important part of the magma chamber. The deposits are associated with
pyroclastic succession found in its ring plain. These phreatoplinian air-fall layers (Sheridan et al. 1981;
vary from basaltic andesite to rhyolite in composi- Ch.6).
tion, and were produced by a number of eruptions
over the past ~ 30 000 years as the volcano emerged
from the sea and grew to its present form (Roobol,
ORIGINS OF PYROCLASTIC SURGES 117
~km
Lab Taa/
o 4km
'
' -------'.
- - 1- - max imum elo.. SIZ. (dlom.t.r in em) ~ dun, (re'5ts flow dlrec:tions
10... wav.'.ngth (m) -100- topographic contours (m)
Figure 5.19 General distributional characteristics of the deposits of the 1965 eruption of Taal in the Philippines. Flow
directions of major base surge movement in (d) were measured in the field from the sand blasting. tilting and coating of trees
and houses. (After J. G. Moore 1967.)
Fisher 1979, J. V. Wright et al. 1980). Ground is more complicated than that of normal ground-
surges are thought to be the same as the 'ash surge deposits, and Hoblitt et al. (1981) have drawn
hurricanes' described by G. A. Taylor (1958) from attention to this. G. P. L. Walker (1983) suggested
the 1951 Mt Lamington eruption. Taylor observed that the blast was a high concentration pyroclastic
these to form at the same time as high concentration flow emplaced at very high velocities, like some
pyroclastic flows (or his 'ponderous ash flow nuees') violent ignimbrites (Chs 7 & 8). Like the Mt Pelee
directly from the crater without an accompanying event, this event and its deposits are the source of
vertical eruption column, or from collapsing erup- much debate. Pumice flows forming ignimbrite did
tion columns (Fisher 1979). not begin to erupt for another four hours after the
Ground surges are envisaged as precursors to initial explosion at Mt St Helens.
dense, high concentration pyroclastic flows, pre- Studies by C. J. N. Wilson (1980, 1981, 1984)
ceding their flow-fronts. There are a number of and C. J. N. Wilson and Walker (1982) suggest
ways in which they can be generated: that the flow-heads of some pyroclastic flows
(especially pumice flows) may ingest large volumes
(a) from a directed low concentration blast,
of air, and may be inflated and highly fluidised (Chs
(b) out of the head of a moving pyroclastic flow or
7 & 8). At the front of the moving flow, basal
(c) by earlier, smaller collapses of the margins of a
friction will cause an overhang which will act as a
maintained vertical eruption column.
funnel for air, in much the same way as a
The concept of a low concentration blast preced- subaqueous mass flow incorporates water (Allen
ing the main part of a pyroclastic flow stems largely 1971, Simpson 1972). Cold air when heated would
from early ideas on understanding the 8 May 1902 rapidly expand, and surges of highly fluidised
eruption of Mt Pelee, which was thought to have pyroclasts would be jetted out of the head and
been a directed blast. We have already discussed upper parts of the flow front (Fig. 5.13; Ch. 7);
this eruption, and how it is now thought to have material ejected at higher positions on the flow-
generated block and ash flows by collapse of an front would contribu~e to the ash cloud. This could
eruption column. Fisher et al. (1980) and Fisher also be another mechanism for generating tur-
and Heiken (1982) suggested that St Pierre was bulent, low concentration surges continually
destroyed by an ash-cloud surge, although G. P. L. advancing in front of some pyroclastic flows. The
Walker and Me Broome (1983) suggested that it was escaping gas and ash gives the flow-head its
by a violent pyroclastic flow (Ch. 7). Several 'billowing' or 'sprouting' appearance, as seen, for
historic block- and ash-flow deposits produced by example, by Perret (1937) in some Mt Pelee
explosive lava-dome collapse have obvious surge pyroclastic flows erupted during 1929-32. This
deposits associated with them, but again some of type of jetting of material from the flow-head
these could be ash-cloud surge deposits. However, explains some other facies associated with ignim-
Rose et al. (1977) described a ground surge brites, and these will be discussed further in
produced by explosive collapse directed out of the Chapter 7.
lava front at Santiaguito in September 1973, and The third mechanism we can envisage for the
because the surge does not mantle the associated generation of ground surges is by repeated minor
block- and ash-flow deposit, they suggest that it collapse of a maintained eruption column before
probably preceded it. The initial explosion of Mt St major ignimbrite-forming collapse. This could also
Helens was an obvious directed blast, and its effect apply for some ignimbrite-forming eruptions, and
on the forest in its path is well known. The deposits Fisher (1979) suggested such a model. Turbulent
from the initial explosion certainly show some mixing and intake of cold air at the margins of the
characteristics of a surge deposit, as we have eruption column could overload parts of it, and
alluded to previously, and this is how they have small-scale collapse could generate precursor
been described by J. G. Moore and Sisson (1981) surges.
and Hickson et al. (1982). However, the stratigraphy More recently, however, G. P. L. Walker et al.
ORIGINS OF PYROCLASTIC SURGES 119
Figure 5.21 Some features of basaltic base-surge deposits. (a) Climbing duneforms, surge flow direction from right to left.
Thin planar layers are air-fall deposits. From Lake Purrumbete maar, Western Victoria, Australia. (bHf) are from the coastal
slopes of Koko crater, Oahu, Hawaii, but most of the deposits in this area are thought to have been erupted from the
Hanauma Bay crater complex, 1-5 km to the southwest. (b) Climbing duneforms, surge direction left to right from Hanauma
Bay, Hawaii. (c) and (d) U-shaped erosional channels; U-shaped bases and stratigraphy of the deposits suggest that these
were fluviatile erosional gullies reshaped and re-emphasised by younger base surges from Hanauma Bay. (For complete story
see Fisher 1977.) Note how planar-bedded base surge layers thicken into the channels (cf. Fig. 5.1 c). (e) Ash plastered against
the almost vertical side of a wall of eroded basement of reef limestone. (f) Planar bedded deposits with penecontem-
poraneous slumping. (g) and (h) Bomb sags in planar-bedded deposits, Tower Hill. Victoria.
122 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
Figure 5.22 Rhyolitic base-surge deposits erupted from the Quill, St Eustatius 22 240 years BP), Lesser Antilles. The base-
surge deposits dominate the stratigraphic interval visible in (a). Here there is a thin lower unit of base-surge deposits
(prominent white layer) separated from the thicker upper unit with well developed dunes by a plinian pumice-fall deposit. The
more-massive layer above these shown in (b) is a co-eruptive ignimbrite.
SURGE DEPOSITS: TYPES AND DESCRIPTION 123
Figure 5.23 Some ground surge and ash-cloud surge deposits. (a) and (b) Ground surge deposits at the base of the Upper
Bandelier ignimbrite. (c) Ground surge deposit separating two flow units in the Upper Bandelier ignimbrite. The dark (pink)
stratified surge deposit is clearly associated with the upper darker flow unit and they were emplaced as one thermal package.
(d) Ash-cloud surge deposits between two flow units of the Upper Bandelier ignimbrite. Local field relations and the
photograph show that the thinly laminated surge deposits are associated with the pumice-rich top of the lower flow unit
(cavernous weathering). (e) Fine-grained 1902 ash-cloud surge deposit in the churchyard at St Pierre. Internal stratification is
found in this. (f) The church at St Pierre is thought to have been destroyed by an ash-cloud surge.
124 THREE TYPES OF PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS
Figure 5.24 (above and facing page) Accretionary and cored lapilli. (a)-(f) Associated with different rhyolitic deposits. (a)
Within a rhyolitic ignimbrite from the Devonian Snowy River Volcanics, eastern Victoria, Australia. The matrix contains an
abundance of flattened and fragmented lapilli. (b) and (c) show exceptional concentrations of accretionary lapilli from
phreatoplinian air-fall ashes of the Oruanui eruption, Lake Taupo, deposited in a small crater lake inside the scoria cone,
Pukeonake, New Zealand. These have been reworked, as shown by the erosion surface in (c). (d) Lapilli within an ignimbrite
about 500000 years BP in New Zealand (photograph by C. J. N. Wilson) (e) In gas segregation pipes within the Oruanui
ignimbrite, New Zealand. (f) From a thick concentration of accretionary lapilli within the body of the Oruanui ignimbrite. (g)
Cored lapilli at Koko Crater, Oahu, Hawaii. (h) Cored lapilli in basaltic base surge deposits at Cape Bridgewater volcano,
Victoria.
flat-bedded air-fall deposits. Surge deposits usually plastered and stuck to vertical or almost vertical
show some low-angle truncations, and therefore surfaces (Fig. S.2Ie), and layers often deform
these are key features to look for (criteria to plastically, which can be seen when large bombs
distinguish these two types of deposit in such impact (Figs S.2Ig & h), or there is penecontem-
situations are discussed further in Ch. 7). U-shaped poraneous slumping (Fig. S.2ID. Also, vesiculated
erosional channels have also been described (Figs tuffs with entombed gas cavities may be present.
S.2Ic & d) and their formation has been discussed Note, however, that vesiculated tuffs are not solely
by Fisher (1977). diagnostic of a base-surge origin as indicated by
Base-surge deposits often show evidence of being Lorenz (1974), and can be found in phreatomag-
wet and 'sticky' when deposited. Accretionary matic ash-fall layers, and not necessarily near the
lapilli are common (Section S.8). Deposits may be vent. They only show that ash was nearly saturated
SURGE DEPOSITS: TYPES AND DESCRIPTION 125
vesiculated fragments, crystals and lithics in varying rain flushing 0. G. Moore & Peck 1962, G. P. L.
proportions, depending on the constituents present Walker 1981a) either of the downward plume from
in the eruption column. They are typically enriched an eruption column or of the accompanying ash
in denser components (less well vesiculated juvenile cloud of a pyroclastic flow. However, perhaps more
fragments, crystals and lithics) compared with frequently, they form in the steam-rich columns of
accompanying pyroclastic flow deposits (Sparks phreatomagmatic and phreatic eruptions (Self &
1976). Again, they show unidirectional bedforms; Sparks 1978; the examples shown in Fig. 5.24),
carbonised wood and small gas segregation pipes perhaps around cons en sing water droplets. They
may be present. can then be transported and deposited by fall, base
surge or flow processes. Basaltic base-surge deposits
often seem to contain the variety called cored or
5.7.3 ASH-CLOUD SURGE DEPOSITS
armoured lapilli, which have a recognisable lithic
The products of ash-cloud surges are stratified core and a thick (sometimes 1-2 cm) shell of
deposits generally less than 1 m thick found at the unstructured ash (Figs 5.24g & h). Perhaps these
top of, and as lateral equivalents to pyroclastic flow form in the outward-moving base-surge cloud as
units (Figs 5.23d & e). They show unidirectional solid fragments pick up a coating of sticky wet ash.
bedforms and pinch and swell structures, and may Accretionary lapilli also form by gases streaming up
occur as discrete separated lenses (Fisher 1979). through pyroclastic flow deposits, and they occur in
The grain size and proportions of components segregation pipes (G. P. L. Walker 1971; Figs
depend on the type of the parent pyroclastic flow. 5.24e & f).
One would intuitively expect such deposits to be It is important to stress that accretionary lapilli
enriched in vitric particles. However, those associ- are not indicative solely of pyroclastic fall deposits,
ated with the Bandelier Tuffs (Fisher 1979; Fig. as often seems to be assumed by workers in ancient
5.23d) are enriched in crystals, and this must be. successions. They may occur in pyroclastic fall,
due to further gravity segregation within the ash flow or surge deposits. Indeed, stratified deposits
cloud, as ash-sized particles with a significant several metres thick, with accretionary lapilli, are
proportion of crystals are elutriated out of the more likely to be base-surge deposits. Also, some
parent pumice flow. The ash cloud surges described accretionary lapilli can survive a limited amount of
by Fisher and Heiken (1982) from the 1902 reworking and redeposition, and can therefore be
eruption of Mt Pelre (Fig. 5.23e) have very similar found in epiclastic volcanic sediments (Figs 5.24b
component proportions to both their parent and & c). Furthermore, they can form well away from
secondary block and ash flows, but this is not vents in pyroclastic flows and their trailing ash
surprising because there is little density difference clouds, as well as in secondary eruption columns
between dense ash-sized juvenile fragments and generated when pyroclastic flows interact ex-
crystals. Ash-cloud surge deposits again can contain plosively with surface water into which they flow
small gas segregation pipes. (Chs 8 & 9). They are therefore nat indicative of
exclusively near-vent depositional settings.
128
CHAPTER SIX
129
130 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
t
phases (Roobol & Smith 1976). Secondly, particular
eruption styles can occur in places other than the
places used to name the particular eruption style. ::!
<l)
c:
For example, hawaiian style eruptions are not just <l)
>
confined to Hawaii. Lastly, many deposits from 'iii
o
historical or relatively recent eruptions have not Q.
>t
W
been studied immediately after their eruption with
the aim of correlating particular facies characteristics
with observed eruption styles. In many cases,
particularly with historic eruptions, the details of
eruption characteristics have been inferred from a Height of eru ption column ~
(0) Figure 6.2 (a) D~F plot used to characterise different types
of pyroclastic fall deposit (after G. P. L. Walker 1973b, and
x locol ion updated in J. V. Wright et al. 1980) (b) Cartoon explaining
somplt sie .ed
is)
D~F plot in terms of eruption column height and 'explosive-
ness'.
of the fall deposits examined in the field, and not on clastic fall deposits whose eruptions were not
the characteristics of the eruptions as was generally observed, and whose original extent is still reason-
the practice previously. This quantitative scheme ably intact.
(Figs 6.1 & 2,) relies on accurate mapping of the Although the plot of D against F gives a basis for
distribution of fall deposits and detailed granulo- detailing types of pyroclastic fall deposits and their
metric analysis to determine two parameters: dis- eruptions, it is important to point out here that
persal (D) and fragmentation index or degree of further research is increasingly revealing a number
fragmentation of the deposit (F). The empirical of its shortcomings. The meaning of F is not as
measure of D used is the area enclosed by the clear as was suggested above. High F-values may
O.OlTmax isopach (where Tmax is the maximum not prove to be the result of high degrees of
thickness of the deposit; Fig. 6.1a). The empirical fragmentation, but may also reflect 'wet' eruption
measure of F chosen is the percentage of a deposit plumes in which premature deposition of fines is
finer than 1 mm at the point on the axis of dispersal promoted by rain-flushing. This problem is high-
where it is crossed by the 0.1 Tmax isopach; this can lighted in the discussion of distal silicic ash-fall
only be determined from the sieve analysis of a layers (Section 6.9). Also, the fields for phreato-
sample collected either at this point or, more magmatic ash-fall deposits, which are now simply
practically, obtained graphically from sieve analyses divided into surtseyan and phreatoplinian, are far
of a few samples collected near the dispersal axis from satisfactory (Section 6.8).
(Fig.6.1b). Before we describe the different types of pyro-
G. P. L. Walker (1973b) initially characterised clastic fall deposit and their eruptions, two para-
three types of pyroclastic fall deposit on the basis of meters that are essential to understanding the
their values of D and F: hawaiian-strombolian, deposition and analysis of pyroclastic fall deposits
surtseyan and plinian (Fig. 6.2a). A distinction need to be discussed, these being terminal fall
between strombolian and hawaiian types based on velocity and muzzle velocity.
D was proposed, and another distinction, based on
F, between normal and violent strombolian, was
also proposed. Also, sub-plinian was proposed as a 6.2 Terminal fall velocity and muzzle
new type, intermediate in character between velocity
strombolian and plinian. Since Walker's original
plot was published, later studies have refined this, The distance that individual pyroclastic fragments
and other types of pyroclastic fall deposit have been are transported from the vent is controlled by many
characterised: ultraplinian, vulcanian and phreato- interacting factors. The most important are the
plinian (Fig. 6.2). heights to which particles are taken in the eruption
The D-F plot is based on the measurable column, the angle of ejection, the wind strength
characteristics of a deposit, but it also reflects some and the terminal fall velocity of the particles.
of the essential features of the eruption, even When an object falls through the air, it accelerates
though many changes in observed style of activity until it reaches a constant or terminal velocity (TV),
may have occurred throughout eruption. For any which is the velocity at which the force of gravity
deposit, this plot is a reflection of not only the and aerodynamic drag forces are in a state of
eruption column height, since it is this which balance. Particles with smaller terminal fall vel-
largely controls D, but also the 'explosiveness' or ocities will travel downwind further for a given
degree of fragmentation of the magma (Fig. 6.2b). eruption column height and wind speed than larger
High F-values, for instance, may result from very particles with a lower terminal fall velocity. Data on
high intensity eruptions (high volumetric eruption the terminal fall velocities of pyroclasts are given by
rates) or magma-water interactions. This is there- G. P. L. Walker et al. (1971) and in Appendix 1.
fore a most useful way of making volcanological G. P. L. Walker (1971) showed that for poly-
assessments of, and comparisons between, pyro- component pyroclastic fall deposits it is useful to
132 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
.. .. ."'.'.
~ '0 distributions of air-fall deposits on a
!... !.. 40
~ 10 ~
.: weight percentage basis are a function
of the terminal fall velocity of ejecta,
which is controlled by both grainsize and
density. Less than 3 km from source,
0 0 samples of the fall deposit contain
-4 -2 0
>90 wt% pumice, and have unimodal
0 V histograms and a low 0<1> value. The
proportion of dense components (lithics
4.5km and crystals) increases from source.
80 Between 3 and 5 km from source this
results in a bimodal grainsize
distribution, with a coarse mode due to
0;' 2 . 6
.'
av 0 .9 pumice and a fine secondary mode due
to the denser components, and an
'0
~
!... ~ 40 .. increase in 0<1>' At greater distances
(>5 km) a decrease in the proportion of
~ 10 ~ .'
.'" very coarse pumice clasts results in a
restricted pumice size range with a
mode closely corresponding to that of
0 0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 the dense components. The grainsize
V distribution is unimodal and sorting
improves markedly. (b) Histograms of
grainsize in weight percentages plotted
IOkm against the terminal fall velocity of
ejecta; Vis defined as -log2 TV where
TV is the terminal velocity in metres per
cr,' 1.1
second. These group together all
particles which fall at the same rate in
80
30 OV - O 4 the same class. By doing this, all the
grainsize histograms become strongly
-
~
!... ~ unimodal.
~
...
!...
~ 40
O+-r-'-
-6 -4 -2 o 2 4 -4 -2 o
V
plot histograms of weight percentages against ter- the median terminal fall velocity-distance curve
minal fall velocity, so grouping together all particles (Fig. 6.4) is controlled by eruption column height
which fall at the same rate. When this is done, and wind speed. For the deposits shown in Figure
grain size histograms of pyroclastic fall samples 6.4, the wind speed was approximately the same,
become strongly unimodal (Fig. 6.3). Median and the slope of the line is therefore a function of
terminal fall velocity in an air-fall deposit gradually eruption column height.
decreases with distance (Figs 6.3 & 4). The slope on One of the most useful physical parameters in the
HAWAIIAN-STROMBOLIAN 133
-
Q)-
~o
These types of pyroclastic fall deposit are the
10~--~--2~0--~--4~0--~--6~0--~--~80---
products of mildly explosive eruptions of basaltic or
Distance (km) near-basaltic magmas. Such eruptions eject scoria
Figure 6.4 Median terminal fall velocity plotted against and relatively fluid lava spatter, and are often
distance from source for some pyroclastic fall deposits. For accompanied by the simultaneous effusion of lava
each deposit an indication of the windspeed (in km h- 1 ) is
eCho 4; Plate 3). Vents for these eruptions can be
given in parentheses. (After Self et al. 1974)
fissures or simple conduits. However, observations
and theoretical considerations suggest that activity
comparison of explosive pyroclastic fall eruptions is along fissures is quickly localised to a number of
the initial gas or muzzle velocity at the vent. During points (1. Wilson & Head 1981). This happened,
observed eruptions this can be determined by for example, during the Heimaey eruption in 1973
measuring the fall times of ballistic blocks and (Thorarinsson et al. 1973). Explosive activity builds
bombs which are unaffected by the wind, or by scoria (cinder) or spatter cones, or both, at the vent,
analysing films of eruptions. In older deposits one with scoria-fall deposits of limited areal extent and
can measure the average maximum size of the volume being deposited around and downwind of
largest fragments, and if the vent location is known the vent. Scoria cones may be the sites of persistent
these sizes can be used to estimate the minimum activity over decades or longer, such as Stromboli
muzzle velocity based on the calculations of 1. (Chouet et al. 1974) and Northeast Crater, Mount
Wilson (1972). In 1. Wilson's (1972) paper the Etna (McGetchin et al. 1974), but more generally
ranges of particles ejected from vent, and the fall they are monogenetic cones (Ch. 13) produced by
times of particles released from an eruption column what can be considered to be single eruptions
(or ash cloud), are computed for various values of lasting usually a few weeks to a few months, such as
particle radius, density, launch velocity, launch Heimaey in 1973 (Thorarinsson et al. 1973, Self et
angle and release height (see App. I). al. 1974).
For any deposit, on a plot of average maximum
clast size against distance from vent, a line drawn
6.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DEPOSITS
along the top of the resulting scatter will show the
maximum range of fragments of a given size (e.g. Deposits of scoria cones often consist of rather
Figs 6.15 & 21, below). When maximum lithic or poorly bedded, very coarse-grained and sometimes
denser juvenile sizes are plotted. This line usually red (oxidised) scoria with metre-sized ballistic
shows a sharp inflection a few kilometres from the bombs and blocks (Figs 6.5-7). Many of the
vent, and this is thought to reflect the distance observed beds are not simply air-fall layers, but
range of ballistic fragments (e.g. Figs 6.15 & 21, include mass-flow deposits formed by avalanching
below). Maximum pumice sizes usually do not and rolling of scoria down unstable slopes as the
show this inflection, because larger pumice bombs cone built up. Such beds are laterally discontinuous.
tend to break on impact with the ground surface, Grain flow (Ch. 10) of the loose granular material
and owing to their low density even the largest during downslope movement produces reverse
clasts are affected by the wind to some extent. grading (see Fig. 6.1Oc). A variety of bombs and
Measurements of the largest lithic fragments are blocks may be found: large scoriaceous fragments,
134 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
.....
cones, and crosses are from downwind fall deposits. (After
G. P L. Walker & Croasdale 1972, with additions fo. cone
.. .
deposits after Houghton & Hackett (1984), and J. V. Wright
,
2 X
...
==~.(lx~ :\
XX x
X X
unpub. data from Santorini.)
lIj(
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 4 !6
64 32 16 B 4 2 I Vz y. "a 1~ 6 mm
Md
HAWAIIAN-STROMBOLIAN 137
in some cases, through the vent. Lava fountain from lava spray up to heights of a few hundred
heights are generally less than about 200 m (Mac- metres, but all coarser fragments will already have
Donald 1972), and in such cases magma would be fallen out of the column,
ejected at velocities of a few tens of metres per The mechanisms and dynamics of strombolian
second (L. Wilson & Head 1981). The predominant activity have been discussed by E, Blackburn et al.
products of these lava fountains are large spatter (1976), L. Wilson (1980a) and L. Wilson and Head
pieces which fall back around the vent area. Poorly (1981). Eruptions consist of a series of discrete time
developed convective plumes above lava fountains transient explosions separated by periods of less
may take the smallest ash-sized particles derived than 0,1 s to several hours. Explosions are thought
to be generated when one or a number of large gas
bubbles 1 to > 10 m in diameter) burst the
magma surface (of a lava lake) at vent (E, Blackburn
et al. 1976; Fig, 6.12a). These types of explosions
can only occur in low-viscosity magmas in which
bubbles can rise relatively rapidly and expand.
Explosions are driven by the excessive pressure
within each bubble. When each one bursts at the
surface, it blasts off as pyroclasts the fragmented
remains of the magma which formed the upper skin
of the bursting bubble (E. Blackburn et al. 1976, L.
Wilson 1980a). If there is a pause in activity or, as
in the waning stages of an eruption, there is a pause
in the activity and a crust has time to form on the
magma surface, then this may be ejected during
renewed bubble burst events (Fig. 6.12b), This
mechanism may account for the slabby lava blocks
found in some deposits (Figs 6.5 & lOb).
The pressure in the bursting bubbles is related to
their size and the history of their rise through the
magma, both of which, in turn, are governed by the
physical properties of the magma eCho 2). Theor-
etical analysis (L. Wilson 1980a) and observed
activity (Chouet et at. 1974, Self et at. 1974, E.
Blackburn et at, 1976) suggest maximum initial gas
velocities in these strombolian explosions of
Figure 6.8 (opposite and above) Agglutinated and welded 300 m s -1. In their analysis of 15 explosions from
deposits from scoria cones and a spatter rampart. (a) Red film of the Heimaey eruption in 1973, E. Blackburn
Rock Complex, Victoria, Australia. Non-vesicular, banded et at. (1976) found the maximum initial velocity in
zonation represents oxidised margins of welded spatter
one burst was 230 m s-1, but the mean was
fragments. Interiors have vesiculated (photograph by
R. Allen). (b) Coherent incipiently agglutinated scoria clasts, 157 m S-I, Generally, much lower initial velocities
Mt Leura, Victoria, Australia. (c) The largely quarried (< 100 m s -1) were observed in the activity of
strombolian cone at Ohakune, New Zealand, craters with the Stromboli in 1971 and 1975 (Chouet et al. 1974, E.
two agglutinated and densely welded layers shown in Figure Blackburn et at. 1976), Initial high gas thrust
6.5 occurring directly below each of the benches. (d) and (e)
Densely welded scoria in the cone at Balos, Santorini. Note
velocities rapidly decrease with height (up to
the columnar Jointing and welding zonation in (d). (f) and (g) heights of a few tens to one or two hundred metres),
Agglutinated lava spatter from part of a spatter rampart at above which particles are transported in the upper
the Sproul in the San Francisco volcanic field, Arizona. part of the eruption column driven by convection
138 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
(0) (b)
"7. 2 6
1.3-' ,
,
I
~"
','"
~2.1'"
_ - - . . . ' .26
"42
6S" ,
.8'\ I .... 3 . ,. .1.0 ' ,
/ 'l , , \ / / / .4 '"
.8 ..... , 5. S "
I 1. 16 27 " 0.9
1~ 17 I~BI . 21
... -...... ,
\\ \
, 8' \
\
/, 0.6 I I ........ - - ... , ' ,
I I I 110 '" IS 5 . , I I I 6.7. ,,_. 1.6 \ " \
f I , I' . . -:";;o~ , \ .22 I I , I / .4 .5 ' \ \
f
I
I 5 ."
I, I : '.\il'-O'go,
, I ~/"
11 2'/ \
\\\
' 93
\
,
I
\ I
I
1.2 .
,
I
,
I
\
,h~
I I
\ ~~2.6 8.~1 , I
~
)I~ '
'
\ \
\
, 8.4 I
2.3
'
:
I \ \ \ ~20 ~ 0 \ I I
\. 11 . 10 II \ ~,.., C\J 1.96 , ,
\ \ '.1 .1 I \ '0 \ .3. 7/ I .3.4 : '
~ \
\
't 6
15.
\
\ \ \3lf5
\ 66\155 ......3.15....'
. 120 I
8
.54,
,
I
I \
\
01.1 ,
I'l \2 .9
12': -:
<_2..4;) /
. 4 .2
6 .7. I
I
I
I
,
\ \ \ . , '99 .92 - I '42 " . ," . 3.5 '" I
\ \ 4?, ' ' 134 I I I o UI ' 3.5 " 9.B ' 5.4 _ , 3 .3' I I
, \ \ ',/ I I \ \ .... - _ _ - I I
, . 11 , 54. - - 0 26 \ O.B \ .: 2 .B 2 . B / : 1.0 II
, 12 . \ ' ":l " I
, ' \45> ,.27 72 / ' 26 I " " .3.S 23 4. 3 ":'; 2 I I'
" 21.24 , ......... .... ",I I "
" 0 . 2.3
.2 ..... . _...
"'"--._---- . '"
, '.... -- 'C-'
'.......... ............. _------ .... -'
I ;'
I
I km ', ..... _ - - ,
.....- - - - - ' '........ ,IB ~ 0 .8
.I
--10- - t hl ckn . .. (em) - -5-- overage max imum size (em)
(c) (d)
2~,C
/ 2.8 1.8 ...
I , 1.7
,..
I ,
I
1/ .B
.... - - . . . .
\ 17
I/''' 7.4 \ \
, I ~i . 4.4 \ I
I
I =;f. A
\ \.".-iO:- 5 ..
\ 4.7 . . . . .:. ....
4 .0 I
4.0
3.0
.",.---, \
4 I .... ' 2. 6
,1.7/ .t.2
3.8
1.7 ' , . 1.7 I J
"
, '2.6
I \ 2.3 ' /
\
\ I
I
. 1. 8
' - - 2' :(6
- --
.
. ... - - --'.5km
\
.....!;,O_ '2.
.2.4 /
(e) A B c
Md, - 2.6 40
0-. '0 .85
o
-4 o 2 -4 o 2 -2 2
Groin si ze ( jiI )
Figure 6.9 Thickness and grainsize characteristics of some strombolian pyroclastic fall deposits in the Azores. Isopleth maps
show the average diameter of the three largest scoria clasts. (a) and (b) Scoria-fall deposit from the Galiarte cone. Terceira
(after Self 1976). (c) and (d) Scoria-fall deposits from Serra Gorda (west) and Cone 301 (east) on Sao Miguel. (e) Grainsize
distribution curves for the Serra Gorda deposit at the three locations in (d) (after Booth et al. 1978). Volumes for the three
scoria-fa ll deposits are given in Table 6.1.
HAWAIIAN-STROMBOLIAN 139
Figure 6.10 (a) Faintly stratified black scoria. Mt Leura. Camperdown. Victoria. Australia. Scoria overlies phreatomagmatic
base-surge and fall deposits. (b) Cognate basaltic bomb in scoria. Mt Leura. (c) Slight reverse grading and faint stratification in
scoria fall. Tower Hill. Victoria. Australia.
(0)
50
SUB PLINIAN
\ e P
STROMBOLIAN
D (km 2)
Figure 6.11 D-F plot for some scoria-fall deposits des-
cribed in the text. 1. 2 and 3 are the downwind deposits for
the Galiarte. Serra Gorda and 301 cones. H is Heimaey Figure 6.12 Three stages depicting the rise. expansion and
(1973); K is Kilauea (1959); P is Parfcutin; SC is Sunset bursting of gas bubbles for two contrasting situations during
Crater (see Section 6.5 and Plate 5) (After G. P. L. Walker strombolian eruptions. (After L. Wilson 1980a.)
1973b. Self 1976. Booth et al. 1978. Amos & Self unpub.
data and sieve data of J. V. Wright on the Kilauea 1959
scoria.)
140 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
(E. Blackburn et al. 1976). If explosions occur in in its dispersal characteristics. In these cases the
rapid succession (e.g. every 1-2 s), then a main- scoria fragments will more commonly be ragged
tained eruption column, driven by convection, with stringy surfaces, and more typical of the
could reach heights of 5-10 km, as observed in the strombolian mechanism of disruption of magma.
1973 Heimaey eruption (see E. Blackburn et al. Many eruptions will also vary in observed style
1976). When explosions occur at longer intervals from hawaiian to strombolian, and vice versa. The
(e.g. several minutes), the convection cloud re- 1973 Heimaey eruption began with lava fountains
maining after each gas thrust phase may have rising 50-100 m from up to 20 vents along the
dissipated before the next explosion, as observed at length of a 1.5 km fissure (Thorarinsson et al. 1973,
Stromboli in 1975 (E. Blackburn et al. 1976). In Self et al. 1974). Later, activity became centralised
this type of activity a fine-grained, well stratified and strombolian explosions took place from three
scoria fall deposit of more limited dispersal could be vents at the northern end of the fissure, and built a
built up. scoria cone 200 m high, from which lava continually
flowed. Perhaps where detailed analysis of a deposit
is possible (i.e. exposure allows many vertical
6.3.3 CLASSIFICATION
sections of a deposit to be studied) the dispersal
The distinction between hawaiian and strombolian characteristics of individual fall units corresponding
pyroclastic fall deposits was only tentatively defined to different phases could be determined. However,
by G. P. L. Walker (l973b) because there were in most cases, it is only possible to determine the
limited data available at that time. There are still finite characteristics of a deposit, which in the case
very few quantitative data on these deposits, of Heimaey, show it is typically strombolian (Fig.
especially those of hawaiian eruptions. Following 6.11).
G. P. L. Walker (l973b), hawaiian basaltic activity Finally, G. P. L. Walker (l973b) described some
is so weakly explosive that any pyroclastic deposit scoria-fall deposits with unusually high values of F
which results, has a D of less than 0.05 km 2 , while as 'violent strombolian'. The scoria-fall deposit
strombolian activity produces a deposit with a D of erupted from Paricutin volcano, Mexico, is of this
more than 0.05 km 2 (Fig. 6.2). This criterion, type (Fig. 6.11). Activity during this eruption
together with the distinction between the eruption continued sporadically for nine years. Ground
mechanisms we have discussed, should only be water possibly gained access to the magma at times,
considered as a general guide in distinguishing but not in sufficient amounts to produce a surtseyan
between hawaiian and strombolian fall deposits. fall deposit (Section 6.8).
Lava fountaining can reach such heights that,
although observed activity would be considered
typically hawaiian, the resulting deposits would be
much more widely dispersed. The 1959 Kilauea Iki 6.4 Plinian
lava fountains reached heights of 600 m and the
downwind scoria-fall deposit has a D-value of about Plinian pyroclastic fall deposits are a common
0.7 km 2 (Richteretal. 1970). By Walker's definition product of highly explosive eruptions of high
it is strombolian (Fig. 6.11). However, this scoria- viscosity magmas. These are generally andesitic to
fall deposit is composed almost entirely of achneliths rhyolitic, or phonolitic and trachytic compositions,
or fragments of them (Fig. 3.17), and these should be but rare basaltic scoria-fall deposits which have
a very large component of scoria-fall deposits, even of plinian dispersal patterns are known (S. N.
those of wide dispersal, formed by lava fountaining. Williams 1983, G. P. L. Walker et al. 1984). The
During strombolian activity, if the intervals between characteristics of plinian pumice fall deposits and
explosions are so long that a maintained column and their eruptions are now fairly well defined, and the
convective plume cannot form, then the scoria-fall extensive literature about these has been reviewed
deposit will be more restricted, and may be hawaiian by G. P. L. Walker (l981b).
PLINIAN 141
" 1.3
~ 4
40km
\ 0
I 2
\
\
\ MP(cml ML(cml
5.5 1.2 8.4 4 .6
. ,n'roplon,on
Ignlmbrl'e 9m 'hiC k
4.4 3.0
~
'\
~\
. '
: Md , "- 4 .3
L?"I.:L~ ..
\ "" ~~ __ ~20km
. ' :. \
\
" L NevodO de Toluca
,
.' '\ \ [ ] pumic e
.
u
'. '\ \
\
lithic.
o
,
E~
" '\ \ cry"ol s
'\ \
"
". \
... ,\ \
~:~~. ~:: ~
Md," -4 .2
'E
cr"
!0
"
"
.. !:
E
2m
" 1. 4
" \
\
".
~
[ .c ...
2m - 4 -2024
Gro in SIZ. ( ,II )
Figure 6.13 Some features of plinian pumice-fall deposits. ((a) After G. P. L. Walker & Croasdale 1971, (b) Self & Wright
unpub. data, (c) J. V. Wright unpub, data and (d) Bloomfield et al. 1977)
grained, and change in character, and it is the above seem to have taken place from central vents,
documentation and analysis of these changes that and most of the older deposits studied have been
can be so important in making volcanological mapped to 'circular vents', which are generally
interpretations. Plinian pumice-fall deposits are a assumed to be located above cylindrical conduits.
common eruptive product of all large rhyolite There is no doubt that some of these vents are
volcanoes, but are also frequently found as products aligned along linear fissures or ring fractures, but
of a range of andesitic and alkaline stratovolcanoes. activity from different vents in many cases can be
A few plinian eruptions are known to have shown to be separated by long intervals, recognised,
occurred this century, and examples that are well for instance, by soils between their different fall
documented are the eruptions of Hekla, Iceland, in deposits. However, detailed mapping by Nairn
1947 (Thorarinsson 1954, 1968) and Santa Maria, (1981) in the Okataina rhyolitic centre in New
Guatemala, in 1902 (Rose 1972b, S. N. Williams & Zealand has shown that many plinian fall deposits
Self 1983). Another example is the 1932 eruption of and associated ignimbrites were erupted in simul-
Quizapu in the Chilean Andes (Larsson 1936), but taneous or sequential activity from multiple vents
there has not been a more recent study of the along fissures. These eruptions were often spread
deposits of this eruption. Quite a number of plinian along lengths of fissure more than 10 km long but,
eruptions have occurred in earlier historic times, as in basaltic fissure eruptions, activity seems to
and the deposits of the following examples have have been restricted to definite points. Vent types
received detailed attention: the eruptions of Askja, for large explosive silicic eruptions, during which
Iceland in 1875 (Sparks et al. 1981), Tarumai, plinian activity may lead to ignimbrite formation,
Japan in 1667 (T. Suzuki et al. 1973), Fogo, Sao are discussed in Chapter 8.
Miguel, the Azores in 1563 (G. P. L. Walker & When mapped out, plinian pyroclastic fall de-
Croasdale 1971; Fig. 6.13a) and, better known posits are extensive sheet-like deposits. They have a
because of their archaeological significance, large dispersal, and D is >500 km 2 (Fig. 6.2).
Vesuvius in AD 79 (Lirer et al. 1973) and the However, fragmentation of the magma is only
Minoan (1470 BC) eruption of Santorini (Bond & moderate, and F is small to medium. Sizes of
Sparks 1976). Historical records have complemen- ballistic lithic blocks near the vent imply that
ted some of these studies, and have provided muzzle velocities of 400-600 m S-1 occur (L.
evidence of the duration of these events. As well as Wilson 1976; App. I). These suggest that very high
these, much of our data on this type of activity rates of magma discharge are possible which in turn
stems from a number of studies on older plinian lead to the 'stoking up' of very high eruption
deposits which abound in the Quaternary record, columns, and evidence suggests that column heights
e.g. Booth (1973), Bloomfield et al. (1977), Booth et > 20 km should be common during this type of
ai, (1978), G. P. L. Walker and Croasdale (1971), activity (L. Wilson 1976, L. Wilson et al. 1978;
G. P. L. Walker (1981c), G. P. L. Walker et al. Ch. 5). In the events this century, the height of the
(l981d), and see the review of G. P. L. Walker column of the 1947 Hekla eruption reached 24 km,
(l981b). and that of Santa Maria in 1902 reached at least
All of the historical plinian eruptions mentioned 28 km (S. N. Williams and Self 1983; Table 5.1). It
00II Figure 6.14 Plinian pumice-fall deposits. (a) The very impressive Lower Bandelier plinian deposit 30 km downwind from the
vent. This is the section illustrated in Figure 6.13b; overlying the stratified top of the pumice-fall deposit is ignimbrite. (b)
Upper Bandelier plinian deposit; note the finely stratified fall unit at the base. (c) Plinian fall deposit at the base of the Bishop
Tuff, California. Darker layer is a surge deposit which is overlain by ignimbrite. (d) Plinian deposit erupted 26000 years BP from
the Okataina rhyolitic centre, New Zealand. (e) Compositionally zoned pumice fallon Tenerife; white pumice is phonolitic, dark
(arrowed) is latite which is overlain by a soil. Hammerhead rests on base of the deposit (photograph by J. A Wolff). (f)
Reversely zoned basaltic to rhyolitic plinian deposit erupted 17 000 years BP from Tarawera, New Zealand. (g) Distal plinian
layer deformed by soft-sediment loading, this was erupted from Hekla volcano and is stratigraphically below the two deposits
shown in Plate 6.
144 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
Table 6.2 Volume estimates of some plinian deposits (highlighting some of the largest known in modern volcanic
successions).
is the high eruption column in this type of activity from the conduit wall, can be important in certain
that leads to the wide dispersal of plinian deposits. parts of a deposit. Also, a number of plinian fall
Volumes of plinian-fall deposits range from about deposits are now known to be compositionally
0,1 to >50 km 3 (Table 6,2). Examples of small- zoned, or to contain mixed pumice clasts (Figs
volume deposits would be those from Hekla in 1947 6.13c, 14e & f).
and Mt St Helens in 1980. Much larger deposits are Reverse grading of larger pumice clasts has been
known further back in the record: some of the described from a number of deposits (e.g. Lirer et
biggest are the Shikotsu pumice deposit in Japan ai, 1973, Bond & Sparks 1976, Bloomfield et ai.
and the Lower Bandelier plinian deposit, both 1977). This is usually more likely to be found at
about 100 km 3 . Volumes can be estimated from distances of several to a few tens of kilometres from
isopach maps of the deposits by various methods, the vent, and outside these limits may be only
and these are discussed in Appendix I. slightly developed, or it may not occur. Nearer the
vent 5 km) deposits are often so coarse-grained
that it is very hard to detect any grading, and more
6.4.2 INTERNAL AND LATERAL CHANGES
distally (>50 km) deposits may be too fine-grained,
Many deposits at first sight appear to be fairly Many deposits also show an upward increase in the
homogeneous, or at least their lower parts do (Figs proportion and size of accessory lithic clasts.
6.13 & 14), and this is thought to reflect continual Reverse grading of both pumice and lithics must
fall-out from a downwind plume continually fed by reflect some process occurring at the vent affecting
a continuous gas blast. They are predominantly the eruption column with time. This will be
composed of juvenile material: pumice, glass shards considered further in Section 6.4.3.
and, when the magma is porphyritic, free crystals. Internal stratification also occurs, It is usually
However, significant departures from homogeneity best developed towards the vent, and is commonly
can occur in detail. Reverse-grading of larger and significantly found towards the top of some
pumice fragments seems to be common, as is deposits (Figs 6.13 & 14). Further away from the
internal stratification. Accessory lithics, derived vent such stratification disappears. Stratification
PLINIAN 145
varies from a crude internal layering to distinct pyroclastic flow and surge deposits are found
mappable fall units, although dividing deposits up interbedded between separate fall units, particularly
into fall units can be rather subjective. in proximal areas (e.g. Self et at. 1984). The
There are a number of causes for the development deposits of these flows can be traced laterally into
of stratification. Eruptions are probably not truly fine ash-fall deposits. In many cases plinian deposits
continuous, but pulse-like. Slight fluctuations in are overlain by ignimbrite, and it seems that there is
muzzle velocity and discharge rate will cause a continuum from a plinian eruption column to a
particles of a given size and terminal fall velocity to pyroclastic flow-forming or collapsing column. The
be released from different heights. A pulsating stratification at the top of many plinian deposits
column such as this would produce faint layering in may reflect instabilities in the column before
a fall deposit (e.g. Fig. 6.14d); this type of wholesale collapse occurs to generate ignimbrite.
stratification would rapidly disappear away from Compositionally zoned plinian pumice-fall de-
the vent as pyroclasts quickly mixed downwind. posits are now known to be common, and invariably
More-significant changes in activity are probably these show an upward vertical increase in the
needed to cause distinct fall unit breaks. Activity proportion of a more basic juvenile component
could temporarily cease, caused, for instance, by (Figs 6.13c & 14e). Rarer examples are known
blockage of the conduit by collapse of the vent where this type of zonation is reversed (Fig. 6.14f).
walls. During such breaks, fine ash may settle out The boundary between zones can be gradational or
from the previous column as it dissipates, forming a very abrupt. This is commonly not marked by
thin, discrete fine-grained fall unit overlying the grain size differences, showing that the discharge of
deposit of the maintained column. When activity magma was steady, although the composition of the
recurs, the next fall unit may at first be rich in lithic magma was changing. In some cases there is an
fragments, as lithic fragments that blocked the vent almost complete change in magma types, in others
are reamed out. Smaller collapses of the vent wall there is just a slight change in the proportion of the
may just cause an increase in the amount of lithics two types. Streaky mixed-pumice clasts are common
taken into the column, and these would be recog- in some deposits, and indicate mechanical mixing
nised as a layer of lithics, perhaps within a fall unit. of the magma types before eruption (e.g. Fig.
Obviously, there are a number of scenarios that can 3.22). Some deposits, although not distinctly zoned,
be considered. All of the above mechanisms involve can have a significant proportion of mixed pumice,
changes at the vent affecting the behaviour of the e.g. the Askja 1875 deposit (Sparks et at. 1981).
eruption column. However, stratification can also Aspects of the role of magma mixing in explosive
be generated away from the vent. Rain flushing volcanism have already been discussed in Chapter 3
could prematurely bring down fine ash from the (and see Ch. 8). It may be that injection of more
plume in localised areas while the eruption con- basic magma into high-silica magma chambers
tinues. Such fine-grained fall units will have iso- triggered a number of plinian eruptions (Ch. 3).
pachs which do not close on the vent (their Many of the overall downwind and lateral
distribution and thickness is related to the distri- changes in the character of plinian fall deposits are
bution and intensity of the rain shower), and they now well established. These are:
may contain accretionary lapilli (G. P. L. Walker
(a) decrease in thickness,
1981d).
(b) decrease in maximum grain size (pumice and
In the above we have only discussed the gener-
lithics),
ation of stratification by the 'random' processes
(c) decrease in median grain size (increasing M<I>
which could occur at any time during a plinian
values),
event. The stratification and fall units found at the
(d) increase in sorting (decreasing 0<1> values),
top of some deposits may, however, be related to
(e) changes in component population and
more-significant changes that are developing with
(f) decrease in median terminal fall velocity,
time as the plinian eruption continues. Sometimes
146 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
E
~
E 10
K
o .
-
'"
E .. 1
-
DO
~ 1
~ ~~------~1~0--------~2~
0 --------~
.
U ".\
~ \
~\~s':;:::~;:';;>_,>_
E
::J
E 10
K
--
o
E
DO
~- :-: -:--
~
'1 __
~ oL---------~------~~------~
o to 20
------
(f)
100
(c) Averoge moxlmum liThic (em) i ... ~-- ---
-!5 - - - - - ......
8mm - ... - - .. - -
-.
i '" ___ - - ----
~ __ ..
-"'- ... ---
~-------I-
O~------~'O--------~2~O----~~~
Figure 6.15 The 1563 Fogo plinian pumice-fall deposit erupted from the volcano Agua de Pau (with a caldera now
occupied by Lago Fogo) on Sao Miguel (see also Fig . 6.13a). (a) Isopach map. (b) and (c) Maximum size isopleth
maps using the average diameter of the three largest clasts for pumice and lithics, respectively. (d)-(f) Maximum
pumice, lithic and total grainsize variation with distance from vent. (After G. P. L. Walker & Croasdale 1971.)
There are vanous forms in which these data are teristics of different plinian deposits, and can also
presented, e.g. maps or graphically (Figs 6. be used to classify different types of pyroclastic fall
15-6.19). However, all illustrate the dispersal deposits instead of using D-F plots. In practice, it
characteristics of the fall deposit. is easier to determine the areas enclosed by
The best way of comparing thickness, maximum maximum grain size isopleths (Fig. 6.19) than
grain size and median grain size is to make 'area determining D-F values. The value of D is
plots' (G. P. 1. Walker 1980, 1981b, G. P . 1. sensitive to the choice of Tmax (Fig. 6 .1 b), which
Walker et al. 1981d; Figs 6.18 & 19). These show may have to be extrapolated from data collected at
the areas enclosed by isopachs of thickness, or locations some distance from the vent. G. P. L.
isopleths of maximum or median grainsize. These Walker (l981b) indicated that when categorising a
plots are useful for comparing the dispersal charac- deposit as plinian or not, more reliability should be
PLINIAN 147
,
/
0-
.../
I
I
I
III
'"
",-<2.0
~.",~-
_ 2 - _ .~O
. 1. 2
,
\
,
/,'/ .....
5. 5 .\
\
,IS
.f //
3.5
_' __ /
1/
:>1.0
\ 1.5
I
\
\
:' I I '" 4.9 .... ' .2. 2 I \
; I I I'" '4.3 " 3.6 I ;' \
/
fill \ I
: 1 1 1 6 .7 ..... - - 8 , \ I \
: ,I I .'" :>7.2 97 I I I
: >2.41 8 II 6 .4. ' I
: 'r 6.6; 7.2 6.4a~,22 6
1 I
I
~: II ~~ II ~ '.IIH 7:~3:
r9.'O ~'~~'~ 1. 6 I
:1'
" I ~,"~ , 7.~' 50'. 3. I/~
\
!.8. 1.2 /
:.: \~ ,:c.,.
..
':~"r
~. ~ .6
,,> '"
,'~ ~
flIt)
'1JiI ' 2.0
1.4.1
I
. .0:)
~ ..-
\ '.;-. :\~ 3.0>1.6
1:7 2.2;
I
. .1/'
'-{;'. :\ . .. l~: 3.0. .' 3.~6 ",I
\"
'"
".
.....
'~", .... ___ -"'4.0 ,:~ "">1. 1
' ..............0.5 _----' ",,,,"
I.C! I
\
"'0
............. -
'.
.....
'0:6---
.
--- ..,,,,-" \.
\ .....
o 10 20kin.
...... . 0.3
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...... ,9
".
---2--- Ih ic kn ... (m) ~ Guadala,ara '"
-- 64 - - lSapl. lh lmml
'i!~~ vent area
1'''
",0 ' '' ",'" .+ 0. 5 '\
\
,
\ I ,,"
..." .+0.3 I
.'
./ .... ---~7-..........
,
16\
16 \
i ;'; I
/'/ ".. \
,
,
5 / . +0.5 _-I J
/
.' , .12 \ I _- -..... 1+14,
...
:' "'.... 72."
_---. 63
35. \
\ .16
.22 '
\
\ .....
:/ ,,-,,- "
/,," 70' '6' 26' ;f \ . -0.5 \ 1
:"" . 80 11' \ \ \ .. .- 0.2 \ 1
--~+~.3:~~
.:' .66 \ \ ,
: '127 97, 84 \
i 114' 77'1I~109: 64 \ ,
: '87.. 143 12 3 I 2 936 :76 51 \ t \
: 113 98. i33- 9' 03 .70 . 56 \ \ .::::.. . . .. ..... ::: "
2.3: -__ -0.7 --2.4
..... \ \ I; I /
: ' 93 '?O' ('16~~\~.56474f1 31 \ -loS' -1.2 . I I I
\ " ~y 10bl~ 118 ;81 ~t :~~ i .-2.1 '1.6 I 1 '
\'
... ..... - \z6
I
53 7,2 63"~9
5!, '':9. 61
~I I
I
25 \
I
I
Ci~ '-:';1 /' / +1) I
... 91: 74 I 8 ~ I J "," I / I
... 96' 64 4. M I I _,," I .-0. 81 I
.... '" 39' I I 12 \.
,/'
I I
1+0 .4 1
I
...... .78 ",E> .." I1 I \. / 1'/
,,'" "I
~---..... I -\. ,. -0.1 // /
.37 ..;"
....
'.
"...... 36 ."," "" "".
.
......_" '
~.
Figure 6.16 Thickness and grainsize characteristics of La Primavera B plinian pumice-fall deposit erupted from La Primavera
rhyolite volcano, Mexico. (After G. P. L. Walker et al. 1981 d.)
148 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
50 100 150
Distance (km)
Figure 6.17 Variation in maximum pumice and lithic
diameter (average of the largest three or five clasts) with
distance from vent for some plinian pumice-fall deposits and
the Taupo ultraplinian deposit. 1 Shikotsu; 2 Askja (1875); 3
Pompeii; 4 La Primavera B; 5 Upper Toluca; 6 Fogo (1563);
7 Fogo A; 8 Lower Bandelier. (After G. P. L. Walker 1980
and Self & Wright unpub. data on the Lower Bandelier
plinian deposit.)
10 1 r-----t-----+-
6.4.3 MECHANISMS AND DYNAMICS
From observations of historic eruptions and
analysis of plinian-fall deposits, coupled with
theoretical analysis and modelling, a large amount
0.1 I 10
is known about the mechanisms and dynamics of
Thickness (m)
this type of eruption. The development of ideas on
Figure 6.18 Plot of the area enclosed by each isopach
plinian eruption mechanisms can be traced in a
against thickness for some plinian fall deposits and the
number of papers based largely on the work of Taupo ultraplinian deposit. (After G. P. L. Walker 1980,
Lionel Wilson (L. Wilson 1976, 1980a, L. Wilson 1981 b and Self & Wright unpub. data on the Bandelier
et ai. 1978, 1980, Sparks 1978a, and Sparks and L. plinian deposits.)
PLINIAN 149
"....
~.
plinian deposits.)
10 1
0.1 10 10
Md(cm) Mp(cm) M I(cm)
fragmentation level, which is the depth to the free Table 6.4 Estimated durations of some plinian eruptions.
surface of the magma where fragmentation is taking
Eruption Duration (h) Source
place (Fig. 3.4; and see L. Wilson 1980a for a
detailed analysis). The theoretical models of L. Upper Toluca 20-30 theoretical analysis
Wilson (l980a) predict maximum plinian eruption (11 600 years BP)
velocities of 600 m S-l, which would agree with Minoan 1470 Be 20--40 theoretical analysis
Vesuvius AD 79 -24 historical records
maximum velocities deduced from the sizes of the Fogo 1563 -48 historical records
largest ballistic clasts ejected in these eruptions. Askja 1875 6.5 historical records
These exit velocities indicate that the volumetric Hekla 1947 observation
discharge rates of magma can be as high as Mt St Helens 1980 9 observation
106 m 3 S-l (dense rock equivalent), which are Data taken from Bloomfield et al. (1977). Sparks et al.
substantially greater than in observed historic (1981), L. Wilson (1976, 1978, 1980b).
speed could cause stratified layers, but their com- Sub-plinian eruptions are scaled-down plinian
mon occurrence at this level, and the presence of eruptions, and their mechanisms and dynamics can
interbedded pyroclastic flows and surges, suggests be treated as essentially the same (L. Wilson 1976,
a more general mechanism, as with reverse grading. 1980b). Large lithics indicate that in some eruptions
Any changes in gas velocity or mass discharge rate muzzle velocities are as high as in some plinian
in a column verging on collapse will have pro- events (>400 m S-1), although the lower range is
nounced effects on its behaviour. Small collapse 100 m S-1 (L. Wilson 1976). Mass discharge rate is
events that generate pyroclastic flows and surges likely to be lower for sub-plinian events, and this is
may occur, for instance, with a sudden increase in the main factor controlling eruption column height
mass discharge rate. A convective column could and dispersal. The sub-plinian pumice-fall deposits
then be re-established with a slight increase in gas on Terceira are well-stratified and Self (1976)
velocity due to a small increase in gas content of the suggested that there were large fluctuations in the
magma. Choking of the vent by collapse of the walls gas exit velocity, and hence mass discharge rate.
will also reduce mass discharge rate, re-establishing This would also inhibit the development of a fully
a convecting column, but after this lithic debris has maintained convective plume, which would there-
been removed by ejection the wider vent will fore not attain the heights associated with plinian
promote collapse of the column. A complex se- columns. Sub-plinian eruptions can lead to the
quence of activity and of pyroclastic deposits could generation of ignimbrite-forming pyroclastic flows
therefore be generated before massive collapse of similar to the larger plinian ones. The examples
the whole column occurs, leading to a major mentioned above from the Azores do not show this
ignimbrite-forming eruption. eruption sequence. However, it is shown in the
eruption of Krakatau in 1883. A pumice-fall deposit
which preceded an ignimbrite erupted at Krakatau
6.5 Sub-plinian is sub-plinian rather than plinian in its character-
istics (Self & Rampino 1981).
These are pumice-fall deposits which resemble A number of basaltic or near-basaltic scoria fall
plinian deposits in the field, especially near the deposits are now also known to be sub-plinian in
vent, but when mapped out have a smaller dispersal their dispersal characteristics, rather than strom-
and are small volumetrically. G. P. L. Walker bolian. G. P. L. Walker (1973b) cites as an example
(1973b) set arbitrary D limits for them of between 5 the 1970 Hekla eruption, and another example is
and 500 km 2 (Fig. 6.2). They are a common type of the scoria-fall deposit erupted with the formation of
pyroclastic fall deposit, although only a few specific Sunset Crater (AD lO65) in the San Francisco
descriptions occur in the literature. This is because volcanic field, Arizona (Amos et at. 1981; Fig. 6.11
studies of pumice fall deposits have generally & Plate 5). As well as producing a very widely
concentrated on the larger, more-dramatic examples dispersed scoria-fall deposit (deru;e rock equivalent,
which are usually plinian in their F and D DRE = 0.30 km 3) the Sunset Crater eruption also
characteristics. However, Self (1976) described a built a scoria cone 300 m high (DRE = 0.15 km 3),
number of sub-plinian fall deposits on Terceira in and in this respect is more typically strombolian in
the Azores (e.g. Fig. 6.21) and Booth et at. (1978) its character. For such widely dispersed scoria-fall
documented examples on Siio Miguel. Sub-plinian deposits, one has to envisage a fully maintained
pyroclastic fall deposits are a product of rhyolite convective plume which reached greater heights
volcanoes and stratovolcanoes, like their larger than in normal strombolian eruptions. The gas
plinian counterparts. Many form during an early thrust part of the column in the Sunset Crater
explosive phase accompanying the effusion of a eruption may have reached heights of several
small rhyolite dome or coulee, as do the examples hundred metres, rather than the 50-200 m that is
on Terceira. However, plinian deposits can also be usual in normal strombolian eruptions (Amos et at.
erupted in this situation. 1981). Such energetic basaltic eruption columns
152 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
(0) ( bI
... " ,
,,"-'
;-----.
....................
' ,,../, / ,., ----- ..........., ,
-
/ .......
"4 a; - - ..... ................ "
- ' \ ", \
I / / ... _ - - - ......... " ,
~~' ~ ....
II ./
14
I
f
I
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~
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... -...'"
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,
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\
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/
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I ....: //f~, I
....
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7.. / '-r.") I
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I
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r. .
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I
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r I
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~----~ '~,~'-,-......' -
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.::":";::. vent or.o
--2- - thickn ... (m )
(d I ~ pum lCf
:Aj"
(cl . 1't"'lc
o crystal.
':' 20
Md, - 0 .6 :: "
CT, - 1.1 , ,
E 0 .1
:;) _ ........_AJ:
, ." :::E
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...................
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>
<l
0~--~2----~4----~6~--~8~--~10--~12 ............... .....: ....... . .
20
Distonce (km)
o -4 -2 0 2 4
Groin size (* I
Figure 6.21 Sub-plinian pumice fall deposit from Terceira, Azores. (a) Isopach map giving thickness in metres. (b) Average
maximum diameter of three largest pumice fragments in centimetres. (c) Average maximum diameter of three largest lithic
fragments against distance from source. (d) Section 1.8 km SE of source on dispersal axis. Frequency curves of w eight
percentage against grainsize show proportions of pumice, crystals and lithics for three sieved samples, together with vertical
variation in o<j> and Md. (After Self 1976.)
Published data are as yet only available for one the vent. Thus in these situations the isopach map
deposit, the Taupo pumice, which forms part of the must be used with caution as an indication of the
eruption sequence of the AD 186 eruption of Lake vent position. From other evidence, the vent for
Taupo, New Zealand. The products of this eruption this eruption is known to be in Lake Taupo.
will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.
The Taupo pumice is currently the most widely
dispersed pyroclastic fall deposit known. D- and F- 6.7 Vu1canian
values are much higher than for normal plinian
deposits (Fig. 6.2) and clasts are dispersed over a Vulcanian pyroclastic fall deposits from individual
much wider area (Figs 6.17-19). The Taupo pumice eruptions are thin, small volume 1 km 3), strati-
only has a maximum measured thickness of 1.8 m fied ash deposits which contain large ballistic
which, by comparison with most near-vent plinian bombs and blocks near to the vent, sometimes with
deposits, is rather thin. Another feature is that the breadcrusted and jointed surfaces (Figs 6.22-24).
deposit is very enriched in free crystals. This results In composition they are usually intermediate
from the high degree of fragmentation, and from the (basaltic-andesite, andesite, dacite). They are
loss of a large proportion of vitric material by aeolian common products of andesite and basaltic-andesite
fractionation. Data from crystal concentration stratovolcanoes. However, they are usually so thin
studies on the Taupo pumice show that 80%, and fine-grained that they are soon eroded by wind
mainly glass, fell out to sea further than 220 km and water. When eruptions continue for a few
from the vent. years, bedded sequences can be built up near the
Because of the great column height, which is vent, but these are never likely to be of great
estimated to be >50 km (G. P. L. Walker 1980), thickness, e.g. less than 2 m of ash-fall deposits
the deposit is also thickest 20 km downwind from accumulated just 800 m downwind of the vent on
Irazu volcano, Costa Rica, from the eruptions
between March '1963 and mid-1964 (Fig. 6.23).
Vulcanian activity has been observed in a large
number of historic eruptions: for example; Fuego
\
\ N
wet season
\ aeolion
r ipples (March 20-Jun. 23 1964)
\
\ .....
\ '0' dry sea. on
\
\ \
170cm (December 10 19 63-MQrch 191964)
~~!- .rosion
weT Sfoson
(Morch 13- Oec.mb .. 9 1
9 63)
100 SURTSEYAN
./
" .....
~;'
~"?;/
CJ"?-;' e EI665
.,)'-';' /
~ ;' /
eN75 1;'
eE.", /
_. . . . .-. .- I PLINIAN //
-- I /
---- I /
SUB - PLINIAN I /
O+----------r------;--r~------_,
500
O(km 2 )
Figure 6.25 D-F plot showing the field of vulcanian
deposits : C68 and C71 eruptions of Cerro Negro. Guatemala.
in 1968 and 1971; E. an old undated fall deposit of Mt
Egmont. New Zealand; E1665. fall deposit of the 1665
eruption of Mt Egmont; F71 . eruption of Fuego in 1971; 163
eruption of Irazu in 1963; N74 and N75 . eruptions of
Ngauruhoe in 1974 and 1975. (After J. V. Wright et al. 1980.)
with continuous gas-streaming. Eruption columns see Ch. 5). However, not all vulcanian eruptions
reached heights of > 10 to 20 km. This type of produce pyroclastic flows, e.g. Irazu (1963-5).
activity occurs intermittently with periods of short- The mechanisms and dynamics of vulcanian
lived explosions, and hence two types of fall deposit explosions have most recently been described by
are formed during eruptions which have overall Schmincke (1977), Nairn and Self (1978), Self et al.
been termed vulcanian. The coarser scoria fall (1979) and L. Wilson (1980a). Self et al. (1979) and
deposits seem to have similar fragmentation and L. Wilson (1980a) have critically evaluated the
dispersal indices to those deposits termed violent energy equations used in previous studies for the
strombolian by G. P. L. Walker (1973b). analysis of this type of explosion (e.g. Minakami
Small-volume pyroclastic flows are also fre- 1950, Fudali & Melson 1972, McBirney 1973) .
quently generated during vulcanian eruptions when Transient explosions, typical of vulcanian erup-
large amounts of ejecta fall back around the vent. tions, result from the sudden release of pressure in
Very good descriptions of scoria flows associated a gas due to the failure of some cap rock (Self et al.
with the 1974 Fuego and 1975 Ngauruhoe eruptions 1979, L. Wilson 1980a; Fig. 6.26) . Because of the
are given, respectively, by D. K . Davies et al. pressures involved, this cap rock is unlikely to be
(1978a) and Nairn and Self (1978) (Fig. 6.26 and simply a layer of unconsolidated clasts. It is most
(a)
Figure 6.27 Eruption of Ngauruhoe. New Zealand. at 18.10 h on 19 February 1975. (a) Expanding slug at +8 s; large blocks
are 20-30 m in diameter and breaking up with dust trails. (b) Collapse of dense interior of slug to form pyroclastic flows with
air-fall plume rising above summit at +45 s. (After Nairn & Self 1978.)
156 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
likely to be the cooled, congealed cap of new estimated maximum velocities of ejected debris in
magma that has risen after the previous explosion, vulcanian explosions as a function of the pressure
or it could be an older plug. The pressure rise may beneath the retaining plug at the time it fails. Their
be due to exsolution of magmatic gas, or to the calculations suggest that previous estimates of pre-
heating and partial vaporisation of ground water, explosion gas pressures (of the order of a few
but not to violent mixing as in a phreatomagmatic kilobars) are overestimated by an order of magni-
eruption. tude. They also indicate that initial velocities up to
Gas pressure builds up until the overlying cap 200 m S-I are readily explicable by magmatic gas
fails, in tension or shear. For rocks at temperatures contents (up to a few weight per cent), and
up to 950C, pressures of up to a few hundred bars pressures up to a few hundred bars are probably
are expected (L. Wilson 1980a). An explosion consistent with material strengths. However, for
releases a vertical slug of fragments and gas, with initial velocities above 300 m s-I the influence of
initial velocities that may be supersonic, in which external water must be postulated; even if pressures
case a shock wave would also be propagated (Nairn of several kilo bars (which cannot be supported by
1976). The history of one explosion from the rock strengths) are assumed, unreasonable mag-
Ngauruhoe 1975 eruption shown in Figure 6.27 is matic water content of> 10 wt% is implied. Heated
documented in Figure 6.28. The slug of material ground water is probably a significant feature in
was ejected at an estimated initial velocity of such explosions, but not necessarily an essential
~400 m S-I, and partial collapse of the column feature as proposed by Schmincke (1977).
occurred at nearly 500 m above the crater rim to
generate a pyroclastic flow (Fig. 6.27b).
Self et at. (1979) and L. Wilson (1980a) have 6.8 Surtseyan and phreatoplinian
..
II>
500
j s spud of sound
These terms are used to describe pyroclastic fall
deposits resulting from eruptions which have taken
.5 t
-
400 ons tl of column cotlapu place in the sea or a lake, or by contact with ground
>-
water. Such eruptions are most generally called
0
.2 300
phreatomagmatic or hydrovolcanic (Chs 3 & 5) .
Q)
> Both types of deposit have extreme fragmentation,
....
"U
F being nearly 100% (Fig. 6.2), and this results
0 200
~
a.
- decelerotlon of erllpllon slu9
from the magma-water interaction. Surtseyan
~
pyroclastic fall deposits have moderate dispersal,
c: 100
0
Q) b c _1.::... while phreatoplinian deposits can be extremely
I
~ :~. i- ................... I widely dispersed (Fig. 6.2).
0
0 500 1000 1500 There is a tendency to associate specific magma
Distance above crater rim (m) compositions with each of these two types of
Figure 6.28 History of the 18.10 h vulcanian explosion at deposit, based on the compositions of the type
Ngauruhoe, New Zealand, on 19 February 1975. Data are examples used to define the terms originally
from the analysis of still photographs; errors are shown as (basaltic for surtseyan, rhyolitic for phreatoplinian;
bars. Curved line approximates exponential deceleration of
see below). However, given the right conditions,
the eruption slug. The steep part of the curve (a) represents
deceleration in the gas thrust phase; the flat portion (b) the eruption of any magma type may produce the
represents a slow, stable velocity condition while mixing dispersal and fragmentation characteristics defining
with air and column collapse took place; part (c) shows a these two types of deposits on a D-F plot. It may
slight increase in velocity as convective recovery and rise of thus be possible to find rhyolitic surtseyan deposits,
the plume began. This event ejected 2 x 108 kg of rock,
and andesitic, trachytic and even basaltic phreato-
although only half of this was juvenile. Half of the total
volume then collapsed to form the pyroclastic flow. (After plinian deposits.
Self et al. 1979.)
SURTSEYAN AND PHREATOPLINIAN 157
(0) 4
1000
3 ----- e_ . .:, ~ .
-E
E 500
L......
V 2
. - - .--- .... x<;1. ...
0 -.- I-X;-"~v'O' O
X ' x. . ~.
. 0.
0
0
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ _ _ I X
-'-
4)
Q)
E
o "'0
-5
32
-4
16
- 3
8
-2
4
-I
2
0 I
I/Z I~
2 3
I/S
4 ~
1'16 mm
'6 100
Md
E
:J
."'-. Figure 6.31 MdJ0<j> for some surtseyan ash-fall deposits.
Solid circles are samples collected at vent. while crosses are
. 50
>< downwind deposits. Diamonds are ash-fall deposits from
c
:E phreatomagmatic eruptions of the Quill. St Eustatius. Lesser
2 4 6 8 10 Antilles; all of the samples were collected between 2 and
Di stance (km) 3 km from the vent. Broken line is the field of magmatic
basaltic (strombolian) fall deposits (from Fig. 6.7). (After
(b) G. P. L. Walker & Croasdale 1972 and J. V. Wright unpub.
400
data from St Eustatius.)
."'- e.,
o both modes of deposition may have occurred
200 \ simultaneously as ash from a previous explosion, or
.-.
E \ maintained column, fell around the vent into newly
E 100
generated surges. Other evidence of such ashes
o
VI
being wet may be entombed gas cavities (Ch. 5).
VI
4) \
c: 50
.J/t. 0 0
u 0
:c
\
00
_0
o
_
0 6.8.2 PHREATOPLINIAN ACTIVITY AND
I- o
DEPOSITS
o 00 o
0 0
o
Figure 6.32 Thinly, laminated phreatomagmatic ash-fall deposit of intermediate composition erupted from the stratovolcano
Mt Misery on St Kitts. Lesser Antilles (see Fig. 13.28; this ash deposit also contains accretionary lapilli (not visible)}. Knife is
30 cm long.
All of these phreatoplinian deposits were pro- accretionary lapilli are common. They may be
duced during phreatomagmatic phases of much finely laminated, especially towards the vent, and
larger rhyolitic eruptions which involved several near to the vent they are often associated with base
different styles of activity. Collectively, these in- surge deposits (Fig. 6.33). Deposits are poorly
clude plinian, base surge and ignimbrite-forming sorted for pyroclastic falls, especially considering
activity (Fig. 6.33). With the exception of the their median grainsize, and their size distributions
examples from Santorini and Vesuvius, they all are bimodal or strongly negatively skewed, or both,
involved eruption of rhyolitic magma through indicating that they have an extended coarse tail
caldera lakes. In the Minoan eruption, sea water (Fig. 6.37). In contrast, plinian deposits are posi-
gained access to the vent on Santorini. During the tively skewed. SEM studies show that blocky
Vesuvius AD 79 eruption, water from a deep shards are typical (Heiken 1972, 1974, Wohletz
aquifer is thought to have gained access to the 1983; Ch. 3), although the phreatoplinian deposits
magma chamber (Ch. 5). of the Askja 1875 eruption do contain 'vesiculated'
The extremely wide dispersal of these deposits cuspate shards (Sparks et at. 1981), more usually
(Fig. 6.36) indicates a high eruption column (of associated with magmatic eruptions, as do the
plinian proportions), yet all of the other character- deposits of the Oruanui Formation (Self 1983).
istics of the deposits indicate that they have a Laterally, phreatoplinian deposits become im-
phreatomagmatic origin. Deposits are very fine- perceptibly thin and fine over wide areas. Down-
grained, even close to source (Fig. 6.35) and wind there is little sorting of the size distribution,
160 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
C) <>
Q '&
8 0 00
0 00
000
B 000 Loyer C2 ... ersely g raded pumice
000
....
0<>0 and o,h lo ll depo. 11 with
8 15"0<; bose , u'ge hor lzoOl ( B)
Member 5 ash lol l depo.11 0 00
DO QO
' , '. 10 "Uh occre llonary t100t
~
. 0
laplill
0
#0
I-
' 0 ' .
Member 4 non-we lded Ign lmbr llf Loyer C1 f,n. gra ,n ed poor ly .Orled
(Oruonu l Ign lmb,U.)
0-.0 and "rarif ied olh fall
']
deposil
.....-
......
ell 0
fine o.h fall d.poIII wllh
Member 3 wilh occ<lllonory lopl il l
Loyer B pum lc. lo ll depos l1
m!'frn Member 2 pum ice loll dtposl1 metres
Me m b e r fine
I "hlle o.h depo.11
Figure 6.33 Schematic sections through the deposits of two eruptions which produced phreatoplinian
deposits. (a) The Oruanui (Wairakei) Formation, New Zealand, reconstructed close to source north of Lake
Taupo. Thicknesses of basal members (1~3) are exaggerated; 'e' indicates erosional breaks that occurred
during the eruption. (b) The products of the Askja eruption, Iceland on 28~29 March 1875. (After Self &
Sparks 1978.)
o 15km
N
Figure 6.34 Isopach maps of the (a) Askja (1875), Iceland
and (b) Oruanui phreatoplinian ash layers, New Zealand. For
the Oruanui deposits this is the combined thickness of
members 1, 2, 3 and 5 (Fig 6.33) (After Self & Sparks
1978)
50km o 300km
'-_---'I
SURTSEYAN AND PHREATOPLINIAN 161
Figure 6.35 Phreatoplinian members 1-3 of the Oruanui Formation, New Zealand, 25 km from source. Member 4 is the base
of the co-eruptive Oruanui ignimbrite. Erosion surfaces between members can be seen. The scale is 45 em long. (After Self &
Sparks 1978.)
100
Rotongoio osh" 1" "M3 M1 "M5 and it is only the larger particles that are lost with
1 "SeteA "M2
increasing distance from the vent. This type of
SUR'TSEYAN 1 Hatepe ash ":='1'--,.....J'
grading is coarse-tail grading, and contrasts with the
1-'
1I Sete L
"Aska 1875
J
Oruanul
members
1 distribution grading typical of plinian deposits
1 PHREATOPLINIAN
1 where, laterally, sorting affects the whole size
./
,/
distribution (Fig. 6.37). Downwind sorting of fines
_-1--
./
.,.".,."", ..............
must be inhibited in some way, and involves the
bringing down of different-sized particles in aggre-
STROMBOLIAN
gates or clumps to explain why these deposits are so
_---- : PLINIAN
-.....,. I fine-grained near source and so poorly sorted.
iSUB-PLINIAN I
o+---+-.--.-.---r-.----.----.-- These could fall as accretionary lapilli, but perhaps
5 10 50100 5001000 10000 100000 in many cases as unstructured clumps of ash. More
O(km 2 ) extreme would be the wholesale water-flushing of
Figure 6.36 O-F plot of phreatoplinian deposits. (After Self the downwind plume, in which case ash could fall
& Sparks 1978 and G. P. L. Walker 1981a.) as 'mud-rain'. G. P. L. Walker (l981d) described a
type of micro bedding attributed to the splashing of
falling water during deposition of the Hatepe ash.
The source of most of the water was likely to have
162 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
.'. ..
+ plinian
I
~
3 I
..' .1
1
....
I
~ ,,~ I
-'Of I
~o~ 1Sl. 2 I + +
b ',', :+ + ++
+. + + I + + + ++ + +
+++++ +
-
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 '1
Groin size (lZJ )
c>
.S +++ + + +++
++
+ +
.... :+ +/+ + ++ +
(b) Plinian o +, + + +
CJ)
~
I
I
40 I
I
o -0.5 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.3 0.5
Skewness (oc)
~ 20
Figure 6.37 Grainsize data from the 1875 Askja deposits. Iceland. showing contrasts between the (a)
phreatoplinian (layer C) and (b) plinian (layer D) deposits (Fig. 6.33). Frequency-grainsize curves are for
samples collected at various distances downwind. (c) Plot of skewness against sorting. (After Sparks et a/.
1981.)
been steam-generated at the vent by the interaction suspected, and may deposit poorly sorted, bimodal
of magma and water. ashes distally. Problems in the interpretation of
Other types of pyroclastic fall deposit can re- distal silicic ash layers are discussed in Section 6.9.
semble phreatoplinian deposits in the field. One is
formed by local flushing of a downwind plinian or
6.8.3 MECHANISMS
sub-plinian plume by atmospheric rain, and this
type we have mentioned while discussing plinian We have already discussed (Chs 3 & 5) some of the
deposits. Such an ash-fall deposit could contain physical controls of phreatomagmatic or hydro-
accretionary lapilli, but an isopach map would volcanic explosions that generate surtseyan and
show that the deposit only covered a very limited phreatoplinian pyroclastic fall deposits. Clearly, the
area. Co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits associated major contrast between these types of eruptions and
with ignimbrite-forming eruptions (Chs 5 & 8) can magmatic eruptions is the degree of fragmentation
be very widespread and, if rain-flushed, could also of the magma. In magmatic eruptions disruption
contain accretionary lapilli. However, these ash-fall and fragmentation of the magma is by ex solution
deposits are vitric-enriched because crystals are and expansion of its volatiles. In comparison, this
preferentially segregated into the pyroclastic flows, produces the relatively coarse population of par-
while phreatoplinian deposits should contain nearer ticles observed in strombolian and plinian deposits.
to the original magmatic crystal ratios if the magma However, even in the phreatomagmatic case it is
were porphyritic. Texturally, co-ignimbrite ash-fall likely that some vesiculation and disruption of the
deposits should contain delicate shards and bubble magma occurs by magmatic gases. SEM studies do
wall fragments, suggesting fragmentation by ex- show that shards from surtseyan and phreatoplinian
solving magmatic gases. It has now also been deposits, although having sharp fractured bound-
recognised that plinian eruptions may produce aries, may contain small vesicles, suggesting that
substantially more fine ash than has hitherto been magmatic fragmentation could playa role (see Figs
DISTAL SILICIC AIR-FALL ASH LAYERS 163
3.18, 24 & 25; Section 3.5.1). Self and Sparks amounts of steam may have lower convective
(1978) suggested a two-stage model for fragmen- plumes, because of the thermal energy lost in
tation in many phreatomagmatic eruptions. Magma vaporising water (Ch. 5). However, the much finer-
is first partially fragmented by vesiculating mag- grained nature of the ejecta means that it will be
matic gases to give a coarse population which then more widely dispersed from a lower plume than it
interacts with water. Hydrovolcanic explosions would be from an entirely magmatic plume.
occur and a second stage of fragmentation is There are no direct observations of phreatoplinian
initiated, which is aided by the large surface area of eruptions, but the continuous eruption of rhyolitic
magma presented to the water because of the initial magma at a high discharge rate through, say, a
magmatic breakage. Final grainsize characteristics caldera lake is likely to produce an eruptive plume
of the ejecta will depend on the efficiency of some tens of kilometres high.
mixing. From Figure 3.9 a water: magma mass
ratio of 0.3 leads to the most efficient fragmentation.
6.9 Distal silicic air-fall ash layers
If almost complete hydrovolcanic fragmentation
occurs, the only evidence of the role of magmatic
The interpretation of distal (> > 150 km from the
fragmentation will be small vesicles seen within
vent) air-fall ashes associated with large magnitude
some larger shards. In less-efficient events, larger
silicic eruptions has become problematical. Large
ash-sized fragments may be poorly vesicular.
magnitude events, in many cases ignimbrite-
However, it is unlikely that abundant delicate
forming, can be very complex, and this makes
cuspate shards and bubble wall fragments would be
understanding their distal ash layers difficult. Up to
preserved. This two-stage model for fragmentation
a few years ago they were generally assumed to be
also explains the grain size distribution of phreato-
pre-ignimbrite air-fall deposits, a view still upheld
plinian deposits: the fine-grained unimodal popu-
by Izett (1981). More-recent studies have indicated
lation is generated by hydrovolcanic fragmentation,
that crystal-enriched ignimbrites should be ac-
while the coarse-tail is of larger particles broken by
companied by equally voluminous vitric-enriched
magmatic processes.
ash falls. Many widespread ashes were subsequently
Eruption columns for this type of activity are
interpreted as co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits (e.g.
driven by rapid successions of hydrovolcanic ex-
Sparks & Huang 1980; Ch. 8). Widely dispersed
plosions. Observations of the 1963 Surtsey eruption
phreatoplinian ash-fall deposits were then recog-
suggest that these occur every few seconds to tens of
nised, and G. P. L. Walker (1980) suggested that
seconds (Thorarinsson et at. 1964). Each explosion
widespread ash layers could also be formed by
at Surtsey thrust out black jets of ash and bombs,
littoral explosions when hot pumice flows entered
which occasionally reached heights of about 1 km.
the sea (see Chs 3, 9 & 10).
Finer particles were then taken to greater heights
New studies, in which the total grain size popu-
by convection, occasionally as high as 9 km
lations of deposits have been, determined, now
(Thorarinsson et al. 1964). During the 1979
suggest that the volume of fine ash produced during
Soufriere eruption, columns from phreatomagmatic
plinian eruptions is much more than was previously
explosions rose as high as 18 km (Sparks & L.
supposed. Thus, the importance of widespread ash-
Wilson 1982).
fall deposits of plinian origin may have been
As the steam-pyroclast mixture rises, conden-
underestimated.
sation of the steam may occur in the column. This
phase change requires a large change in volume,
6.9.1 WHOLE-DEPOSIT GRAINSIZE
and a substantial increase in density. Although this
POPULA nONS
may be partially compensated for by mixing of air
from the side of the column, partial collapse of the Most studies of pyroclastic fall deposits only
column could occur. It is in this situation that base provide data on thickness and grainsize to distances
surges (Ch. 5) will form. Eruptions producing large <150 km from the vent. Whole-deposit grain size
164 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
Thera welded tuff, Santorini dacite (mixed) Sparks & Wright (1979)
Therasia welded tuff, Santorini dacite (mixed) Sparks & Wright (1979)
Mt St Helens 1980 dacite Banks & Hoblitt (1981), Rowley et al. (1981)
Green tuff, Pantelleria pantel Ie rite J. V. Wright (1980), Wolff and Wright (1981, 1982)
Mayor Island, New Zealand pantellerite B. Houghton (pers. comm)
Tarawera 1886, New Zealand basaltic Cole (1970), G. P L. Walker et al. (1984)
* The description given by Hay et al. (1979) of this deposit suggests it is a welded air-fall tuff. In particular, the deposit is
sheet-like, mantles topography, is frequently stratified, welded tuff is found interbedded with air-fall pumice close to the
vent, and the overall degree of welding shows a strong dependence on distance from source.
166 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
Figure 6.39 Welded air-fall tuffs mantling topography on (a) Ruapehu and (b) Tongariro volcanoes. New Zealand (both
photographs by C. J. N. Wilson). Note vertical cooling joints in (b).
168 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
Figure 6.40 Distribution of the Thera welded tuff and its 6.10.2 CONDITIONS OF FORMATION
equivalent non-welded pumice-fall deposit (the Middle
Pumice) in the caldera wall of Santorini. Greece. Dotted
The critical problem posed by welded air-fall tuffs
circle marks the area in which the source vent probably is to determine under what conditions airborne
occurs. Isopleths show the average diameter of the five ejecta can remain sufficiently hot during flight to
largest clasts. (After Sparks & Wright 1979.) weld and compact after deposition. The basic
controls are high discharge and accumulation rates.
the same explosive rhyolitic eruption of this Ice- Field evidence suggests that accumulation rate is
landic volcano discussed previously in Section 6.4. the critical factor. Both the Thera and Askja welded
The eruption produced a number of distinctive tuffs are thickest and most densely welded near the
pyroclastic layers, and two of these (C and D in Fig. vent, where the accumulation rate was greatest (cf.
6.33b) pass into welded rocks near Oskjuvatn welded ignimbrites which are again most densely
caldera (Fig. 6.44). The most important welded tuff welded where they are thickest, but where they are
grades laterally into layer C2 (Figs 6.44 & 45). This ponded in a depression this could be a long distance
welded tuff has a maximum thickness of 4 m and from the vent).
covers a minimum area of l.6 km 2 . The welded tuff Accumulation rate has two main effects. First,
mantles topography and can be found on slopes as rapid accumulation prevents radiative and con-
steep as 30. It is stratified, and there are marked vective cooling of deposited fragments. On burial,
fluctuations in the compaction profile. Welded air- fragments are insulated, so they cool by conduction
fall tuffs are deposited in layers, and can show alone, which is a slow process because of the high
WELDED AIR-FALL TUFFS 169
Figure 6.41 The Thera welded tuff, Santorini, Greece. (a) At Thera Harbour with well developed internal stratification. (b)
Photomicrograph (negative) of eutaxitic texture. Note the development of perlitic cracking. Area shown is about 1 cm across.
(c) Non-welded pumice fall (between arrows) which is the lateral equivalent. Note thermal darking above base.
Figure 6.42 Compaction and lithological profile through the Po,,,,"y 'Y. Oensily Q cm- 3
o
J
20 40 O.~ 1.5 2.5
Thera welded tuff, Santorini, Greece, where it is thickest.
The minimum strain ratio assumes all ellipsoidal pumice
clasts landed with their long axes parallel to bedding. (After
Sparks & Wright 1979; see this paper for method of
measuring strain ratio.)
pink
o ~~~,~:I~~,?
[J e,!,,~~~yzone
I ~:~!t~ln,eJ'~:~me
170 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
---: .w._-.-
mean ", ----, "
- :':"~'-::" .....
falling ejecta. At high temperature, an incandescent
clast loses much of its heat by radiation. This loss is
2 ,,'" reduced if each particle is surrounded by other hot
I
ell! FALLS ".
..........
\
\
'. particles radiating heat in a dense cloud, as each
particle absorbs radiated heat from its neighbours.
'----------------------~
~8~--L-~
- 6~~--~4~L---~2--L-~O~~~2~~ The Askja 1875 eruption is sufficiently well docu-
256 64 16 4 I 114 mm
mented to allow an estimate of the accumulation
Md
rates which produced the welded tuff (Sparks &
Figure 6.43 MdJ(Jq, plot of the non-welded part of the
Wright 1979). For the densely welded zone this was
Thera welded tuff (for examples of grainsize histograms see
Fig. 6.3). On the basis of grainsize (Ch. 12). this welded calculated as 20 cm min -I, and at the boundary
deposit and the other examples described herein would be between incipiently welded and non-welded zones
classified as 'welded agglomerates' and 'welded lapilli tuffs'. it was between 2 and 4 cm min -I.
For brevity in nomenclature, we have used 'welded tuff' as Both the Thera and Askja welded air-fall tuffs are
a general term to cover them all. (After Sparks & Wright
also mixed pumice deposits (Sparks & Wright
1979.)
(0) ( b)
Figure 6.44 (a) Location of the
o, 5km
welded tuff horizons from the
1875 Askja eruption, Iceland. (b)
Isopach map of the layer C (Fig.
6.33) welded tuff. (c) Schematic
north-south profile through layer
C. showing relationships
between welding zones and
thermal colour changes. (After
Sparks & Wright 1979.)
u
,.
"-
CD
.2
.:
.,c
.
o
(0) (b)
~~! ponlblt oourct .tnl conlou," 01 50 m. tr. Interval. ~ Iin tOl ion
Figure 6.46 The Green Tuff. Pantelieria. (a) Present outcrop (stipple) and contours showing how the welded tuff mantles
topography. (b) Generalised map of lineations produced by stretching of fiamme during secondary mass flowage (see Fig.
6.47b). (After J. V. Wright 1980 and Wolff & Wright 1981.)
172 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
Figure 6.47 Welded tuffs on Pantelleria. (a) Two deposits mantling an older rhyolite lava dome. The uppermost (above arrow)
is the Green Tuff, which has a slope of 40. (b) Strong lineation in the Green Tuff produced during rheomorphism. (c) Refolded
fold in the Green Tuff. (d) Welded air-fall tuff showing altemating layers of densely welded tuff (dark) and non-welded white
pumice fall. This is overlain by a younger welded tuff (dark), which underlies the Green Tuff in (a). Section is 10m thick.
Crater, Mono Craters, but more generally these Icelandic rhyolitic welded air-fall tuffs (H. Sigurd-
features in high-silica rocks are only going to be sson & O. Smarason pers. comms). These include
found in the fluidal ejecta derived from peralkaline the Askja welded air-fall tuff, which shows some
magmas. Pantelleritic clastogenic lavas may occur incipient rheomorphic structures.
on Mayor Island, New Zealand (B. Houghtonpers. Basaltic pyroclastic fall-forming eruptions often
comm.). seem to produce deposits showing a complete range
The rheomorphic facies again seems rare among of thermal facies. In contrast, pumice fall deposits
silicic air-fall deposits. At present it has only been are generally non-welded, with no welded facies
described from Pantelleria (J. V. Wright 1980, present. However, if non-welded they may still
Wolff & Wright 1981,1982), but other pantelleritic show some thermal effects. Grey, black or brown
welded air-fall tuffs on Mayor Island and Suswa zones of thermal darkening may occur, and care
(Table 6.5) show secondary flowage. Rheo- should therefore be taken when interpreting dark-
morphism has also been noted in an andesitic coloured pumice because this may not necessarily
welded air-fall tuff on Ruapehu volcano, New indicate a more basic composition.
Zealand (Fig. 6.39a & Table 6.5), and in some
Table 6.6 Suggested thermal facies model for pyroclastic fall deposits.
(1) Clastogenic (2) Rheomorphic (3) Densely (4) Partially (5) Non-welded
lava welded tuff welded tuff welded tuff pumice deposit
characteristic massive lava rock; linear fabric; planar fabric or poorly developed loose pumice
texture or relict clast flow-folds eutaxitic texture; eutaxitic textu re;
structure structures near-zero porosity relict primary
in zone of densest porosity
welding
examples r- - - - - - - - --------------------------1
Mt Suswa 'globule tuff'
Askja 1875
Krakatau 1883
Tarawera 1886
174 MODERN PYROCLASTIC FALL DEPOSITS
6.11 Further reading 1980, Sparks & L. Wilson 1982) provides a sound
physical basis for understanding pyroclastic fall-
G. P. L. Walker (1973b) is essential reading, and producing eruptions. L. Wilson and Head (1981) is
forms the basis for much of our treatment of again recommended for a quantitative analysis of
pyroclastic fall deposits. Also highly recommended basaltic explosive mechanisms. Further physical
is the review by G. P. L. Walker (1981b) of plinian treatment of pyroclastic falls is found in Allen
fall deposits. The series of papers entitled 'Ex- (1982), while Fisher and Schmincke (1984) also
plosive volcanic eruptions I-V' (G. P. L. Walker et discuss processes and the characteristics of the
ai. 1971, L. Wilson 1972, 1976, L. Wilson et ai. deposits.
.-
Plate 7 The Taupo ignimbrite ponded in the upper Ngaruroro River valley, Kaimanawa Mountains, North Island, New Zealand.
The pyroclastic flow moved from left to right (southwards). and surmounted all of the hills seen in the photograph which rise to
550 m above the level of the valley pond. (Photograph by C. J. N. Wilson.)
176
CHAPTER SEVEN
177
178 SUFL\ERI.\L PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
particle concentration flows. However, it is now some workers accounted for this mobility by
recognised that there is a complete spectrum of suggesting that pumice flows are highly expanded.
ignimbrite types. Some of the Mt St Helens However, given sufficient momentum, a high
pumice-flow deposits (22 July and 7 August flows), concentration pumice flow could surmount such
although these produced only very small volume barriers, and indeed cold rock avalanches (Ch. 10)
deposits 0.001 km 3), have levees and surface are known to travel uphill, e.g. the Saidmarreh
features (Fig. 7 .1 b), indicating that the flows may landslide in Iran climbed over a 600 m barrier
have had higher yield strengths than are generally (P. E. Kent 1966). If one allows for eruption
expected for pumice flows. Extremely violent pumice column collapse from heights of several kilometres
flows (c. J. N. Wilson & Walker 1981, G. P. L. or more, pumice flows are found to be no less
Walker & Wilson 1983), can leave a topography mobile than other types of mass flow (Fig. 7.2).
mantling deposit and transport larger lithic blocks Measurements of the heights climbed by a pyro-
considerable distances. The best-described example clastic flow can be used to estimate minimum
is from the Taupo ignimbrite (Section 7.5; Ch. 8), palaeo flow velocities from the simple potential
which is very different in many respects from energy to kinetic energy relationship
currently accepted, 'conventional' ignimbrites.
(7.1)
Large pumice flows can travel for distances of
tens of kilometres, and their mobility has been where h is the height climbed, v is the velocity and g
considered spectacular because of their ability to is the acceleration due to gravity. Absolute-mini-
surmount topographic barriers. For example, the mum velocities of 60-160 m S-l are inferred from
Ito pyroclastic flow (Yokoyama 1974) must have several ignimbrites (e.g. Yokoyama 1974, Sparks
surmounted a 600 m high mountain pass 60 km 1976, P. W. Francis & Baker 1977, Miller & Smith
from source (Fig. 8.3) and the Fisher ash flow tuff 1977, Barberi et al. 1978). The Saidmarreh land-
(Miller & Smith 1977) crossed a 500 m barrier slide must have had a velocity of at least 100 m s -1,
25 km from source. As mentioned previously, and thus such high flow velocities are not unique to
pyroclastic flows.
10000
7.2 Fluidisation
...
" mud flows by the inclusion of a lubricating fluid within the
cold rOCk avalanches
flow, especially if that fluid also provides dynamic
'
support or uplift to the grain population, or part of
10 .'
10 100 it, during flow. In that way, the fluid would retard
Hh (km) sedimentation from the flow, and so act to reduce
Figure 7.2 Relationship between the vertical height the frictional interaction between the flow and the
dropped (Vh) and the horizontal distance travelled (H h ) for substrate.
types of pyroclastic flow and debris flow. Vh for ignimbrites Fluidisation is commonly believed to play an
is usually taken as the reconstructed height of the volcano
before caldera collapse, and bars indicate the uncertainty.
important role in this regard, in the transport of
The data indicate that ignimbrites are apparently more pyroclastic flows. As an industrial process, fluid-
mobile than other types of debris flow. (After Sparks 1976.) isation was developed largely during and immedi-
180 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
ately after World War II. D. L. Reynolds (1954) drag force exerted across the bed by the fluid is
was the first geologist to examine the chemical equal to the buoyant weight of the bed (see C. J. N.
engineering literature and suggest that fluidisation Wilson 1980, 1984). In this state the bed no longer
might have geological applications, including pyro- exists as a coherent mass, but takes on a fluid-like
clastic flows. More recently, its role in the em- character. However, it is more appropriate here
placement of pyroclastic flows has been discussed (see below) to use the term in a looser sense (used
by McTaggart (1960), Sparks (1976, 1978b), by chemical engineers) to cover all conditions, from
Sheridan (1979) and C. J. N. Wilson (1980, 1984). very low gas velocities and packed-bed conditions
When an upward stream of gas (or liquid) is (0 < U < Umf) to high flow velocities and dilute-
passed at increasing velocity (U) through a bed of phase fluidisation (U > >Umr).
cohesionless particulate solids, fluidisation is the Sparks (1976) showed theoretically that pyro-
condition attained at a certain critical fluid velocity clastic flows can only be semi-fluidised. In poly-
(the minimum jluidisation velocity, Umf) when the dispersive systems (grain populations with a wide
range of grainsizes or densities, or both), such as in
500j-J
100 pyroclastic flows, before the largest particles be-
come fluidised the gas flow velocity exceeds the
terminal fall velocity (U t ) of the smallest sizes. Such
700 particles are entrained by the gas and carried out
1000
and lost from the system. This process is called
elutriation, and is important industrially and in the
transport of pyroclastic flows. Sparks calculated
10
curves of U mf and Ut for a wide range of particles
and conditions likely to occur in pyroclastic flows
(Fig. 7.3). These calculations used formulae from
E
standard chemical engineering literature (e.g.
E Kunii & Levenspiel 1969). U mf can be determined
Q) from the so-called modified Ergun equation:
N
'iij
Ut = ( 3.1g
(Qs - Qgi
dp
)1j2 when Re > 500
samples, and has supported his arguments with an
, e.xtensive search into the chemical engineering
Q (7.5) lIterature. His results show that the fluidisation
behaviour of pyroclastic flow samples differ radically
where Re is the Reynolds Number (Eqn 2.6; Ch.
from any simple system, principally because of the
2).
variable hydraulic properties of the different grain
Figure 7.3 shows that for any gas velocity it is
types and their resultant poor sorting.
only possible to fluidise a limited range of grainsizes
A fluidisation rig of the type used by Wilson is
that satisfy the condition Ut > U > Urnf' This led
illustrated in Figure 7.4. Examples of fluidisation
Sparks to suggest that in pyroclastic flows there
plots of U versus f....PIH (the pressure drop across
must always be three phases when gas is passing
the bed per unit thickness of bed) are given in
through:
Figure 7.5. For narrow grainsize populations of
Phase I: particles with Ut < U, ideally smooth and spherical particles, a fluidisation
Phase II: particles with Ut ;::::: U;::::: Urnf and plot shows two straight lines which intersect at, and
Phase III: particles with Urnf > U. ~efine, U rnf (Fig. 7.Sa). (The slope of the straight
lme for U < U rnf can be predicted by reference to
A pyroclastic flow was envisaged to comprise a
published correlations, and this information has
matrix of particles of phases I and II, in which is
been used in the modified Ergun equation to obtain
dispersed particles of phase III which tend to float
correlations of U rnf versus particle and fluid
(pumice) or sink (lithics) depending on the density
characteristics.) Commonly, some degree of hys-
contrast with the matrix (see Section 7.3.3). Phase I
teresis is evident between the curve corresponding
particles are lost by elutriation from the matrix to
to increasing U and the one corresponding to
form the dilute overriding ash cloud (see Fig. 5.13).
decreasing U (Fig. 7.Sb). This can be related to
Later experimental work by Sparks (1978b),
voidage changes during fluidisation, a wide grain size
Sheridan (1979) and C. J. N. Wilson (1980, 1984)
distribution and/or irregular particle shape. For
also demonstrated that pumice flows and pyroclastic
materials having a wide grainsize variation and
irregular particle shapes, a plot is obtained with
Fluidi sed
bed gross hysteresis (Fig. 7.Sc).
\
Poorly sorted (0<1> > 1.0) materials, such as sand
mixes and pyroclastic flow samples, show distinctive
fluidisation behaviour (Figs 7. Sc & 6). At a certain
llP
gas velocity, designated Uie (the value of which
cannot be predicted), some samples begin to
expand, whereas at higher gas velocities, designated
Air
Q
U rnp' samples begin to show segregation structures
(Fig. 7.7). Urnp is the gas velocity at the maximum
supply Rotameter
D;";ibutort
Water manometer
pressure-drop that can be sustained across the bed
(i.e. where f....PIH is equal to the buoyant bulk
Figure 7.4 Schematic diagram of a fluidisation rig. A high density of the bed multiplied by the acceleration
pressure air supply is regulated with valves. through due to gravity: Fig. 7.6a). Urnp replaces Urnf
rotameters and the distributor. into the fluidised bed. During
measured in simple systems, but cannot be pre-
runs. the height of the bed (H) and the gas flow rates are
recorded. together with the pressure drop (!'J.P) on a water dicted reliably from published Urnf correlations
manometer. (After C. J. N. Wilson 1980.) Cc. J. N. Wilson 1984).
182 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
40
Umf
40 80 12{)
(e)
200
120
40
Ump
40 80 120 160
U (em 5- 1 ) (b)
Figure 7.S Fluidisation plots for several materials. I1PIH is
in centimetres of water per metre of bed thickness. filled 80
circles define the runs with increasing U and open circles
the runs with decreasing U. See text for the definitions of U.
Umf Ump and I1PIH. (a) Glass spheres. Md", = 1.40. 0", = ::t:: 60
0.22. (b) Quartz sand. Md", = 1.68. 0", = 0.32. (c) Md", = it
1.28.0", = 1.55. (After C. J. N. Wilson 1980.) <I
40
sections: ie mp
defined segregation layers form at the top or bottom have a non-linear relationship of stress to strain
(or both) of the bed (Figs 7.7d & e). Finer and rate, and a negligible yield strength, C. J. N.
lighter particles move to the top of the bed, while Wilson (1980) considered the rheology of fluidised
coarser and denser particles sink to the base. In ex- systems at U < Umf as follows, At rest (U = 0) the
treme cases, the bed may become completely gas- bed behaves as a particulate material which, at a
sorted. given depth in the bed, can support a certain
C. J. N. Wilson (1980) proposed that the fluid- differential stress before failure occurs at a stage
isation behaviour of all pyroclastic flows can be when the yield strength is exceeded. The yield
typified by a fluidisation plot similar to those in strength (So) increases with depth:
Figure 7.6. This was used as the basis for a
classification of pyroclastic flow types. Types I, 2
So = !!Qgd (7,6)
and 3 (Table 7.1, Fig. 7.8) were introduced to where !! is the tangent of the internal angle of
relate a pyroclastic flow to the corresponding friction, Q is the buoyant bulk density of the
section on a fluidisation plot. The different kinds of material, g is the acceleration due to gravity and dis
grading and the causative mechanisms found in the depth in the bed, In a partly fluidised bed
pyroclastic flows are discussed further below (0 < U ~ U mf), the passage of gas results in a
(Section 7.3). From Wilson's results, it is evident pressure drop across the bed, reducing the yield
that only in type 3 flows can the processes described strength at a given depth. At U = U mf the yield
by Sparks (1976) operate freely. strength is effectively zero and, from
Rheologically, fluidised systems behave in a non- o < U ~ Umf , the yield strength in general (5 u )
Newtonian manner. Data in the chemical engineer- vanes as:
ing literature deal almost exclusively with well
sorted materials (0<1> < l. 0) at high gas velocities 5 u = (1 u/Umf)5 0 (7,7)
(U> U mf). Under such conditions these materials =(1 U/Umf)!!Qgd (7,8)
Table 7.1 Classification of pyroclastic flow types based on
Once full bed support is achieved, materials with
fluidisation behaviour (after C. J. N. Wilson 1980).
0<1>< I may be expected to have similar rheologies
Flow Fluidisation Description to published industrial examples. For materials
type behaviour with with 0<1> > 1, the rheology at high gas flow rates
increasing gas (U> U mp ) is more complex. Much of the gas flow
flow velocities
is diverted through segregation channels in which
non-expanded Non-graded flows; lack of expansion the material is better sorted, and this means that
and high yield strength inhibits although the bed as a whole has a higher per-
gravitational coarse-tail grading. If meability, it continues to have a yield strength.
grading of larger clasts is present. it is
The rheology of fluidised materials in pyroclastic
due to some other mechanism.
Minimal loss of ash into
flows is therefore liable to be very complex, But
accompanying ash-cloud deposits from the foregoing discussion we can surmise that
fluidisation will effectively reduce the yield strength
2 expanded Expansion of flow allows
gravitational coarse-tail grading of a flow, This concurs with field observations of
of pumice and lithic clasts the morphological and internal features of deposits.
3 segregating High degree of fluidisation results
Poorly fluidised type 1 flows show features which
in extreme grading. Distinct indicate they had high yield strengths, and a
concentration zones of pumice and Bingham model may approximate their motion,
lithics are found, and other gas Yield strength is an important control of the types
segregation structures. Large
of grading observed in flows, and highly fluidised
volume of vitric ash lost into
co-ignimbrite fall
flows have very different characteristics. Fluid-
isation will also induce a stable density stratification
Figure 7.7 A sequence of photographs taken through the side wall of a '2-D' fluidisation bed to show the formation of segregation features in a
pyroclastic flow sample (Mdq, = 0.75. 0q, = 3.2). Scale bar is 25 cm, (a) After a few seconds of bubbling, segregation pipes start to form, (b) As bubbling
continues, the pipes become larger and propagate to the bed surface. (c) As the gas velocities are increased, the pipes are broken up by bubbling-
induced circulation, and irregular segregation pods sediment towards the base of the bed. (d) With time, pipes continue to propagate back towards the
surface of the bed. The material ejected by the pipes is forming a fines- and pumice-rich segregation layer at the top of the bed. (e) As higher gas
velocities are reached. the bed becomes distinctly layered. being richer in lithics and crystals and poorer in fines at the bottom of the bed. and richer in
pumice and fines at the top. The base of this upper segregation layer is approximately at the top of the scale bar. (f) If the gas supply is slowly reduced
within the upper segregation layer. then the pipes are very thin and dominantly composed of pumice. almost all of the lithics and crystals being in the
lower segregation layer. (After C. J. N. Wilson 1980.)
(f)
,I
~ J
!
,
1
to
\
186 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
.. ..
..'.--........."....,'..........
(0) (b) (b) external sources, which include gas trapped
~
..
~ ",".
..;..
... .;-
,
().Cl
GOo.
a 0
0
0 (/~
C!J'O
,
. 0
Q,
during initial flow formation, air incorporated
at the front of the moving flow, gases released
by the combustion of vegetation and steam
from heated surface water or ground water.
. ~ ,I "
o. "
:
I ' f ' .'. . " . ..'! . The relative importance and effects of these different
... .~ '. eo~ ~ :
gas sources are fully discussed by C. J. N. Wilson
(e) (1980).
The major part of the gas in pumice flows is
provided by emission from juvenile fragments and
by entrapment of air, both during eruptive column
t
collapse and by engulfment at the flow-front.
11 ,_~ ......
Sparks (1978b) modelled the diffusional loss of
residual gases from juvenile ash particles during
Figure 7.S Sketch showing the characteristics of C. J. N. flow, and concluded that gas production rates are
Wilson's three flow types. (a) Type 1: ungraded deposit, generally sufficient to fluidise fine and medium ash-
surface ridging and block trains present, basal layer poorly
sized particles in medium- and large-volume pumice
developed or absent. (b) Type 2: coarse-tail grading of larger
pumice towards top (reverse) and larger lithics towards base flows. Large-volume (thick) pumice flows are likely
(normal), well developed basal layer, concave upper surface. to be substantially fluidised, and this may be
(c) Type 3: strongly developed coarse-tail grading with important in determining their mobility. Increasing
sharply bounded pumice and lithic concentration lones, levels of fluidisation are predicted in larger flows
segregation bodies and pipes, and a fine-grained layer of
and in flows with higher initial gas contents in the
elutriated vitric ash segregated at the top of the flow. (After
C. J. N. Wilson 1980) original magma. McTaggart (1960) suggested that
the mobility of pyroclastic flows in general was due
which will strongly suppress turbulence in the body to the expansion of entrapped and heated air
of a moving flow (Section 7.7). causing fluidisation of the flow. However, despite
Another important feature shown by Wilson's their high temperature, historic examples of small
experiments, and indicated by the above discussion, pyroclastic flows were no more mobile than cold
is that fluidised pyroclastic flow samples expand rock avalanches (Fig. 7.2), which therefore throws
much less than conventional samples do, this being some doubt on the importance of entrapped heated
due to the bypassing of the gas through segregation aIr.
channels. Wilson estimated that a 100 m thick
pumice flow, having fairly high gas velocities, will
deflate to form an ignimbrite depositional unit
7.3 Pyroclastic flow units and grading
which is not less than 70-85 m thick. This in-
terpretation is also supported by 'a high tide mark'
As previously indicated (Ch. 5), pyroclastic flow
found on the valley sides above some ignimbrites,
deposits are usually composed of a number of flow
e.g. in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes
units. Sparks et al. (1973) first proposed a layering
ignimbrite (Fig. 8.5) this mark rises only 50 m
scheme for pyroclastic flow units. The separate
above the general level of the deposit.
layers were interpreted as reflecting different de-
Finally, we must briefly consider what the gas
positional regimes within a pyroclastic flow (Fig.
sources in pyroclastic flows are. These can be
5 .l3). Layer 1, the lowest layer, was thought to be
divided into:
the deposit of a dilute pyroclastic surge which
(a) internal sources, being gases released from moved in advance of the pyroclastic flow. Layer 2
juvenile clasts by diffusion, breakage and was the deposit of the pyroclastic flow proper, and
attrition, and layer 3 was the deposit of the overriding ash cloud.
PYROCLASTIC FLOW UNITS AND GRADING 187
50
~~ 00 100(em)
mean
(c)
~
40
0~ n-48
lL..
0
4 6 8 10 12
Flow unit thickness (m)
30
(b)
I
I
I
I
10 I.
I
I E
E 2
I
I
....
.c. 20
Vl I
Vl I .Q>
.:. .
Q) Q)
I
c I
.:<: I.
u I
,-
I
I
,- ,-
....
..
I ,-
C I ,-
.. . .
::J I ./
I ./
~ I ,- . /
,-
.
.Q I 10
I
lL.. ,- . /
I ,-
0.1 ,-
I"
./
~,-
n=37
,-.,-
/'
,-
10 100 -5 -3 -2 (~)
32 16 8 4 (em)
Bosal layer thickness (cm)
Maximum size
Figure 7.9 Some data on flow units of the Minoan ignimbrite. Santorini, Greece. (a) Thickness frequency
histogram of flow units. (b) Relation of thickness of the basal layer (layer 2a) to the thickness of its flow unit. (c)
Plot of maximum clast size with height for three basal layers (closed symbols, lithics; open symbols, pumice).
188 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
.. :.....
'a
:;
.: ...
'
E
.'..,:::..
:I 16
U ', '
.. "
_4
:";':.~:
1 Ii th,cS ... . ~ t
Groin size
settling velocities, and therefore coarse-tail grading pyroclastic flow , otherwise the density contrast
and poor sorting result. would have been lost, and therefore the matrix
The example shown in Figure 7.11 is character- density is an upper limit for the density of the
ised by reverse grading of low density pumice and moving flow. Fo~ the example in Figure 7.11 the
normal grading of high density lithics . This type of density of the flow must have been >0.6 to
gravitational (or buoyancy) grading must result <1.05 g cm- 3 (flow unit a, Table 7.2). Lithics,
from the density contrast between the larger clasts because of their high density (~2.s g cm- 3) sink,
and the matrix. The matrix is invariably denser and in this example the largest and heaviest clasts
than the pumice clasts (Table 7.2), and it is thought have formed a distinct lithic concentration zone at
that the flotation of the larger , lower density pumice the base of layer 2b.
clasts causes the reverse grading (density of pumice The type of grading observed within a flow unit
decreases with size). This implies that the matrix places important controls on the properties of the
could not have been greatly expanded in the moving moving pyroclastic flow. Normal grading of pumice
may be due to more-expanded flows in which the
Table 7.2 Comparison of the densities of pumice and matrix pumice density is greater than the matrix. Reverse
of four flow un its of the Minoan ignimbrite.
grading of lithics (Fig. 7.12) suggests that flows
Flow unit Pumice density Matrix* density were only marginally expanded. In such flows high
(g cm- 3 ) (g cm - 3 ) shear-strain rates will be imposed through their
thickness and shear-induced grading of the larger
a 058 105
clasts will result. In such flow units it is often hard
b 0.55 108
c 0.64 1.21
to detect a separate layer 2a, because the whole flow
d 0.54 1.00 was effectively being controlled by boundary layer
effects.
* Matrix is <2 mm size classes.
None of these flow units showed normal grading of Reverse grading of larger and denser clasts is
pumice, which indicates that the pyroclastic flo w s could not similar to that commonly found in block and ash
have been greatly expanded. In all cases the height of the flow , and some scoria flow deposits (Figs s.14a , &
moving flows could at most have only been about twice the
present flow unit thickness. Flow unit a is discussed in text Isa & b), and again in these deposits a layer 2a is
and shown in Figure 7 .11. often inconspicuous or poorly developed. Nairn
190 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
I 1971)
--- 20
10
o
-4 0 4 -4 o 4 -4 o 4 (0)
16 1/16 16 I 1/16 16 I 1/16 16 I 1/16 (mm)
. . ..... .. .... . ..
crystals and lithics. Much larger segregation pipes basal laye r . . . .. .. ...
clasts by diffusion, and breakage and attntton, post-emplacement gas flow from the underlying
should increase systematically with height through parent pyroclastic flow unit.
a flow, and would therefore appear to control the
formation of pipes found concentrated towards the
7.3.5 LATERAL GRADING
tops of flow units. Pipes of this type are now
suspected to be generated in the moving flow, Small, denser-clast types of pyroclastic flows may
although once established they may also act to carry the largest blocks along the full length of their
concentrate post-emplacement gas flow (e.g. they run-out, and show no appreciable lateral grading
may cut a later flow unit; Fig. 7.14). (e.g. P. W. Francis et al. 1974, D. K. Davies et al.
Pipes found at the bottoms of flow units are 1978a).
perhaps generally derived from external sources, Many ignimbrites are known to show a decrease
and are considered to be post-emplacement (e.g. in the maximum size of lithic clasts with distance
they cut basal layers; Fig. 7.14). Good examples of from source (Figs 7.17 & 18). The distance at
this type of pipe are found in the Minoan ignim- which clasts segregate out (into a lithic concentration
brite, where flow units are interbedded with torrent zone at the base of layer 2b) will be dependent on:
deposits and heated ground water was the gas
(a) size and density of the clasts and
source (Bond & Sparks 1976; Fig. 7.15). Segre-
(b) the density or viscosity of the 'matrix' of
gation pipes can also be found above burnt veg-
fluidised fines.
etation and logs (Figs 7.14 & 16).
Small segregation pipes have also been recorded U sing the above criteria and data on the lateral
from pyroclastic surge deposits. Examples are grading oflarge lithic clasts, Sparks (1976) estimated
found in ash-cloud surge deposits in the Bandelier pumice flows to have apparent viscosities in the
Tuffs (Fisher 1979). These cut the internal lami- range 10-1000 poise. Some ignimbrites show little
nation of the surge deposits, and were formed by or no lateral grading oflarger lithics, and these may
.~!,
,\2. :f~092
'3 !;;>T"'
Ignimbrites. Average size decreases away
.
42
3~.~, ? 4
o ,
~J_
2_
o, IOkm
,
A
(d) .13 1.lgnimbrite
2 ~~ ' ,. F
' 8222~ : Ie
0-0
'2
o .11,/
' '' 18
, ' 96"~
194 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
\~
ment of light and dark pumice layers in the same
E
u flow unit with a minimum of mixing implies a
.~ 10 laminar flow regime for the moving pumice flow. If
:
'~~
flow were turbulent, mixing of the two pumice
\~.,~
E types would have taken place and destroyed the
:3
.~ 5 compositional zoning.
~8~ ~....
>(
o For the Acatlan ignimbrite, details of the grain size
~ .~~ .~ .
' ~'.__ ~ i::::::--' .
2
6 7 ' ----.:. ~. l
distribution suggested that laminar flow was perhaps
L-----~10~--~2~0----~30~----4~O------~ more important early in the history of the pumice
Distance (km)
flow, and later movement of the zoned flow
occurred as a semi-rigid plug moving along a
Figure 7.18 (a) Lateral variation in average maximum clast
size in the Ito pyroclastic flow. Japan (after Yokoyama 1974).
sheared basal layer. The question could be asked:
(b) Relationship of the average maximum lithic clast size to 'why does compositional zoning not constitute
distance from source for several ignimbrites. 1, Towada evidence of layer-by-Iayer deposition from a turbu-
pumice-flow deposit; 2, Ito pyroclastic flow deposit; 3, lent, low particle concentration pyroclastic flow, as
Shikotsu pyroclastic flow deposit; 4, ignimbrite C, Vulsini; 5, envisaged by Fisher (1 966a) ?' However, the massive
Lajes ignimbrite, Terceira; 6, ignimbrite F, Vulsini; 7,
ignimbrite E, Vulsini; 8, Kuttyaro pyroclastic flow deposit.
structureless nature of the deposit, lack of bedforms
(After Sparks 1975.) and the general lack of any vertical or lateral
grain size changes (except at vent, Ch. 8) all indicate
have had higher viscosities, e,g. the Acatlan ignim- that the flow had a high particle concentration, and
brite, Mexico (J, V. Wright & Walker 1977,1981), deposition would have been almost'instantaneous by
Larger pumice clasts sometimes also show a freezing of the flow, not layer by layer
decrease in maximum size with distance from Some care must also be taken in the interpretation
source (e,g. Fig, 7.18). In many other cases no of other colour zoned deposits, because such a
simple relation is found, or maximum size may change may be a post-depositional thermal effect.
even increase with distance.
(0 ) (b)
locotion of 6
sectlon$
Q ~
~O
.... ondes",c
pumice
sog~
po.
ron~
I
I ~m
~ colour
..... chong~ POSS09~
ron6
r
rhyolitic
pumice
Wt% IIthlcS
o
-
-== r-.-
-3Zmm_
~'6_
8 _
- 1--4- 2_
' ,
50
1--
1/2- .,
1!8 -1/~
-1/16
100 - 6 -4 - Z 0 Z 4
10 5 o 5 10 15
D isto nce (km )
NW E
Figure 7.19 The compositionally zoned upper main flow unit of the Acatlan ignimbrite, Mexico. (a) Profiles at three
locations and average grainsize distribution. Ash content highlighted by close stipple. Star marks source position;
unornamented is area in which co-ignimbrite breccias occur (Ch 8). Inset shows lateral extent of ignimbrite and positions
the three locations; again, star is source vent, and large dots enclose area in which co-ignimbrite breccias are found (Fig .
8.19). (b) Details of the grainsize distribution in the profile measured at location 2. In histograms: stipple IS rhyolitic
pumice; diagonal rule is andesitic pumice; black is lithics. (After J. V. Wright & Walker 1981)
briefly present some results of the modelling of the highly turbulent, rapidly moving density current
movement and emplacement of pumice flows from with a low particle concentration. However, a
Sparks et at. (1978). considerable proportion of the particles transported
The models of Sparks et at. (1978) indicate that by the pumice flows are unable to be supported as a
the height of eruption columns, when collapsing turbulent suspended load. This is because much of
above the vent, is between 0.6 and 9 km for the the grainsize distribution has terminal fall velocities
range of values of the controlling parameters well above the shearing stress velocities maintaining
considered (gas velocity, water content and vent turbulence in a flow, even for rapidly moving flows.
radius) (see Ch. 8) . They then postulate that when The ability of turbulent flows to suspend particles
eruption column collapse occurs, the mixture flows is related to a parameter called the shearing stress or
away from the volcano as a density current with friction velocity, V*, defined by
high velocity. Initial velocities of the flows range
from 60 to 300 m S- l (Fig. 7.21). Flows from large (7.9)
eruptions may still have velocities of 100 m S-l at
distances of 50 km from the source. The models
show that initially the mixture is likely to be a where cf is the drag coefficient of the ground and U
196 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
gas "IPnr
.~ l ot ' ly(m s -I) rod ,us 1m)
600 600
a 600 600
600 400
o 400 400
400
, a 400
200
100
'"
o
o
Q)
>
~ 100
IJ...
0~------~20
~------4~0~----~
6~0-------780
Distance (km)
Figure 7.21 Variation of velocity with distance from a
central source in a radially expanding, low density, turbulent
fluid. Six sample solutions are shown, to cover a wide range
of eruption column conditions. The flow velocity is calcu-
lated for the conditions of gas velocity and vent radius
indicated. All of the models are for 1% water content,
except for the solid circle solution, which is for 6% water
content. (After Sparks et a/. 1978.)
(a) (b)
15 25 50 100 200 15 25 50
50
50
10 10
E E
2 10
2
10
II)
::::l II)
::::l
"'C
0 :0
0:: 0
0::
pumice Iithic5
01 01
l'Og cm -3 2'5g cm -3
show that even in fast flows only particles finer than 7.5 Form of moving pyroclastic flows:
about 1 mm can be transported in turbulent sus- head, body and tail deposits
pension and, in many cases, only particles finer
than a few hundred micrometres can be suspended. The term 'form' is used to describe the shape which
It was therefore deduced that pyroclastic flows a pyroclastic flow will assume when moving.
develop a high-concentration basal zone within a C. ]. N. Wilson and Walker (1982) proposed that a
few kilometres of the vent, as larger clasts settle to pyroclastic flow can be divided into a head, a body
the base of the flow. In such a high concentration and a tail (Fig. 7.24). The head region and the body
flow other mechanisms of particle support are and tail region have different fluidisation states, and
dominant (see above) and the flow is capable of this controls the development of separate layers and
transporting lithic clasts of diameter several centi- facies within a pyroclastic flow deposit. Flows with
metres for tens of kilometres. The motion of the well developed heads should produce deposits that
lower, dense flow dissociates itself from the upper are very different from those without heads, in
turbulent cloud of fine ash and gas, which mixes which nearly all of the material is deposited from
with the atmosphere to form a convective plume. the body. It is at the head that erosion takes place,
and this will be greater in flows with larger heads.
The most fluidised part of a pyroclastic flow will
be the flow-head (c. J. N. Wilson 1980), into
198 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
ingested into the moving flow causes portions of the on the height climbed by the flow suggest that the
pumiceous head to burst continually and to be flow velocity probably exceeded 250-300 m S- 1
jetted in advance of the flow proper. Large amounts near the vent (Wilson 1985). These are the highest
of fines can be lost by this process, and in the velocities yet inferred from field observations for a
Taupo deposit this gave rise to the distinctive fines- pyroclastic flow, although theory suggests that they
depleted ignimbrite or FDI (G. P. L. Walker et al. may not be unusual (Fig. 7.2l). Carbonised veg-
1980g; Figs 7.27 & 28). At Taupo, excessive loss of etation is found at all levels in the FDI, indicating a
fines was attributed to a very high throughput of thorough mixing by turbulence and supporting the
gas, resulting partly from the ingestion of large theory of ingestion and volatilisation of large
amounts of vegetation and partly from effects of volumes of vegetation. In other fines-depleted
ground surface roughness on a very quickly moving ignimbrites, turbulence, induced locally by surface
pyroclastic flow, so promoting air ingestion. Data roughness, may have been the most important
cause of fines loss, e,g. on St Lucia (Fig, l3.35)
lee - side pumIce 'enses
landscap e -mantling formed In vorllcles under
where pumice flows travelled down narrow, winding
Ignlmb,,'e vene.r
deposit WIth 'ayerln9
'he pyroclostlc flow and heavily vegetated vall~ys (J. V. Wright et al.
1984).
The presence of jetted, as opposed to surge,
deposits at the base of the Taupo ignimbrite may be
related to the high velocity of the flow. Only
packets of material with a high solids concentration
could burst forward with sufficient velocity to be
poeke' of ground loyer
fines - dep'eted rich in II th,cs conloct deposited before they were caught up by the flow
ond crystols
19n1mb,,'. proper. It is only where the parent flow proceeds
Figure 7.27 Schematic cross section showing the facies of more slowly that dilute surges have sufficient
the Taupo ignimbrite. which are thought to have been velocity to move ahead and produce a ground surge
deposited by the flow head (ground layer and fines-depleted
ignimbrite). body (normal valley-pond ignimbrite) and tail
deposit (e,g. as at Santiaguito in 1973, Ch, 5).
(ignimbrite veneer deposit) of the pyroclastic flow. (After C. J. N. Wilson and Walker (1982) proposed a
G. P L. Walker 1981d.) velocity-dependent hierarchy of conditions occur-
200 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
(0 )
(b) (
( ( ") rrr""\ ~)
~ ))
- t..
<:)
t>
0
C> \ 0 ( 0
0
\. 0
~ \. 0 )
(d)
"
"""\ /"'""'. 1 r--
r( J
1')
(
Figure 7.28 Fines-depleted pumice deposit formed by
jetting from the flow head of the Taupo ignimbrite, New
Zealand. Note the clast-supported textures.
- '" .. l<;).
ll)
Figure 7.30 The ignimbrite veneer deposit of the Taupo ignimbrite. (a) Finely stratified IVD overlying coarse FDI; locality is
16 km from source. (b) Coarse pumice lenses in IVD on lee-side of topographic obstacle; flow direction left to right. locality is
approximately 15 km from source. Note shovel for scale. (Photographs by C J. N. Wilson)
deposit is a type of surge or not. However, the These layers are developed out to about 40 km
weight of the evidence suggests that it was left from the vent, and the number decreases outwards.
behind as a trail-marker by the tail of the flow as it Other bedforms are found on the lee-side of
moved over topography. C. J. N. Wilson and obstacles, where the flow jumped the ground
Walker (1982) suggested that the tail consisted of surface. Lee-side lenses of pumice developed in
the lower parts of the flow which, because of their turbulent vortices under the fast-moving flow, and
proximity to the ground surface and their lower sometimes large prograding foresets are developed
ftuidisation state , were moving less rapidly than the (Fig. 7. 30b).'
bulk of the flow, and hence were left behind. IVD and VPI facies have been recognised in
Grainsize stratification is thought to represent the some other ignimbrites. They are described from
passage of waves of material in a continuous high the Rabaul ignimbrite (G. P. L. Walker et ai.
concentration flow, each wave depositing a layer. 1981c), and examples which were first called ash-
It
\
\
, \\
~,, \
I \
I I "
--
i :. ;-.,-
Depo$lts -C. loy e,2
--- - -
--":.:. .._,,::,--
Qfound loyer - lelled depos lI$
laye, I
eroSion -
"'OM".'"
,eQlme fluid/sOllon
Slrong
fluid/sOl/on
~xp loslY~ ei~cllon
of mOlinO!
wtok or no
lur!Ju!6"C~
.. slrong
lurbul6nc.
Figure 7.32 Dynamic model summarising processes which generate the different layers deposited by a rapidly moving
pyroclastic flow. (After C. J. N. Wilson 1985.)
hurricanes by Roobol and Smith (1976) , occur on due to strong fluidisation accompanying air in-
Martinique, erupted from Mt Pelee. gestion, is important. The ground layer is then
Depending on the flow velocity, and the nature overriden by the base of the flow body, and high
of the landscape over which emplacement occurs, shear stresses result in the erosion of layer 1. These
we can envisage a complete range of pyroclastic flows produce well defined body and tail deposits.
flow forms. Slowly moving , denser-clast flows and The interpretation of the various facies of the
some pumice flows only have poorly or moderately Taupo ignimbrite in terms of the three-layer
inflated heads. These produce pyroclastic flow scheme of Sparks et al. (1973) is given in Figure
deposits, which in section have no, or only thin 7.3l. A dynamic model summarising their forma-
head deposits. Material transported in the flow- tion is shown in Figure 7.32. Such flows seem to
head is dumped, forming a steep flow front, or is stop because they run out of material rather than
pushed aside by the advancing denser body of the because they freeze. For this reason, the edge of the
flow which has a much higher yield strength, so Taupo ignimbrite is not defined by a steep flow
forming levees (e.g . the Mt St Helens 22 July and 7 front. Instead a zone 3-5 km wide is found where
August 1980 deposits; L. Wilson & Head 1981 ; layers 1 and 2 cannot be distinguished . This single
Fig. 7.1b). The bulk of the flow in these cases forms layer is termed the distant facies (Fig. 7.31d), and is
a conventional layer 2 deposit. Layer 1 may include regarded as the deposit of the flow at the stage
a ground surge deposit (Fig. 7.31a). Other pyro- where air-ingestion fluidisation was affecting the
clastic flows (exemplified by the Taupo ignimbrite) entire flow, spreading a thin, strongly fluidised
which are emplaced at very high velocities have layer across the landscape (c. J. N . Wilson &
highly inflated, turbulent heads, leading to the Walker 1982, C. J. N. Wilson 1985). The flow
development of prominent head deposits and a presumably terminated when remaining material
highly erosive base below a ground layer. It is rose in the form of a buoyant convective plume
envisaged that as such a flow moves, material from adding to a co-ignimbrite air-fall ash.
the flow body is laterally transferred and cycled In summary, we still have much to learn about
through the more strongly fluidised front of the pyroclastic flows and their deposits. There appears
flow. In this region bubble-induced turbulence, to be a very large spectrum of types , including
ENERGY SOURCES AND INITIATION 203
dense block and ash flows at one extreme, to increases, particle freedom decreases due to ad-
turbulent, low density, violent types at the other hesion processes (see below).
extreme. The latter, although only recently recog- Surges have densities higher than the ambient
nised, may be more common than is currently atmospheric density, so their passage will be largely
realised. Clearly, much more work still needs to be gravity-controlled. Generally, they follow topo-
done on all aspects of pyroclastic flow processes and graphic lows (1. G. Moore 1967, Waters & Fisher
on the characteristics of their deposits. 1971) but, because of their largely turbulent nature,
stemming from an initial explosive thrust or high
gas content relative to solids (especially fines, see
7.6 Pyroclastic surges as low particle G. P. L. Walker 1983), or from both, they also
concentration flows have the ability to climb very significant topo-
graphic highs and to mantle them with a thin
Pyroclastic surges are regarded as turbulent, highly veneer of ash (e.g. Fig. 5.1; Nairn 1979).
expanded, low particle concentration flows (Ch. 5). Surge-forming eruptions are usually composed of
Wohletz and Sheridan (1979) described surges as multiple surges, frequently as pulses with negligible
time-transient, unsteady flows of tephra that occur time intervals. Surge-forming eruptions may there-
as a pulse or series of pulses in which the kinetic fore lead to deposits which are stacks of surge-
energy rapidly decays. Surges are complex three- deposited beds. Successive surges may erode and
phase systems, being mixtures of solids, gases and rework to varying degrees the deposits of preceding
water. The proportions of these phases vary from surges.
one surge to another, and even during the flow of
individual surges (Allen 1982), but volumetrically
the proportion of solids (and thus their concentra- 7.7 Energy sources and initiation of surges
tion) is subordinate to gas and liquid in most
surges, and therefore much less than in pyroclastic In Chapter 5 surges were subdivided into three
flows (also see G. P. L. Walker 1983). In hot, dry main types:
surges the liquid phase is an insignificant compo-
base surges
nent. In wet, lower temperature surges subequal
ground surges
proportions of all three phases are likely. In terms
ash-cloud surges
of analogy with epiclastic sediment transport pro-
cesses, surges are therefore roughly akin to sub- Each has a different ongm, and may therefore
aqueous turbidity currents (but see Section 7.11 for contain different proportions of the three main
further critical discussion), whereas most pyro- phases (solid, gas and liquid). This may in turn lead
clastic flows are akin to high concentration, viscous to surges with varying physical properties, trans-
regime debris flows (Ch. lO). Surges can result portational and depositional modes, and facies
from eruptions of any magma type, and can arise characteristics of their deposits.
from both magmatic and phreatomagmatic erup-
tions (Chs 5 & 6).
7.7.1 BASE SURGES
During the initial stages in pyroclastic surges,
solid particles are widely dispersed within the fluid Base surges (1. G. Moore 1967) originate from the
phase(s), and are essentially supported and driven base of a phreatomagmatic eruption column as an
by them through turbulence in the gaseous phase. outward moving, ground-hugging, turbulent cloud
The solids thus behave in a particulate fashion of fluid and ash (Ch. 5, Fig. 5.17). They develop
during transportation, and are free to sort them- from phreatomagmatic blasts in the vent, which
selves hydraulically. In viscous mass flows particle eject dilute mixtures of solids, gases and steam.
interaction and particle-fluid cohesion hinders These expand rapidly on eruption and then spread
sorting to a large degree. As the wetness of surges radially, or flow along directed paths as turbulent
204 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
potentIal
thermal explosive ~ energy --------x kinetic
[
e:a~~~Yl--'\ energy ~
+
jUve+nile
(at vent) -
......_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - '
/
I energy
[flOW +veIOCit y]
turbulence
latent heat
from
Figure 7.33 The complex energy chain
condensation involved in the initiation and flow of pyro-
of H20 gas
clastic surges.
surges. Other surges originate from minor column criterion for turbulence (Eqn 2.5, Re = Ugg/ll ),
collapse events eCho 5). Base surges will generally the low viscosity of the driving fluid (gas) and the
be wet, unless they are extremely hot when erupted high velocity fo the surge both contribute to high
and so contain little condensed water. Reynolds Numbers. Both the convective and
The energy for base surge initiation and flow is velocity-induced turbulence entrain and support
derived initially from the thermal energy of the grains (see below).
rising magma (Fig. 7.33). This is translated on
contact with ground water or surface water to
7.7.2 GROUND SURGES
mechanical explosive energy, as the heat from the
magma is used to superheat and explosively expand Ground surges are associated with pyroclastic flow
the external water source (Fig. 7.33; Ch. 3). The forming processes, and are identified where they
explosive energy is translated into momentum and directly underlie pyroclastic flow facies. They may
kinetic energy. Potential energy is also created have several origins, as outlined in Chapter 5:
during eruption, especially where base surges are
(a) directed blasts at vent,
derived from minor column collapse (Ch. 5). This
(b) partial collapse of maintained eruption
potential energy, in turn , translates into kinetic
columns and
energy. In addition, during at least the early stages
(c) projection from the head of moving pyroclastic
of flow, extra thermal energy is liberated from
flows.
juvenile fragments, and latent heat is released when
condensation of gaseous water to liquid water In the first two cases the energy for initiation and
droplets occurs (Fig. 7.33). The thermal energy the mobility of the surge originates in much the
produces turbulent convective circulation, and the same way as for base surges. However, those that
large initial explosive thrust ensures high lateral are spawned from moving pyroclastic flows may
transport velocities, which are responsible for involve one further step. Their origin may be due to
turbulent flow conditions. In the Reynolds Number the ingestion of cold air in clefts at the flow front, or
pyroc lasllc
flow head
lopldly e-<pondlflq
cell of Oil
by erosional incorporation of excessive amounts of 0. G. Moore et al. 1966, J. G. Moore 1967, Waters
vegetation with its high water content (Section 7.2; & Fisher 1971, Kienle et al. 1980, Self et al. 1980)
Fisher 1979, C. J. N. Wilson & Walker 1982). and on the sedimentary structures observed in the
Both of these elements would be instantly heated, deposits of all types of surges. Observed surges are
and would produce rapidly expanding cells which dominated by turbulent billowing clouds of gas,
could have enough momentum and excessive kinetic steam and ash. On this basis, at least the peripheral
energy to be ejected forward, out of the head of the parts of surges are turbulent. However, the unob-
moving pyroclastic flow as a cell of highly turbulent servable inner, lower parts, or the 'body' of the
gas and vapour with low particle concentration, surge, can also be considered to be turbulent by
which moves forward as a surge (Fig. 7.34). The virtue of the tractional sedimentary structures such
surge deposit is then immediately overridden and as waves (dunes), cross-stratification and horizontal
buried under the basal facies of the following lamination commonly found in their deposits o. G.
pyroclastic flow (Figs 5.13, 23a & b; Sparks & Moore 1967, Fisher & Waters 1970, Waters &
Walker 1973, C. J. N. Wilson & Walker 1982; Fisher 1971, Wohletz & Sheridan 1979, Allen
Section 7.5). 1982, Leys 1982; Figs 5.20, 22 & 23). All of these
structures can only be produced by grain-by-grain
7.7.3 ASH-CLOUD SURGES tractional transport (rather than en masse; Ch. 10)
implying low grain concentrations in the transport-
Also associated with pyroclastic flows are ash-cloud
ing medium. Under these circumstances, the uplift
surges (Ch. 5), forming from the trailing ash cloud
force of turbulent fluid eddies is the main grain-
which billows above and behind a pyroclastic flow,
support process possible during the bulk of surge
as gas ami fine ash stream out of the head and body
movement. Suspended grain-support will be main-
of the flow under the influence of fluidisation
tained as long as the drag force of these uplifting
processes (Fisher 1979; Section 7.2). This loss of
turbulent eddies exceeds the settling velocities of
fine ash is called elutriation, and was discussed in
grains at the appropriate Reynolds Number for the
Section 5.2.
turbulence level (Allen 1982).
The energy in this type of surge is derived
In wet surges, this simple analysis is complicated
entirely from the parent pyroclastic flow. The surge
by the process of clumping or adhesion of particles
acquires its momentum and kinetic energy from the
in the very moist atmosphere of the moving surge
pyroclastic flow out of which it stems. Unlike the
(Allen 1982, Leys 1982). Clumping and adhesion
parent pyroclastic flow with high particle concen-
refer to the aggregation of moist grains, especially
tration, which is essentially flowing in laminar
fines, with moisture droplets, so increasing the
fashion (Section 7.2; Sparks 1976; but see above),
effective dynamic transported grainsize. For continued
the associated ash-cloud surge flows turbulently.
suspension transport of these clumps, the upward
This turbulence also has two sources - convective
component of the fluid drag force must therefore
circulation and the overall high velocity of the
also exceed the settling velocity of the clump. The
surge, which contributes to high Reynolds Num-
criterion for turbulent suspension has been dis-
bers, as discussed above. The turbulence supports
cussed in Equation 7.9. Allen (1982) suggests that a
the solids.
simple criterion for suspension transport to be
predominant is a Bagnold criterion:
7.8 Transport~tion and grain-support W/V* ::::; 1.25 (7.10)
processes III surges
where W is the particle settling velocity and V*, as
It has been suggested above that the transportation defined in Equation 7.9, the shear velocity of a
of pyroclastic detritus in surges is dominated by moving flow or current.
turbulence in the supporting gaseous phase. This is These conditions hold for an initial highly
based on direct observations of recent base surges turbulent state and for small grainsizes. However,
206 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
surge deposits are known to contain fragments Complications to this will arise according to the
several centimetres or more in diameter, which wetness, or moisture content, of the surge. In very
were not finally transported and deposited as dry surges, the grain transport can be viewed as
ballistic blocks. They must have been at least occurring in an inertial regime, i.e. free from
entrained, and moved by surges as well. The actual viscous interaction with other grains or with the
competence of surges to transport different sizes in driving fluid, as described above. As the moisture
true suspension is not clear, in spite of the content increases, and cohesive clumps of sediment
discussion related to Equation 7.9. However, it is develop, transport becomes pseudo-viscous near
clear that during incipient sedimentation, if not the base of the surge. It is still not wholly viscous,
before, a large proportion of the solids are saltated because the high shear stress operating probably
(bounced), rolled and dragged over the substrate as continually reconstitutes wet clumps and smears
bed load under the influence of a large lateral shear them out. That is, the moisture-laden, driving
velocity (Ch. 10). More of the population will gaseous fluid is distinct from the muddy clumps it
experience this mode of transport as the surge loses is propelling, since they have not totally amalga-
momentum and begins to deflate. mated into a cohesive, viscous fluid. In this sense,
There is therefore very likely to be a 'grain wet surge transport is quite different from other
carpet'
I
layer at the base of most surges, out of types of particulate tractional transport or mass-
which the bulk of sedimentation will occur, as well flow transport because it is a polyphase system. It has
as a more dilute trailing ash cloud. The grain-layer not been mathematically modelled. Evidence of this
population is dragged along by the shear stress complex phase transportation by wet surges is
operating at the base of the flow. Individual grains found in accounts of observed base surges and their
will propel neighbours by colliding with them and deposits. Plastering of muddy ash on the upwind
transferring momentum, which constitutes a form side of trees and buildings was documented at Taal
of inertial dispersive pressure. It can be speculated 0. G. Moore 1967). That these surges were still
that a well defined, voluminous grain layer would turbulent is attested by the 'sandblasting' effects in
be most common in base surges. Base surges abrading and stripping of bark and foliage, and in
originate as a vent blast and propel a poorly sorted the near-blast zone, by the total destruction of
grain population from which a significant coarse vegetation O. G. Moore 1967; Fig 5.19).
fraction will tend to drop out quickly. Both ground The role of fluidisation as a grain-support process
surges and ash-cloud surges consist of a population and the origins of the gaseous component in surges
that is presorted to some degree. Therefore, in a has been touched on by several workers (Fisher
single surge some transport will take place through 1979, Allen 1982, Leys 1982). Fluidisation in
turbulent suspension and some through shear- polydispersive systems is most effective where the
induced traction and grain collisions. As the surge grain concentration is high, and an abundance of
loses energy and deflates, more solids, particularly fines exists to stem the free flow of ,fluid through the
the coarser fractions (including clumps) will cease dispersion (Allen 1982, G. P. L. Walker 1983). In
being transported in a suspension mode and will pyroclastic flows it is seen as a very effective agent
become entrained in a traction mode of transport. in maintaining the mobility of the flows (Section
At low grain concentrations, discrete grain traction 7.2). In surges it is less likely to do so because of the
probably occurs; at higher concentrations a grain- low concentration of solids right from the outset.
layer flow with high degrees of particle interaction Any fluid which is ingested will not be concentrated
and collision, propelled by shear-stress, will de- along discrete channels, but will mix with the
velop. The change from low grain concentration ambient fluid phases in the surge. In this sense, the
traction to high concentration, shear-induced grain ingestion of air at the head of the surge may
layer flow, conditions should be reflected, respect- temporarily increase the internal turbulence of the
ively, by cross-stratification and discrete lamination, surge, particularly if the air is cold and the surge is
and by more massive or diffusely layered beds. hot, so leading to expansive heating of the ingested
DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES 207
air. However, there will be overall loss of heat and erosion stage, to surface traction transport will
energy from the surge. Leys (1982), following Allen commence. The energy that generates turbulence
(1971, 1982), suggested that because there is only a for grain support is, as described above, of two
small overhang in the profile of the head or leading types: convective turbulence, due to the heat in the
edge of observed surges, it is unlikely that signifi- surge, and velocity-induced turbulence in a medium
cant ingestion of external air into the head and at of low viscosity and high lateral velocity. Turbu-
the base of the head occurs. If this is so, then lence due to fluidisation-induced streaming of
ingestion and mixing, and fluidisation in the head external air is considered to be minor (Section 7.8).
region of surges, can be discounted as significant Convective turbulence will be dissipated as the
grain-support processes. The absence of known surge cools in transit. This will occur as latent heat
gas and segregation pipes originating within surge is lost during condensation of steam to water and as
deposits (cf. pyroclastic flow deposits, Section cold air is mixed into the surge, particularly along
7.3.4) also supports this. This is not to say that its top. However, convective turbulence will
surges do not contain gas and air, which is at times probably be subordinate to velocity-induced
reflected by post-depositional vesiculation in surge turbulence. As the velocity declines, the sediment-
deposits (e.g. Lorenz 1974). carrying capacity of the surge will also decrease,
What, then, are the potential sources of the fluids and the surge as a density current will be dissipated.
providing grain-support in surges? As for pyro- Allen (1982, p. 397) proposes four causes for the
clastic flows (Section 7.2), the obvious sources are dissipation of a sediment density current with a
magmatic volatiles (both those initially present and steady head and uniform body:
those that diffuse from juvenile fragments within
(a) density reduction through sediment loss or
the surge), external water incorporated during
engulfment of ambient medium,
ph rea to magmatic eruptions, and volatiles derived
(b) reduction in flow thickness, related to flow
from vegetation over which surges travel. Although
stretching or collapse,
the role of external air ingested into the head and
Cc) friction at the base and upper surface of the
fluidising the flow as a significant aid to grain
flow, partly involving density reduction due to
support for the bulk of the solids has been
mixing between flow and medium and
discounted above, it is likely that significant mixing
Cd) reduction in bed slope.
of air into the billowing top of the surge occurs
(Allen 1982). There, the mixing will provide Fall-out of sediment will cause a decrease in the
turbulent support for only the finest grain sizes bulk density of the surge and loss of momentum
transported by the surge. (= mv, mass X velocity), and hence velocity and
turbulence, according to the Reynolds Number
criterion. A reduction in the slope will also lower
7.9 Depositional processes in surges the velocity, as potential energy is being lost. Given
the low density of surges, the coefficient of friction
Any transporting medium begins to deposit its load between the surge and its substrate will be low
when the energy levels drop below the threshold while the surge is inflated and carrying a large
level needed to maintain discrete grain support or suspended sediment popUlation. However, when
tractional entrainment, or drop below the momen- the surge begins to deflate significant grain fall-out
tum of a mass of particles moving en masse as one. will produce a concentrated basal tractional grain
Surges, although initiated by an 'explosive' thrust, layer. There will be a higher coefficient of friction
once in motion, behave largely as gravity controlled between this grain layer and the substrate, permit-
density currents (Allen 1982). As the turbulence ting sedimentation and further slowing of the surge.
which provides grain support declines in response Frictional retardation of a surge can also occur by
to cooling and slowing, a changing mode from mixing of air at the head and top of the surge. Allen
suspended transport, associated initially with an (1982) suggested that the dissipation rate of a
208 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
7.1 0 Facies characteristics of surge head of a pyroclastic flow will usually deposit
deposits thinner facies intervals than base surges do (e.g.
Fig. 5.23). They may be no more than several
The facies characteristics of surges can be readily metres thick, and usually a metre or less, and
discussed in terms of some of the essential facies should be directly overlain by the basal facies of the
parameters introduced in Chapter 1, including: parent pyroclastic flow. Being ejected from a
geometry moving pyroclastic flow, the geometry and extent of
gramslze ground-surge deposits will largely be controlled by
sorting the topography into which the pyroclastic flow has
shape and vesicu1arity moved.
composition Ash-cloud surge deposits should occur as a thin
depositional structures (up to several metres thick) sheet of fine ash,
mantling the deposit of the host pyroclastic flow
behind which it trailed (e.g. Fisher 1979; Fig.
7.10.1 GEOMETRY
5.21). However, the preservation potential of ash-
The geometry of surge deposits will depend on the cloud deposits is low because of the effects of post-
type of surge, the topographic control and post- depositional erosion. Unless quickly buried beneath
depositional erosion. Base surges, being a vent- further eruptive products, they are likely to be
related facies, will build up an annulus around the stripped off shortly after emplacement.
vent which is wedge-shaped in cross section,
thinning radially away from the vent. Base surges
7.10.2 GRAINSIZE
form one of the principal facies of tuff rings and
maar volcanoes (Ch. 13). The deposit from a single The grainsize of surge deposits reflects both the
surge will be a thin sheet, with minor variations in degree of fragmentation at the time of eruption and
thickness being controlled by pre-depositional the competency of surges to carry particular
topography and the surface bed-form (e.g. dune grain sizes (Ch. 1). The coarseness and variance in
forms). However, base surge deposits are almost the grainsize is thought to be a reflection of the
invariably composed of multiple layers representing levels of turbulence (G. P. L. Walker 1983). As
multiple surge events (e.g. Figs 5.21 & 22). Such a Crowe and Fisher (1973) pointed out, because
pile may be tens of metres thick around the vent surge-forming eruptions are highly pulsatory and of
(e.g. Crowe & Fisher 1973, Schmincke el at. 1973, variable explosive strength, there may be con-
Sheridan & Updike 1975, Fisher 1977). Individual siderable changes in the flow-power and in the
layers may be up to a metre thick near the vent, grainsize characteristics of successive surges, and
although usually closer to 50 em or less, and even within single surges. Near to the vent ballistic
distally away from the vent, only millimetres to fragments and air-fall materials may also be in-
several centimetres thick. Base surges probably do corporated into surge deposits. However, both
not flow further than 10 km from the vent, and base-surge and ground-surge deposits, because of
usually only several kilometres. As such, a succes- their high energy state and because their sources at
sion of base surge deposits in the rock record is the vent and the heads of pyroclastic flows may
indicative of proximity to the vent. They may contain considerable coarse debris, are capable of
contain intercalated air-fall layers, as well as thin carrying, and do carry, significant amounts of large
near-vent pyroclastic flow deposits (e.g. Fisher et lapilli-size clasts. However, ash-cloud surges, being
al. 1983). Successive base surge deposits may be the products of continued elutriation processes in
separated by thin co-surge ash-fall deposits up to the head and body of pyroclastic flows, will be low
several centimetres thick, derived from a trailing energy systems and their deposits will be fine-
ash cloud (cf. co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits). grained, rarely containing lapilli, and then probably
Ground surges, usually being expulsions from the only highly vesicular, low density ones.
210 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
... I-
(0) PyroclOSIiC Ilow
., ...
(b) Fines depleted Ignlmbrne
reflection of the mode of fragmentation of the lateral changes in the nature of bedforms or
magma during eruption than of flow processes. associated internal depositional structures, or both,
Hence, base-surge deposits, being of ph rea to mag- with distance from the vent, as a response to
matic origin, will be dominated by poorly vesicular, changing flow conditions as dissipation of surge
blocky fragments where the erupting magma is energy occurs.
poorly vesiculated (Ch. 3), as will the deposits of As with normal sedimentary structures, struc-
ground and ash-cloud surges whose host pyroclastic tures in surge deposits can be classified as:
flows have been associated with phreatomagmatic
eruptions (e.g. Self 1983). However, ground and pre-depositional)
ash-cloud surge deposits derived from eruptions syn-depositional and)
driven by magmatic explosions (Ch. 3) will contain post-depositional.
abundant vesicular fragments, although concen-
tration processes during the initiation of ground Pre-depositional structures
surges may concentrate denser lithics and crystals Pre-depositional structures include erosion gullies
in the surges (Section 5.7). and U-shaped channels (Ch. 5) carved out of the
depositional surface and infilled by surge deposits.
The origin of these depressions may be normal
7.10.5 COMPOSITION
epiclastic erosional processes or erosion by pyro-
The composition of the erupting magma and clastic surges (e.g. Fisher 1977, Richards 1959,
products has an indirect relationship to surge types. J. G. Moore 1967; Ch. 5.7, Fig. 5.21c & d). Others
Basaltic pyroclastic eruptions essentially do not include planar slide surfaces, usually on the inner
produce pyroclastic flows. As a result, essentially crater wall where segments of the unconsolidated,
all basaltic surge deposits found in the rock record frequently bedded pile of pyroclastics forming the
can be inferred to be near-vent base surge deposits. upper crater wall collapse and slide back into the
The converse is not true, however. Intermediate crater (Fig. 7.37). Younger pyroclastic surge and
and silicic eruptions can give rise to all three surge fall deposits may accumulate on this slide surface.
types: base, ground and ash cloud. Accidental
clasts may be a significant element in a surge Syn-depositional structures
deposit due to explosive incorporation at the vent, Syn-depositional structures include wave-like (or
and particularly in phreatomagmatic base surge dune-like) structures called dune forms or dunes,
deposits. Accessory clasts may be picked up in and their internal cross-stratification, massive beds
transit. without structure and planar beds. In a discussion of
the lateral facies changes of surges from vent to
7.10.6 DEPOSITIONAL STRUCTURES
Depositional structures are diverse in surge
deposits, and have been recognised as a response to
varying flow and physical conditions ever since
surges were recognised as a pyroclastic transpor-
tational and depositional agent (J. G. Moore et al.
1966, J. G. Moore 1967, Fisher & Waters 1970,
Waters & Fisher 1971, Heiken 1971, Crowe &
Fisher 1973 , Schmincke et al. 1973 , Mattson &
Alvarez 1973 , Sheridan & Updike 1975, Fisher
Figure 7.37 Slide surface sloping into the crater of the
1977, Wohletz & Sheridan 1979, Allen 1982, Leys Lake Purrumbete maar tuff ring, Western Districts, Victoria,
1982, Fisher et al. 1983, Edney 1984, Edney & Cas Australia. Younger surge deposits have been deposited on
in prep. ). Many of these authors have also recognised this slide surface. Flow direction is from right to left.
212 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
.~s.
5
n ~
grain size characteristics for these facies (Wohletz
1983, Sheridan & Wohletz 1983) indicate that all 4
PLANAR MASS IVE
are dominated by ash-sized material (Fig. 7.39). 'III 3
However, Edney (1984) and Edney and Cas (in b 2 FALL
prep.) have recognised that there is also an extensive
{
.... 0
',) .... /..,:
Je" .)
""W.,.
assemblage of lapilli-dominated base-surge facies in 1'7 ..,..
-8 -6 -4 -2 o 2 4 6
Mdg
Figure 7.41 Grainsize characteristics of massive and
diffusely layered lapilli surge facies. Tower Hill Volcanic
Centre. western Victoria. (After Edney 1984.)
direction has been towards the source (normal with the bed surface - much higher than that associated
aqueous antidunes) or away from the source. The with low flow regime, high angle of repose cross-
implication of this is that upper flow regime stratification.
conditions, analogous to those in aqueous uni- Nevertheless surge dune forms display sufficient
directional flow systems, were operating. However, regularity in form for them to be used in determining
as Allen (1982) points out, this direct analogy is not surge transport directions. Observations on modern
valid. In the aqueous system we are dealing with volcanoes have shown that dune crests are continu-
cohesionless sediment entrained within an aqueous ous and are orientated perpendicular to the surge
medium with a density of 1 g cm - 3. In the pyro- flow direction 0. G. Moore 1967, Waters & Fisher
clastic surge situation we are dealing with particulate 1979, Allen 1982; Fig. 5.19d). Internal cross-
matter driven by a fluid which has a density very stratification can also be used to infer flow directions
much less than that of water. (Figs 5.21-23 & 7.40). Allen (1982) related the
In the case of dry surges, which are simple, two- documented variations in bedforms and cross-
phase gas-solid systems, the processes may be stratification relationships in base surge deposits to
analogous to normal aeolian processes. With dry sedimentation rate, surge temperature and moisture
surge dune forms, normal asymptotic, angle of content (Fig. 7.42).
repose cross-strata of avalanche origin may occur In this scheme he has recognised three categories
but, even so, the competency of surges in transport- of surge dune bedform: progressive, stationary and
ing coarse debris is well beyond the limits of normal regressive. In progressive bed-forms (types AI> A2
surface winds, and low angle cross-stratification is and B, Fig. 7.42) the crests of the dune forms
common. In the case of wet, three-phase surge migrate in the direction of surge flow. Where the
systems there seems to be no direct analogy with sedimentation rate is high, the internal arrangement
normal sedimentary processes and systems, so of cross-strata resembles normal sedimentary
implications of analogous flow regime conditions climbing ripples and cross-stratification (type AI)'
and processes should strictly be avoided. With wet Progressive dune forms are considered by Allen to
surges, added complications arise because of the be the result of surges that are relatively dry or hot,
existence of a changeable three-phase system, the or both. Stationary dune forms (type F) are
adhesion processes taking place in transit and the distinguished by crests which migrate neither
cohesive nature of the substrate over which the upstream or downstream. Regressive dune forms
surge travels. The last two of these are likely to be are distinguished by an upstream migration of the
responsible for the often very fluidal nature of the crest of the dune form, as represented in the crestal
layering in surge dune forms. The depositional point of successive sigmoidally-shaped cross-strata
process will involve adhesion interaction between in a single set. Allen suggests that regressive dune
entrained detritus and substrate, and deposition forms are the products of wet or cool surges.
will take place under the influence of a 'smearing' Although the crests are retreating upstream, the
bed shear force. through-flow of solids within individual layers is
Further support for the view that flow conditions downstream. In regressive bed-forms, the depo-
in surges and normal sedimentary systems are not sitional process involves cohesive interaction
analogous comes from the very significant grain size between the transported debris and the substrate.
variations between the layers of the same surge Coarser fragments occur on the upstream side of
cross-bed set, suggesting a much more pulsatory the crest (cf. progressive dune forms). 'Climbing'
non-equilibrium flow system. This grainsize vari- effects, in this case upstream, result from both high
ation can be from ash to lapilli sizes. Nevertheless, sedimentation rates and adhesion-plastering due to
there is conceptual, and probably some fluid wetness. Allen suggests that stationary dune forms
dynamic, equivalence between aqueous antidunes result from surges with temperatures at the conden-
and surge dune forms, given that the low angle sation or boiling point of water (Fig. 7.42). In
cross-stratification requires high shear stresses at support of his scheme, Allen (1982) points out that
FACIES CHARACTERISTICS 215
~
~
~
~ .. .--s....~~
t r.
~
o
.#;--...:..;,'~ ::::.---.:::::.
~
~
~
" ~
a. c
'"
c:
e F
.......
C
dr y 0 hee
Co
waler
steo m
'"
~
;;
D ::
E
Figure 7.42 ClaSSification of base surge bedform and internal cross-stratification variations related
to depositional rate (relative to transport rate; vertical axis) and surge temperature and moisture
content (horizontal axis) (After Allen 1982.)
only deposits with stationary or regressive dune waveforms. The dips in cross-beds may vary.
forms are known to contain accretionary or Where it is greater than the angle of repose
armoured lapilli, or both, as well as vesicles which (>30-35), adhesion processes or soft-state plastic
are due to post-depositional expansion of trapped deformation, or both, perhaps under the shearing
hot volatiles in wet, impermeable ashes. influence of the host surge, are almost certainly
Small amplitude, irregular adhesion ripples, responsible. Angle of repose cross-stratification
similar to those formed in wind-swept snowfields, may also be due to these influences or due to lee-
are another, less common, form of dune forms side avalanching from a dry surge or from part of
associated with surge deposits (Allen 1982, Leys one. More commonly, however, surge cross-
1982) . stratification is characteristically of a low angle,
The cross-stratification in surge dune form facies indicating the influence of significant bed shear or
can be very variable in form. In high angle of wet state smearing influences, or both, rather than
repose sets it can be upward concave, asymptotic grain avalanching. Although the cross-beds in
and wedging downstream. In other situations it is individual sets may be conformable with each
much more fluidal, showing significant thickness other, very low angle, and irregular, truncations
variations and, unlike normal sedimentary cross- may be common, and these reflect the highly
stratification, individual layers may be continuous pulsatory nature of surges, even during deposition.
from one dune form into the next, showing pinch Massive ash facies (cf. massive lapilli facies,
and swell geometry, and thinning over the crests of above) are considered by Wohletz and Sheridan
216 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
Planar beds may be gradational with cross- currents the particulate population is essentially
stratified intervals, and in some instances may have cohesionless, this is clearly not the case with surges
a very low angle inclination (Fig. 7.43) appearing to (Sections 7.8-10). Turbidity currents are simple
be planar but being incipient cross-beds (W. Edney two-phase solid-liquid systems in which the density
pers. comm.). However, in this regard the perspec- contrast between the solids and the supporting
tive is important. Exposures that are perpendicular liquid is relatively small compared with that in the
to flow direction will expose wavy, parallel to complex three-phase (solid-liquid-gas) system of
subparallel layering of cross-bed sets (Fig. 7.44). most surges. The relative proportions of the three
phases may change in surges, as may the effective
Post-depositional structures dynamic granulometry, due to adhesion processes
Post -depositional structures commonly associated leading to clumping.
with surge deposits include bomb sags (Fig. S.2lg & Because of all these differences, hydrodynamic
h), formed when ballistic blocks and bombs lob equivalence between turbidity currents and surges
into wet, unconsolidated surge deposits producing cannot be considered valid (Allen 1982). However,
soft-sediment plastic deformation. Flame structures at once initiated, both move as gravity-controlled,
the base of surges have also been described (Crowe turbulent, cloudy masses, which seem to produce a
& Fisher 1973) and soft-sediment oversreepening of systematic succession of facies during deceleration
dune form cross-strata under the shearing influence and deposition. The facies are not the same, and in
of the succeeding surge is common. Such over- both cases not all facies elements need be produced
steepening may bring strata that are normally at by all flows. Much work still needs to be done on
lower than angle of repose inclinations 30), to the facies and facies relationships produced by
angle of repose (30-35) or even steeper. The surges.
layering is usually still intact, but is stretched and
squeezed due to plastic deformation while in a wet,
cohesive state. Similarly, normal soft-sediment 7.12 Pyroclastic surges and pyroclastic
slumping of wet, cohesive ash is common (Fig. flows - relationships
S.21f).
The discussion of pyroclastic flows and surges so far
has emphasised their unique characteristics, the
7.11 Surges compared with turbidity former being described as poorly inflated, non-
currents turbulent, concentrated mass flows which maintain
their kinetic energy over long distances and long
In Section 7.6 it was suggested that, as a crude periods (relatively), whereas the latter highly
generalisation, surges are akin to turbidity currents inflated, turbulent, low particle concentration,
in the normal sedimentary sphere, whereas pyro- short-term phenomenon which rapidly dissipates.
clastic flows are akin to viscous debris flows. This However, it has also been shown (Section 7.5) that
general analogy is based on the fact that surges and there are some extremely violent pyroclastic flows
turbidity currents are turbulent, gravity-controlled which are at least partly turbulent, and are capable
mass flows with low particle concentration, whereas of producing wavy stratification, bedforms and low
pyroclastic flows and debris flows are generally angle truncations and cross-stratification (Fig. 7.30)
both viscous, laminar-plug flow systems. There the in their veneer deposits. The Taupo ignimbrite
analogy ends, however. (G. P. L. Walker et al. 1981b, C. J. N. Wilson
Whereas turbidity currents begin to flow because 1985), the Rabaul ignimbrite (G. P. L. Walker et
of their potential energy, surges are initiated by an al. 1981c) and the ignimbrite of the 1815 eruption
explosive thrust, with the exception of ash-cloud of Tambora (Self et al. 1984) are key examples.
surges. Thereafter there is a complex energy chain, This brings into question the degree to which
as discussed in Section 7.7. Whereas in turbidity pyroclastic flows and surges are distinct entities
218 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC PLOWS AND SURGES
(Section 5.6). Each is a type of flow, but is there a The diverse descriptions and subdivisions of the so-
spectrum from dense pyroclastic flows (e.g. nuee called surge deposits by different authors make it
ardentes, block and ash flows) at one end to dilute difficult to extract a consensus stratigraphy but,
surges at the other? G. P. L. Walker (1983) and following Walker and McBroome, it seems that
G. P. L. Walker and McBroome (1983) touched on three principal layers can be identified.
this problem. In both these publications Walker Layer 1 is a relatively well sorted gravelly or
poses the possibility that two of the better-docu- sandy layer with rapid lateral changes in thickness
mented so-called surge events of modern time - and grain size and some lateral discontinuity. Grain-
those of Mt Pelee in 1902 and the 18 May 1980, size and thickness decrease outward from the
cataclysmic eruption of Mt St Helens, were not source, and significant fines depletion is evident.
surges, as has been asserted in the literature to date Layer 2 contains two facies, a massive one which
(Fisher et al. 1980, A. L. Smith & Roobo11982: Mt 'has the aspect of a pyroclastic flow deposit particu-
Pelee; Hoblitt et al. 1981, J. G. Moore & Sisson larly where it occurs in valley ponds' (G. P. L.
1981: Mt St Helens; Section 5.6), but highly violent Walker & McBroome 1983, p. 571), and one
pyroclastic flows. Waitt (1981) observed that the showing stratification and dune forms. The massive
characteristics of the 18 May Mt St Helens deposit facies is homogeneous, occurs in valley pond
were similar to neither purely surge nor pyroclastic settings, and contains gas escape pipes where it is
flow deposits, but shared the characteristics of thick. Layer 3 is very fine, contains accretionary
each. Hoblitt et al. (1981) and J. G. Moore and lapilli, is rarely more than several centimetres thick
Sisson (1981) also noted anomalies compared with and is agreed by all authors to be an ash fall-out of
the documented characteristics of surge deposits. dilute trailing ash clouds derived from the 'blast-
6 (0) (b)
8. bedded }
. masSive layer 2
volley pond
pyrocl oallc flo\Ol
o~-,--,,--r--r--~-.--,,--r--r--+
6 (c ) ( d)
VI layer 3
+ layer I
-4 o o
Md ~
Figure 7.45 Grainsize data for 18 May 1980 Mt St Helens 'blast' deposit and valley-pond pyroclastic flows. (a) and (c)
Mdt/at plots, (b) and (d) plots of weight percentage finer than Y. mm (F 2 ) versus weight percentage finer than 1 mm
(F,). In (a) and (b) contoured fields for pyroclastic flows are shown, and in (c) and (d) contoured fields for samples from
fines-depleted facies of ignimbrite (G P L. Walker 1983) are shown. (After G. P L. Walker & McBroome 1983)
FURTHER READING 219
surge' body. The relationship between layers 1 and dense, high particle concentration ones to relatively
2 is generally abrupt, but locally their interface is low concentration, but violent, ones. There is an
gradational (Moore & Sisson 1981, Waitt 1981). implication in this that there is also a spectrum of
The total thickness of this assemblage of layers grain-support processes from perhaps inertial grain
rarely exceeds 1 m, except in hollows. flow avalanching through fluidised, laminar semi-
Based on oq, versus Mdq/o<j> plots and plots of F2 plug flow (Sparks 1976, C. J. N. Wilson 1980),
(the weight percentage finer than 1116 mm) versus through to fluidised, turbulent flow (c. J. N.
FI (the weight percentage finer than 1 mm) plots, Wilson 1980). Given that surges are turbulent, but
G. P. L. Walker and McBroome (1983) show a that during deflation they may undergo shear-
close relationship between the layer 1 and 2 samples induced laminar flow, there is not much of a
and pyroclastic flow fields (Fig. 7.45). However, quantum gap between dilute types of pyroclastic
samples show a significant depletion in fines, flow and surges, implying a nearly complete spec-
indicating better sorting than most pyroclastic flow trum of processes and deposits. However, on that
deposits. point G. P. L. Walker (1983) maintains that dis-
Similarly, G. P. L. Walker and McBroome creteness is required because, to maintain integrity
(1983) point out that the surge deposits of Fisher et and to be capable of transporting large dispersed
al. (1980) and Fisher and Heiken (1982) associated clasts, pyroclastic flows are dependent on fluid-
with the 1902 Mt Pelee eruption consist of three isation, which can only be maintained while fines
layers: a basal gravelly to sandy layer, a stratified to are retained in order to act as resistance to, and to
massive middle layer and a fine, thin, accretionary- channel, fluidising ingested air. In surges, fines loss
lapilli bearing, ash layer. Grainsize characteristics is inherent because of the high level of turbulence
are similar to those of Mt St Helens. and the consequent removal of large volumes of
G. P. L. Walker and McBroome (1983) and fines by elutriation, which essentially discounts the
G. P. L. Walker (1983) interpret both the Mt St possibility of fluidisation. On the other hand,
Helens and Mt Pelee deposits to be the products of however, fines loss or depletion can also occur in
very violent, low aspect ratio pyroclastic flows. In certain situations related to pyroclastic flow proces-
the Mt St Helens case this is based on the grainsize ses (and not just surge transport; G. P. L. Walker
affinities with pyroclastic flows, and the doubt that 1983; Fig. 7.46) without affecting the overall
dilute surges could travel 30 km and maintain coherence of the pyroclastic flow. It is clear that
turbulent suspension of clasts over that distance. much is yet to be learned about the processes
Layer 1 is interpreted as the fines-depleted ground operating in pyroclastic flows and surges and how
layer deposited from the fluidised head. The dune these two flow processes are related. This is more
forms and their internal wavy layering seem ill- than vindicated by the diverging views on the
defined relative to most true surge deposits, sug- G. P. L. Walker and McBroome (1983) interpreta-
gesting weak, low levels of turbulence (G. P. L. tion, as shown by the responses and reply to that
Walker 1983). The main layer, layer 2, seems very paper (Hoblitt & Miller 1984, Waitt 1984, G. P. L.
similar to valley pond ignimbrite, and also occurs Walker & Morgan 1984)!
on gently sloping valley walls, as a thin veneer
deposit (Ch. 8; G. P. L. Walker & McBroome
1983). 7.13 Further reading
It is possible then that two modern catastrophic
events which had been interpreted as surges (Section The papers by Sparks (1976), Sheridan (1979),
5.6), may have been very violent, even partly Fisher (1979), c. J. N. Wilson (1980, 1984) and
turbulent pyroclastic flows, similar to the historic C. J. N. Wilson and Walker (1982) are essential
ones erupted from the Taupo, Rabaul and Tambora reading on aspects of flow and depositional processes
volcanic centres. It is therefore implicit that a in pyroclastic flows, even though they have been
spectrum of pyroclastic flow types exists, from very summarised here. On surge processes and facies
220 SUBAERIAL PYROCLASTIC FLOWS AND SURGES
~ .'
(( . '
/"'l-
_:.~,
. -J J -
'J
.......,~.,.....)
~-..... ~ /1'
.' r
, '
:
" r"J_
.- ,)..
')' '\ 'f .', J /'.1 ~
,--,....,
wind . '. . .
~.
. .
-------+ . '... [>
CD
...-
pyroclost lc loll <l= loss 01 lines
@ IIIh ic log brecCia (co- ignimbrite Iog - loll deposit strong Ingestion of a"'
@ ground layer lormlng 01 flow head ; , low particle conce ntrollon flow
-
I InU - depleled Ignimbrite lormed by forward deflation Interval (the intervol required
jetll"g f rom flo w head
. -+ to deflate 0 dll ule turbulenl f low to a
high por licle concantr olion
<V elu triotion pipe pyroclastic flow )
Figure 7.46 Schematic views showing seven situations which produce fines depletion and good sorting of
pyroclastic deposits. (After G. P. L. Walker 1983.)
FURTHER READING 221
222
CHAPTER EIGHT
Initial statement
Ignimbrites are the most voluminous of volcanic III1815 caused the deaths of more than 90000
products. Some are the largest single eruptive units people either directly, or as a result of tsunamis and
known, covering thousands of square kilometres an ensuing famine; Mt St Helens in 1980; and EI
and having volumes of more than 1000 km 3 . Chich6n in Mexico in 1982, after which 2000
Although man has never witnessed an eruption people were missing.
giving rise to such large volume units, they must be This chapter examines in detail the geology of
. the most cataclysmic of all geological phenomena. ignimbrites: definition, occurrence, volume, types
Even small-volume, historic ignimbrite-forming of vent from which erupted, eruption sequen('~, a
eruptions are awesome: e.g. the 1470 BC eruption depositional facies model for ignimbrite-forming
of Santorini, which has been linked with the rapid eruptions and welding. We also highlight the ,\D
decline of the Bronze Age Minoan civilisation 186 Taupo eruption, because recent studies of its
centre on Crete; the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius, in deposits have greatly affected current thinking on
which the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum were ignimbrite-forming events. Transportation and
destroyed; the eruption of Krakatau in 1883 which depositional mechanisms are discussed in the
set in motion tsunamis killing more than 30 000 previous chapter.
people on neighbouring islands; Tambora, which
223
224 IGNIMBRITES
8.1 Enigma of ignimbrites Table 8.1 Bulk volume estimates of some ignimbrites*.
Deposit
Ignimbrites pose many problems but, as recently
stated by G. P. L. Walker, unravelling their origin USA
has been 'one of the outstanding success stories of Timber Mountain Tuff
modern volcanology'. They vary widely in lithology, Rainier Mesa Member 1200
and few products of volcanism have been misinter- Ammonia Tanks Member 900
Paintbrush Tuff
preted for so long. They vary from incoherent ash Topopah Spring Member 250
deposits texturally similar to mud flows, to hard, Tiva Canyon Member 1000
densely welded tuffs which may be difficult to Nelson Mountain Tuff 500
distinguish from lava flows. Indeed, welded ignim- Carpenter Ridge Tuff 500
brites were generally regarded as lava flows until Fish Canyon Tuff 3000
Sapinero Mesa Tuff 1000
the mid-1930s, and even later. They vary from rock Upper Bandelier Tuff 200
composed almost entirely of sub-millimetre part- Bishop Tuff 500
icles to that in which the largest clasts may be over a Peach Springs Tuff 90
metre in diameter. Many ignimbrites are completely John Day pyroclastic flow deposit 75
non-welded, but the importance of these was Crater Lake pumice-flow deposit 25
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes ignimbrite 12
probably not recognised until the late-1960s and
early-1970s. Central and South America
It will be apparent to the reader who has Rio Caliente ignimbrite 30
researched the volcanological literature that the Acatlan ignimbrite 5
term 'ignimbrite' has been used in many different Los Chocoyas ash-flow tuff 200
Apoyo pyroclastic flow deposit 5
ways. Marshall (1935) first introduced the term into Puricipar ignimbrite 100
the geological literature. Confusion, partly attribu- EI Yeso ignimbrite 40
table to the imprecision of Marshall's definitions, Cerro Galan ignimbrite 1000
has arisen and still exists because 'ignimbrite' is
Lesser Antilles
sometimes used in a lithological sense to mean
Roseau Ignimbritet 30
welded tuff, and sometimes in a genetic sense to Average Belfond pumice flow deposit on
mean the rock or deposit formed from pyroclastic St Lucia 0.2
flows. Very often the term is used in both senses, or
it is used in ways that are never clearly defined. Iceland
Skessa welded tuff 4
However, it is illogical to use it as a lithological
RoydarfJordur tuff 2.5
term solely for welded rocks, since ignimbrites Matarhnjkur welded tuff
generally also have non-welded zones. The occur-
rence of welding has occasionally been cited as Mediterranean
sufficient evidence of a pyroclastic flow origin. average of six ignimbrites erupted from
Vulsini volcano 6
However, even many large ignimbrites are entirely
Vesuvius AD 79 4
non-welded, e.g. the Los Chocoyos ash-flow tuff in Campanian ignimbrite 100
Guatemala (Table 8.1). Also, welded air-fall tuffs Minoan ignimbritet 30
are believed to be a common volcanic rock (Ch. 6).
Weldin!? cannot therefore be considered to be a Japan
Ito pyroclastic flow deposit 110
fundamental characteristic of ignimbrites.
Aso III pyroclastic flow deposit 175
Following Sparks et ai. (1973) 'ignimbrite' is Kutcharo welded tuff 90
defined here as: the rock or deposit formed from Akan welded tuff 60
pumiceous pyroclastic flows irrespective of the Hakone pyroclastic flow deposit 15
degree of welding or volume. 'Pumice-flow deposit' Hijiori pyroclastic flow deposit 1.4
is an equivalent term (Ch. 5). Kuttara welded tuff 10
OCCURRENCE, COMPOSITION AND SIZE 225
Deposit Volume (km 3 ) Also, 'nwie ardente' has sometimes been used for
'ignimbrite' , as well as for other types of pyroclastic
Mashu pyroclastic flow deposit 5 flows (Chs 5 & 12). If used, 'nuee ardente' should
Numajiri welded tuff 1.2
Tazawara welded tuff 150
be restricted to those small-volume block and ash
Tokachi welded tuff 60 flows produced by the collapse of an actively
Tokachidake 1926 pumice~flow deposit 0.02 growing lava flow or dome, as originally described
Agatsuma pyroclastic flow deposit 0.1 by La Croix from the 1902 eruption of Mt Pelee (La
Asama pumice~flow deposit I 2
Croix 1904). Nowadays we tend to avoid the term,
Asama pumice~flow deposit II
Komagatake 1929 pyroclastic flow deposit 0.15
not only because it has become ambiguous, but also
Nantai pumice~flow deposit 0.8 because there are other more-specific terms, and
Shikotsu pyroclastic flow deposit 80 most of the 'glowing cloud' forms ash-cloud surge
Towada pyroclastic flow deposit I 25 and ash fall deposits.
Towada pyroclastic flow deposit II 25
Indonesia
Toba Tuff 2000 8.2 Occurrence, composition and size
Bali ignimbrite 20
Tambora 1815 25 Ignimbrites are common volcanic products, being
Krakatau 1883t 12
found in all volcano-tectonic settings: oceanic
New Zealand
islands (e.g. Iceland, Azores and Canary Islands),
Ongatiti ignimbrite 190 island arcs (Lesser Antilles), microcontinental arcs
Whakamaru ignimbrite 150 (New Zealand), continental margin arcs (Andes)
Matahina ignimbrite 100 and continental interiors (Western USA). Rhyolite,
Taupo ignimbrite 30
dacite and andesite are the most common compo-
* There are many problems with such a survey of the sitions. Many of th~ most voluminous ignimbrites
literature. First. data from which estimates have been are rhyolites, some of which are compositionally
made vary from detailed maps and volcanological studies
to simply gross estimates. Secondly, a significant or zoned, indicating in some cases the tapping of large
major part of some ignimbrites is welded tuff, but the zoned magma chambers (R. L. Smith 1979).
proportion of welded to non~welded material is generally Ignimbrites can have alkaline compositions, e.g. in
not given; therefore, no allowance is made for compac~
tion although this is an important factor when making the Azores, Tenerife, Philippines and Italy (Ch.
size comparisons. Thirdly, published studies have tended 13). Pantelleritic ignimbrites have been recorded
to describe the larger, more spectacular ignimbrites. from a number of areas, e.g. the East African Rift,
Note also that the volume lost into a co~ignimbrite ash
fall deposit is not included in these estimates. Gran Canaria and the Western USA. Ignimbrites
t Major part deposited in sea as subaqueous 'pyroclastic have been recognised in geological formations of all
flow' deposits and ash turbidites (Ch. 9) ages.
In size, ignimbrites range over at least five orders
Based on the supposed dominance of ash-sized of magnitude of volume. The largest are restricted
particles in pyroclastic flows, R. L. Smith (1960a, in their occurrence to continental margins and
b) and Ross and Smith (1961) introduced the term interiors, and large islands. They typically result
'ash-flow tuff, which is extensively used throughout from eruptions of silicic calc-alkaline magmas, and
the American literature. However, as the modal tend to form extensive sheets or shields (Ch. 13).
grainsize in many pumice-flow deposits is in the The smallest are found in all settings and are a
lapilli or bomb size range, such deposits would common product of stratovolcanoes, although not
therefore not strictly come under the definition of restricted to this type of centre (Ch. 13). These tend
ash-flow tuff. For this reason the 'English school' to form valley fill deposits, and their distribution
has tended to retain the term 'ignimbrite'. It is may be localised and their stratigraphy very com-
unlikely that either term will be dropped from the plex. Figures 8.1-8.7 illustrate the distributions of
Ii tera ture. some selected ignimbrites. Note the differences in
226 IGNIMBRITES
(a) Nelson Mounta in Tuff (26.5 Ma) (b) Carpenter Ridge Tuff (27.2 Ma)
COLORADO
. Crnv lPr
(e) Fish Canyon Tuff (27.8 Ma) (d) Sapinero Mesa Tuff (28.1 Ma)
Figure S.1 Examples of large ignimbrite sheets and associated calderas in the Tertiary San Juan volcanic field.
Colorado. For the most part they are densely welded tuffs. Note that these maps only show schematic original
distribution. not present outcrop pattern. which is very complex because of erosion. (After Steven & Lipman 1976.)
scales between maps; there is a 24-fold difference brites described are those associated with large
between maps showing examples from the San Juan calderas in the Western USA, and in many cases
volcanic field in Colorado and the Mt St Helens are, for the most part, densely welded tuff. The
1980 deposit. world's biggest is the Fish Canyon Tuff in the San
Table 8.1 lists the estimated volumes of a Juan volcanic field (Fig. 8.lc) which is thought to
number of ignimbrites. Most of the largest ignim- have a minimum volume of 3000 km 3 . An enormous
OCCURRENCE, COi',lPOSITION AND SIZE 227
(0 )
o 20km
2 200 m con i our "---'
(b)
w
.......-...~;:
E
MItres
V~"'J
SE
bosemen
8.2, Ch. 13). Figure 8.3 Ito pyroclastic flow deposit from Aira caldera.
In Table 8.2, the maximum distance travelled Japan, erupted about 22000 years BP. Its eruption is
from the source vent is given for a number of thought to have produced the Aira caldera. (a) and (b) show
ignimbrites. The data demonstrate the ability of the complex distribution pattern of the Ignimbrite, and the
topography that the (one) pumice flow was capable of
pumice flows to travel large distances, often over climbing, cross section 4 shows a good example of
gently sloping ground and sometimes over topo- depositional ramping (Section 8.8) The ignimbrite is largely
graphic barriers (also see Figs 7.2, 17, 18 & 21). non-welded. (After Yokoyama 1974)
228 IGNIMBRITES
r idge of
limestone
basement
(0)
m.lrts
o 2 3 4 5 6
10
c
20
30
40
"'""""' sOil
~ !'IOSl0n lurfac.
scoria fall dfP051t
- - - lIowl loll unll boundary
== df n>fly wf ldfd (I,ammf)
(b)
Figure 8.7 (a) Stratigraphy of the ignimbrites
in the Vulsini area. Italy. Ignimbrites are named
by letters on right-hand side of sections, A
being oldest. Sillar refers to coherent ignim-
brite and its formation is discussed in Section
(c) 8.10. Most of the Vulsini sillars result from
vapour-phase crystallisation . (b) and (c) show
mrtru
some of the stratigraphic complexities with
ignimbrites filling in valleys cut into older
ignimbrites. Repeated infilling and excavation
of the same valley is commonly observed with
ignimbrites. Because of compaction effects
fluvial erosion often quickly restores the pre-
~ non-w f td .d III s,lIor o.................-......-'--',!10m existing drainage pattern. (After Sparks 1976.)
ERUPTION SEQUENCE AND COLUMN COLLAPSE 231
4 00 =-,
.
200 ~
~
"
'""
100
Vent rod,us (m) Venl roO,us (m) Consta nt vent
Figure 8.8 Models of eruption columns formed during rad ius a 200 m
ignimbrite volcanism' (a) plinian and (b) ignimbrite-forming.
Figure 8.10 Scenarios of three model ignimbrite-forming
eruptions (see text). (After L. Wilson et al. 1980)
(a)
10
C
QI
> 0
QI
0 2 4 6 e 106
> Gas content (wt %) 300
==-
,
0
.0 III
Q 3 .. 0 5
(b) .c 10 5
'"E
. ~ 10
E 2.10 4
QI
III 0 QI
.c
QI
.~
(e) Minoan (d) Lower
0'-
<II "0
a. 0
'- Bandelier c
' "'z
.2 600 2 .. 0 6 .2
'0 C ii
u QI
. 0
>
7.nd of /
....;:,
~::."""" ~
5 oruPloon\ lJ.J
10 6
\h\
/
300
, .nd of \
,, 3>10 5
/ *-t"'Plonion
, pM . .
,, 10 5
0~--~---2~OO
--~~--4~0-0---L--~6~0~0---L--~ 00
! 2~104
I 2 3 4 5 0 2 3 4 5
Vent rad ius (m) Gas content (wt%)
Figure 8.9 Fountain height of collapsing ignimbrite-forming Figure 8.11 (a) General model showing plot of vent radius.
eruption columns. (a) Plotted as a function of gas content for gas content, eruption rate and gas velocity. relating these
three vent radii for a constant gas velocity of 600 m S-1 (b) parameters to convecting plinian and collapsing ignimbrlte-
Plotted as a function of vent radius for three gas velocities. forming eruption columns (after L. Wilson et al. 1980).
The collapse height is only slightly affected by water (b)-(d) Changing conditions dUring three eruptions (after
content, but the computations shown here refer to a value S. N. Williams & Self 1983. L. Wilson 1980a and Self &
of 1 %. (Af1er Sparks et a/. 1978) Wright unpub. data)
232 IGNIMBRITES
magma chamber. As the eruption proceeded, less bilities in the column and small-volume intra plinian
volatile-rich magma was encountered and structural flow units to form (Fig. 6. 13b). Catastrophic
instabilities caused collapse of the conduit walls, column collapse ensued. Instabilities in eruption
abruptly shutting off the magma supply. The columns nearing collapse conditions would account
remaining magma was unable to generate sufficient for the stratification found at the tops of many
volatile pressure to clear the conduit, and the plinian deposits (Ch. 6).
plinian phase ended; it was 20 years later when Some deposits show much more complex erup-
volatile-poor magma reached the surface as a lava. tion sequences than indicated above , and ignimbrite
The Minoan plinian column was maintained until flow units are interstratified with plinian fall units,
collapse conditions developed (Fig. 8.11c), although e.g. the Rio Caliente ignimbrite Mexico (Fig. 8.12)
a phase of phreatomagmatic activity between the and the Roseau Tuff, Dominica (Ch. 9). The Rio
plinian and pyroclastic flow-forming phases may Caliente can also be described as an intraplinian
have complicated the transition between the two. ignimbrite because it is sandwiched between two co-
As the Lower Bandelier plinian column neared the eruptive plinian fall deposits. Mechanisms to pro-
point of collapse (Fig. 8.11d), slight fluctuations in duce such complex sequences and changes in style
gas velocity and mass discharge rate caused insta- of activity include a large increase in gas content,
increasing proportions of low molecular weight
volatiles, and sudden closure of the vent by faulting
upper pert 01 pumIce and its relocation. Choking of the vent by wall
pyroclastiC sur;e depOSits lo ll 8->4m over whole
and IQnimbnU' In." ~rb~.d~d~.d~.~ii area 01 Guodolororc collapse may also produce alternations from
upper pert 01 B -
ignimbrite-forming to plinian activity, especially if
column conditions are close to the boundary
between convection and collapse (Ch. 6). Very
rtworkrd pum lcr _ __ ~~~ complicated eruption sequences can also be prod-
uced if water is involved and collapse of ph rea to-
plinian eruption columns takes place (Sheridan et
al. 1981, Self 1983; Fig. 6.33a).
It must be stressed that not all ignimbrite-
forming eruptions have an earlier plinian phase,
RIO Caliente lonlmbn "~
mO xlmum rJ:po~ed e.g. the Cerro Galan ignimbrite (P. W. Francis et
'~Ickne .. -100m
al. 1983; Fig. 8.2) . This suggests that this very
large ignimbrite formed by a rather different
eruption mechanism than has been proposed for the
well described small- to medium-volume deposits.
The mammoth Fish Canyon Tuff, on the other
hand, is underlain by a pre-ignimbrite pumice fall
deposit and a thick sequence of pyroclastic surge
Ihln loll unl's -:----.~~!:;:tj
In'erbedded ",'h deposits. The implications in terms of type of vent
IgnImbrite lIow unils
for the very large ignimbrite eruptions is discussed
in the next section.
lo"er pc rr 01 B - only Observations at Mt St Helens have shown that
expond beyond limits
01 Ignimbrite NE 01 even during small eruptions a high eruption column
Gucdalclcrc
is not an essential prerequisite for generating a
(seellon no' 10 scal e I
pumice flow (Ch. 5; Fig. 5.12). In such cases the
Figure 8.12 Generalised stratigraphic section showing the
venting eruptive mixture may be so dense that a
complex eruption sequence of the Rio Caliente ignimbrite.
Mexico, and co-eruptive plinian falls (designated La Primavera well defined, maintained eruption column does not
8, Ch. 6). (After J. V. Wright 1981) form but, instead, a low maintained pyroclastic
SOURCE VENTS 233
...
'-
Q)
Q)
U 10
been proposed. The most voluminous ignimbrites o
have generally been associated with either linear
U
fissure eruptions (Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes
type of H. Williams & McBirney 1979) or contin-
00 10 100 1000
uous ring fissure eruptions (Valles type). All ob-
Ignimbrite volume (km 3 )
served ignimbrite-forming eruptions have issued
Figure 8.13 Relationship between size of ignimbrite and
from what seem to be essentially point sources, or
associated caldera.
central vents. Studies over the past ten years on a
number of smaller- and medium-volume ignim- of the overlying rock. Whether or not caldera
brites have suggested that these ignimbrites are collapse occurs during or after an eruption will be
commonly erupted from central vents. an important control on the type of vent.
Ignimbrites are often associated with calderas, a
fact which has been recognised for a long time, and
8.4.1 LINEAR FISSURE VENTS
was very well documented in the classic paper of H.
Williams (1941). Many cases are known where The fissure hypothesis originated from the obser-
single ignimbrite forming eruptions seem to have vation of lines of fumaroles in the Valley of Ten
resulted in the creation of large calderas (e.g. the Thousand Smokes ignimbrite after the 1912 erup-
Aira caldera in Japan) (Fig. 8.3); Crater Lake, tion at Katmai in Alaska (Fig. 8.5). This led C. N.
Oregon (Figs 8.16, 13.25 & 26); and Santorini Fenner (1920) to conclude that the ignimbrite
caldera (Figs 8.4, 13.30 & 31)). For example, in erupted from linear fissures in the floor of the valley.
the San Juan volcanic field the ignimbrite to caldera However, more recently, from the closure of con-
ratio is low, suggesting that many eruptions are tours on isopach maps of pyroclastic fall deposits
monogenetic outpourings with each forming a produced in the same eruption, Curtis (1968)
caldera. Figure 8.13 shows that there is a crude located the central vent of Novarupta as the source.
relationship between caldera dimensions and the The fumarole lines are now thought to be reflections
size of the associated ignimbrite. The largest of basement faults along which ground waters
caldera shown is La Garita, which is the source of moved.
the Fish Canyon Tuff (Fig. 8.lc). The size of Since Fenner's observations at Katmai, the
calderas is often assumed to approximate the importance of fissure eruptions for the formation of
dimensions of magma chambers at depth. In the ignimbrites has been assumed by a number of
case of the San Juan volcanic field each ignimbrite workers, and has been regarded as the way to
is believed to chronicle the emplacement of succes- account for the more voluminous deposits. Van
sive segments or stocks of an underlying batholith Bemmelen (1961) considered that ignimbrites were
(Steven & Lipman 1976). erupted from major fissures in a similar manner to
Caldera collapse takes place when the lithostatic flood basalts. Korringa (1973) documented a linear
pressure on the roof of the magma chamber exceeds vent system for the source of the Soldier Meadow
the chamber pressure by the compressive strength Tuff in Nevada, and this is often quoted as an
234 IGNIMBRITES
... Idod
o flow unit bouncory
0 0
go Q
o-Po
~
'l1agma
0 0 00 00
"~~~~' v::~
o 010 ~
co 6
..
10 0
.
0
6 <> <>
OQ.:Io g
~ ~.,,. ,..
0 . 0 :~.. : . 00
. ...
co ....
_____ 7<>OQ~
.. .
Ignimbrite- inward
collapse
o <>
<> . '. .. . .
; co
'
(c) Ignimbr i te formation
o 'bubbling' base 0 column collapse
eruption column
formmg mtra - mom eruption col umn
calder a pyro - ou t flow
clastic
.. .
flows pyroclas IC
o - .
flow
<>
o
more complex in their origin, being composed not from a 'hole in the ground' vent (located by the
only of flows formed by column collapse, but also near-vent occurrence of a co-ignimbrite breccia and
perhaps generated by frothing over of material at lava dome) on flat ground 0. V. Wright & Walker
vent without column collapse. Such flows would 1977; see below).
not be greatly expanded or travel very far, and From the foregoing discussion it will be apparent
would build up a thick, high aspect ratio ignimbrite that the vent type and eruption mechanisms for the
(Section 8.7) within the caldera. Losses of vitric ash largest ignimbrites remain unresolved. Models of
should therefore also be minimal. The intracaldera linear fissure and ring fissure eruptions must be
Fish Canyon Tuff, like many other intra caldera tested by the analysis of eruption sequences and
ignimbrites, is very crystal-rich, but examination of facies, and some of the answers are likely to be
their juvenile clasts often seems to show that this is found by further examination of ancient volcanic
a property of the magma, not extreme fractionation terrains where the roots of large centres and
by flow processes (Ch. 11). calderas are exposed. Vent type may change as an
eruption proceeds (e.g. Druitt 1985). Even if
eruption is initiated along a fissure, or if one or
8.4.4 CENTRAL VENTS
more fissures develop due to later caldera-collapse,
A number of Quaternary ignimbrites have been localisation to multiple vents or a central vent may
related to central vents by several methods, in- be a natural progression. During the initial stages of
cluding mapping their distribution, mapping the a highly explosive eruption the widest part of the
distribution of co-eruptive pumice fall deposits and fissure will offer least frictional resistance to the
identifying proximal facies (Section 8.5). These flow of gas and magma. Most-rapid erosion will
include ignimbrites with associated caldera form- take place at this point, further accentuating the
ation. For example, the Rio Caliente ignimbrite flow until the eruption is confined to this point.
(Fig. 8.31) not only contains a chaotic near-vent Note that in the theoretical column-collapse models
facies with co-ignimbrite breccias which can be (Figs 8.9, 10, 11 &.6.20) a circular vent is assumed,
used to locate a central vent, but also a thicker but the results can be applied to a fissure eruption
intracaldera ignimbrite which is partly due to by replacing the vent radius with the half-width of
caldera collapse during the eruption. The Minoan the fissure.
eruption sequence has been interpreted in terms of
a central vent which progressively widened during
the eruption (Fig. 8.11). If this is correct, then 8.5 Co-ignimbrite breccias
caldera collapse, forming Santorini's present
caldera, had to happen near the end of or after the Proximal ignimbrite breccias generated in the
Minoan eruption. Similarly, at Krakatau, caldera eruption column and as part of an ignimbrite are
collapse seems to have taken place very late in the now known to be common. J. V. Wright and
eruption (Self & Rampino 1981). The ultraplinian- Walker (1977) first described a co-ignimbrite lag-
and ignimbrite-forming Taupo AD 186 eruption fall deposit from the Acatlan ignimbrite (Fig. 8.19).
has been related to a central vent. Sudden collapse This coarse, lithic-rich deposit was identified as
of the vent area is thought to have greatly widened part of the ignimbrite because it showed the same
the vent, and to have triggered the eruption of the compositional zoning as the ignimbrite (Figs 7.19 &
violent Taupo ignimbrite, perhaps in a manner 20). This was the key to the interpretation, because
somewhat similar to that suggested for the Fish it showed that the breccia accumulated synchron-
Canyon Tuff, but on a smaller scale and much later ously with the formation of the ignimbrite, together
in the eruption. Some central vent eruptions have possibly representing only one flow unit. J. V.
apparently been unrelated to any pre-existing Wright and Walker (1977, 1981) envisaged that the
volcano. Just as Paricutin was 'born in a cornfield' deposit formed at or near the site of continuous
in 1943, so the Acatlan ignimbrite was erupted column collapse, and consisted mainly of pyroclasts
238 IGNIMBRITES
(0) ( b)
20
E 0 -i -....--- r - - -..;t--- ~ ------- --
2 andes it ic pumic e
CII 80
N
eo,onomb"l t ,.J , .iii
100 lo ll ",~ ' E 60
..
dtpo .. ,
I
I , E
::J
40 '\
J
,
\ -rhyollfIC
'pumlc r >< ---.----.-- ti'- - _;.#""'___ : _____ .. 4 _ -
o 20
,
I ,
I
,
, ~
OL-____ _______ L_ _ _ _ _ _ ____
I ,- ~ ~ ~
I
\
I
,,
,
rhyol it ic pumice
,,
I ,
Figure 8.19 (a) Measured stratigraphic section through the Acatlan lag-fall deposit. Mexico. approximately 1.5 km from the
most likely source vent; the conduit now covered by a rhyolite lava dome. (b) Average maximum diameter of the five largest
clasts plotted against distance from source in the main. compositionally zoned ignimbrite flow unit and the lagfall deposit.
(After J. V. Wright & Walker 1977)
that were too large and heavy for the column to breccias and coarse pumiceous ignimbrite con-
support. The term 'lag-fall' deposit was proposed, taining large lithics (Figs 8.21 & 22). These deposits
because the accumulation of lithics was a residue can contain large segregation pipes and structures
left behind by the pumice flows - that is, a lag enriched in lithics and depleted in fines, which
deposit. The lag deposit was of air-fall type as indicate a high degree of fluidisation in the proximal
shown by the stratification. The absence of fine- pumice flows (Ch. 7). Complex interrelations be-
grained fall units (ash grade <2 mm) and of tween breccias and ignimbrite can be found (Fig.
discrete bedding planes was thought to be evidence 8.21).
for rapid accumulation from a continuous, vigorous Recent work shows that there are two types of
eruption column with only minor variations in proximal ignimbrite breccias emplaced by flow. In
eruption intensity. the first type, segregation of lithics takes place
Similar breccias have since been recognised as a through the body of the flow, and this is found
near-vent facies of several ignimbrites (Figs 8.20 & above a basal layer. This type is the near-vent
21). However, it is now realised that there are equivalent of the lithic concentration zone com-
different types, and a better general term to use for monly observed at the bottom of layer 2b in
these rocks is simply co-ignimbrite breccia. Many ignimbrite flow units eCho 7). Towards the vent this
of these examples did not simply accumulate by the type of breccia should grade back into a co-
fall of lithics out of the eruption column, as ignimbrite lag-fall of the Acatlan-type, in which
originally envisaged for the Acatlan ignimbrite, but lithics settled out of the eruption column. Druitt
were emplaced by flow processes. Such types of and Sparks (1982) have logically proposed that both
deposit include clast-supported lithic breccias con- these cases of body segregation breccias should be
taining a small amount of ignimbrite matrix. In termed co-ignimbrite lag breccias. In the second
some cases they may grade into matrix-supported type, the segregation of lithics appears to have
Figure 8.20 Examples of co-ignimbrite breccias. (a) The Kamewarizaka breccia. a erupted', indicating considerable vent widening, or migration, during the eruption. (c)
proximal facies of the Ito pyroclastic flow deposit found close to the edge of Aira Lag-breccia of the 18500 years BP eruption of Santorini, Greece (Fig. 13.31). The
caldera. Japan (Fig. 8.3). Largest lithics are 20-30 cm in diameter. Lighter coloured breccias overlie a basal plinian pumice fall deposit (against which the geologist is
lower half is the older Tsumaya pyroclastic flow deposit (photograph by S. resting his hand) and show normal grading (after Druitt & Sparks 1982) . (d)
Yokoyama). (b) Lag-breccia in the Rio Caliente ignimbrite. Mexico. Note segregation Lenticular segregation pod In lag breccias of the 18500 years BP Santorini eruption
pipes. Largest lithic is a block of welded Rio Caliente ignimbrite which has been 're - (photograph by T. H. Druitt). (e) Wall of the Valles caldera showing a 5 m thick co-
(continued)
Figure 8.20 continued. vent. New Zealand. The base of the ground breccia is sharply erosional. here it
ignimbrite breccia bed in the Lower Bandelier Tuff. New Mexico. (f) Close-up of overlies a local early ignimbrite flow unit (Section 8.12). (h) Detail of the Taupo
Lower Bandelier co-ignimbrite breccia showing largest clasts up to nearly 2 m. (g) ground breccia with large. well-rounded mudstone block. Spade is in same position
Ground breccia of the Taupo ignimbrite at a location approximately 8 km from the seen in (g).
CO-IGNIMBRITE BRECCIAS 241
e ru pllon
column
EAST WEST - head - -- - body - - --
lag breccIa
ground brecclo venl
o 20m
Figure 8.23 Model for the proximal segregation of lithic
------~.
clasts in pumice flows generated by column-collapse.
Figure 8.21 Field sketch at an exposure in the Santorini Ingestion of air at the flow-head causes strong fluidisation,
caldera wall showing co-ignimbrite breccias of the and the sedimentation of the ground breccia. Compression
18 500 years BP eruption. Santorini. Greece. This illustrates of the particle-gas mixture at the base of the collapsing
the complex relationships that can be found between such column generates high pore pressures within a high particle
proximal breccias and ignimbrite. (After Druitt & Sparks concentration flow body. Decompression of the gas phase
1982.) as the flow moves away laterally causes strong fluidisation
with the body, and the segregation of lithics to generate the
(0 ) lag breccia. Open arrows schematically depict the passage
+ log brecclo of gas through the flow system. (After Druitt & Sparks
IQnlmbr l tt
6
bo,ol loy.r 1982)
Qround brf cclc
,......,. ............_......................... .
4
+ . ~.
:
/
. ..
taken place in the more strongly fluidised head of
the moving pumice flow. This layer is then
overridden by the rest or body of the flow (with
b'" , (_---~-.- __--::~---~::.O_<..::~::~::~- layers 2a and 2b). This type has been termed a
ground breccia, and the best example that has been
I
" described is associated with the Taupo ignimbrite
'-----------------------~---~- -------
~8L--~---6~~---~4---L---~2--~---~0--~--~
2~~
(Figs 8.20g & h). This is the proximal equivalent of
3~6 64 16 4 1/8 mm
the ground layer (G. P. L. Walker et at. 1981a; Ch.
Md 7). Both types of breccia can be found within the
same flow unit. For their formation, Druitt and
(b) 20 D " !hies Sparks (1982) have suggested the model illustrated
~ Ignimbri1e moxlrix in Figure 8.23. Druitt (1985) has suggested that the
sudden appearance of lag breccias between normal
;e
I~
-
~
~
10
ignimbrites above and below, on Santorini, records
the change from a single point source eruption
point to caldera collapse. This leads to an increased
5
discharge rate, erosion of the collapsing roof
0 materials and eruption of the eroded blocks together
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 ~
356 64 16 4 1/8 1/16 mm with ignimbrite from multiple eruption points
Groins ize along the caldera collapse fracture system, as
Figure 8.22 (a) Mdq/o$ plot for proximal deposits of the multiple, localised deposits of lag breccia. The
Santorini 18500 years BP eruption, Greece. Tie-lines with succeeding normal ignimbrite records a return to a
arrows connect samples taken from a gradational section
single, stable eruption point.
measured on the eastern side of location sketched in Figure
8.21. (b) Grainsize histograms of a typical lag-breccia. The Other types of breccia may be generated during
deposit is bimodal with a mode in the >0.5 mm fraction due eruption of ignimbrites and are found closely
to a high proportion of crystals. (After Druitt & Sparks 1982.) associated with them near vent. Lipman (1976) has
242 IGNIMBRITES
described caldera-collapse breccias within intra- ignimbrite ash-fall deposit (Sparks & Walker 1977;
caldera ignimbrites in the San Juan volcanic field as Chs 5 & 11). From crystal concentration studies
meggabreccias including clasts metres to hundreds (App. I), ignimbrites show average vitric ash losses
of metres in size (e.g. Thompson 1985). These are of at least 35% from the total erupted magma.
thought to have formed by landslides from the walls Thus, for an ignimbrite having a volume of
of calderas as collapse took place (see caption to 200 km 3 , there may be more than another 100 km 3
Fig. 8.16c and Ch. 13). Flash-flood breccias are a accompanying this as widely dispersed air-fall ash.
prominent feature of the Minoan ignimbrite (Bond The significance of co-ignimbrite ashes is even
& Sparks 1976; Fig. 7.15). G. P. L. Walker (1985) greater when the volumes of plinian deposits are
has comprehensively reviewed the origin of coarse considered. Very few plinian deposits are known to
lithic breccias near ignimbrite source vents. be greater than 25 km 3 in volume (Table 6.2).
Although dispersal is not necessarily related to
volume, this at least shows thin extensive, very
8.6 Co-ignimbrite ash falls widely dispersed volcanic ashes are more likely to
be associated with the formation of the ignimbrite,
In recent years it has become apparent that large- rather than with a preceding plinian phase or
volume ignimbrites should have associated with individual plinian eruptions. However, the volca-
them large and very widespread air-fall ashes which nological interpretation of distal silicic air-fall ash
are synchronous with emplacement of the ignim- layers is not easy. Other types of eruption will
brite (Ch. 5). Ignimbrites commonly show a produce widely dispersed ash layers, and the
marked concentration of free crystals in the matrix plinian component can be substantial (Ch. 6).
compared with the juvenile magmatic content. This During the eruption of ignimbrites, two sources
may be attributed to the large amount of vitric dust from which fine ash could be carried high as
that has been lost during eruption and pyroclastic convective plumes are (a) above the collapsing
flow, and is then deposited in an associated co- column and (b) above the moving pyroclastic flow.
(0) (b)
CORE RC 17 -1 45
\\ 1 ~
690 "
\\ 1/ ~
!t7
700
~ l\ ~
.I, \\.0
.:: ':'
E 710
: . '.
'0
~
.c
720
Q.
C1)
0
730 -v/20
1 10
7 40 ~+1
:-:2"3:-0
4
d,ameter
pJ"ton corts WI1h osh lay.r (thickn ess In em) 7!10 (~)
I. pl,fon corrs WJthout ash loylP r
@ La Tobo
Figure 8.24 (a) Map showing the distribution and thickness of the Toba ash-layer in deep-sea cores . This is a product of an
eruption from Lake Toba, Sumatra, 75000 years BP, which produced a 2000 km 3 ignimbrite (Table 8.1), and is the largest
magnitude eruption documented in the Quaternary. (b) Section showing the ash layer in the most proximal core. The lower.
coarser unit is interpreted as a distal plinian ash, and the upper graded fine unit the co-ignimbrite ash. (After Ninkovich et al.
1978)
CO-IGNIMBRITE ASH FALLS 243
rl r~';~~I:h
VIO-64
20
DA
RC9-191 20
~ 10
~
94cm -
.0
.'.(~.~: 0
VIO-67
~
DIStance (fIOOkm) 2 4 6 8
Grain diameter (l1I)
TR171-27
:11;-11] 1'\
RC9-189
""m~l\LLl
DIStance (1320km) 2 4 6 8
Grain diameter (~)
~ 2 4 6 8
Grain diameter (0)
DIStance (1620 km)
Grain diameter (Ill)
When pyroclastic flows are generated by column cores are considered to be co-ignimbrite ash layers
collapse a convective column rises above the vent, (e.g. Figs 8.24 & 25). The largest known is that
producing a high eruption column, and lower associated with the Toba Tuff, erupted from Lake
clouds of fine ash rise above the moving pumice Toba, Sumatra. Nearer to the source, cores also
flows (Fig. 8.8). It is the preferential loss of vitric pick up the distal plinian ash below the co-
material into convecting plumes which leads to a ignimbrite ash; in all the described examples this is
complementary increase in the proportion of crystals a thinner, coarser layer which peters out with
in the ignimbrite. Sparks et ai. (in press) have also distance. In more-proximal cores through the
suggested that some flows may become completely Campanian ash layer of the eastern Mediterranean
buoyant at their distal flow margins, and then rise (Fig. 8.25), this ash is clearly divisible into a coarse
into the atmosphere producing a major mushroom- lower unit separated by a sharp boundary from a
like plume of ash. This may be the source of very fine graded upper unit. In core RC9-191 the lower
large volumes of co-ignimbrite air-fall deposits. unit only shows a coarse mode, whereas the
This work is based on analysis of space and ground normally graded top possesses a coaise and a finer
photographs of the 18 May 1980 Mt St Helens blast mode. The normally graded unit in core VlO-67 has
event, which suggests the growth and rise of a a bimodal distribution throughout most of its
major ash cloud at a point well away from the vent. thickness. Bimodality disappears downwind,
Many of the volcanic ashes found in deep-sea because the coarser mode decreases in diameter
244 IGNIMBRITES
with distance from source, but the finer mode unlike many sedimentary systems, there are still
shows no lateral variation. During the plinian phase relatively few ignimbrites for which different facies
of an eruption the coarse-grained lower unit, and at and lateral relationships are known. One example
least part of the coarse mode found in bimodal where lateral relationships have been evaluated are
ashes, is formed. The fine-grained upper unit is the in the Laacher See tephra in Germany, where
co-ignimbrite ash. The higher convecting plume Freundt and Schmincke (1985) have been able to
above the collapsing column may also contribute to identify proximal, medial and distal facies.
the coarse mode in this layer. However, bimodality The model presented here is largely developed
in distal silicic ash layers is not unique to co- from a study of the Bandelier Tuffs 0. V. Wright et
ignimbrite ashes and can be produced by other al. 1981). Seminal works on many of the character-
mechanisms (Ch. 6). Observations on the size istics of ignimbrite volcanism originated from
grading of crystals in deep ash layers are also studies of these deposits (R. L. Smith 1960a, b,
important, and can be used to estimate eruption Ross & Smith 1961, R. L. Smith & Bailey 1966,
durations (Ch. 9). 1968). The Bandelier Tuffs are therefore already
In the geological record, many of the strati- models for this type of volcanism, and we consider
graphically important bentonite layers and 'ton- them to be a good norm for comparison, which is
steins' may be co-ignimbrite ashes, perhaps derived an important property of any facies model (R. G.
from late stage, buoyant plumes originating from Walker 1984; Ch. 14). To illustrate the extremes in
the distal margins of flows as suggested by J. G. ignimbrites, we can also examine and compare the
Moore et al. (in press). Rio Caliente and Taupo ignimbrites, which seem to
be at the opposite ends of the spectrum of ignimbrite
types. Readers are also referred to the facies model
8.7 Depositional facies model of Freundt and Schmincke (1985) for ignimbrites of
the Laacher See volcano in Germany.
For our purpose here, a facies can be considered as
an eruptive unit, or part thereof, having distinct
8.7.1 BANDELIER TUFFS AND MODEL
spatial and geometrical relations and internal
characteristics (e.g. grain size and depositional The Lower and Upper Bandelier tuffs of New
structures; Ch. 1). A facies model is a generalised Mexico are the products of two voluminous,
summary of the organisation and associations of the rhyolitic ignimbrite-forming eruptions, dated 1.4
facies in space and time. and l.1 Ma BP, respectively. Associated with these
C. J. N. Wilson and Walker (1982) described eruptions was the formation of a large caldera
the different facies that could be found in an complex, including the Valles caldera and the
ignimbrite and related them to the depositional Toledo caldera (Figs 8.26, 13.42 & Plate 13).
regimes or 'anatomy', of the moving pyroclastic Toledo caldera was believed to be the source of the
flow. However, much of this discussion was based earlier ignimbrite, and Valles to be that of the later
on the study of one ignimbrite - the excellently ignimbrite. Stratigraphically the Lower and Upper
preserved Taupo ignimbrite. This has exceptionally Bandelier tuffs are separated by erosional surfaces,
well developed facies contrasts, related to the epiclastic sediments, soils and a sequence of up to
extreme 'violence' or velocity with which it was six pumice-fall (sub-plinian or plinian) deposits
emplaced (Ch. 7). Indeed, the Taupo ignimbrite (Plate 8) erupted from rhyolite domes in Toledo
can be considered to be at one end of a spectrum of caldera.
ignimbrite types. Ideally, when constructing facies Both tuffs have similar eruption histories. Ex-
models of depositional systems it is important to tensive plinian fall layers occur at their bases (Plate
study many examples. It is only after the local 8, Figs 6.13b, 14a & b). The Lower Bandelier
effects of a number of examples are 'distilled away' plinian deposit with its volume of 100 km 3 and the
that a generalised model results (Ch. 14). However, Upper plinian deposit with its volume of 70 km 3
DEPOSITIONAL FACIES MODEL 245
Figure 8.30 Depositional facies model for the products of ignimbrite-forming eruptions based on the Bandelier Tuffs. (After
J. V. Wright et al. 1981.)
hills up to 1500 m above the vent in Lake Taupo was left behind as a 'trail-marker' by the
(Ch. 7). rapidly moving Taupo flow (Ch. 7). Such
Maps of the two ignimbrites are shown in types of layers have not been found in the less
Figures 8.31 and 32. The distribution of facies in mobile Rio Caliente ignimbrite, which is
the Taupo ignimbrite is strikingly different from composed of normal flow units. However, the
those in the Rio Caliente ignimbrite and our Rio Caliente ignimbrite seems to have been
Bandelier Tuff model. Several important differences erupted onto gentle topography , and if hills
can be highlighted: were present maybe local ignimbrite veneer
deposits could have formed; such a local
(a) An outstanding feature of the Taupo ignim- veneer deposit has been found at one locality
brite is that it occurs in two contrasting forms, in the Upper Bandelier ignimbrite. What is
each having quite different relationships to the important is they could never have been an
pre-existing land surface. One is a landscape important facies, as in the Taupo ignimbrite.
mantling ignimbrite veneer deposit (IVD), (b) Co-ignimbrite breccias in the Taupo ignim-
while the other fills in depressions like 'con- brite extend much further from the vent.
ventional' ignimbrites do, and is called valley- They are of the ground breccia type, gener-
ponded ignimbrite (VPI; Figs 8.32a & 7.27). ated in the extremely fluidised head of the
The IVD is stratified and occasionally shows Taupo flow. Laterally they pass into the
bedforms . All of the evidence suggests this Taupo ground layer and the> 10 em average
(a)
Figure 8.31 (a) Isopach map of the Rio Caliente
ignimbrite. Sierra La Primavera volcano. The base of
the ignimbrite is rarely seen and so recorded values
are minimum values. Within the caldera area (Ch .
13) the ignimbrite is now known from drilling to be
as much as 360 m thick. suggesting that caldera-
collapse was also concomitant with the eruption . (b)
Location of vent position (star); solid diamonds
represent exposed proximal ignimbrite facies with
co-ignimbrite breccias and fines-depleted ignim-
5km
" - - - - - '. brite; broken line is > 1 m lithic isopleth for the co-
eruptive plinian fall (Fig. 8.12) . Also shown is the
,_ ~/ oppro .. mo r~ IImlr distribution (close stipple) of some localised mixed-
-10- 19n1mbn re rhlCkntss (m) pumice flow units which travelled only a short
Q rhyohr ~ lovos distance from the vent. (After J. V. Wright 1981 .)
248 IGNIMBRITES
(a) (b)
I
I 0.9
/ .....
I 1. 4 ......... , .........
I '\
I \
I \
I \
I '1.5 \
I I
I I
I I
I I
\ I
. 1.9
\ La I
\ I
\ I
. 1.6
I
,
\
"- 1.5 I
'\ /
\ /
\ /
\ "
\
, ,,-
o --'---'---'---'--"~km
.....
"
" - - ...... .;',.. 0
~-,---,----,-""-",,,
50km
(e)
Figure 8.32 (a) Map of the Taupo ignimbrite distinguishing
ignimbrite veneer deposit from valley-ponded ignimbrite.
Isopachs show the average thickness of IVD. (b) Isopleth
map of the average maximum diameter of the three largest
lithic clasts in the Taupo ground layer. (c) Distribution of
fines-depleted ignimbrite and pre-ignimbrite fall deposits.
(After G. P. L. Walker et al. 1980a, 1981 a,b.)
maximum lithic size isopleth extends 35 km breccias have been found in the Rio Caliente
approximately radially around the vent (Fig. ignimbrite.
8. 32b). The co-ignimbrite breccias identified (c) Another quite remarkable facies of the Taupo
in the Rio Caliente ignimbrite (Fig. 8.31b) ignimbrite is fines depleted ignimbrite (FDI).
formed by segregation through the bodies of This is very distinctive in the field, and is
proximal pumice flows, and are of the lag characterised by large rounded framework
breccia type. These only extend up to a pumice clasts, with few fines and abundant
maximum of 4 km from the vent. No ground charcoal fragments (Fig. 7.28). The FDI is
DEPOSITIONAL FACIES MODEL 249
1973a) who first suggested that magma discharge MSH (May 18)
10 -2 '--::-_ _-'-:_ _---'-_ _ _L , -_ _---'-=,----
rate was perhaps the single most important factor
10 3 10 4 10 5 106 10 7
governing lava flow morphology and the distances Eruption rate (m 3 5- 1)
that lavas travelled (Ch. 4), and this appears to be
Figure 8.34 Plot of aspect ratio against the average
the same for ignimbrites. For most ignimbrites it is volumetric eruption rate of magma for a number of
not possible to determine discharge rate. However, ignimbrites. Arrows for the Los Chocoyas and Toba ignim-
J. V. Wright (1981) and C. J. N. Wilson and brites indicate uncertainty in measuring aspect ratio.
250 IGNIMBRITES
fine ash lost suggests that both of the Bandelier and thickness of deposits in valleys and basins, with
ignimbrites are towards the lower end of the deposits ramped up higher on vent-facing slopes.
discharge rate spectrum, and that they have dis- Depositional ramps are also recognised in cross
charge rates of about 105 m 3 S-I. sections through the Ito pyroclastic flow deposit
(Fig. 8.3).
welding
vapour-phase crystallisation
devitrification
8.10.1 WELDING
Welding is the sintering together of hot pumice
fragments and glass shards under a compactional
load (R. L. Smith 1960a, b, Ross & Smith 1961) .
The most important controls are:
(a) glass viscosity (dependent on temperature and
composition) and
(b) lithostatic load (dependent on the thickness of
the deposit).
Figure 8.35 Phreatic explosion craters in the 18 May
Lithic content in a deposit will also affect the
pumice flow deposits on the western part of the Pumice
Plain at Mt St Helens (Fig . 8.6). Craters are approximatel y development of welding (Eichelberger & Koch
5- 25 m in diameter. (After Rowley et al. 1981.) 1979). Experimental studies indicate that welding
begins between about 600 and 750C for rhyolitic
surge deposits. However, wavelength and SIze compositions, depending on load pressure and H 2 0
would not be related to pumice-flow transport content of the glass (I. Friedman el al. 1963,
direction. On a larger scale , wind erosion can strip Bierwirth 1982 ; Fig. 8.36).
large volumes of ignimbrite, adding this to a loess Characteristically, when welding approaches
blanket as has happened in New Zealand. Without completion, three zones of dense welding, partial
knowing the regional stratigraphy, such a deposit is welding and non-welding are produced (Fig. 8.37;
probably difficult to distinguish from an air-fall ash R. L. Smith 1960b). In the welded zones flattened,
deposit at some outcrops (Fig. 1O.32b; Section often glassy juvenile clasts called fiamme, and glass
10.3). shards define a planar foliation or eutaxitic texture
Where large quantities of water gain access to a (Figs 8.38 & 3.23b). In most cases fiamme seem to
still-hot ignimbrite, steam explosions can be trig- be flattened pumice clasts, but sometimes they may
gered. These form rootless explosion craters like have originally been unvesiculated juvenile clasts
those observed at Mt St Helens (Fig. 8.35), where (Gibson & Tazieff 1967). Welding is often associ-
local phreatic surge and ash-fall layers were also ated with distinctive colour changes, which are due
generated. Similar stratified deposits formed by to different oxidation states of iron. In densely
252 IGNIMBRITES
40 30 20 10 o 50 40 30 20 10 o
Porosify ("!o)
welded zones columnar cooling joints are often well of the pumice clasts, which can be considered a
developed (Fig. 8.39). Lithophysae may also be measure of the compactional strain (Fig. 8.41).
present (Fig. 8.37; Ch. 5). A densely welded tuff, Strain ratio (see also Figs 6.42 & 45) can be
which in hand specimen has a glassy appearance, is measured in welded tuffs by applying techniques
sometimes called a vitrophyre. developed by structural geologists to measure
Many workers have recorded systematic changes tectonic strain (Ramsay 1967, Dunett 1969, Elliot
with height in bulk density and porosity in welded 1970, Lisle 1977, B. Roberts & Siddans 1970,
ignimbrites (Fig. 8.40). Typically, bulk density is Ragan & Sheridan 1972, Sheridan & Ragan 1976,
at a maximum, whereas porosity is at minimum in Sparks & Wright 1979, Wolff & Wright 1981).
the lower central half of the deposit, and this R. L. Smith (1960b) classified ignimbrites that
corresponds to the zone of dense welding. Ragan showed such simple welding variations as simple
and Sheridan (1972) showed in the Bishop Tuff that cooling units. Riehle (1973) found that these
these features are related to the degree of flattening variations could be predicted from theoretical
metres
75 grey partly welded
vapour phase tuff
grey to brown nonwelded
to partly welded tuff
t---_
\ purple brown densely
welded tuff
"~"""":: l---__ __
_
- ~- .... --...
-----
- white non welded tuff
~~~~~~~=~~~~~~~~~~1~:~;~1_ ~
............. ......
t
E Ignimbrites which show well developed zones of
(f)
(f)
dense welding, and in which the proportion of
Q)
c:
..l<:
I welding is high, can be termed high-grad~ ignim-
0
brites, in contrast to low-grade ignimbrites, which
J
.c
f- are totally non-welded or of which only a small
50
J proportion is welded. The temperature of em-
)
placement of ignimbrites is therefore very variable.
R. L. Smith (l960a) considered that processes
within the eruptive column must be responsible,
and Sparks et al. (1978) explained this by the
which will favour formation of a densely welded based on the assumption that viscous strain occurs,
ignimbrite. This condition will also lead to less- but this is incorrect for porous volcanic ash because
expanded flows which should lose only minor it does not allow for the effects of pore space
amounts of vitric ash, as seems to be the case for (porosity) and packing geometry. Bierwirth (1982)
many densely welded intracaldera ignimbrites considered the effects of porosity as shown by
(Section 8.4; Ch. 11). Flows formed from high models of sintering and hot pressing processes used
collapse heights will be emplaced at relatively lower in the ceramic and metallurgical industries. The
temperatures, and may form non-welded deposits. strain rate for porous materials is given by
Some large ignimbrites show an upward increase in
to = KI(g)pne - QIRT (8.1)
welding due to the emplacement of flow units of
successively higher temperature. The Upper where, T is temperature, P is load pressure, Q is
Bandelier ignimbrite shows such a sequence, with activation energy, n is a stress factor, I(g) is a
flow unit temperatures changing from the order of density function, R is the universal gas constant
550-800C (R. L. Smith & Bailey 1966; Fig. 8.44). and K is the strain rate constant. Using the results
Widening of the vent and a decrease in gas content of his Bandelier Tuff experiments (Fig. 8.36),
during eruption and column collapse could both values of Q, nand K were determined and a
explain increasing emplacement temperature. nearest-fit equation assigned to I(g). After convert-
The time taken to produce welding has been ing strain to density, Equation 8.1 was integrated
estimated theoretically by Riehle (1973) and Kono giving an equation defining compaction rates of
and Osima (1971). However, their methods are anhydrous ash from the Bandelier Tuff:
WELDING AND POST-DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES 257
as
5cm
Figure 8.43 Lineation produced by stretching fiamme ~------------~,
during rheomo rphism .
-Q)
Q)
.s:::.
(f) 20m
I om5::-h-.J..,------''''-::--,,-l>o---'-~-10..J..'-
. a-,.~I.L.oo-'.a,. 5h
Time Time
Figure 8.44 Time required to produce dense welding of rhyolitic ash (a) anhydrous and (b) with 0.5 wt% water for various
ignimbrite thicknesses and emplacement temperatures. Calculated from Equation 8.2 based on experimental studies of the
Upper Bandelier ignimbrite. The model is least reliable for thin flows and long times. due to the effects of cooling. Sheet
thickness was calculated for porous ash (1 bar = 7 m). (After Bierwirth 1982.)
one week (Fig. 8.44a). For even a 1 km thick ation are tridymite, cristobalite and alkali feldspar,
intracaldera ignimbrite at 650C, dense welding which occur as drusy infills of matrix and pumice
would only be achieved after one year, assuming cavities, so forming a cement and reducing the pore
that crystallisation of the groundmass did not space. Vapour-phase crystallisation can produce a
prevent compaction. Welding temperatures will be coherent rock. The term sillar (a Peruvian word
lowered by the effect of water content in the glass, first applied by C. N. Fenner 1948) is often used
and the times shown in Figure 8.44a can be for such rocks, but the term has also been applied
regarded as maximum values. Bierwirth indicated to incipiently welded tuffs in which ash grains are
that 0.5 wt% water will lower welding temperatures barely sintered at point contacts and show no other
by approximately 60C compared with anhydrous deformation of juvenile clasts (Fig. 8.7). Vapour-
conditions (Fig. 8.44b). phase crystallisation can occur in separate zones in
compactionally welded ignimbrites, and is com-
monly found towards the top of a sheet (Figs 8.37,
8.10.2 VAPOUR-PHASE CRYSTALLISATION
42 & 45). Sheridan (1970) described fumarolic
Vapour-phase crystallisation results from the perco- mounds and ridges of sillar above the Bishop Tuff
lation of hot gases through ignimbrites during (Figs 8.45 & 46a). Similar palaeofumarolic features
cooling. The most important gas sources are and peculiar 'steam pipes' occur in the Rio Caliente
probably diffusion from juvenile vitric particles and ignimbrite, which are thought to have formed
heated ground water. where it was deposited in a shallow lake or on
The main products of vapour phase crystallis- marshy ground (Figs 8.46b, c & 47). Fumarolic
pipes have also been found in the Bandelier
ignimbrites (Fig. 8.46d).
Fumorol ic
mound
rnelrrs
150 8.10.3 DEVITRIFICATION
vlln'
Devitrification involves the sub-solidus crystallis-
ation of metastable glass (Ross & Smith 1961,
".,pou, pha Lofgren 1970). The main products are cristobalite
ono
drv ilnhpd and alkali feldspar. Devitrification tends to be more
prevalent in densely welded tuffs, and particularly
in thick intracaldera ignimbrites because of the
0>
protracted cooling (Figs 8.37, 42 & 45). Neverthe-
C
less, more-porous ignimbrites may also be devitri-
Ql fied. (Note that devitrification is also common in
3 dfYltnflrd
Ql
VI
coherent glassy lavas and shallow intrusives.)
C
Ql Devitrification is discussed further in Chapter 14
"0
(Section 14.3.2).
Ql
C
oN
8.11 Chemical analyses?
vifric
Post-depositional chemical alteration is a common
feature even of modern ignimbrites. There are
o ==- =-.:::--=-- -=-- =---- arr-Iall
several processes which can produce alteration.
Figure 8.45 Zones of vapour-phase crystallisation and
devitrification in the Bishop Tuff. Fumarole mounds project
One is leaching by ground water, and studies show
from top of vapour-phase zone through non-welded ash. that metastable glass is easily leached and Na, K
(After Sheridan 1970) and Si are often removed (e.g. Noble 1967, Scott
Figure 8.46 (a) Fumarole mounds on the surface of the Bishop Tuff. (b) and (c) Small 'steam pipes' in the Rio Caliente ignimbrite. Vapour-phase
minerals are predominantly clinoptilolite and heulandite which suggests low temperature fumarolic activity (compared with tridymite, cristobalite and
alkali feldspar, which are the usual vapour-phase minerals found, e.g. in the Bishop Tuff). This is as might be expected if the ignimbrite were locally
deposited in a shallow lake or on marshy ground and vaporised ground water was important. (d) Fumarole pipes in the Upper Bandelier Tuff.
260 IGNIMBRITES
(a) Hatepe pumice near-source outcrops the Taupo pumice has obvi-
ously been eroded by the Taupo ignimbrite which
followed, and therefore thickness measurements
are anomalously thin.
The maximum measured thickness is only 1.8 m,
LAKE
TAIJPO
which reflects the great dispersal of the deposit
although, again, even where it is thickest there is a
marked erosional discordance between it and the
50km
, ignimbrite. Despite its unimpressive thickness (cf.
other plinian deposits, Ch. 6), calculations by
(b) Hatepe ash (c) Rotongaio ash G. P. L. Walker (1980) from the concentration of
free crystals in the deposit show that the total
volume erupted was 24 km 3 (6 km 3 dense rock
equivalent (DRE)), which is as big as some of the
- -o
--
20km
.,- ---..~'- - " " - - - - - - - '
...-"'- .............
o o
" "
------
50km 50km
~~ ..........
'
","" .......
268
CHAPTER NINE
Subaqueous pyroclastic
flows and deep-sea ash layers
269
270 SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
aspects are controversial because, unlike subaerial sedimentary succession in immediate contact with
phenomena, subaqueous pyroclastic flows have not the suspected pyroclastic flow deposits should be
been observed, and because the deposits that have fully documented. It is insufficient simply to state
been interpreted as subaqueous pyroclastic flow the preferred depositional setting without proving
deposits, especially welded ones, have not to our it, given the controversial nature of the subject.
mind been convincingly proven to be such. Major Secondly, the evidence for a hot state of emplace-
unresolved problems exist with regard to sub- ment (welding, gas segregation structures, columnar
aqueous pyroclastic flows. Very little is known jointing) has to be very convincingly documented
about the physical interaction between hot, gas- and illustrated in each case. The only unequivocal
supported particulate pyroclastic flows and a cold evidence for welding is plastically deformed, flat-
ambient body of water and about the boundary tened, annealed cuspate glass shards (burst vesicle
conditions between them. Can hot, subaerial, gas- walls) or preserved plastically collapsed, flattened
supported, pyroclastic flows retain their integrity vesicles in larger glassy fragments (pumice), or
and heat when they flow into water, and continue to both, at the microscopic scale. Without this, welding
flow underwater, uninterrupted, as a hot, gas- is not proven. In old, tectonised, altered succes-
supported pyroclastic flow? Will such a flow be sions this may be difficult. In such situations
capable of producing a welded deposit? Or, will the deformation and alteration can produce elongation
combination of a relatively low bulk density, high and flattening of clasts, especially original glassy
flow velocity, the essentially frictionless nature of clasts that have been altered to phyllosilicates. This
the flow, the surface tension of the water and the can produce a pseudo-eutaxitic texture that can be
low angle of incidence of a flow on to the water mistaken for welding and the existence of pumice.
surface cause deflection of the flow so that it skips It should also be noted (also see Ch. 10) that the
or flows over the water (cf. skip bombs)? Can, in presence of shards in a deposit is not proof of a
fact, hot pyroclastic flows be generated from pyroclastic flow depositional origin. Shards indicate
shallow, subaqueous pyroclastic eruptions? a pyroclastic mode of fragmentation originally (Ch.
All of these problems are offundamental import- 3), but thereafter the pyroclastic debris, without
ance to those of us who have to make palaeoen- any further reworking or sorting, could be rede-
vironmental interpretations of volcanic successions. posited and transported long distances from the
Until recently, welded ignimbrites were generally source by subaqueous (and, for that matter, sub-
accepted to be good indicators of subaerial, to at aerial) epiclastic mass-flow processes (Ch. lO). The
best shallow marine, environments. However, there deposit will be a very juvenile aggregate of pyro-
are now several papers in the literature that claim to clastically fragmented debris, but such a history
have found subaqueous welded ignimbrites, even does not involve transport as a subaqueous pyro-
in relatively deep-water settings. clastic flow.
Given the uncertainties and the questions posed
above, we wish to some degree to play the devil's 9.2 Types of subaqueous pyroclastic flow
advocates. This is because we feel strongly that all
of the essential pieces of evidence necessary to A large proportion of volcanic rock transported as
prove the case for submarine pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic flows from island volcanoes must be
welding have not been presented in any study. We deposited into the ocean (Plate 9). In a broad sense,
hope that our discussion may provoke further the subaqueous equivalents belong to, and can be
consideration of the strength of the evidence described by, the terminology of subaqueous clastic
available, and of some of the problems involved in mass-flow facies associations (e.g. Mutti & Ricci
generating subaqueous pyroclastic flows. Lucchi 1978, R. G. Walker 1984; Ch. lO). Two
The essential evidence that we feel needs to be main types of deposit formed by the movement of
established in each case is briefly summarised as pyroclastic flows underwater have been described
follows. First, the facies characteristics of the host in the literature:
TYPES OF SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOW 271
.... ..
~o coarse and fine luffs slumped lone (several mltr.s)
~~~~~
, " :.L.:::
..
pyrocla,l ic flow depos it sll"tone
subaqueous pumice lIow deposit
....,..
. ,"
",:;"
,"
containing pumice and
dense glassy lava fragments 10 ~~~~ 'r'"
. . ! ,.--~ slll5tono
mosslve silly fine luff
'= suboqueous pumice flow
:.r ....
: .. . : .,.,9 .,"
o subaqueous pumice flow
(d)
mudstone partings
~_ cross slratlf ication
=- wavy tamlnations
horizonlal laminations
ash lurbldites (bedded dacilic planar bose
luff and lapllll luff) l"eQula, bose
shallow-marine rhyolitic tuff ring complex. Even consist of very juvenile volcanic detritus (Ch. 11).
the Roseau volcaniclastic debris flow units in the However, in the absence of evidence for primary
Grenada Basin could have been generated by pyroclastic transport processes, he concluded that
slumping of primary or redistributed Roseau de- the material was finally transported and deposited
posits from higher up the submarine slope or shelf. by huge epiclastic granular mass flows, perhaps
In a similar example, Cas (1979, 1983a) demon- originally derived from subaerial pyroclastic activ-
strated that the massive sedimentation units of the ity (Cas 1983a).
Devonian Merrions Tuff of southeastern Australia
.... Figure 9.1 Some examples of deposits which have been termed 'subaqueous pyroclastic flow' deposits in the literature. All
of the examples are Tertiary in age. (a) From the Ohanapecosh Formation, Washington, described as examples of
subaqueously erupted pyroclastic flows deposited in a marginal freshwater-marine basin (after Fiske 1963). (b) and (c) are
examples thought to have been erupted subaerially and then deposited in a caldera lake at Onikobe in Japan . On entering
water they flowed as a turbidity current and a vertical sequence comparable to that of clastic turbidites is found, although,
sometimes considerably thicker; the example shown in (c) is the uppermost subaqueous pumice flow deposit indicated in (b)
(after Yamada 1973). (d) Sections of the Wadaira Tuff (unit D) in the Tokiwa Formation, Japan, described as having been
erupted subaqueously and deposited in a marginal marine basin (after Fiske & Matsuda 1964). (e) The Dali Ash, Rhodes.
Although quoted as a deep-water welded tuff, it is now known to be non-welded, and thought (but not proved) to be the
submarine lateral equivalent of a subaerially erupted ignimbrite (see Fig. 9.2) (after J. V. Wright & Mutti 1981).
274 SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
(a) ( b)
GS 7605 - 2
."
N
o .,,/ I
, I
1>80cm I N
I I
/
I
>160cm
/
I. I
I 255cm I
o I I
/
I >50: m l 0
/
I I
I /
I 10
I >60cm J
,+>~ ( >454cm
",rS' , 1I9cm . /
.
~ Roseau ...... 323 iG. ..
()
~ iQnimbril. TOBAGO
~
welded luff o SOkm
0:"-
BASIN
I....-....-..J <:>
olher
D pyroclastic
flow depOsits
~I 0 \'10 domes
~
o ~_m
I....-....-..J
(d)
(e) Core
GS 7605-2
Roseau Grand Fond
m
m 0
35 3 o
I
45 i<?o <? 100
.0 0
o
.
0 . 0 o 0 e
0 pyroclastic o
30
. 0, 0 .... Md , . 180
40
0
flaw 0"'0 120 " ~
, , '.
pyroclostic Rouau tuff
0
flow .,, ,
o. 0
0 .; 0 e.
..........
plinia n <) 140 o ~ o
airfoil 0 20 E 0:' 0
30
" 00 phnlan
<J O' !o
- --- - ~ ~----- "'.
00
o" fo ll
.c 160
i
/
Q. ~ Md; ' 1 75
pyroc last ic CI)
.; /
0
.0 flow /
/ 10 180 e
~ 0 '. / .....
zo
.
/ altered
/ scorlaeeous
~'~? plinian /
/ flow
200
----- -------
airfoil
soli
;,
conQlomeral.
o Md , . 166
10
strotlfled
2Z0
we ll sorled
dellolc sequence
- ----_....:.::..-----
118 114 112 10
I I I I
o Md(mm)
Figure 9.3 The Roseau ignimbrite on the island of Dominica and its submarine equivalents in the Grenada Basin. (a) Subaerial
distribution of the major young pyroclastic flow deposits and associated lava domes on Dominica. The Roseau ignimbrite
includes the more southerly of the two welded outcrops; the northern outcrop is another stratigraphic unit. (b) Distribution of
the Roseau subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits. Solid circles indicate piston cores in which subaqueous deposits of
pyroclastic debris have been found. with their thicknesses. while open circles correspond to cores which do not contain them.
(c) Subaerial stratigraphy at two locations. (d) Submarine stratigraphy and grainsize profiles of three subaqueous deposits from
the piston core located in (b). (After Carey & Siqurdsson 1980.)
TYPES OF SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOW 275
(b) (c)
Figure 9.4 Submarine volcaniclastic deposits in piston cores from the Lesser Antilles arc. Scale bars are in centimetres. (a)
Roseau ash-fall layer in a core from the Atlantic Ocean, 700 km east of its source on Dominica. (b) Roseau 'subaqueous
pyroclastic flow' deposit in a core from Grenada Basin, 270 km west of Dominica. Note large pumice clasts. (c) Subaqueous
deposit with large clay rip-up clast in Grenada Basin. (d) Epiclastic sand. layer interbedded with hemipelagic sediment in a core
from the Grenada Basin. This thin deposit was possibly emplaced by a small turbidity current which transported sand-sized
volcaniclastic detritus derived from the narrow shelf between islands of the arc. (After Sigurdsson et al. 1980.)
"
.... -, .~
... , '. , . :- . ;'!
. base of the sequence contain
coarser and denser juvenile
believed to have been welded subaqueously,
palaeontological evidence from the associated epi-
~ . : .... ~III,! fragments than the beds clastic sediments only indicates near-shore marine
..~ ;... ~ cJ,,~'''' .'!'-.I.i.. ~. towards the top. In the field conditions, while sedimentological evidence such as
.:; ...'...... .-,.
.,~~ ~;!'.:... ~ ~i:'-'. '
'
lOP of maSSlYe
this sequence actually
contains about 200 beds, not
bimodal cosets of large-scale cross-stratification,
suggests a tidal to subtidal shallow-marine en-
of
25 as illustrated here. (After
suboQueous pyroclosllC
flow depo," Fiske & Matsuda 1964) vironment. P. Sutcliffe (pers. comm.) even reports
mudcracks in epiclastic sediments between the
likely to be composed of redeposited material from Garth Tuff and Racks Tuff at this location,
turbidity currents generated by slumping of older suggesting periodic exposure and desiccation.
volcanic debris, although even this slumping could However, a more accurate estimate of water depth
be a co-eruptive event. This happened during the is a problem. One method is to use heights of sets of
1902 eruption of Soufriere, St Vincent, when large-scale cross-stratification, assuming that these
pyroclastic flows built out a delta into the sea and represent the minimum heights of dune bed-forms,
then slumped into the Grenada Trough to generate and the results of such an exercise suggest palaeo-
an ash turbidite (Carey & Sigurdsson 1978). A water depths of <10 m (Table 9.1). This approach
better non-genetic term to use for these rocks is can be criticised for several reasons, but the
therefore 'volcaniclastic turbidite'. estimate agrees with water depths found in com-
parable present sedimentary environments. For
example, in a non-barred, high energy, near-shore
9.3 Hot subaqueous pyroclastic flows and environment on the southern Oregon coast, Clifton
subaqueous welding of ignimbrites et al. (1971) found that dunes, formed in <5 m of
water, had heights between 30 and 100 cm, which
There has been much debate recently on the is about the range in heights of sets of cross-strata
transport of pyroclastic flows into and under water, found at Capel Curig (Table 9.1). At Capel Curig,
and particularly on whether such flows can retain we therefore feel there might be an alternative
enough heat to weld. The debate was stimulated by explanation, namely, that these thick ignimbrites
..-
.....- /.
\
\
\ I . \
// \ I \
1/ \ I \
/1 \
/'
,/
...
...... //
\
I
I
\
., .
I \
" \ I "- \
---
I I
2b
\ I 2b "~
2b ,
,
I
.. ..
....... ......... I
I
.......:':::::." 20', " I \
I
\ \
. ---
\'''~ I \ \
2b 2b
. .,?
\ ~~ \
\
"
\
--- ..
\ ',2b \ \
\
\2. I
\
12 II 10 9 8 6 5 4 3 2
\
\
\
rr ---O --- IJ
\
\ 200
\
\
o
II 12 13 14 15 Ve.-'Ical Ical.
In metre,
22 21 20 10
Ilhe-eous n.odules
D thud member
common
0 four Ih mem bifl rl:C'rysfallisQUon fabriCs.
domU'1an ~Qty fe ldspar
rhyolite mOIOIc., and Quar1z
Itnlleles olonQ weoki inO
fol lChon locolly
Figure 9.6 Correlation of tuff members within the Capel Curig Volcanic Formation, Wales, and the depositional
setting. Welded ignimbrites form Members 1, 2b and 3. Note the close association of siliceous nodules and the
marine environment. (After Howells et al. 1979.)
278 SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
Table 9.1 Water palaeodepths of shallow-marine sediments intercalated with Caradocian welded ignimbrites in Snowdonia,
North Wales.
Water palaeodepths were estimated from the maximum heights of sets of large-scale cross-stratification which are assumed
to represent heights of dune bedforms using the relationship (determined by Allen, 1968) H = 0.086d 119 , where H is the height
of the dune bed-form and d is the water depth. 95% confidence limits were placed on Allen's (1968) data, and the range in water
depth was determined from the depth minima and maxima.
NE sw
mtlrl'
Melres
o
o
o 0 0
O,lfr,n M,mby' Tuff
000 cleo_ed .,lroC Iu I ,In
accretionary lap,UI
~ we lded luff D bedded sondstone
(b)
---
(0)
o 1m
L..-.--J o 10m
'----'
eleovOQf
..4- boddin9
younQ ln; dhtttion
planar flamm.
Deddlnq
c:::J ~it" Head ., Id ld ".. fll IIn eor flamme
o Br)'n-Ou breccial
~ dol.,.,1: 8 rhyolltl CJ ~~~:I:~I
D IOndo'ono
(c) 85
s N
o...............
20m
the continuous ignimbrites described above. These pyroclastic flow became wholly buoyant because of
pods are up to several tens of metres in diameter, its low bulk density, and began to flow over, rather
and are spaced hundreds of metres apart. Although than under, the sea. Pods of pyroclastic debris may
the evidence is not presented, they are apparently have periodically dropped out of the base of the
completely welded through to their bases, and have moving pyroclastic flow, perhaps associated with
been interpreted as being due to the disruption of a local disruptive phreatic explosions, and sagged
subaqueous ash flow by interaction with water into the shelf sediment sequence to form discrete
during flow. The enclosing sediments are not pods.
adequately described but are considered by Howells Elsewhere in North Wales, J. V. Wright and
et al. to be tidal to subtidal, shallow-marine in Coward (1977) concluded that ignimbrites of the
origin. This study is problematic, in that there are Pitt's Head Tuff Formation (again Caradocian in
several unexplained, undocumented aspects of age, but stratigraphically higher than the Capel
major importance, especially given that the paper is Curig Volcanic Formation; Fig. 9.9a) were em-
trying to establish the existence of subaqueous placed in a shallow, gently shelving sea where water
pyroclastic flows and subaqueous welding. First, depths were insufficient to prevent welding. Data on
the facies characteristics of the enclosing sediments water depths estimated from the heights of large-
are not described and documented, which seems scale cross-stratification are given in Table 9.1, and
necessary to establish the depositional context. again suggest a palaeowater depth of <10 m. J. V.
Secondly, the assumed welding textures are not Wright and Coward (1977) described diapiric
described and illustrated. Finally, is it possible that structures (Fig. 9.9) within these welded ignim-
the end of the continuous sheet, and the appearance brites, and concluded that they were rootless vents
of the pods, represents the point where the host formed from steam trapped below the welding
280 SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
ignimbrites, which periodically burst through as Supposedly deep-water welded ignimbrites have
small, secondary phreatic explosions. These might also been described from the Fishguard Volcanic
have produced small pyroclastic craters on the Group (Lower Ordovician) in South Wales (Low-
surface of the ignimbrite, like those made by man & Bloxam 1981). Several welded ignimbrites
secondary explosions at Mt St Helens (Fig. 8.35). are associated with graptolite-bearing shales and
Also associated with the rootless vents are zones of basaltic pillow lavas. Vesicles in pillow lavas
siliceous nodules, and sometimes these nodules indicate water depths ranging from tens of metres
occur in bubble trains extending parallel to the to 2 km, and Lowman and Bloxam (1981) have
margins of the diapiric structures, indicating the suggested a depth of 1-2 km. However, these
upward migration of steam. Rootless vents and the measurements, although made within the mapped
zones of nodules are thought to be good indicators Fishguard Volcanic Group, are located 8 km away
of ignimbrite deposited in a shallow-water en- from the welded tuffs. Both areas show differing
vironment O. V. Wright & Coward 1977). volcanic rock associations, and the stratigraphy
Other examples of welded ignimbrites emplaced could be more complex than has been considered to
in shallow-water environments can be found in the date. Lowman and Bloxam suggest that a steam
literature. Stanton (1960) and Dewey (1963) des- jacket insulated the moving subaqueous pyroclastic
cribed welded ignimbrites in the Mweelrea Group flows, and the hydrostatic pressure of sea water
(Caradocian) of Murrisk, Ireland, which they maintained cohesion and retained heat and volatiles
thought had been deposited in a shallow water within the flows.
deltaic environment. Again, here, such shallow Lower Ordovician deep-water welded ignimbrites
water depths perhaps would not prevent the ignim- are also reported from Ramsey Island, just off the
brites from welding. In a discussion of densely South Wales coast (Kokelaar et ai. 1984, 1985).
welded ignimbrites in the Lower Palaeozoic rocks Welded shard textures are not evident in thin
of Newfoundland, Lock (1972) describes a 'sludge- section because of recrystallisation, but pumice
flow subfacies' for rocks formed by the rapid fragments show flattening parallel to the dip of the
quenching, collapse and liquefaction of a pyro- ignimbrite sheets. The main unit of interest, the
clastic flow passing from a subaerial to a submarine Cader Rhwydog Tuff also has a normally graded
environment. top, which contains strongly flattened pumices in
The Dali Ash on the island of Rhodes, Greece its lower part. This has been interpreted as a
(Figs 9.le & 2), has been cited as an example of a subaqueous welded fall tuff, and Kokelaar et ai.
hot subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposit because of (1984) interestingly proposed that the eruption,
the references made to welding textures by Mutti emplacement and welding sequence of the whole
(1965). Unlike the welded ignimbrites described unit occurred underwater. The unit is 186 m thick,
from North Wales, the Dali Ash occurs in deep- consisting of a lower massive interval of 161 m, and
water sediments, and therefore subaqueous pyro- an upper 25 m of unbedded, normally graded
clastic flows must have remained hot for appreci- lapilli tuff to fine tuff above. The base overlies an
able distances underwater. However, it is now erosional surface and contains rounded to angular
known that these textures were misidentified, and clasts of rhyolite, as well as intraclasts of mudstone.
there is no textural evidence of welding or palaeo- In one place, a load cast-like feature 10 m deep
magnetic evidence of a high emplacement tempera- protrudes into the underlying mudstone from the
ture O. V. Wright & Mutti 1981). The deposit base, and nearby, rhyolite pebble horizons occur in
contains abundant angular and cuspate shards the tuff. The depositional context is demonstrated
(Fig. 3.23a), but these are not plastically flattened to be submarine, below wave base, although no
or even incipiently welded. The Dali Ash may be absolute water depth can be determined. However,
the lateral, subaqueous equivalent of several flow the evidence for the welding is more equivocal. It is
units of a subaerially erupted ignimbrite but, as essentially based on the presence of 'strongly
discussed in Section 9.2, this is not certain. flattened, ragged fragments of porphyritic rhyolite',
HOT SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS 281
which are interpreted to be flattened, welded from the Grenada Basin (Sparks & Carey 1978), is
pumice. However, it has not been demonstrated now known to have been misidentified (Sparks et
that these fragments were pumice (are highly al. 1980a). The only other claimed example of a
vesicular textures preserved?) or that the flattening subaqueous welded tuff known to us comes from
was caused by plastic, hot state, compactional the Philippines. Fernandez (1969) noted a welded
welding, producing highly strained, but intact, ignimbrite associated with a sequence of pillow
vesicle walls. If they were pumices, could they have lavas and tuffaceous sediments (Cretaceous to
been flattened in a more brittle fashion during Palaeogene). However, whether the stratigraphic
normal burial compaction, and subsequent shape evidence is sufficiently substantial to conclude that
moulding during alteration, metamorphism and subaqueous welding occurred is debatable, particu-
deformation? Although the presence of 'crude larly given that pillow lavas can form in very
columnar joints' is cited as further evidence of a hot shallow water (Ch. 4).
state of emplacement, crude 'columnar-like jointing' Hot, subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits have
can develop in many rock types, and lack of been described from the Donzurubo Formation
illustration again makes this aspect of the proof (Miocene) of Japan (Kato et al. 1971, Yamazaki et
equivocal. al. 1973). Although none of the pyroclastic flow
Is it possible that the Cader Rhwydog Tuff is a deposits shows any textural evidence of welding, it
huge, water-supported mass flow of pyroclastic was concluded from the stabilities of the natural
and/or quench-fragmented debris transported by remanent magnetism and Curie points that they
epiclastic mass-flow processes, as has been sug- contained a thermal remanent magnetism and were
gested for the Devonian Merrions Tuff (Cas 1979, deposited at about 500C. Such high temperatures
1983a; Ch. II)? Many of the described features of preclude mingling of the flow with water. Strati-
the Cader Rhwydog Tuff are consistent with this. graphic evidence suggests a water depth of 50 m
For example, the massive, large-scale graded aspect, but documentation of associated facies is lacking.
the erosional base with load cast-like features, the Some workers have doubted this evidence and,
included rounded clasts and intraclasts, the former indeed, have even suggested that the Donzurubo
sometimes in distinct horizons. The flattening of subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits could be
rhyolite clasts could be due to burial compaction and subaerial (E. Yamada pers. comm.). Hot pyroclastic
subsequent shape moulding of the altered, ductile flows (they are pink in colour) of mid-Miocene age
clasts during alteration, metamorphism and defor- on Santa Cruz Island in the Californian borderland
mation, as also appears to have happened with the are thought to have been deposited in a near-shore
Merrions Tuff. subaqueous environment (Fisher & Charleton
Yamada (1984) has also indicated that deep-water 1976).
welded ignimbrites occur in the Neogene deposits Recent studies of the Krakatau 1883 eruption
of Japan. These occur within the Green Tuff, a (Self & Rampino 1981) suggest that a hot, submarine
sequence also important for its association with ignimbrite could have been formed. Shallowing of
Kuroko-type massive sulphide deposits (Chs 13 & the sea floor up to 15 km north of Krakatau is
14). The welded tuffs are thought to be proximal thought to have been caused by subaqueous pyro-
facies of subaqueous pumice flows; typically the clastic flows which largely infilled parts of the
Green Tuff consists of distal equivalents intercalated Sunda Strait that had been 20-60 m deep (Fig.
with fossiliferous marine siltstones and sandstones. 9.10). The subaqueous deposits have not been
This study also lacks adequate documentation and cored, so it is not known whether the flows were
photographic illustration of the depositional con- actually dense gas-particulate flows, dense water-
text, i.e. of the facies characteristics of the host particulate flows or turbidity currents, or if there
sedimentary succession, and of the microscopic were any vertical and lateral facies changes. After
evidence for welding. the eruption, temporary islands and shallow banks
Another reported deep-sea welded tuff, dredged of pumice had formed, and it seems the flows (of
282 SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
submarine iQn imbrite system? Or, given the low density contrasts between
oppro.imote 1883 vent position
the pumice flow and the water, and the enormous
thermal potential between the pyroclastic flow and
Figure 9.10 Submarine distribution of the 1883 ignimbrite
the cold water, will the interaction be more
at Krakatau, Indonesia. (After Self & Rampino 1981.)
dynamic? We suspect that in most pumiceous
pyroclastic flows where their density is nearer to
whatever type) gradually ponded until water depths that of water, even if they get underwater, ingestion
became very shallow, in which case the last erupted of water and inflation of the flow-front will be
pumice flows would probably have maintained important and they will quickly lose their identity
their essential character. Secondary phreatic ex- as gas-particulate systems. The major problem for
plosions produced small craters on Calmeyer Island pumice flows will be to make that smooth transition
(Fig. 9.10). These formed by explosive vaporisation underwater. In shallow water the interaction of
of sea water, either below one of the last erupted water with hot ash at the flow boundary is
pumice flows or in contact with hot deposits at potentially explosive, and could lead to the destruc-
depth. If the latter occurred, the possibility exists tion of many flows. At Krakatau, it has now been
that welding might also have been occurring in the suggested that many of the separate explosions
lower part of the deposit. The loosely consolidated known to have occurred during the eruption were
deposits forming the islands were eroded, and these caused by hot pyroclastic flows entering the sea.
quickly vanished below the sea . Such violent explosions would lead to the formation
Recently, Sparks et at. (l98.0a, b) have presented of a widespread ash fall (G. P. L. Walker 1979),
geological and theoretical models, both for the and could trigger the formation of water supported
entry of pyroclastic flows into water and for mass flows (Fig. 9.11), as suggested for the
subaqueous welding. They suggest that welding of Merrions Tuff (Ch. 11; Cas 1979, 1983a).
an ignimbrite is more favourable underwater than The low bulk density of pumice flows suggests
subaerially. Essentially, this is because there can be that many flows may be buoyant enough to flow
HOT SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS 283
:. ~<..accompanying
.::') x-~\a~Sh cloud fine ash and
...-+-- steam
.)..\s!~!
. ~
. '"""'
dilute ash - cloud surge
continues over surface
of sea
sea
over water, as was suggested earlier to account for thick, very poorly expanded, unusually dense
isolated pods of ignimbrite within the Capel Curig pumice flow which could maintain its identity
Formation of Wales. This certainly appears to be through the land-water interface by very rapid
the case for ignimbrite deposited on islands some passage into deep water. Another situation, discus-
distance away from the 1883 Krakatau eruption in sed further in Section 9.5, is where a submarine
Indonesia (Self & Rampino 1981), as well as the caldera forms in relatively shallow waters, accom-
distribution of the Plateau ignimbrite on several panied by high magma discharge rates, rapid
islands of the Dodecanese group in the Aegean Sea caldera subsidence and rapid caldera infilling (e.g.
(Fig. 13.44). The surface tension of the water Busby-Spera 1984). Welded ignimbrites can also be
together with the high velocity and frictionless envisaged forming in shallow-water environments
nature of the flow may act as a sufficient physical where pyroclastic flows might essentially blanket
barrier to prevent intimate mixing of the flow and part of the shelf, so making water depths insigni-
water, although phreatic explosions need not be ficant, as perhaps happened in North Wales.
excluded. However, it is important to state that nobody has
On these grounds, we therefore speculate that it yet traced a Recent welded subaerial ignimbrite
is unlikely that pumice flows will in general form into a welded submarine equivalent. The Roseau
subaqueous welded ignimbrites because of the ignimbrite on Dominica is welded in places, but its
innate difficulties there seem to be in maintaining submarine equivalent shows no evidence of a high
integrity both at the land-water interface, as well as emplacement temperature (Carey & Sigurdsson
underwater. Are there conditions where we can 1980; Figs 9.3 & 4).
envisage a welded submarine ignimbrite forming? In summary, it seems imperative to establish on
One would have to invoke the eruption of a very the soundest sedimentological grounds the palaeo-
284 SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
environmental significance of the sedimentary facies (a) B~ginn i ng of erupt ion .eo level
intercalated with suspected subaqueous pyroclastic
flow deposits. In the past insufficient attention
seems to have been given to the sedimentary facies.
Equally important, the clearest evidence for welding
must be presented, especially at the microscopic
scale.
described from other areas, and workers often 9.5 A model for the passage of
interpret them in terms of the model of Fiske and pyroclastic flows into subaqueous
Matsuda, e.g. the examples of Howells et al. (1973) environments
from the Caradocian of North Wales. The physical
basis of the model was questioned by McBirney A schematic model for the transportation of volcan-
(1971) on the grounds that from the available data iclastic material as pyroclastic flows from island
(Fig. 3.7b) it is apparent that salic magmas can only volcanoes into ocean basins is presented in Figure
vesiculate significantly at water depths of tens of 9.13. We suggest that, in general, if truly sub-
metres or less. Thus, in general salic pumice aqueous pyroclastic flows and ignimbrites occur,
eruptions can only occur in very shallow waters, then they are distal equivalents of subaerial deposits,
and at such water depths a phreatoplinian eruption rather than the wholly subaqueous products of
(Ch. 6) will almost certainly occur. Collapse of the submarine eruptions. We also suggest that welding
eruption column could lead to the formation of in pyroclastic flow deposits is essentially a feature of
pyroclastic flows which might then continue sub- subaerially erupted ignimbrites deposited on land,
aqueously. At present not enough is known about or in very shallow water, where water depths would
salic eruptions involving water, and their deposits, be insufficient to prevent welding. Exactly what
to decide whether subaqueous eruption of ignim- happens to a pyroclastic flow on entering the sea is,
brite is likely to occur. Submarine eruption of though, perhaps as controversial as ever. What
vesiculated salic magma certainly does occur, as is occurs in a particular case will be controlled by a
evident from pumice rafts, such as those observed number of factors. These include characteristics of
in 1979 between the Tonga and Fiji islands in the the flow, such as thickness, discharge rate and,
South Pacific. most importantly, the degree of expansion (which
Intuitively, it would be expected that an eruption will determine its density). In addition, environ-
of the type proposed by Fiske and Matsuda would mental factors will be important, and these include
produce dense to pumiceous, quench-fragmented the slope, which will determine the water depth,
blocky hyaloclastite fragments of silicic glass, and the width of the shallow water shelf and, hence, the
hyaloclastite debris flow deposits. The examples degree of interaction with water at the critical point
described from the Ohanapecosh and Tokiwa at which entry into the sea is made.
Formations do contain a large proportion of glassy, Figure 9 .13a shows the eruption of a large, single
non-vesiculated juvenile fragments. pumiceous pyroclastic flow forming an ignimbrite.
Busby-Spera (1984) has suggested a more likely On land the deposit had sufficient heat and
circumstance by which subaqueous pyroclastic flow compactionalload to weld. On reaching the sea, the
deposits may be formed. In describing the character thick flow spread across a shallow shelf. The flow
of the Triassic-Early Jurassic Mineral King roof had sufficient momentum and density to continue
pendant in the southern Sierra Nevada, Busby- subaqueously into deeper water, but rapidly, and
Spera describes voluminous ash-flow tuffs which perhaps explosively, mixed with water and chilled.
she interprets to have accumulated in a submarine The cooled water-particulate subaqueous debris
caldera. They contain inter stratified marine sedi- flow continued along the sea floor and deposited a
mentary rocks. Contemporaneous caldera collapse non-welded massive subaqueous deposit of origin-
has led to the ponding of ash-flow tuffs greater than ally pyroclastically fragmented debris. Gradually,
0.5 km. If eruption was in shallow enough water mixing with more and more water occurred, until at
(Ch. 3), the magma discharge rate was high some point the mechanism became that of a
enough, and caldera subsidence was rapid enough, turbidity current and deposited an ash turbidite.
then it seems feasible for volumes of ignimbrite to On the shallow shelf, steam generated by the hot,
be preserved subaqueously, although it is surprising thick pyroclastic flow was trapped at the base of the
that more explosive interaction with water did not flow, as consolidation and welding occurred.
take place. Secondary steam explosions periodically burst
286 SUBAQUEOUS PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
ISLAND VOLCANO In contrast, small, dense block and ash flows may
move into water and continue subaqueously without
losing their essential character (Fig. 9 .13c). Ablation
of the flow-front may generate an upper turbulent
zone of mixing, which may continue as a turbidity
current after the block and ash flow has come to
rest, to deposit an ash turbidite.
However, the simplest, and undoubtedly the
most important, way by which volcanic material is
transported into ocean basins as flows is by
epiclastic processes and slumping (Fig. 9.13d; Chs
10,11,13& 14). Coupled with seismicity, the steep
slopes of many island volcanoes are obviously
unstable and material consequently readily slumps
into the ocean basins, generating high concentration
debris flows and low concentration turbidity cur-
rents. As well as small-scale slumping, large-scale
sector collapse of volcanoes could occur. In the
Lesser Antilles island arc the so-called Qualibou
caldera on St Lucia may be such a gravitational
slide structure, and similar structures have been
recognised on Dominica and St Vincent (Roobol et
ai. 1983; Fig. 13.35). Flows generated by such
slumping should be heterolithic and generally
much more heterogeneous than those which are the
lateral equivalents of primary pyroclastic flows.
~ The deposits are volcani'clastic debris-flow deposits
...
we lded IQnimbrote
~
... non - welded pumice flow deposil
and volcaniclastic turbidites.
o......
II~O'
% Pumice c:::::J
% li thlcs c::J
%CoCO %C loy Md ~ % crystols c::J
o 10 20 0 10 20 ~ 2r----"'~--,---,6 40 60 80 100
o
f!
-:-:- G !f
10
(c) bioturbation and units within the Minoan ash layer, cored in a small
(d) compaction. basin south-east of Santorini in the Aegean Sea.
The two units labelled D are both interpreted as
Although wind transport is the dominant dis- turbidites as they have erosional basal boundaries,
persal mechanism, the strength and direction of show normal grading and contain abundant car-
ocean currents will have an important effect on the bonate, clay and some rounded terrigenous quartz
distribution of the ash in the marine environment. grains mixed with the ash (Watkins et al. 1978).
Ninkovich and Shackleton (1975) attributed the W- Crystal-poor, fine-grained air-fall ash derived from
shaped pattern of the Worzel L ash layer to the the phreatomagmatic phase in the eruption, or co-
effect of the strong equatorial undercurrent, or ignimbrite ash, probably accumulated on submarine
Cromwell current, moving eastwards across the highs and then slumped into the small deep-water
Pacific at a depth between 100 and 300 m, and a basin where this core is located. Close inspection of
speed of 100-150 cm S-l (Fig. 9.15). As well as Figure 9.15 also suggests that slumping could at
surface and near-surface currents, bottom currents least be partly responsible for the distribution
can cause reworking and redistribution, and in pattern of the Worzel L ash layer.
terminology applied to clastic sediments, such Bioturbation of ash layers mixes the ash with
layers would be called contourites (Stow & Lovell other sediments and can reduce visible ash layer
1979). thicknesses. In some cores through the Minoan ash
Ash which settles-out on top of submarine layer, Watkins et al. (1978) found that over 50% of
topographic highs will be susceptible to secondary the original ash had been dispersed upward by this
slumping, generating turbidity currents. The con- process.
sequence of such processes is an increase in ash- Post-depositional compaction can substantially
layer thickness in basins, and a thinning or removal reduce the thickness of the ash layer. A reduction
of ash layers from highs and steep slopes. In the factor of 50% is usually adopted when recalculating
basins a succession of ash turbidites may be isopach contours to represent the thicknesses of
deposited by repeated slumping during or after an freshly fallen ash (e.g. Watkins et al. 1978).
eruption. Figure 9.14 shows the lithology of several One of the most exciting new applications of the
(a) (c)
, N : eruption ceases
0
o 0
I oroest
l " ash
loroesi '0 ash depos,ted ,,~moll.r'o ash
A. '
overlo~es
(b) (d)
, I ' ash from ' ","01 erup"on ( Ao) reaches ' .... ; ':.' '..~
sea surface; S'le $oriino beq,ns
In woter co lumn
.. : : .... : ....
:a:-AI ---- '1 'o.j. olmOsphenc res,dence
o 0 0
\\ -- - L - - - :
\ (e)
, I: laroesl' Nash ( AN ) a smallesl'0 ash Ihol Is
overloken (0 ) are bolh deposited
Figure 9.16 Model for the duration of an explosive volcanic r N I ' r Nt 10 + selthnq lime of A Nosh (rA N) a
eruption deduced from graded bedding in deep-sea ash r N.1 '0+ '. + setlhno time of 00 ash (Tao)
layers. (After Ledbetter & Sparks 1979) Tao + TAN ' TN- TO ' durolion
DEEP-SEA ASH LAYERS 289
. I
I
:0 20 I
I duration = 20 days -duration = 27days
>- I 40
.2 I
.s:::.
:g 10
!
i
<,\o\.;,~
C:J' ~Ci /' smallest
~:
I
E
. >+
/-
V
.",Ci;& lei particle
:0
-
c: \(J.I/ size 30
.s:::. r-------------------- >-
o
1-*"1-------------
aQ). 0
.s:::. I
..,
o
I
Ul
o 20
~
;-1-
340 300 260 220 180 140 100 60 20
-
.5
Ash particle size ()-1m) .s:::.
Figure 9.18 Duration model
a.
~ 10
c
Co applied to the Worzel Dash
lent paper by Sigurdsson et al. (1980) is a very good also includes other relevant papers by Yamada and
guide to the spectrum of volcaniclastic depositional by Kokelaar et al. to which we have referred. To
processes and sediment types that can occur in appreciate fully the processes and products of
submarine basins around intermediate to silicic volcanigenic sedimentation that occur in, and feed
island volcanoes. Papers by Carey and Sigurdsson, subaqueous basins, Chapters 10 and 11 are now
and by Fisher (both in Kokelaar & Howells 1984) essential reading.
are also helpful reviews. This special publication
Plate 10 (a) Aerial view of the incised stratovolcano, Mt Egmont. New Zealand. The diameter of near- circular vegetated area is
about 20 km. Egmont is a multi-vent centre, the principal visible ones are at the centre of the cone, the parasitic vent. Fanthams
Peak, just south of the central vent, and those associated with the small domes. An older, more degraded volcano lies to the
north. The rugged, ampitheatre-like area between the central vent and Fanthams Peak is thought to have resulted from sector
collapse producing a major debris flow unit, the Opua Formation (Neall 1979). (b) Erosional canyon on the flanks of the
stratovolcano Mt Egmont. New Zealand, cut into fluviatile sheet flood, lahar, air-fall deposits and lavas.
292
CHAPTER TEN
Epiclastic processes in
volcanic terrains
293
294 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
processes that operate in different volcanic terrains. Physical processes may be very significant in
Epiclastk processes are here taken to include liberating particulate matter for subsequent trans-
weathering, erosion, and transportation and depo- portation and deposition. Important physical pro-
sition of fragmental sediments at the surface of the cesses include gravitational collapse or mass-
lithosphere in both subaerial and subaqueous en- wasting, and the abrasion effects of waves (marine
vironments. The epiclastic processes which affect and lacustrine shorelines), running water (rivers,
volcaniclastic debris are no different from those that rain water and melt water on subaerial slopes),
affect non-volcanic terrigeneous detritus. However, moving mass-flows (subaerial and subaqueous),
given the greater diversity of densities due largely moving ice (in high altitude and/or high latitude
to variable degrees of vesiculation in volcanic volcanic terrains), the effects of thawing and
debris, and the effects of hydraulic sorting, volcani- expansion, and of a permafrost (also in relatively
clastic deposits of epiclastic origin may be more high altitude and/or high latitude volcanic terrains).
poorly sorted, and therefore slightly different tex-
turally and in terms of their sedimentary structures. 10.2 Importance of erosion and sediment
On the whole, however, the facies should clearly
transport in volcanic terrains
reflect their epiclastic origins.
By reviewing epiclastic processes and the The fact that volcanism generally produces positive
characteristics of the resultant deposits, we will topographic relief may suggest that erosion has little
highlight the features that make epiclastic deposits or no effect in volcanic terrains during the active life
in the rock record distinguishable from other facies of a volcano. The lifespan of active volcanoes is
in volcanic terrains (also see App. II). Our review highly variable, ranging perhaps from a few weeks
of sedimentological principles and processes cannot or months for basaltic cinder cones to a million or
be comprehensive. We will summarise basic con- more years for stratovolcanoes or rhyolitic volcanic
cepts and, by way of examples from volcanic centres (Ch. 13). For cinder cones, the eruptive
settings, show how epiclastic processes are as periods span nearly the entire, if short, active life of
relevant in volcanic settings as in non-volcanic the volcano. However, for stratovolcanoes and
ones. rhyolitic centres there are significant repose periods
Relatively little will be said about the processes of between eruptions (Ch. 13). During these periods
weathering of volcanic material. The reader is of eruptive quiescence, normal surface processes
referred to relevant sources (Paton 1978, Press & operate at very high rates. In fact, in such centres
Siever 1978, Blatt et al. 1980). Because of the the total of all the repose periods far exceeds the
metastable nature of volcanic glass and the highly total time over which active eruptions take place. In
weatherable labile mineralogy of many volcanic such terrains, therefore, it is not that erosion is an
successions, chemical weathering and physical dis- insignificant process during the active life of the
integration into particulate and soluble material is volcanic centre, but rather that the enormous
likely to occur at high rates given the right climatic volumes of rock that are erupted and the rates at
conditions and time. However, the time factor in which they are erupted during eruptive episodes far
most volcanic terrains is insignificant because the exceeds the huge volumes removed and the very
high slopes and highly erodible nature of volcanic high rates of removal during quiescent intervals. As
terrains ensures rapid transit of detritus through the in normal sedimentary successions, the time interval
sediment cycle to the site of deposition, so short- represented by the boundaries between depositional
circuiting chemical weathering. In low relief ter- units is greater than that represented by the depo-
rains, the effects of chemical weathering may be sitional units (e.g. Sadler 1981). However, once the
more pronounced, but may also be postponed until active life of the volcanic centre has ceased, erosion
volcanism has ceased, because of the emplacement continues to operate and in a geologically short
of new volcanic deposits associated with successive period is capable of eliminating the majority of the
eruptive episodes. surface relief of volcanic piles.
EROSION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT: IMPORTANCE 295
E. H. Francis (1983) summarised known erosion Phase 3, which is called the fan-building phase, is
rates within the context of volcanic terrains. He dominated by debris flows and coarse fluvial
cites figures of 0.1-1. 0 m per thousand years as sedimentation, which occurs in response to intense
determined by erosion downcutting rates in areas of rainfall after Phase 2. It lasts up to two years.
high relief (after Young 1969), and figures of Alluvial fans characteristically develop around the
1-2 km Ma- I in the Andes of South America (after margms or base of stratovolcanoes during this
Drake 1976). He also points out the effects of high phase.
ratios of loose debris to lavas, the loss of vegetation
cover in accelerating the erosion rate, and suggests Phase 4, the braiding phase, results from the influx
that over a geologically significant period (1-2 Ma) of large volumes of volcanic sediment into stream
the proximal, highest near-vent area of a strato- systems, transforming them from incised meander-
volcano would be eroded away, leaving only the ing systems to flood-prone braided systems. Rapid
core complex and part of the voluminous, epiclastic- progradation of deltas also occurs during this stage.
dominated ring-plain sequence. These erosion rates This phase lasts from 20 to 30 years.
accord well with those calculated by Mills (1976)
for the stratovolcano Mt Rainier of the Cascades It is clear from this summary that the duration of
arc. Rates based on dissection of landforms are epiclastic processes far exceeds that of the actual
1.1 m per thousand years, and those based on river eruptive phases, and that epiclastic processes are
sediment load are 3-4+ m per thousand years, rejuvenated in response to eruptive episodes.
leading to a span of 1-3 Ma for complete erosion of Kuenzi et al. (1979) provided a valuable account
the 3 km stratovolcano. These erosion rates are of the relationship between volcanism, erosion and
higher than those inferred for scoria cones based on sedimentation resulting from the 1902 eruption of
the studies of Wood (1980b) and Kieffer (1971) the andesite stratovolcano Santa Maria, also in
(Section 13.4), and those calculated by G. P. L. southern Guatemala. Santa Maria, along with its
Walker (1984a) for basaltic highlands in Iceland. near neighbour Santiaguito, is drained by the
Walker calculated down cutting rates of 58 m Ma- I headwaters of the Samala River, which fall from an
from his Icelandic study, in a terrain with an altitude of over 2500 m around Santa Maria down
average elevation of 400 m. These figures are only a . to the Pacific shoreline over 60 km away. Following
general guide to rates, and variations will occur for the major 1902 eruption, sediment supply to the
a variety of reasons. Samala River increased dramatically. The eruption
Vessell and Davies (1981) documented the close resulted in a mantle of pyroclastic debris 20-30 m
temporal relationships between volcanic and epi- thick on the slopes within the watershed of the
clastic processes in the Guatemalan chain, based on Samala River. Given the typical torrential rainfall
their study of Fuego volcano, which has erupted levels (>381 cm year-I) and the associated total
many times in historical and recent times. They destruction of vegetation by the eruption, it is not
suggest that the history of the Guatemalan volcanic surprising that the sediment load of the Samala
chain is marked by cycles of activity consisting of increased so much. Kuenzi et al. calculate that
four phases: between 1902 and 1922 the bed of the Samala rose
10-15 m. In so doing, it dammed up several major
Phase 1, which lasts between 80 and 125 years, is the pre-1902 tributaries, producing elongate valley
inter-eruption phase, and is marked by low rates of ponded lakes (Fig. 10.1) and re-activating older
sediment deposition, by erosional incision of (?Pleistocene) alluvial fan sedimentation. In ad-
meandering rivers and by reworking of deltas. dition, a significant delta of volcanic sediment was
built at the mouth of the Samala, extending the
Phase 2 is the eruptive phase. It is marked by shoreline nearly 7 km seaward, and involving
eruption of lavas, air falls and pyroclastic flows and 4 km 3 of sediment (Fig. 10.1). Subsequently,
lasts for less than one year. reduced sediment supply has led to retreat and
296 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
ficant. However, if such volcanoes occur in Table 10.1 A classification of sediment transport processes.
restricted, small basins, then extra-formational
Epiclastic Nearest primary
epiclastic sediment transported from shallower
volcanic analogue
basin margins will also be important.
In summary, epiclastic processes are extremely 1 Sediment transport not dependent on an interstitial
significant in volcanic terrains, both in terms of medium
particulate
their duration and in terms of the volumes of rock
(a) particle free fall air-fall (Chs 5 & 6)
matter that may be transported. Their activity (b) particle creep
seems to be accelerated in direct response to
mass-movement
eruptive activity. In ancient successions, therefore,
(c) rock fall
erosional discordances and variable proportions of (d) slides
epiclastic volcanic sediments should be expected, (e) avalanches nuees ardentes, block
depending on the balance between erosion and and ash flows
sedimentation during the history of the volcanic (Chs 5 & 7)
(f) grain flow
terrain.
2 Sediment transport in which ice is an essential interstitial
medium
10.3 Epiclastic sediment transport particulate
(a) ice rafting
Sediment transport in both volcanic and non- (b) glaciers
volcanic terrains takes place in two basic forms: in mass-movement
particulate fashion, whereby each particle behaves (c) glaciers
individually, or by mass-movement, whereby a (d) permafrost creep
packet of sediment is moved as one, essentially
3 Sediment transport in which water is an essential
instantaneously. In particulate sediment movement,
interstitial medium
particles have the freedom to move as individuals in
particulate
response to the forces acting on them. In mass-
(a) traction (bed load, saltation)
movement, because a large population of fragments (b) suspension
is moving en masse, particle freedom is largely (c) in solution
inhibited, and collisions and dynamic interaction
mass-movement
between fragments is common. As well as subdivid- (d) fluvial torrent flow, sheet flood
ing sediment movement on the basis of it being (e) subaqueous granular mass flow
particulate or by mass-movement, further sub- (e.g. turbidity currents)
division can be made on the basis of the involve- (f) mud flows, debris flows lahars (herein)
(g) slumps
ment of an interstitial medium as follows (Table (h) soil creep
10.1):
4 Sediment transport in which air is an essential interstitial
no necessary interstitial medium
medium
ice as an essential interstitial medium
particulate
water as an essential interstitial medium
(a) traction } surges (Chs 5 & 7)
air as an essential interstitial medium (b) suspension
windblown
eruption columns,
plumes (Chs 5 & 6)
The function of an interstitial medium is to drive
sediment movement, provide grain-support or act mass-movement
as a lubricant. (c) air-lubricated rock pumice, scoria, ash,
avalanches block and ash flows
(Chs 5 & 7)
298 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
Suboqueously Rockfall
This form of mass-movement is a direct extension
of particle free fall discussed above, but involves
multiple particles or a large volume of rock matter.
Again, a volume of rock is dislodged, and then free
falls. After impact at a break in slope it may
Figure 10.2 Various situations of particle free fall and avalanche or tumble very rapidly downslope under
resultant characteristics of deposits. its own momentum and the influence of gravity,
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 299
Avalanches
In an avalanche the dislodged rock mass flows,
rather than slides, and the frictional interaction
with the substrate is very low (Hsti 1975, 1978, Vi
1983, Siebert 1984). The term 'flow' implies a
degree of relative motion and freedom between
clasts, indicating that pervasive internal defor-
mation occurs within the flow . Avalanches are
Figure 10.5 Major erosion scar on the flanks of the island therefore not coherent, and there is considerable
volcano Stromboli resulting from a major slide which interaction between clasts in the flow. Hsti (1975,
continued into the surrounding submarine environment. 1978), interpreting the work of Albert Heim (e.g.
(After Korgen 1972.) 1932) on sturzstroms, or catastrophic rock debris
Figure 10.7 Initiation and major elements of a coherent Figure 10.9 Formation of rock avalanches from rock-falls,
slide, and the resultant internal deformed deposit. and characteristics of avalanche deposits.
streams, equated the flow mechanics of avalanches that rock avalanches owed their mobility to a
with inertial Bagnoldian grain flow. In this, grain trapped cushion of compressed air on which the
support, grain momentum, and flow momentum avalanches rode (e.g. Shreve 1968). In this model
and mobility are all maintained by grain-to-grain the air is trapped at a break in slope or hydraulic
collisions leading to a progressive transfer of jump, where the avalanche changes from a largely
momentum through the flow. That is, if an fall trajectory to a lateral flow trajectory.
interstitial medium is present it plays no necessary, Mechanically, avalanches can be distinguished
active, dynamic role in the motion of the avalanche, from more-viscous modes of transport, such as
nor does it buffer collisions between clasts, these debris flows, by their greater speeds, and by the
being essentially cohesionless. Fluids may never- lower frictional interaction with the substrate.
theless be present. For example, many documented Speeds of 200-300 km h- 1 or more are not un-
avalanches (including the 18 May Mt St Helens common and are based on well constrained calcu-
one) have included volumes of snow and ice, which lations (Voight 1978). Huge blocks, metres in
melt during flow as a result of impacts. Air may also diameter, hurled a kilometre or more on ballistic
be trapped within the flow, and fluidisation by air trajectories by avalanches, also attest to amazing
(Ch. 7) may also occur, although it is not essential speeds (e.g. Plafker & Ericksen 1978). The apparent
to the mechanics of avalanches as seen from coefficient of friction can be as low as 0.06 (Ui 1983),
interpreted lunar avalanches (Howard 1973, Hsii compared with, for example, a block of rock sliding
1975). In the past there has been some speculation according to Coulomb's law of sliding friction, with
an apparent coefficient of friction of 0.62 (Figs 10.8
10
& 7.2; Hsu 1975,1978). Avalanches in non-volcanic
terrains most frequently originate from rockfalls
(Fig. 10.9). In volcanic terrains they may also do so
(e.g. Fahnestock's 1978 account of rock avalanches
on Mt Rainier), but they may also evolve from slides
1: associated with collapse of a major sector of a volcano
.2' accompanied by simultaneous explosive release, as
~
:r:
YolconlC dry Oyolonch. described in the Mt St Helens case above (Fig.
o nonyolcon,c dry oyolonche
" nu.e ordenle
1O.6a; Voightelal. 1981, Ui 1983) and in many other
O I-t-....L..-~'---f-~'----"'T""----"'T""-- situations on stratovolcanoes (Ui 1983, Siebert 1984,
0 1 10 100 Francis et al. 1985). Hence, a dynamic slide of
Length (km) volcanic debris can translate into a significant rock
Figure 10.8 Apparent coefficient of friction according to debris avalanche.
the Coulomb law for sliding friction for volcanic rock Deposition takes place by frictional freezing of
avalanches, non-volcanic rock avalanches and ignimbrites.
The apparent coefficient is defined as the vertical height
the avalanching rock mass as it loses momentum,
moved to the projected horizontal distance travelled, HIL. implying a relatively high bulk viscosity for the
A/so see Figure 7.2. (After Ui 1983.) avalanche flow, and a high degree of particle
302 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
interaction. Avalanche deposits form well defined However, much of it is abraded in transit from clast
lobes with steep margins. Marginal ridges including collisions.
levees, internal pressure ridges and surface pile-up Few detailed granulometric analyses are available
mounds have been described and suggest a signifi- for avalanche deposits and there are obvious
cant yield strength (Ch. 2). Because of these problems in representing the many large blocks.
significant topographic variations on the surface of Analyses of the matrix for the Mt St Helens
the flow, thicknesses are very variable. Internally avalanche deposit average 4, 11, 42 and 43 wt%,
avalanches are massive and extremely poorly sorted, respectively, for clay, silt, sand and gravel sizes.
with fragment sizes ranging from huge mega blocks The deposits are therefore very granular, perhaps
thousands of cubic metres in size through to gravel, more so than might be expected of viscous debris
sand and mud sizes (Figs lO.9 & lO). Rare flow deposits. Herein lies the problem with ava-
individual blocks up to 500 m in diameter have lanche deposits. Are they distinguishable in the
been claimed (Ui 1983). Individual blocks are rock record from debris flow deposits? This problem
frequently broken in transit, but pieces can be fitted is touched on by Voight et ai. (1981) in comparing
back together again in jigsaw puzzle like fit. the granulometry of the Mt St Helens avalanche
Frequently, original stratigraphy or lateral relation- deposit with other known volcanic avalanche de-
ships or order of lithology as documented in the posits (the Mt Rainier ones referred to above) and
source can be pieced together, suggesting that coarse deposits from both Mt St Helens and Mt
relatively little internal mixing of clasts has occur- Rainier which had previously been interpreted as
red. The avalanche can thus be viewed as a mobile, lahars (i.e. debris flows of volcanic composition).
fluidal, close packing of blocks and fragments The overall morphology of both is similar, which
which jostle, bump, push, collide and fragment suggests a generally similar rheology (Ch. 2).
each other in transit. The matrix between blocks Possible criteria include the presence of mega blocks
can vary greatly in character from deposit to (many metres to tens of metres or more in diameter)
deposit. It often includes material such as soil, and the lack of a pervasive muddy matrix in
alluvial gravel and vegetation eroded in transit. avalanche deposits. Debris flows frequently de-
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 303
velop a basal laminar, shear zone in which crude fluids during near approaches of grains just before
bedding develops, and grading of clasts occurs. collision. These pressure gradients also contribute
Open framework - that is, matrix-support of large to the reaction force affecting the colliding grains,
clasts - might also be expected in debris-flow so that they are subjected to viscous dispersive
deposits. pressure developed in the fluid between the colliding
grains, as well as the inertial dispersive pressure of
Grain flow the actual collision between grains.
Grain flow involves the spontaneous, passive down- Given these constraints, it is not surprising that
slope rolling and sliding of a population of cohesion- true grain flow only occurs on steep slopes, those
less grains that together constitute a moving grain steeper than the maximum natural angle of stability
layer. The grains move solely under the influence of or repose for a pile of grains. If this angle is
gravity, and not under the influence of an external exceeded, then downslope movement will eventu-
shear stress, induced, for example, by flowing ally be initiated, the angle at which this occurs
water or wind. However, grain-to-grain collisions being called the angle of initial yield (Allen 1982).
which produce a transfer of momentum are an After flow, the angle of slope will be adjusted to a
important mechanism in maintaining the mobility lower, more stable one equal to or less than the
of the entire grain-flow layer. These collisions angle of repose, which Allen (1982) calls the
produce a reaction force, called dispersive pressure. residual angle after shearing. The natural angle of
Given that the grains are cohesionless and that no repose for an aggregate of grains depends on the
viscous interstitial fluid is involved, the dispersive grainsize, sorting, packing, grain shape and grain
pressure or collisions operate in an inertial regime. surface texture. For most sands and gravels it is
Grain flows can also occur subaqueously in more between 30 and 35, but may be steeper for coarse,
viscous water, and grain collisions also occur in very angular aggregates .
very viscous fluids such as mud (e.g. in debris Grain flow is' different from rock avalanches
flows) . In those situations the collision events are discussed in the previous section, in that in grain
buffered by pressure gradients set up in the viscous flow there is considerable particle freedom and
Figure 10.11 Two common occurrences of grain flow. (a) Lee-side cascading of grain-flow layers in ripples and dunes so
forming intemal cross-stratification and resulting in downcurrent migration of the ripple or dune. A carpet of grains is eroded
off the up-current side of the ripple and moved to the crest by the tractive force of the current. Oversteepening occurs at the
crest and a grain-flow layer cascades down the lee-side face, into the space called the separation zone over which flow
streamlines pass. (b) Grain flow on scree slopes initiated by oversteepening to the angle of initial yield. Grain-flow restores the
slope to a more stable attitude equal to or less than the angle of repose.
304 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
grain mobility within the grain-flow layer, and cones and stratovolcanoes (Ch. 13) are not just
there is considerable frictional contact or interaction coincidentally sloping at about angle of repose.
with the substrate. In grain flow the mobility of the Steeper slopes are prone to gravitational collapse,
grain-flow layer is largely due to the momentum of producing either slides or grain flows. Grain flow is
the individual grains. In rock avalanches the particularly prominent on cinder or scoria cones
mobility is largely due to the momentum of the (Ch. 6), and often produces a radiating downslope
whole rock avalanche mass. system of furrows (e.g. Richards 1965), as well as
Grain flow can occur in many natural situations maintaining the slopes at or about angle of repose
and at different scales. It is responsible for the during pyroclastic eruptions (Ch. 13). Scree slopes
formation of angle of repose cross-stratification in are common features adjacent to steep scarps made
ripples and dunes by the passive cascading of sand of semi-consolidated debris. They often form inside
grain-flow layers down the steep, protected lee-side craters, rifts (e.g. Fig. 1O.12a) or against fault
of the ripple or dune structure (Hunter 1985, Fig. scarps, and again the slope angles are nearly angle
1O.11a). It also occurs in the formation of relatively of repose. Reverse-graded pumice grain-flow layers
fine-grained sandy to gravelly scree slopes (Fig. frequently accompany pumice falls on steep slopes
10.llb). (Duffield et ai. 1979).
In volcanic terrains grain flow will be significant Grain-flow deposits will be marked by steeply
in both types of grain flow cited here. On the small inclined stratification (30 to 35), internally diffuse,
scale it will be manifest in cross-stratification relatively thin stratification caused by the high
produced by epiclastic tractional sediment trans- frictional interaction between the grain-flow layer
port of volcanic sediments (Section 10.3.3), and on and the substrate, and by the development of
a larger scale, on steep slopes strewn with pyro- internal shear layering. Individual layers will be
clastic or epiclastic debris, or both, may give rise to thin (centimetres to a few tens of centimetres) and
scree slopes. The steep slopes of cinder or scoria may develop a reverse grading produced by intense
Figure 10.12 (a) Scree slopes in the rift vent formed by the 1886 eruption of
Mt Tarawera, New Zealand. The older rhyolitic dome complex of Tarawera was
mantled by basaltic tephra (dark) of the 1886 eruption and both sources are
contributing to the scree slope debris. The trails of individual grain flows are
represented by the streaks on the scree slope surfaces. (b) Pyroclastically
erupted and deposited (air-fall) debris of Pukeonake cone, New Zealand . Following air-fall deposition the debris was moved
downslope by grain flow, producing a series of slightly irregular, mostly reverse-graded grain-supported layers. Reverse-
grading is especially well developed in the upper coarsest layer, but also in lower layers.
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 305
(8)
MOUNT RAINIER
Figure 10.14 (a) The stratovolcano Mt Rainier of the Cascades arc of westem North America. Note the Emmons Glacier, the
rock avalanche burying the toe of the glacier, Little Tahoma Peak, the source of the avalanche 600 m above the glacier, the
moraine deposits of the glacier, and the White River, the braided outwash river of the glacier (after Fahnestock 1978). (b)
Thorsnarsk Glacier, Iceland and its associated fluvial outwash system. (c) Snow cap and summit glacier, Mt Kilimanjaro in the
equatorial zone of the East Africa Rift Zone, Africa (photograph by Frances Williams).
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 307
glacier and the substrate has been reduced by basal the glacial system. If these are volcanic, then
melting (Raymond 1978). Glaciers have enormous volcanic till will result (e.g. Crandell & Miller 1964,
erosive capacity, as evidenced by the U-shaped 1974, Fahnestock 1963). Sediment particles drop
valleys they gouge out, and the huge volumes of out one by one as melting of the ice occurs (Fig.
sediment they deposit in ground, lateral and 10.15). If the terminus of the glacier is on land,
terminal moraines. Glaciers transport their sediment then the moraine material may be reworked to
as base load, interior load or surface load. Base load varying degrees by the high energy outwash river
is eroded from the substrate at the base and edges of systems (Section 10.3.3; Figs 1O.l4a & b) fed by
the glacier. Interior load may originally have the melting of ice at the terminus and the base.
commenced transport as base load, but because These systems are frequently of the braided type.
internal flow paths are often forward and upward, it Given that most glacial systems have both short-
ends up within the interior, well above the base. term and long-term histories of advance and retreat,
Surface load results from material falling onto the the upsequence facies variations through a pile of
surface of the glacier, for example by rockfall or glacial sediment may be complex (Eyles et al.
rock avalanche as discussed above (Fig. 10.10), or 1983). Facies differences also occur according to
from wind transport or volcanic air fall. whether the glaciers are temperate, sub-polar or
Glaciers develop at relatively high altitudes, polar, which affects their thermal regime and the
where snowfall is common and accumulates for a degree of basal melting. Interested readers are
substantial part of the year. This is not restricted to referred to Eyles et al. (1983) and Eyles and Miall
high latitudes, and glaciers are even known at high (1984).
altitudes in the equatorial zone. Since volcanism The stratovolcano Mt Rainier and the Cascades
occurs all over the globe independent of climate, it arc have already been referred to with regard to
is not surprising that volcanoes and glaciers are rock avalanches in volcanic terrains (Section
frequent associates. For example, glaciers drain off 10.3.1). Mt Rainier also has a developed glacial
the volcanic chains of Alaska, the Cascades (Fig. system including the Emmons Glacier (Fig. 10. 13a),
1O.14a), the Andes and Antarctica, to name but a lateral and terminal moraine deposits, and a fluvial
few. Glaciers are even major epiclastic agents on the outwash system (Fig. 10. 14a; Fahnestock 1963,
Atlantic mid-oceanic spreading ridge system in 1978, Crandell & Miller 1964, 1974). All are
Iceland (Fig. 1O.14b). Mt Kilimanjaro, in the sourced within the volcanic pile of Mt Rainier. Mt
equatorial belt of the East Africa rift system, also St Helens also had a complex of summit glaciers
has glaciers draining off its summit (Fig. 10 .14c). before 1980, much of which was destroyed by the
The sediment load of glaciers is dumped at the 18 May eruption (Brugman & Meier 1981).
base, margins and terminus of glaciers in irregular
piles or ridge-like accumulations called ground, Glaciers (mass-movement)
lateral and terminal moraines, respectively. Mor- Glacial transport also essentially involves mass-
aines consist of unsorted debris varying from movement as well as particulate transport, because
particles as fine as clay, resulting from the intense
grinding abilities of the glacial ice mass, to huge till of lermlno l
mora ine
blocks that have been dragged and rafted along.
The terms 'till', 'tillite' and 'diamictite' are used for
these moraine deposits, the first being for uncon-
solidated moraines and the other two for lithified
moraines. 'Diamictite' is a more general, non-
genetic textural term for poorly sorted aggregates
Figure 10.15 Glacial transport of sediment as bed load,
such as tilVtillite and debris flow deposits. The term interior load and surface load, and textural character of
should be used in this sense. The provenance of till glacial till of the terminal moraine, which is being reworked
depends on the source rocks in the drainage area of by the fluvial outwash system.
308 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
in addition to carrying individual eroded fragments, settling velocities in water and their degree of
glacial transport involves the carrying of aggregates interaction (collision) with other particles.
of rock, perhaps picked up as base load from fluvial In the different modes of sediment transport to
valley fill sedimentary piles over which the glacier is be discussed here, water performs all of the
moving, or as surface load, that is deposited on the different functions of an interstitial medium discus-
glacier surface by a rock avalanche as discussed sed previously. That is, it can drive sediment
above (Fahnestock 1978). The principles of trans- movement, it can provide grain-support or it can
portation, and of deposition of aggregates of rock act as a lubricant (further discussed below in the
by glacial transport and the characteristics of the relevant sections). However, its role as a sorting
resultant deposits, are the same as in the previous agent is also extremely important in controlling the
case). textural characteristics of the resultant deposits. As
discussed in Chapter 1, with volcanic sediments
Permafrost creep lack of uniformity of grain size is not necessarily a
Permafrost creep involves the very slow downslope reflection of an hydraulically poorly sorted sedi-
creep of a frozen surface ground layer. That layer ment. Fluids, especially water, sort clastic aggre-
may be soil or loose surface aggregate in which gates according to their hydraulic properties, the
interstitial ground water has become frozen, and most important of which will be shape and density.
due to position on slope, the whole frozen layer of Given the variable density of volcanic detritus due
rock matter and ice acquires an increased gravi- to variable vesicularity, hydraulically well sorted
tational potential which drives its slow passage aggregates may be very poorly sorted according to
down slope. On melting, an unstructured pile of grainsize. The other effect of water is to lower the
material is deposited, perhaps preserving some effective or dynamic transportable mass of sediment
original stratigraphy, and perhaps containing less particles where these are immersed in water. Given
finely ground or milled clay size material than in that mineral and rock fragments have densities of
true glacial till. around 2.5+ g cm- 3 , immersion of such grains in
water (density of 1 g cm - 3) lowers the effective
transportable mass of such fragments by 40%
10.3.3 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT INVOLVING
relative to their mass in air, making erosion an
WATER AS AN ESSENTIAL
easier prospect.
INTERSTITIAL MEDIUM
In particulate form, sediment transport takes
Again, the sediment transport can occur in both place in the following ways:
particulate and mass-movement forms. If the sedi- traction,
ment movement is particulate or involves the mass- suspension and flotation,
movement of a cohesionless population of grains in solution,
(i.e. grains which have no significant attraction or
repulsion to each other) in low viscosity, non- and in mass-movement by:
cohesive, relatively pure water, then the transport fluvial torrent flow, sheet flow,
is said to take place in a non-viscous or inertial subaqueous granular mass flow (e.g. turbidity
regime. If mass-movement involves cohesive currents),
particles (e.g. electrostatically charged clay plate- mud flows, debris flows, lahars,
lets) and/or a cohesive aqueous fluid (e.g. a viscous slumps and
clay-water, mud mixture), then the transport is soil creep.
said to take place in a viscous regime. In the non-
viscous or inertial regime the settling of the Traction
cohesionless particles is not significantly retarded Tractional sediment transport produces a very
by the interstitial fluid (water), and is essentially important group of sedimentary structures called,
controlled by the momentum of the particles, their appropriately, tractional sedimentary structures (e.g.
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 309
E 100
are high (Ch. 2). Erosion does not take place under 0
80
low velocity laminar flow conditions.
~
Saltation refers to a downstream bouncing or '0 60
0
jumping mode of transport, involving short-term Q)
>
--
-- -- -- --
suspension of particles (Fig. 10.16) that may be ~ 40 RIPPLES
---------------
acceleration the succession of bed-
t\ ~ ~~~~~~=- forms is eroded, under deceleration
\
medium ro coorse sand
" ...... the succession of bed-forms and
flow stages may be preserved
~\ ...... ...... upsequence because net
~ \--- ~ ~ ......~~~~~ ~ aggradation (deposition) will occur at
~ '-
very coars e sand the bed, The velocity-grainsize
relationships hold only for dense
~\ '- mineral and lithic grains, No data are
~\ ~ ----"" " ' ".......-<" '". """'--<f\"\"~~"""'I.'~~ ~ available for low density, vesicular
'-
o, \ 100
t ! ,
'-
!
200
,
detritus,
Mean ve loc ity (em sec - I)
~ ~ ~ ~
ri pples a lowe r plane sandwav. du ne a upper pla ne antIdune a
cross - bed a hero - a plan ar Irough bod a herl- diffuso low
lamination lonto l crou - cross - lontol ang lo cross-
lam inati on bedding beddIng laminat ion stral if lcotionl
(coarse t o e. r y ( angle of re pose) m QSSlve
coars e sand) deposits
side grain flow but, where it is involved, the effect conditions known as the upper flow regime, which is
is to progressively lower the angle of cross-strati- represented by a bed-form called anti dunes (Fig.
fication below the angle of repose with increasing 10.18). Lower and upper flow regimes are dis-
bed shear stress. Sandwaves (or large two-dimen- tinguished by a parameter called the Froude
sional ripples) have straight to slightly sinuous Number (Fr):
continuous crests and long wavelength crests, and
Fr = U/vgh (10.1)
produce tabular planar cross-strata. Ripples and
dunes have diverse morphologies (Allen 1982, Blatt where U is the velocity, g is the acceleration due to
et al. 1980) and most commonly produce upwards- gravity and h is the flow depth. Where Fr < 1,
concave sets of trough cross-strata. Ripples are less lower flow regime bed-forms and structures occur,
than 4 em in amplitude. Lower plane bed lami- and this corresponds to a fluid flow state of
nation forms in place of ripples in coarse sediments subcritical turbulence. Where Fr - 1, antidunes
(Figs 10.17 & 18) under low flow velocity con- form, and this corresponds to supercritical turbulent
ditions. Ripples do not form in coarse sediment. flow, which means it is a very dynamic, high energy
If the flow velocity increases further, dune bed- flow system. Antidunes are marked internally by a
forms are smeared out by the current under very poorly defined, low angle 20) cross-stratification
high bed shear stress conditions, and are replaced that most commonly dips upstream, but may wrap
by a flat or horizontal planar bed-form (Figs 10.17 over the crest of the structure, or rarely dip
& 18) which, internally, is represented by horizon- downcurrent. Antidunes have no clear-cut asym-
tal , planar, parallel laminated sands (Fig. 10. 19d). metry. The low angle cross-stratification (Fig.
This bed-form represents the transition from rela- 10. 1ge) results from the smearing of sediment over
tively low energy conditions known as the lower the bed surface under conditions of very high
flow regime, to higher energy and velocity flow lateral bed shear stress, as discussed above. How-
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 311
ever, antidunes are rarely preserved. That flow (a) Tractional, representing the assymptotic toeset
stage is more commonly represented by massive portion of a once larger-scaled set of cross-
beds of cohesionless sediment, if represented at all. beds, the upper part of which approached the
Massive, internally structureless beds result from angle of repose. Such a set would be associated
the rapid deposition (mass-dumping) of large vol- with a migrating dune or sandwave, the top of
umes of sediment out of suspension. True tractional which was truncated by contemporaneous
sediment transport has probably been surpassed by flow erosion. The downstream converging
this stage. nature of the assymptotic layers should be
Figures 10 .19a-e are a selection of photographs definitive and should also distinguish such
of the common, hydrodynamically significant trac- layers from upper flow regime horizontal
tional structures discussed above, taken from a lamination for which they could be mistaken
variety of volcaniclastic sediment successions. in large-scale, broad sets.
The complete succession of structures reflecting (b) Upper flow regime antidune cross-stratifi-
the change in flow regime conditions during one cation, as discussed above.
flow cycle is only likely to be preserved from the (c) Nested scour and fill trough shaped sets,
decelerating part of the cycle, since only then will which in sections perpendicular to flow di-
sedimentation occur. As a result, antidunes are rection (Fig. 1O.l9f) give apparent low-angle
frequently destroyed by reworking, during lower, truncations. These are end-on views of trough
declining flow regime conditions. Upward fining cross-bedded sets formed by downcurrent
cycles and sequences of structures from fluvial migration of large dunes by normal tractional
channel-point bar depositional settings (especially processes. Compare this with the flow-parallel
meandering river successions) are most frequently section in Figure 1O.l9b.
depicted as showing the complete succession of (d) Two-way cross-stratification associated with
flow regime level structures (e.g. R. G. Walker symmetrical ripples formed by oscillating,
1984). As discussed further below, subaqueous near-shore wave reworking (Fig. 10 .19g).
granular mass flows can also produce such succes- (e) Low profile domal sets of cross-strata, called
sions of sedimentary structure intervals, reflecting hummocky cross-stratification (Fig. 10 .19h),
declining flow regime levels during the decelerating and associated broad, open, low profile trough-
or waning stages of flow. like sets called swaley cross-stratification.
Although many other features of tractional sedi- These are produced when the bases of storm
ment transport and sedimentary structures could be waves surge over the bed in storm-affected
discussed, space precludes this. However, some shelf settings. Each layer represents a short-
further comment should be made about cross- lived surge event rather than passive angle of
stratification and its diverse origins (see Allen 1982 repose cross-stratification. Shelf turbidites
for a comprehensive discussion). Cross-stratification may be present (R. G. Walker 1984).
can be subdivided into two essential types: high (f) Beach face low angle cross-stratification
angle, which is at or near the angle of repose marked by very low angle truncations 10
(25-35), and low angle (usually <20). Only high to 15) between sets which are made up of
angle cross-stratification can be confidently inter- broad planar to open trough sets. The sets are
preted as the product of lower flow regime tractional produced by onshore wave surges onto the
transportation and deposition. It can occur in sets beach face, in the swash-backwash zone.
of cross-laminae only centimetres thick to sets of (g) Pyroclastic surge cross-stratification (Chs 5 &
cross-beds many metres thick. Some surge cross- 7). This is usually very fluidal in form, with
stratification can be high angle, but there are other set layers wrapping over dune crests and
criteria for recognising this origin, as discussed thickening and thinning. Sorting is poor, and
below and in Chapter 7. Low angle cross-stratifi- major grainsize variations occur between set
cation can have many origins, including: layers. Accretionary lapilli may be present.
(a)
Figure 10.19 (a) Ripple cross-lamination in pumiceous sands, 5 m terrace Lake Taupo, New Zealand. Current flow from left to right. Note the lenses of
large pumice trapped in the much finer-grained sands suggesting that because of the very vesicular, low density nature, and its flotational abilities, such
large pumice is hydraulically equivalent to very much smaller, denser grains. (b) Angle of repose trough cross-bedding in coarse pumiceous fluviatile
sediment. Locality as for (a) current flow from right to left. (c) Planar angle of res pose cross-bedding, in fluvio-Iacustrine volcanic sandstone, Lower
Devonian Snowy River Volcanics, W-Tree, Victoria, Australia. Current flow from left to right. (d) Planar, horizontal lamination and massive bedding
(= antidune stage) in fluviatile volcanic sandstones of the Cretaceous Strzelecki Group, Gippsland Basin, Victoria, Australia.
Figure 10.19 (continued) (e) Low-angle, possible antidune cross-stratification in the submarine Eocene-Oligocene Waiareka-Deborah volcanics,
Oamaru, New Zealand. Current flow from left to right. (f) Scour and fill structures (=? swales) Pleistocene (7) Makariki Tuff, Rewa Hill. New Zealand.
The view is end-on to sets of trough cross-bedded pumiceous sands. (g) Two-directional cross-stratification and symmetrical ripples formed by near-
shore wave oscillation, ancestral Lake Taupo shoreline, Puketapu, New Zealand. (h) Mound of hummocky c.ross-stratified marine volcanic sandstone.
Permian 'Gerringong Volcanics', Broughton Formation, Kiama, New South Wales, Australia.
314 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
The aim of this brief summary has been to tractional sedimentary structures. High flow velo-
highlight those primary, current -generated trac- cities can lead to high volumes of sediment in
tional sedimentary structures that have hydro- suspension, which then begin to verge on mass-
dynamic significance, so that some assessment of flow conditions, which will be discussed below.
the energy regimes operating during sedimentation Under high enough velocities, even gravel-sized
can be made. However, interpretation of the material can be lifted into suspended transport,
palaeoenvironment where tractional structures are even if only intermittently.
found has to be made with care, because aqueous Where the sediment particles are clay platelets,
tractional structures can form in any setting where suspension transport can occur in even very slow
water drives sediment. This occurs in a subaerial laminar flow conditions. This is due to their small
landscape where surface waters have gravitational mass and their plate-like form which give them
potential (e.g. rivers), or in standing bodies of buoyancy, but also because of the electrostatic
water (lakes, oceans) where water movement is interaction between the water molecules and the
induced by winds, tides, Coriolis force, or tempera- charged clay platelets, which produces an electro-
ture or density differences. Tractional sedimentary static force support effect. Deposition of suspended
structures can therefore form in a whole range of clay particles will only occur under very still
environments and water depths (e.g. alluvial fans, conditions in a standing body of water (lake,
rivers, deltas, shorelines, shelf, deeper-marine) abandoned channel, swamp, deep ocean), by set-
affected by bed-surface currents. They can also tling of clays out of the water column, producing
result from sub-aqueous (i.e . relatively deep water), massive clay layers (Fig. 10.20). These may period-
non-viscous granular mass flow such as turbidity ically be interrupted by coarser layers introduced
currents. Although these are initiated by gravi- by fluvial crevasse splay events, or subaqueous
tationally controlled downslope movement of sedi- turbidity current transport, or some other short-
ment, this moving sediment quickly entrains lived , high energy sedimentation event.
ambient water. When the turbidity current slows These epiclastic processes all operate in volcanic
and sediment is deposited, the entrained water has terrains in the rivers, lakes, shorelines and seas
momentum. As the water decelerates it can therefore associated with different volcanic settings. The
drive and rework the depositing sediment into products will be tractional deposits such as those
tractional structures, which often form the upper illustrated in a variety of situations in Figure 10.19,
parts of turbidite deposits (see below for further
discussion). Tractional structures are therefore
rarely indicative of any specific depositional en-
vironment, which thus has to be worked out from
the overall facies characteristics of the succession.
Figure 10.21 (a) Floating pumice on a roadside pond (note splash from thrown
stone) east of Lake Taupo. New Zealand. The pumice is derived from the
deposits of the major AD 186 Taupo eruption. discussed further in Chapters 7 & 8. (b) Old lake deposits exposed in a 5 m
terrace, shores of Lake Taupo, New Zealand. The deposits consist of muds, peat layers, phreatoplinian ashes and pumice
falls that may have settled out of suspension from a quiet water body.
and suspension fall-out muds such as those illus- pumice can, predictably, take a long time, and is
trated in Figures 10.20 and 2l. dependent on the degree of interconnection between
However, in volcanic settings material very vesicles, their diameter and surface tension effects.
much coarser than clays, even gravel-sized material, Surprisingly, hot pumice can draw in water very
may also result from very slow settling out of the rapidly as a result of the cooling and contraction of
water column under quiet water conditions. The hot gases in vesicles when the pumice falls into cold
origin of this very coarse material is neither tree water, and the resultant suction effect that draws
rafting nor ice rafting, but as self-rafted floating water into the pumice. The settling rate will vary,
pumice. The bulk density of pumice may be depending on the rate of water intake and the rate at
significantly less than that of water because of the which the bulk density of the pumice and soaked-
dominant void space. It therefore has enormous up water increase relative to the density of water.
flotational potential (Fig. 1O.21a). There are many Gravel-sized floating pumice may therefore be
accounts in the literature of pumice which has hydraulically equivalent to clay platelets in terms of
floated around the world before coming to land settling velocity and, while floating, it has no
after specific marine volcanic eruptions (e.g. equivalence! Deposits resulting from this process
Richards 1958). Pumice can, of course, also float in should therefore be essentially mud sequences
lakes (e.g. the giant pumice blocks discussed in Ch. containing isolated outsized pumice clasts and even
13 from La Primavera volcano, Mexico), and can be concentrations of pumice in layers (e,g. Fig.
washed onshore as a shoreline deposit. However, 10.21 b), perhaps representing a significant event
because of its porosity pumice will soak up a lot of (pyroclastic eruption, epiclastic (e.g. flood) event)
water and may eventually become sufficiently that delivered an increased volume of pumice to the
waterlogged to sink like waterlogged wood. In a water body.
significant study of the hydraulic behaviour of cold
and hot pumice clasts, Whitham and Sparks (in
press) have shown that the water-logging of cold
316 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
In solution
In all environments natural waters carry dissolved
chemical components that have been weathered or
leached out of ambient rock matter. This should be
a particularly important process in volcanic settings
with their abundance of metastable glass in lavas,
intrusives, and pyroclastic and epiclastic deposits.
In surface and subsurface waters these chemical
components may flocculate as clays, or may pre-
cipitate as other mineral species as surface deposits
and pore fillings, given the right chemical con-
ditions. Flocculation of clays may occur in surface
waters at the interface between fresh and saline
waters. Precipitation of siliceous sinter (e.g. Fig.
10.22) and sulphide minerals, often under the
influence of biogenic agents such as bacteria and
algae, may occur from hydrothermal systems.
Although these processes are not strictly epiclastic,
they are included here briefly to illustrate that the
waters so frequently responsible for surface epi-
clastic transport are simultaneously or penecon-
temporaneously also moving considerable volumes
of rock matter in dissolved form, both at the surface
and in recirculating subsurface systems. The vol-
umes of water and rock matter involved over a
significant geological time interval should not be
underestimated.
Figure 10.22 Siliceous sinter curtain precipated from
Fluvial torrent flow, sheetflood inactive hot-spring pond, Whakarewarewa thermal area,
Rotorua, New Zealand. The front-central part of the curtain is
In the above, reference was made to large volumes of covered with a film of sulphur.
suspended granular sediment under conditions of
high velocity surface flow. These occur during peak opposite is the case. Nevertheless, when flow
flow or flood events in river systems experiencing velocities wane in high energy river systems, rapid
upper flow regimes, when the river system has rates of sedimentation occur, leading in places to
enormous erosive capacity. Under these conditions the deposition of massive, structureless deposits of
huge volumes of sediment are carried in suspension, granular sediment (e.g. the upper layer in Figs
supported by the turbulent eddies in the water (Fig. 1O.19d & 24), or plane bed, horizontally laminated
10.23). With large suspended sediment loads, flow deposits (e.g. the lower layer in Fig. 10. 19d), both
conditions are similar to those in subaqueous representing upper flow regime conditions. Such
granular mass flows (Section 10.3.3), i.e. grains are high energy conditions are called torrent -flow
supported by fluid turbulence and grain-to-grain conditions and are most likely in high energy river
collisions are common. The essential difference lies systems such as braided rivers, and entrenched
in the nature of the force driving water-sediment highland river valleys where all runoff is concen-
movement: in fluvial systems movement is due to trated into narrow steep-sided gorges and valleys.
the gravitational potential of the water and the Vessell and Davies (1981) and D. K. Davies et
sediment is entrained; in granular mass flow, the al. (l978c) described the fluvial dynamics and
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 317
the sediment mass at its top, sides or be ingested (0) Low concentration turbidity currents
along clefts in the flow-front. As a consequence, the
volume of the sediment mass expands and fluid
turbulence is initiated in the interstitial spaces
within the flow. If the degree of expansion is low,
grain-support in the flowing mass is due to both
fluid turbulence and grain-to-grain collisions. If the
flow is highly expanded with grains widely dispersed
in the fluid medium, then they can only be (b) High concentrat ion turb idit y currents
supported by turbulence in the fluid. Although
turbulence in the interstitial water is providing
support for the grains, the water plays a passive role
in the sense that it is not driving sediment motion,
because its velocity and momentum is the same as
that of the sediment, if not less. The water is thus
entrained by the sediment. In fact, Middleton
(1966) suggested that sediment movement in the Figure 10.25 Characteristics of low and high concentration
body and head of such flows was faster than the turbidity currents and their deposits. The resultant sedi-
mentary structure divisions are interpreted in terms of the
speed at which the whole flow was advancing,
flow regime (F.R.) at the right (U.F.R. = upper flow regime,
leading to upward recirculation of the sediment in L.F.R. = lower flow regime).
the flow-head.
Subaqueous granular mass flows like these, in
which turbulence plays a major grain-support role, conditions was first recognised by Harms and
are called turbidity currents and their deposits are Fahnestock (1965) and R. G. Walker (1965) (Fig.
called turbidites. In turbidity currents with low 10.25). Complete Bouma sequences are not always
sediment concentrations and high degrees of ex- present in outcrop, depending on distance from
pansion, particle interaction is minor, so particles initiation point, flow distance, sediment load at that
can be sorted according to their hydraulic proper- point, velocity at that point and degree of expansion.
ties. When sedimentation begins, the heaviest Relatively close to the initiation point the upper
particles settle first. If all particles are of uniform divisions are most frequently lacking (divisions c, d
density, the first particles to settle will also be the & e), and such turbidites are described as being
heaviest and largest, so producing a well defined proximal in character. Distal turbidites most
upward fining or size-grading. Where particle frequently lack the basal divisions (a & b) and are
densities are variable, for example due to the found in settings distant from the source point, or
inclusion of variably vesicular grain types, size in near-source areas, in overbank settings, between
grading of the dense components may be accom- subaqueous distributary channels. When successive
panied by a density grading unrelated to size, granular turbidite beds lack an intervening mud-
perhaps producing reverse grading in the pumice stone layer (divisions d and/or e), they are said to be
population. amalgamated. These frequently occur as channel-
Other features of low sediment concentration, fill deposits in proximal to medial distances from
expanded turbidity currents include the common source point, or as the deposits of channel mouth
development of an upward sequence of structures lobes in medial to distal settings, associated with
reflecting the changing flow regime in the current as submarine fan systems (e.g. R. G. Walker 1984).
it decelerates. Bouma (1962) first recognised the In turbidity currents with high sediment concen-
regularity of the succession of structures (now trations and low degrees of expansion, particle
known as the Bouma sequence, Fig. 10.25), but the freedom is inhibited and size grading is only poorly
significance of this in terms of declining flow regime developed, or is not developed at all, or is only
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRAN SPORT 319
represented by the coarsest and densest and heaviest clast suspension plays an important part. Import-
grains (called coarse-tail grading). Large clasts can antly, these coarse-grained conglomeratic turbidites
be supported by such a dense grain dispersion. testify to the competency of turbidity currents to
Reverse-grading may also be developed in the basal transport and support gravel-sized clasts by fluid
part of such deposits, due to intense shearing in the turbulence as suggested by Komar (1970). The
basal part of the highly concentrated depositing variations in the character of conglomeratic turbidite
grain mass. Internal shearing may also produce deposits suggest that a composite facies model
diffuse layering. These variations in the nature of along the lines of the extended Bouma sequence can
the basal division of the Bouma sequence (division also be tentatively made for these (Fig. 1O.26c;
a) led Cas (1979) to suggest that this division could R. G. Walker 1984) although such a model is not as
be subdivided into a basal reverse graded division confidently constructed as for sandy turbidites.
ai' a middle non-graded division a2, and an upper Again, in any deposit not all divisions need be
normally graded division a3, which is equivalent to present. Lowe (1982) produced a comprehensive
division a for low concentration turbidity currents breakdown of the variations in the deposits of
(Figs 10.25, 26a & b) . Allen (1970b) also recognised subaqueous mass-flow processes, with particular
that Bouma's (1962) sequence did not take account emphasis on those of high density, high particle
of very coarse sand to pebbly sand turbidites, which concentration granular mass flows. In his scheme,
sometimes developed a lower cross-bedded division Lowe distinguishes the effects of traction, traction
as well as an extra division of horizontal lamination carpet and suspension fall-out sedimentation, the
(Fig. 1O.26b). All of these variations were en- first two developing in coarse sand to gravel
compassed into an extended Bouma sequence for deposits. Lowe's facies subdivisions from bottom to
fine- and coarse-grained turbidites by Cas (1979) top in a theoretically complete sedimentation unit
(Figs 1O.25a & b) , based on studies ofvo1caniclastic are: a basal gravelly, plane laminated to cross-
turbidites. R. G. Walker (1975 ) developed general- stratified division (SI-traction), a division of shear
ised, Bouma-like facies models for mass-flow con- layers with reverse grading (Sz-traction carpet,
glomerate turbidites. The common development of equivalent to our al division), a division of massive
reverse grading, no grading and normal grading in non-graded to normally graded, sometimes with
these suggests that these are also the deposits of water escape structures (Srsuspension, equivalent
highly concentrated turbidity currents , in which to our az and/or a3 divisions), followed perhaps by
(0 ) (b)
e
d d
C2 Cz (c)
e massive mudstone
b2 bz bl d laminated mudstone, siltstone
3 CI c2 ripple cross - lamination
000000 b2 plane bed laminated sands
Figure 10.26 Three generalised. complete facies models for turbidity currents. (a) Silt to coarse sand
turbidites (after Cas 1979). (b) Coarse sand to fine gravel turbidites (after Cas 1979, Allen 1970b) (c) Gravel
turbidites, in which imbrication may be present in the gravels (after R. G. Walker 1975).
320 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
normal divisions of the Bouma sequence. Where a on the grains through which it streams. The
coarse, true gravel is involved, Lowe recognises a streaming of a fluid through a clastic aggregate to
basal traction division (R 1), followed by a reverse provide grain support is called fluidisation, and has
graded layer (Rz, equivalent to our ZI and Zz been discussed with respect to support processes in
divisions) and an upper normally graded division pyroclastic flows and surges in Chapter 7. The
(R3' equivalent to our Zz and/or Z3 divisions), which simple settling of dispersed grains causes upward
could be followed by the S divisions as defined displacement of fluid and very short-term self-
above. fluidisation support, but it cannot be maintained
It should also be mentioned here that short-lived for very long unless there is an external source for
turbidity currents can be generated on storm- the fluidising fluid (Allen 1982), for example by
dominated continental shelves. Onshore directed ingestion of ambient water at the head of a granular
storm surges are balanced by offshore directed mass flow. However, Allen (1971, 1982) suggests
turbulent surge-like underflows. These carry shore- that relatively little fluidisation of this type actually
line and near-shore sediment offshore, depositing occurs. Nevertheless, coarse granular mass-flow
massive graded sands with sharp bases into areas of deposits do show evidence of liquefaction and
shelf mud sedimentation. Hummocky cross- fluidisation processes (e.g. dish-structures, pillar
stratification may occur, and the setting should be structures, which reflect water escape; Lowe 1975)
identifiable from fossils and trace fossils in rocks of which, if nothing else, reflect excess pore pressures
the appropriate age. Gravels may also be trans- at the time of sedimentation. However, it is doubtful
ported in this way. Storm-generated shelf-turbidites that wholly liquefied and fluidised flows can travel
do not necessarily develop as much of the Bouma very far without assistance from interstitial fluid
sequence as normal turbidites, and may be particu- turbulence, in which case they translate into highly
larly deficient in divisions c and d. This is thought concentrated turbidity currents.
to be due to their relatively low degrees of Grain flows have also been assessed in the
expansion, the low slopes over which flow occurs subaqueous realm (Middleton & Hampton 1976),
and the low initial potential energy, all of which but strictly grain flow, as discussed in Section
lead to rapid deceleration and rapid rates of 10.3.1 in subaerial settings, faces the same con-
sedimentation. (See R. G. Walker 1984 for further straints subaqueously. It involves very significant
review; see Fig. 1O.28f, below, for a volcaniclastic frictional interaction with the substrate and will
shelf turbidite.) therefore only operate on slopes near or at angle of
There has also been some debate in the literature repose. It does operate subaqueously (e.g. lee-side
as to the significance and likelihood of liquefied and grain-flow forming cross-stratification in migrating
fluidised granular mass flows (e.g. Middleton & ripples, sandwaves and dunes; subaqueous scree
Southard 1978, Allen 1982, Lowe 1982). Lique- slopes), but once initiated subaqueously on long
faction is the process of the breaking of grain steep slopes it may evolve into a turbulent turbidity
contacts in a loosely packed aggregate of cohesion- current. True grain-flow layers will be thin and
less grains without there being any volume increase reverse-graded (Lowe 1982).
in the aggregate. This can only occur in a very Finally, sluny flows are essentially turbidity
inefficiently packed aggregate. After breaking of currents in which the interstitial fluid is not pure
contacts the grains are suspended in the interstitial water, but contains a significant component of
fluid, supported by high excess pore pressures mixed clays (5-10+%), giving that interstitial fluid
(viscous dispersive pressure), and the whole aggre- significant viscosity and strength. As such grain
gate is in a 'quick', fluidal state. How far such support is also provided by the strength of the fluid
liquefied aggregates can flow as such is uncertain. If and the added buoyancy caused by the lessened
unconfined, the interstitial water can escape. This density contrast between the fluid and the grains
process of escape itself gives grain support, because (e.g. Hampton 1972, 1975). However, with in-
as the fluid streams out and up it exerts a lift force creasing viscosity, turbulence levels in the fluid are
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 321
damped according to the Reynolds Number abrasive and can transport detritus long distances
criterion (Ch. 2). Resultant deposits should be sandy without significant textural modification - are
mudstones or sandstones with abundant mud reinforced.
matrix. Intraclasts may be important throughout The nature of the supply process of the volcanic
the bed, and tractional structures may be notably detritus may be variable and is difficult to determine
lacking due to suppressed turbulence (Hiscott & in some cases. Sometimes the origin can be essen-
Middleton 1979; see Carter 1975 for more details). tially epiclastic (epiclastic reworking, gravitational
Slurry flows are clearly transitional between viscous collapse and epiclastic mass-flow redeposition; e.g.
subaqueous debris flows and low viscosity turbidity J. G. Jones, 1967b, Mitchell 1970). In other cases
currents. the supply originates from subaerial pyroclastic
This lengthy discussion of subaqueous granular activity. Pyroclastic air-fall and pyroclastic flow
mass-flow processes is justified by virtue of the processes then transport the debris into water and it
significance of such deposits in the sedimentary is then redeposited subaqueously by epiclastic
record. Volumetrically, they are dominant. In mass-flow processes (e.g. Ch. 9; Sigurdsson et al.
volcanic terrains they are also important. They 1980, Cas 1979, 1983a, Cas et ai. 1981). For
operate in relatively deep lakes, especially caldera example, Cas (1979, 1983a) has suggested that
lakes supplied by steep, erodible margins or anomalously thick individual sedimentation units
streams and deltas, and they operate in seas (metres to ten of metres thick) of crystal rich,
marginal to or hosting volcanic provinces. Accounts juvenile volcanic detritus with rare preserved cus-
of the influences of subaqueous mass flows in pate shards, were initiated when subaerial pyro-
marine volcanic settings are plentiful. They have clastic flows flowed into the sea, perhaps interacted
been documented from modern oceanic settings, explosively with it and were then reconstituted into
where they have been cored (e.g. Sigurdsson et ai. huge, highly concentrated turbidity currents. This
1980, Sparks & C. J. N. Wilson 1983, Klein 1975, seems to have occurred several times, producing a
Klein & Lee 1984, Carey & Sigurdsson 1984), and coherent stratigraphic interval made up of multiple
amongst the successions of ancient volcanic terrains massive, graded to non-graded, very thick beds
ranging from the Tertiary to the Archaean (e.g. with all the characteristics of normal highly concen-
J. G. Jones 1967b, Mitchell 1970, Fiske 1963, trated turbidites (Fig. 10.27), except for their huge
Fiske & Matsuda 1964, J. V. Wright & Mutti 1981, thickness which is explained by the nature of the
Cas 1978b, 1979, 1983a,Casetai.1981, Tasseetai. supply (see Ch. 11 for further discussion). Similar
1978, Lajoie 1984, Ricketts et ai. 1982). In all of features were documented in coeval deposits by Cas
these modern and ancient successions normal et ai. (1981) (Fig. 14.12b). In other cases the supply
turbidite deposits of volcanic detritus have been could be directly and indirectly from shallow
commonly identified. In many the detritus is very subaqueous eruptions (e.g. Fiske 1963, Fiske &
juvenile in character, including unabraded cuspate Matsuda 1964; Fig. 9.12), but nevertheless most of
glass shards (e.g. Cas 1979, J. V. Wright & Mutti the deposition appears to involve redeposition by
1981). This is important from two points of view. subaqueous, epiclastic, water-supported mass-flow
First, pyroclastically fragmented detritus is being processes rather than pyroclastic flows (Ch. 9).
redeposited by epiclastic mass-flow processes and, The distinction between what is pyroclastic flow
secondly, subaqueous mass-flow processes are and what is epiclastic mass flow in such situations
capable of transporting fragile, pyroclastically may seem academic, and has been discussed in
fragmented detritus tens to hundreds of kilometres considerable detail in Chapter 9. From the point of
without significant abrasion. So two points raised view of establishing criteria for palaeoenvironmental
initially in Chapter 1 - that modes of fragmentation interpretation, it is an extremely important distinc-
and final deposition may be quite independent and tion. We will iterate here our ideas from Chapter 9.
have to be evaluated independently, and that Except in very shallow settings, it has not been
subaqueous mass-flow processes can be non- convincingly demonstrated that gas-supported
322 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
82 m
orth- South-
wut last
5
" f/ 1/
::: = 1/ ~
~ ~
a " = ""
II \\ 200
~
100
0 5km
. ..
Q IT] ,nferred or omo loomoted
[] aren ite ( luvon,le
volconooenlc character)
vnr lclosls
( Mesas cooic scale ) bedd ino contoct
~
-- pellte (. m inor chert)
~
clastic ,ntroc lo.",
oenerall y peli tiC [IJ ,nferred rock Inlerval
tJ
sandy pe lile or th inly n
peme and l in. aren il e
I terbedded
..,
~
IImeslone 'rooments;
extracloslS [E arenite bed
($ 1.5 metres Ihick)
rrn
0 ' rud ite
~ graded sedimentat ion unil
8 correlation datum at
the bose of Member 0
eroliona l or i"eoulor
~ contact
Figure 10.27 Facies characteristics and correlations for very thick (see scale) crystal-rich highly concentrated turbidity
current flow deposits and intercalated lavas, Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff Formation, southeastem Australia. (After Cas
1978b.) Numbers at the tops of columns are section numbers, letters identify informal stratigraphic members.
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 323
pyroclastic flows can maintain their integrity sub- The question of subaqueous air-fall deposits also
aqueously. We therefore favour epiclastic flow and brings into focus just how much of a subaqueous
grain-support mechanisms for relatively deep- volcaniclastic succession might be air-fall and how
water, coarse granular volcaniclastic deposits, un- much is epiclastic mass-flow deposits. The answer
less they can be demonstrated to be of air-fall origin. is that there is no consistent answer. For example,
Unfortunately, there are numerous references to Sigurdsson et al. (1980) have shown that around the
subaqueous and submarine pyroclastic flow deposits Lesser Antilles arc system, prevailing westerly
and events in the literature, when the deposits wind systems disperse nearly all of the air-fall
clearly bear the imprint of epiclastic mass-flow material eastwards, whereas westwards, behind the
facies characteristics (e.g. Lajoie 1984). Perhaps the arc in the back-arc basin, a huge apron of rede-
intention was to identify (epiclastic) flows of pyro- posited mass-flow volcaniclastic sediment almost
clastic debris (i.e. debris originally fragmented completely devoid of air-fall deposits is forming.
pyroclastically, but redeposited by epiclastic mass- Finally, we provide illustrative documentation of
flow processes. Lajoie (1984) for example, illustrates this spectrum of subaqueous granular mass-flow
numerous deposit types which are identical to the epiclastic processes and facies from a variety of
facies models described here in Figures 10.25 and volcanic settings (Fig. 10.28). The foregoing has
26 (see R. G. Walker 1984), but clearly labels them suggested that in any subaqueous granular mass-
to be subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits im- flow, a number of different grain-support mechan-
plying, perhaps unintentionally, gas support flow isms (Fig. 1O.29a) may operate in combination, or
mechanisms for which there is no evidence. at different times during the initiation and flow
Similarly Niem (1977) and Yamada (1984) discuss history (Fig. 1O.29b). These include interstitial
subaqueous pyroclastic flow deposits and imply a fluid turbulence, grain-to-grain collisions, fluid-
pyroclastic flow mechanism. There is no doubt that isation and liquefaction effects. Where interstitial
fragmentation was by pyroclastic explosive activity, fluids are viscous, fluid strength and buoyancy
as shown by well defined shards in the case of effects also operate (Fig. 1O.29a). As a result, and
Niem's successions. However, final transportation also dependent on flow velocity and competence
and deposition appear to have been from water- with distance travelled, a wide diversity of facies
supported epiclastic mass-flow processes, as was may result (Fig. 1O.29b & c).
the case for the shard bearing Merrions Tuff units
of Cas (1979, 1983a) and the Dali Ash of J. V. Mudflows) debris flows) lahars
Wright and Mutti (1981). Niem (1977) even docu- These three flow types differ from the previous
ments tabular cross-stratification high in his depo- mass-flow types in being viscous. Cohesive mud flow
sitional units, and flute marks at the bases of his or debris flow generally involves a cohesive mud
units, suggesting aqueous turbulent flow conditions fluid with a strength which is capable of supporting
in the flows. Yamada (1984) describes the deposition large clasts if available (Hampton 1975, 1979). The
of his units as being by turbidity currents, yet still second element of support for large clasts is a
calls them pyroclastic flow deposits. They would buoyancy effect resulting from the low density
appear to be epiclastic turbidites transporting contrast between clasts and high density mud fluid
pyroclastic debris! That the detritus was originally (cf. Archimedes' principle). A third source of
fragmented pyroclastically is incidental to the fact support comes from the viscous dispersive pressure
that epiclastic mechanisms were responsible for that builds up in the matrix mud fluid during near
final deposition, and we believe that this distinction approaches oflarge clasts. Hampton (1979) suggests
should be clearly made. Both the Niem and that, on this last count alone, the higher the
Yamada accounts are also valuable in demonstrating proportion of large clasts, the greater the mobility
the flotational capacity of pumice, which in places of the viscous flow and the greater the competence
forms high level, reverse-graded pumice zones in to carry large clasts.
depositional units. Viscous mass flows have been called mud flows
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 325
where coarse debris is absent, debris flows where flows and perhaps turbidity currents, provided
very coarse to fine sediment is involved, or lahars sufficient ambient water can be mixed into the
where the detritus consists of contemporaneous interstitial mud-fluid to reduce the fluid strength
volcanic debris. Appreciable granular sediment can and viscosity sufficiently to allow interstitial fluid
be mixed with the mud fluid without affecting its turbulence to develop (Hampton 1972). Debris
viscous properties. As long as the granular sediment flows occur subaerially and subaqueously in any
particles are not in mutual contact and locking, the setting where slopes are relatively high, slope
overall internal friction of the mass is low and instability prevails and water-saturated, fine-grained
viscous flow can be maintained, slopes permitting. cohesive sediments, with or without associated
This has led to the recognition of debris flows with coarse debris, are available. Debris flows are
as little as 5% interstitial mud-water fluid, but initiated by slumping-sliding on relatively steep
apparently enough to lubricate the movement of the slopes (Fig. 10.30) and are therefore commonly
granular sediment component (Lowe 1979, 1982, associated with' alluvial fans, steep slopes with
Rodine & Johnson 1976). These have been called expandible clayey soils, marine slopes, delta fronts,
grain modified debris flows (Lowe 1979), a better upper parts of submarine fans and, of course, the
term perhaps being 'grain dominant debris flow'. slopes of both subaerial and subaqueous volcanoes.
According to Rodine and Johnson (1976), the Their mobility and competence should not be
support of large clasts in such debris flows occurs underestimated. They are known to flow several
because of the poor sorting, and the resultant tens of kilometres, carrying very large boulders well
hierarchy of grainsizes. Each grainsize level, to- away from the source. Speeds of 40 m S-l were
gether with the finer grain size levels and the calculated for the 1980 Mt St Helens lahars.
interstitial fluid, provide support for the next Many documented accounts of debris-flows car-
coarser grain size level, and so on. rying volcanic debris in volcanic terrains are
A. M. Johnson (1970) has shown that debris known, the majority being associated with strato-
flows usually move by combined laminar and plug volcano terrains (e.g. Mullineaux & Crandell 1962,
flow (Ch. 2). The marginal laminar flow zone Mt St Helens; Fiske et al. 1963, Crandell 1971, Mt
represents the zone of maximum shear at the Rainier; Schmincke 1967b, eastern margin of
interface between the substrate and the body of the Cascades arc; Janda et al. 1981, Mt St Helens).
debris flow. The inner part of the debris flow moves Again, the most widely published debris flows are
as an inert plug on the laminar zone, and can be those from the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mt St
viewed as an extreme laminar flow layer. Lateral Helens, which were derived directly from the slide
levees and surface mound topography are not and avalanche event, and flooded the major dis-
uncommon, indicating a high yield strength. tributary systems draining the volcano with huge
Middleton and Southard (1978) suggested that volumes of debris.
thick debris flows may develop turbulent parts, and Debris-flow deposits should be very poorly
Lowe (1982) suggested possible facies characteristics sorted, usually with large clasts in open framework
for such deposits. Because of the cohesive nature of organisation in a finer-grained matrix (Figs 10.30 &
debris flows, tractional structures are unlikely. 31) containing significant, although apparently not
Subaqueous debris flows can transform into slurry necessarily large, amounts of clays. They are there-
~ Figure 10.28 (a) Conglomeratic base of submarine crystal-rich volcaniclastic turbidite of the Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff
discussed in Cas (1979). Note large flame structure. The bed is several metres thick and shows coarse-tail grading. (b) Steeply
dipping, white weathering pumiceous ash turbidites, Obispo Tuff, Twichell Dam, California. (c) Amalgamated basaltic
volcaniclastic turbidites, Eocene-Oligocene Waiareka-Deborah volcanics, Oamaru, New Zealand. (d) Thinly bedded,
amalgamated, pumiceous lacustrine turbidites, Quaternary Huka beds, Huka Falls, New Zealand. (e) Normally graded, 25 cm
thick, lacustrine volcaniclastic turbidite, Late Devonian Boyd Volcanic Complex, Bunga Head, New South Wales, Australia. (f)
Storm-generated shelf turbidites derived from a latite source. Tops of turbidites are highly bioturbated. Units are internally
massive and graded. Permian 'Gerringong Volcanics', Broughton Formation. Kiama. New South Wales, Australia.
326 EPICLASTIC PROCESSES IN VOLCANIC TERRAINS
Glnero l
Sediment moss (gravity) flow
lerm
~OoOoJ
0 0
@
(b) F low initiation. possible evolution and deposits
ltJ U 0 b
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TUR BIDITY CURR ENT DEPOSITS
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DEBRIS FLOW DEPOS ITS MUD _ . .~.:. ~~'~~~ CIOIIl
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?
'-./ V V
Figure 10.29 (continued) (c) A generalised process and facies spectrum for subaqueous mass flow. depicting the general
facies characteristics, the flow types. the physical properties of these, the grain-support processes operating and the general
physical conditions during flow (after Cas 1977),
(b)
Figure 10.31 (a) Volcanic debris flow (lahar) mantled by air-fall or surge deposits. Mt Egmont. New Zealand. Note open
framework organisation of clasts in the matrix which contains a high proportion of sand-sized volcanic detritus. (b) Tangiwai
railway bridge over the Whangaehu River, draining off Mt Ruapehu, New Zealand. On Christmas Eve 1954 the railway bridge
was wiped out by a debris flow from Ruapehu, only minutes before a crowded train passed by and crashed into the river, with
major loss of life. Boulders in the river may have been transported by debris flow, but the river has washed finer matrix away.
(c) Semicircular erosion channel gouged out into underlying bedded volcaniclastic deposits by a marine grain-dominant debris
flow, Bridge Point. Kakanui, New Zealand, Eocene-Oligocene Waiareka- Deborah volcanics. The base of the debris flow has a
diffuse layering parallel to the outline of the channel representing the basal laminar shear flow zone. Large clasts are
concentrated in the central massive plug zone. (d) Same debris flow deposit as in (c), showing open framework texture of
basaltic blocks, including a prominent breadcrusted block. (From Cas & Landis in prep.)
welded ignimbrites, the major distinguishing form a continuum. Internally soft-sediment defor-
criteria to look for are gas escape pipes (Ch, 7) and mation may be apparent, but original layering is
evidence of sintering and vapour-phase crystallisa- still preserved. The role of water in this case is to
tion in ignimbrites. lubricate movement. Slumping can occur subaeri-
ally or subaqueously; in the former case slumping is
Slumps not unusual after heavy rainfall.
Slumps are coherent masses of aggregate that creep,
slide or flow down slope leaving an erosion scar Soil creep
behind, to which the tail of the slump is still Imperceptible, downslope creep of soil or surface
attached. They are therefore local in significance aggregate, lubricated by interstitial water is common
and represent incipient slides, with which they on all landscapes with steep slopes.
EPICLASTIC SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 329
(a)
332
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Crystal-rich volcaniclastics-
pyroclastic or epiclastic?
333
334 CRYSTAL-RICH VOLCANICLASTICS
volcanic terrains and in the basins peripheral to 1960, MacDonald 1972, Pettijohn 1975, H.
volcanic terrains, so evaluation of the origins of Williams & McBirney 1979), which serve as end
specific deposits requires familiarity with the pyro- members in the formal classification of~shes and
clastic and epiclastic processes that produce crystal- tuffs (Pettijohn 1975, Schmid 1981; Fig. 11.1).
rich volcaniclastics. By definition, ashes and tuffs are pyroclastic
Given that crystal-rich volcaniclastics can have deposits with an average grainsize of 2 mm or less
diverse origins, there also exists a problem of (Ch. 12). They are deposited by pyroclastic proces-
nomenclature, in that the name applied should ses (Chs 5-9, inclusive) and are not reworked or
clearly reflect both the mode of fragmentation and redeposited by epiclastic processes (Ch. 10), in
the mode of transport and deposition. Crystal-rich which case they would essentially be tuffaceous
volcaniclastics have frequently been called 'crystal sediments (Ch. l2). The three principal components
tuffs' (or 'crystal-lithic tuffs' where lithic com- of explosive eruptions - cognate glassy clasts,
ponents are also prominent), in the stratigraphic crystals and lithic fragments can be present in
literature, and whether intended or not, this has varying combinations in ash deposits (Heiken 1972,
specific genetic implications, indicating both a 1974). Their abundance depends first on the make-
pyroclastic mode of fragmentation and a pyroclastic up of the magma at the time of eruption, including
mode of transportation and deposition. It is there- its degree of crystallisation, secondly on the type of
fore also appropriate here to evaluate the usage of explosive activity (Ch. 3) and thirdly on the effects
the term 'crystal tuff, as a prelude to a comprehen- of sorting processes during pyroclastic eruptions.
sive discussion of classification and nomenclature in Vitric ashes and tuffs are dominated by largely
Chapter 12. un crystallised glassy fragments with an average
grainsize less than 2 mm. They are the products of
the explosive eruption of poorly crystallised mag-
11.2 Three types of ash and tuff mas, and/or they are very fine distal ashes deposited
far from the vent, owing their vitric character to
Ashes and their lithified equivalents, tuffs, have for sorting in the eruption column and plume which
a long time been subdivided into three types: vitric, has left behind coarser and denser crystals and
lithic and crystal ashes and tuffs (Pirrson 1915, lithic fragments closer to the vent, or to elutriation
Holmes 1920, H. Williams et at. 1954, Carozzi of fines from pyroclastic flows, resulting in crystal
enriched ignimbrites and vitric co-ignimbrite ashes
Pumice
glass (Chs 5 & 8). In explosive eruptions, in which
magmatic explosions are dominant, the fragments
will be highly vesiculated pumice or scoria, or
cuspate shards which are the fragmented walls of
vesicles (Ch. 3; Figs 3.23a & 24; Heiken 1972,
1974). In eruptions where phreatomagmatic ex-
plosions are dominant the fragments may be less
vesiculated, blocky, glassy fragments (Ch. 3; Fig.
3.18; Heiken 1972, 1974, Self & Sparks 1978,
Sheridan & Marshall 1983).
CRYSTAL
TUFF ASH
Lithic ashes and tuffs are dominated by variably
crystallised volcanic rock fragments of cognate
character and, frequently, also by fragments of
Crystals Rock older lithified igneous (or other) rocks, eroded from
crystal fragments fragments the walls of the vent as accessory inclusions during
Figure 11.1 Standard classification of ashes and tuffs into explosive eruptions of magmatic, phreatomagmatic
vitric. lithic and crystal types. (After Schmid 1981.) or phreatic origin (Heiken 1972, 1974). The influ-
FRAGMENTATION AND TRANSPORTATION MODES 335
mass-flow processes can redeposit pyroclastic transportation and deposition (see Section 1l.4.2).
debris and produce deposits that are internally Pyroclastically fragmented, crystal-rich aggre-
massive and structureless, and which resemble gates should be recognisable as an homogeneous,
pyroclastic flow deposits (Ch. 9 & 10). Proximal, coherent assemblage of grain types of which the
fine-grained ash turbidites could be mistaken for glassy clasts will be variably vesiculated and, for
aqueously deposited air-fall deposits eCho 9). Cross- conclusive interpretation, should be dominated by
stratified epiclastics could be mistaken for pyro- abundant shards, particularly in the case of mag-
clastic surge deposits, and so on. It is therefore mati cally fragmented debris. Epiclastically frag-
important to distinguish carefully the possible mented debris should be characterised by relatively
modes of fragmentation and the possible modes of high degrees of sorting and rounding compared
transportation and deposition independently, with pyroclastic deposits, and the grain population
before a final interpretation of the genesis is made may be compositionally heterogeneous.
(Ch. 1) and before a genetic name is given to the The mode of deposition may be by pyroclastic
deposit (Ch. 12). In this section we briefly recapitu- flow, pyroclastic fall, pyroclastic surge (Chs 5-9) or
late the possible modes of fragmentation of volcani- epiclastic processes (Ch. 10), each of which should
clastics (Ch. 3), and their possible modes of be identifiable from field facies characteristics,
transportation and deposition (Chs 5-10). The particularly outcrop-scale textures and sedimentary
appropriate chapters should be referred to for more structures, as long as metamorphic and defor-
detail, and for appropriate facies characteristics. mational overprints are not too strong. Even the
A further point is that both pyroclastic and presence of abundant shards is not diagnostic of
epiclastic transportation processes are capable of pyroclastic transportation and deposition processes
transporting their load tens of kilometres or more although it is indicative of pyroclastic fragmen-
from the source, and so the identification of tation. Subaqueous turbidity currents, for example,
pyroclastic material, no matter how coarse, does can transport even fragile shard fragments for long
not mean that the depositional site was close to the distances with little or no physical abrasion (e.g.
source vent. This can only be established on the Cas 1979, J. V. Wright & Mutti 1981) because the
basis of important associations of facies (Ch. 14). transportation time is short, the transport mechan-
Therefore, crystal-rich volcaniclastic aggregates ism is turbulent suspension, so limiting abrasive
are not necessarily pyroclastic in origin or deposited particle interaction, and because the viscosity of the
by pyroclastic processes such as fall, flow and interstitial water cushions grain impacts. In each
surge, and they need not indicate proximity to the case, therefore, the depositional and transpor-
vent. This has to be demonstrated rather than tational mode has to be assessed independently of
assumed. Of the principal modes of producing the mode of fragmentation, and this must be done
volcaniclastic aggregates (Ch. 3; magmatic ex- using field facies characteristics.
plosions, phreatomagmatic explosions, quench- Perhaps the biggest problem in distinguishing
fragmentation, autobrecciation and epiclastic between pyroclastic and epiclastic transportation
erosional processes), only magmatic explosions, influences relates to distinguishing pyroclastic flow
phreatomagmatic explosions and epiclastic erosional deposits from redeposited pyroclastic deposits in-
processes seem capable of producing large volumes volving high concentration granular mass flow or
of ash-sized volcaniclastic aggregates (Ch. 3). For debris flow, as already discussed (Chs 9 & 10). The
crystal-rich volcaniclastic aggregates, it also seems former should be recognised by evidence for a hot
necessary to be dealing with at least moderately state of emplacement, including microscopic evidence
crystallised magma or volcanic rock sources. How- of welding (see Ch. 9), columnar jointing and gas
ever, the final aggregate may contain significantly segregation pipes (see Ch. 7). In particular, non-
different crystal contents relative to the source welded pyroclastic flow deposits may be difficult to
magma or rock as a result of efficient fractionation distinguish from the mentioned types of epiclastic
and sorting processes operating during eruption or mass-flow deposits because they will lack evidence
FACTORS INFLUENCING CONCENTRATIONS 337
of welding and columnar jointing. In ancient Marsh's reasoning is supported by the rarity of
deposits, epiclastic origins will have to be equally lavas with 50% or more phenocrysts. For example,
entertained with pyroclastic flow origins. Ewart (1979) collated the modal phenocryst
abundances for some 1650 volcanics with SiO z
contents greater than 60% (Fig. 11.3). Only two
11.4 Factors influencing high crystal specimens exceed 60% phenocryst content, and
concentrations only 38 exceed 50% crystal content. However, it is
unclear from Ewart's data whether the volcanics are
The various factors that can effect a high crystal lavas or pyroclastics, or what the proportions of
concentration in volcaniclastic aggregates are: each are.
From this, it is unlikely that highly crystallised
eruption of highly crystallised magmas magmas or their extrusive derivatives will have
physical fractionation and sorting processes as- risen in a highly crystallised state from any signifi-
sociated with pyroclastic eruption and trans- cant depth in the subsurface (say, >3-4 km). It is
portation processes therefore probable that moderately to highly crys-
epiclastic reworking and redeposition tallised magmas that are erupted will have crystal-
lised wholly or at least partially in relatively shallow
magma chambers (e.g. Clemens & Wall 1984) to
11.4.1 ERUPTION OF HIGHLY
CRYSTALLISED MAGMAS
2). Therefore, for silicic magmas the critical limiting Total phenocryst content (%)
crystallinity necessary to render the magma im- Figure 11.3 Total crystal contents for some 1650 Cainozoic
mobile will be significantly less than for basaltic volcanic rocks from the circum-Pacific region plotted from
magmas (Marsh 1981). the data in Ewart (1979).
338 CRYSTAL-RICH VOLCANICLASTICS
preclude the need to migrate far while in a either magmatic or phreatomagmatic explosions,
rheologically unsuitable state. Although Marsh's depending on the circumstances. Being less crystal-
findings preclude eruption of highly crystallised rich they are mobile enough to rise through and
lavas, it is still possible that highly crystallised reside in shallow crustal levels en route to the
magmas may erupt explosively to produce crystal- surface, and so interact with ground or surface
rich pyroclastics (Marsh 1981) from the shallow waters, or both.
near-surface magma chambers where they crystal- R. J. Roberts and Peterson (1961) noted that
lised. The energy for explosive activity would come welded crystal-rich ignimbrites in the Western
largely from the volatiles and latent heat released as USA are very largely dacitic to rhyodacitic in
a consequence of second boiling (crystallisation), composition, whereas welded crystal-poor ignim-
and explosive eruption would occur when the brites are largely rhyolitic. This is apparently due to
pressure in the magma chamber equalled the rhyolitic magmas being near-minimum melts for
confining pressure and the tensile strength of the which the interval between the solidus and liquidus
country rock (Ch. 3; Burnham 1979, 1983). Col- is narrow, particularly at high levels of water
lapse of the roof of the magma chamber, the cause activity (Tuttle & Bowen 1958, Wyllie 1977). This
of caldera collapse, could produce rapid explosive means that the temperature range over which
eruption of highly crystallised magma, producing crystallisation can occur is narrow, implying that
crystal-rich air falls or crystal-rich ignimbrites, or unless eruption of a rhyolitic magma occurs very
both (e.g. Steven & Lipman 1976, Clemens & Wall soon after its formation, or the magma temperature
1981, Birch 1978, R. J. Roberts & Peterson 1961), is initially well above its liquidus, it may crystallise
because the release of pressure causes rapid boiling rapidly (depending on the size of the chamber), and
of the magmatic volatiles, leading to explosive it may become too crystal-rich to migrate upwards
expanSIOn. through the crust and erupt, especially if crystallis-
Even so, there are few ignimbrites with greater ation occurs internally, rather than just along the
than 60 wt% phenocrysts. For most outflow ignim- walls of the chamber. On the other hand, more-
brites at least, it can be argued that they have calcic magmas such as dacites and rhyodacites have
undergone crystal concentration processes during a wider solidus-liquidus interval, even over a wide
and after eruption (see below) so that the original range of water activities, and so are likely to
magma crystal concentration at the time of eruption experience a more protracted crystallisation history ,
would have been less than that preserved in the allowing migration or eruption, or both, over a
ignimbrites. range of crystal abundances (V. J. Wall pers.
Other implications can also be made about the comm.).
modes of fragmentation of magmas with different
crystal contents and compositions. Since crystal-
11.4.2 ERUPTION-RELATED CRYSTAL
rich magmas are likely to have crystallised over
CONCENTRATION PROCESSES
some time in relatively shallow but stable magma
chambers, and because their high bulk viscosity Hay (1959), G. P. L. Walker (1972) and Sparks
prevents spontaneous rise towards the surface, and Walker (1977) have shown that during pyro-
phreatomagmatic causes for triggering explosive clastic eruptions much of the fine glassy ash
eruption are unlikely. Explosive eruptions of such (representing a significant part of the uncrystallised
highly crystallised magmas are therefore likely to be part of the magma at the time of eruption) can be
exceedingly rapid, and to be due to second boiling lost by physical fractionation processes accompany-
associated with crystallisation, and exsolution of ing eruption and transportation of the tephra. The
magmatic volatiles from subsurface magma cham- fractionation processes separate some of the fine
bers as discussed above. Explosive eruption of glassy ash from the coarser, denser crystal and lithic
poorly to moderately crystallised magmas 40% fragments. This fractionation and sorting takes
crystals), on the other hand, may be triggered by place first in the eruption column and, secondly, in
FACTORS INFLUENCING CONCENTRATIONS 339
pyroclastic flows, if these should be formed during which represent whole or bulk samples of the
eruption. It occurs because vesiculated glass frag- erupting magma, with that in the body or matrix of
ments into much smaller, lighter particles than the ignimbrite. This is calculated on a weight
associated crystals which have greater strength. percentage basis to establish dense-weight equival-
Turbulence and convective circulation in the ents for crystals and glass, and to overcome the
eruption column may winnow out a large proportion problem of vesicularity or porosity. The studies of
of fine glassy ash, carrying it into the upper part of G. P. L. Walker (1972) and Sparks and Walker
the eruption column and then into a downwind (1977) show that the matrix of ignimbrites, especi-
eruption plume (Chs 5 & 6). Crystals and lithics ally of outflow ignimbrites, is consistently enriched
therefore become more concentrated within the in crystals relative to the whole pumice fragments
main body of the eruption column. From there they (Fig. 1l.4). This difference seems to be minor in
may either fall-out relatively close to the vent as a some caldera-fill ignimbrites (e.g. Birch 1978,
crystal-enriched ash, or alternatively they may be Clemens & Wall 1981), suggesting that perhaps the
incorporated into pyroclastic flows (Chs 5, 6 & 8). eruption of these did not produce a large, well
During pyroclastic flow, elutriation of fine glassy defined eruption column, implying that the ignim-
ash from the fluidised head and body of the flow brites were not generated by collapse of a high
takes place, producing an overriding and trailing maintained column (Chs 6 & 8).
ash cloud fed by gas and ash escaping from the flow G. P. L. Walker (1979) suggested that a third-
(Ch.7). stage pyroclastic crystal concentration process could
Both column- and flow-related fractionation have been involved in producing the 42 OOO-year-
processes appear to have the capacity to remove old Rotoehu ash of the North Island of New
huge volumes of glassy ash. G. P. L. Walker (1972) Zealand (Nairn 1972). He suggested that some
and Sparks and Walker (1977) have calculated that pyroclastic flows associated with the deposition of
50% of the erupted volume of a magma can be lost the ignimbrites of the coeval Rotoiti Breccia may
in these ways. This calculation comes from com- have flowed into the Bay of Plenty along the
paring the proportion of crystals in pumice clasts, northern margin of the North Island. By this stage
1..+
2./\
7
4 .... I I j~
I
\ I
6., .,' "II
.
I I I
'\ I , I \ \\
\ I \ I \ \ \
I, \ , I \ ' \
I , \ \. \ +\
I
I
\
\,
\
\ \
I +, \ I
I I \ I
I , \ \
I , \ \
I I \ I
...
\ I
\ I
I \ I
I \ \
I
l ~
L..-_---'''--_-e
Figure 11.4 Graphical representation of the proportions of glass (Pl. crystals (e) and lithics (L) in samples of artificially
crushed pumice (triangles) taken from within ignimbrites, and therefore representing whole rock samples of the erupting
magma, ignimbrite (closed circles) and associated co-ignimbrite ashes (crosses). Samples 1-6 are from ignimbrites and ashes
of Vulsini volcano, central Italy. Sample 7 is from the Minoan ignimbrite and its co-ignimbrite ash. Santorini. (After Sparks &
Walker 1977.)
340 CRYSTAL-RICH VOLCANICLASTICS
Subaqueous redeposition of volcaniclastic aggre- posits of the Fogo A Member in the Azores (also see
gates by relatively non-viscous mass-flow processes Chs 5 & 6). The air-fall deposit is essentially a
such as turbidity currents and fluidised sediment pumice-fall deposit but, in the middle distances of
flows (Ch. lO) can also produce significant separ- its dispersal area, it shows distinctive crystal
ation of fine ash from denser crystals and lithics. enrichment (up to 46 wt% crystals) associated with
Water ingested at the head of the flow streams sorting processes in the upper, spreading, umbrella-
backwards from the head through the body and like part of the eruption plume. The explanation is
carries fine ashy sediment into the dilute and that large pumices drop out of the plume close to
turbulent trailing sediment cloud (Sparks & the vent, while smaller particles, with lower ter-
C. J. N. Wilson 1983). The coarser, denser minal fall velocities (Ch. 6) are carried further,
fraction, such as crystals and lithics, is deposited leading to increased proportions of crystals further
from the head and body as a massive, variably from the vent. In a similar way, pumice that is
graded layer, grading upward into the fine sus- lighter than crystals, and especially fine, glassy,
pension deposits of the trailing cloud. Such deposits shard-rich ash, will occur as an enriched component
are volcaniclastic turbidites and may contain several in the ashes most distant from source because the
or more of the Bouma succession of sedimentary terminal fall velocity of these elements is less than
structural zones (Bouma 1962, R. G. Walker 1984; that of the bulk of larger, heavier crystals. The
Ch. lO). Ash turbidites could be several centimetres Fogo A deposit is essentially a massive, structureless
thick (Sparks & C. J. N. Wilson 1983) or tens of deposit, interrupted only by thin pyroclastic flow
metres thick (Cas 1979, J. V. Wright & Mutti units. Although its characteristics have been des-
1981; Ch. 9) and could be deposited up to hundreds cribed only from onshore exposures, a significant
of kilometres from source (e.g. Sigurdsson et al. part must have fallen offshore as water-lain ash.
1980, Sparks & C. J. N. Wilson 1983). G. P. L. Walker (1979) also interpreted the very
crystal-rich deposits of the Rotoehu Ash of New
Zealand as air-fall deposits resulting from second-
11.5 Several 'crystal tuff deposits and ary, rootless vent eruption columns generated when
their interpretation pyroclastic flows flowed into the Bay of Plenty. The
several phases of crystal concentration, as described
On the basis of the previous discussion it seems above, led to concentrations of crystals to as high as
desirable to consider several 'crystal tuff deposits 60 wt% and more, in the coarsest of several beds in
with diverse origins, these being discussed accord- the Rotoehu Ash, especially Bed G. Bed G is
ing to whether the genesis was essentially pyro- described as 'conspicuously rich in crystals, re-
clastic, mixed pyroclastic and epiclastic, or essenti- sembling a waterlain sand. The relative uniformity
ally epiclastic. of grain size and thickness over a great area, the
perfect mantle bedding, and the lack of rounding of
the grains, however, leave no doubt as to its shower
11.5.1 CRYSTAL TUFFS OF PYROCLASTIC
origin' (G. P. L. Walker 1979).
ORIGINS
Crystal-rich surge deposits have also been docu-
In this category, deposits whose modes offragmen- mented. Fisher (1979), for example, described ash-
tation, transportation and deposition were purely cloud surge deposits (Chs 5 & 7) from the Upper
pyroclastic are included. Deposits such as crystal- Bandelier Tuff (Ch. 8), in which distinct crystal-
rich air-fall ashes and tuffs, crystal-rich surge rich laminae occurred as parts of planar to cross-
deposits and crystal-rich pyroclastic flow deposits stratified bed sets. The surge deposit occurs as a
(ignimbrites) are also included. variably thin (2-35 em), discontinuous, lensoidal
G. P. L. Walker (1971) and G. P. L. Walker horizon between two ignimbrite cooling units. The
and Croasdale (1971) have described crystal- surge deposit is gradational into the underlying
enrichment processes associated with air-fall de- cooling unit, interdigating with it, and also contains
342 CRYSTAL-RICH VOLCANICLASTICS
gas segregation pipes, continuous from the underly- fragments was carried out, so it is difficult to
ing ignimbrite, and so also indicating a contempor- evaluate how much loss of glassy ash or crystal
aneous relationship. The crystal enrichment in enrichment took place during eruption. For the
these surge deposits can thus be viewed as a other two, less crystal-rich members, crystal con-
product of elutriation of fines, including some tents in pumice appear to be up to 10% lower (by
crystals, from pyroclastic flows, their concentration volume) than in the ignimbrite matrix, suggesting
and separation into the trailing ash-cloud, and then some loss of fine vitric ash during eruption or flow,
hydraulic sorting within the turbulent ash-cloud or both (Lipman 1975).
leading to cells enriched in, and depleted in The emplacement of the Treasure Mountain
crystals, which are represented by the alternating Tuff and associated lavas and intrusives was fol-
crystal-rich and crystal-poor laminae in the surge lowed by a period of erosion and reworking of
deposit. volcanic sediments, and then by a succession of
Self (1976) also records crystal-rich (up to regionally extensive ignimbrites originating from
44 wt%) surge deposits at the base of the Angra other eruptive centres. These include the two most
ignimbrite on Terceira, Azores, although detailed extensive ignimbrites in the San Juan province, the
field descriptions are lacking and there is no Fish Canyon Tuff and the Carpenter Ridge Tuff
consideration of whether they are base-surge de- (Lipman 1975; Ch. 8; Fig. 8.1). The Fish Canyon
posits or ground-surge deposits. Tuff is credited with being the largest ignimbrite in
Crystal-rich ignimbrites or pyroclastic flow deposits the world (3000 km 3 distributed over 15 000 km 2)
with crystal contents in excess of 40% are docu- and is a crystal-rich, quartz-latite ignimbrite
mented from both relatively young and old volcanic whereas the Carpenter Ridge ignimbrite is a crystal-
successions. From the Western USA, for example, poor rhyolitic ignimbrite sheet. As a caldera fill, the
Lipman (1975) and Byers et al. (1976) have Fish Canyon Tuff is over 1 km thick. As an outflow
described the successions associated with mid- to sheet it varies from 20 to 500 m thick. Crystal
late-Tertiary, largely acidic volcanism. Lipman's contents recorded by Lipman (1975) vary from
account is of the volcanic history associated with the 34-51 % for the intracaldera fill to 34-46% for the
29-30 Ma old Platoro Caldera Complex of the outflow sheet. Again, there is little information on
economically important and very large San Juan crystal contents of pumice fragments for use in
volcanic province of Colorado and New Mexico. evaluating ash loss during eruption, but Lipman
The Platoro caldera formed during eruption of the (1975, p. 49) alludes to the latter having occurred
Treasure Mountain Tuff, which consists of three (see also Section 8.4.3).
members: the La Jara Canyon member (oldest), the Crystal-rich ignimbrites are also well represented
Ojito Creek member and the Ra Jadera member. in the Upper Devonian volcanic successions of
All are described as being quartz latites, but vary southeastern Australia (Birch 1978, Clemens &
markedly in crystal contents. Only the La Jara Wall 1984). Those that have been studied in detail
Canyon member is particularly crystal-rich, con- are thick intracaldera fill ignimbrite piles. Crystal
taining approximately 40-50% crystals in the intra- contents vary from relatively low 20%) to high
caldera fill units and 20-35% crystals in the outflow (65%), and there is in many instances a systematic
sheet units. This discrepancy is not clearly ex- change in the quantity and types of crystals through
plained, but may be due to tapping of different the succession, suggesting progressive eruption
parts of the magma chamber, suggesting that the from a zoned magma chamber (Birch 1978, Clemens
outflow sheet ignimbrites and the intracaldera fill & Wall 1984). The high crystal content again
are of different ages and did not originate from the implies eruption of highly crystallised magma.
same eruption phase (cf. Fig. 8.18). The overall However, Birch (1978) suggests that juvenile
crystal-rich nature is presumably due to eruption of magma clots (called 'schlieren') are chemically and
an originally crystal-rich magma. No comparison of mineralogically similar to the surrounding magma,
the crystal content of the ignimbrite and pumice implying minimal loss of fine ash during eruption.
'CRYSTAL TUFF' DEPOSITS 343
This observation is also supported by Clemens and to the crystal contents of pumice fragments and the
Wall (1984), who imply that collapse of large enclosing ignimbrite matrix to get a clearer picture
eruption columns was therefore not likely in of eruption mechanisms and sorting processes. To
generating these ignimbrites, and also suggest that establish a pyroclastic flow origin for crystal-rich
much of the crystallisation in the Violet Town volcaniclastics, the field facies characteristics (Chs
Volcanics took place in high level magma chambers, 5, 7 & 8) need to be established.
after a crystal-poor magma rose from deeper crustal
melting source areas.
11.5.2 'CRYSTAL TUFFS' WITH MIXED
It should also be noted that local crystal- or lithic-
PYROCLASTIC AND EPICLASTIC
rich pods, or both, may occur in ignimbrites. The
ORIGINS
pods may be diffuse or well-defined pipe-like
structures representing gas segregation pipes, from There are several well documented cases where the
which fines have been removed (Ch. 7). Sparks and genesis of so-called crystal tuffs has been influenced
C. J. N. Wilson (1983) have also noted that the by both pyroclastic and epiclastic processes. Cas
flow-head deposits of violent pyroclastic flows (1978b, 1979, 1983a) described submarine crystal-
(layer 1, or the ground layer) may also be enriched rich tuffaceous sediments from an en sialic deep
in crystals or lithics or both, resulting from the marine Siluro-Devonian basin, the Hill End
extreme turbulence in the head of such pyroclastic Trough, in southeastern Australia. These tuffaceous
flows and the loss of fines because of this. sediments had previously been called crystal tuffs
The correct terminology to use for all of these (Packham 1968), and form part of the so-called
deposits, which are all wholly pyroclastic in origin, Merrions Tuff formation. The Lower Devonian
is the appropriate genetic terminology for primary Merrions Tuff consists of nearly equal volumes of
pyroclastics as outlined in Chapter 12, once the andesiticldacitic and minor rhyodacitic lavas and
wholly pyroclastic origin has been established. crystal-rich volcaniclastics. The volcaniclastics are
Deposits such as these are true ashes and tuffs, and composed of crystals and fragments of volcanic
where crystal-enriched, are crystal-rich ashes or quartz, albitised plagioclase, orthoclase (see Plate
tuffs. II) and minor vitriclasts. These occur in medium-
to coarse-grained sedimentation units up to tens of
Summary metres thick, which in places grade into siliceous
Crystal-rich primary pyroclastics are not abnormal, pelitic tops containing well preserved shard
but their crystal-rich origin is not just simply due to pseudomorphs. In extreme instances, crystal con-
the eruption of a crystal-rich magma. Crystal- tents are in excess of 80% but average 64.2%, much
enrichment processes during eruption are just as higher than the average 37.6% phenocryst content
important. Crystal-rich ashes and tuffs have been of the associated lavas and glassy intraclasts. The
documented from each of the main pyroclastic volcaniclastics are therefore largely closed-frame-
deposit types: fall, surge and flow. Ignimbrites can work grain aggregates with a subordinate matrix
vary markedly in their crystal contents. This, in component. They are also chemically different
large measure, reflects the degree of crystallisation from the associated lavas and are therefore not just
before eruption, and for crystal-rich ignimbrites it unmodified pyroclastic equivalents of the lavas (Cas
probably implies significant crystallisation in high 1983a).
level or shallow crustal chambers. During eruption Sedimentation units are largely massive or
the crystal content may be modified by separation internally structureless, with sharp, frequently
of fine ash. However, it seems that some ignim- erosive bases, and they are non- to normally-
brites, especially intra caldera fill ones, may be graded. They are akin to very thick, voluminous,
erupted without significant loss of glassy ash, which high particle concentration turbidity current de-
has implications for the eruption mechanism (e.g. posits (Cas 1979; Ch. 10) and show no evidence of
Fig. 8.18). Clearly, more attention needs to be paid having been emplaced by hot phase pyroclastic
344 CRYSTAL-RICH VOLCANICLASTICS
transportation processes (they lack welding and Sparks and C. J. N. Wilson (1983), Sparks et al.
columnar jointing). Yet, clearly, their fragmentation (1983) and J. V. Wright and Mutti (1981) also
mode was pyroclastic, as evidenced by shards. describe crystal-rich ash turbidite layers, which
They are juvenile and have not been reworked by are, however, much smaller in scale than those
epiclastic surface processes, but they have been described above from the Merrions Tuff. The
transported and redeposited by epiclastic processes deposits of Sparks and C. J. N. Wilson (1983) and
(Cas 1979, 1983a). Their juvenile character and the Sparks et al. (1983) were by-products of the historic
fact that they were used together with the lavas to Minoan eruptions of Santorini in the Mediter-
define a tight whole rock Rb/Sr isochron (Cas et al. ranean. Their origin is attributed to slumping of
1976) suggests that they were deposited shortly after very extensive marine ash-fall deposits. These
eruption. If they had been reworked and then de- slumped ashes were then transported by deep-
posited long after eruption, they would have mixed marine turbidity currents, and show many features
with older detritus, and would probably not have of turbidites. Generally, they are rich in glassy ash,
constituted part of a coherent isotopic suite of rocks. but several of these ash turbidites have a well
However, the crystal contents are in many defined 5-10 mm thick crystal-rich to pumice-rich
instances much higher than in ignimbrites. Cas basal layer which Sparks and Wilson attribute to
(1983a) therefore suggested that they have ex- sorting processes in the head of the transporting
perienced very efficient fractionation processes turbidity currents. They suggest that ingestion of
leading to very high concentrations of crystals. ambient water into the head of the turbidity current
Based on concepts discussed in Section 11.3, Cas leads to fluid streaming through the head and
(1983a) suggested that the genesis of the Merrions backwards (fluidisation), leading to elutriation of
Tuff crystal-rich volcaniclastics could have involved fines and concentration of denser and larger particles
explosive eruption of a highly crystallised magma, in the head from which they are deposited. This
and one or more very efficient stages of separation head layer deposit is then overridden by the body of
of glassy ash. This could have occurred in the the flow from which the bulk of the vitric-rich ash is
eruption column, and subsequently from resulting deposited. Again, the initial fragmentation mode of
pyroclastic flows and secondary eruption columns, these deposits was pyroclastic. They were initially
perhaps generated when the initial pyroclastic flows transported and deposited by pyroclastic processes,
entered the sea and interacted explosively with it and then finally retransported and redeposited,
after the model ofG. P. L. Walker (1979). This led perhaps appreciable distances, by epiclastic mass-
to contemporaneous submarine slumping and flow processes which were apparently entirely
submarine mass-flow redeposition by turbidity responsible for producing crystal-rich layers. A
currents, during which more fines were elutriated similar origin was proposed earlier for crystal-rich
from the head and body of such flows (Sparks & layers in the Dali Ash by J. V. Wright and Mutti
C. J. N. Wilson 1983). (1981; Ch. 9).
Given that there are many sedimentation units The terminology for this class of deposit is
and that these occur in compositionally discrete perhaps the most problematic. The terminology
stratigraphic packets (Cas 1978b), with minor used should reflect both the initial pyroclastic
interstratified background basinal sediments influence during eruption, fragmentation and initial
(hemipelagic pelites, greywackes), it appears that pyroclastic transport, and the influence of the final
such a process was repeated many times in quick epiclastic mode of transportation, given that this
succession. Cas et al. (1981) suggested a similar type of deposit is not an in situ pyroclastic deposit.
origin for part of the Kowmung Volcaniclastics of Terms such as 'crystal tuff and 'crystal-lithic tuff
the southeastern Hill End Trough, and it is clear are inappropriate. These deposits are tuffaceous or
from the stratigraphic account of Packham (1968) pyroclastic sediments, and therefore qualified terms
that many more such events are recorded in the such as tuffaceous sandstone, arenite, siltstone,
stratigraphic record of the Hill End Trough. lutite, etc., are more appropriate.
'CRYSTAL TUFF' DEPOSITS 345
(a) Explosive eruption of crystal- rich maoma (d) Pallaoe of pyroclastic flow Into a water
body ex plollv e Interaction prod ucino
lecondar y r ootlesl venti
(~SF,~,:~
Cu. ;h/'0;Y'.&s::-0)
\,( , '-=-'-.:.-/
:,(" 5- conc.nlfa/,M 01 eryS/al.
rand ",hies) In low" port
of .ruplNJII column OfICI tioW'l'tWmd
It) 'muldI, ' dl, fQnCU
conc,nlrD/lon 01 "lsIOls
m/o body of flo w ;
lJu;tifsol/Dn Qnd , Iufr /allon
01 lin,s In IrOllln9 dl/ul.
I.dlm,nl cloudJ
Figure 11.6 (aHf) Schematic representation of the factors controlling the formation of crystal-rich pyroclastic and epiclastic
volcaniclastic deposits.
OVERVIEW 347
Formation of the South Georgia back arc basin as owe their origin to explosive eruption of a relatively
'crystal-lithic tuffs'. In places this nomenclature is highly crystallised magma. Thereafter they may be
qualified as 'turbiditic', indicating that the mode of modified by efficient fractionation processes in-
transportation and deposition was by epiclastic volved with pyroclastic or epiclastic transportation
turbidity currents. However, in spite of this it is not and deposition processes, or both. The latter could
convincingly demonstrated that the volcaniclastics transport such aggregates well away from source.
had a pyroclastic fragmentation mode, although it The analysis of such deposits must involve
seems likely. The use of 'turbiditic' is a valuable determination of the modes of fragmentation and
qualification in this case, but given the epiclastic the modes of transportation and deposition in-
influences, 'tuffs' could be dropped in favour of dependently of each other. The determination of the
'tuffaceous sandstones'. Unless the inferred pyro- full history of these deposits (and others) is best
clastic fragmentation origin is demonstrable, a attempted by an integrated approach involving
preferable term may be 'crystal-lithic volcanic understanding of sedimentological, volcanological,
sandstone' . petrological and chemical concepts as outlined by
Cas (l983a), and herein.
Summary
Epiclastic derivation of crystal-rich volcaniclastics
is also a common way of producing crystal-rich 11.7 Further reading
volcaniclastics. Given the major role of epiclastic
processes, the final deposit should bear the imprint To our knowledge, this topic has not been ad-
of reworking or redeposition, or both, in terms of equately covered elsewhere.
textures and field facies characteristics (Ch. lO).
11.6 Overview
The foregoing has clearly demonstrated that the
genesis of crystal-rich volcaniclastics may be
complex (Fig. 11.6). In many cases they probably
Plate 12 Poorly sorted, matrix-supported volcanic breccia on the upper slopes of Mt Ruapehu on Pinnicle Ridge. Is this volcanic
breccia an explosion breccia (i.e. agglomerate) or a redeposited epiciastic breccia? The open framework character, the
sandy-muddy matrix, and the thick massive nature suggest the latter, which is consistent with the well-known frequency of
debris flow and lahar events on Mt Ruapehu.
348
CHAPTER TWELVE
Classification ofmodern
and ancient volcaniclastic
rocks ofpyroclastic and
epiclastic origins
Initial statement discussed and, finally, we comment on the nomen-
clature of quench-fragmented and auto brecciated
In this chapter we first provide classification (flow brecciated) volcaniclastics.
schemes for modern pyroclastic deposits. We then
describe an approach to the classification oflithified,
indurated and metamorphosed volcaniclastic rocks 12.1 Introduction
of the rock record, stressing the problems, and the
caution needed in giving names, even with basic From the foregoing chapters it should be apparent
genetic meanings, to such rocks. This is followed that recent work on young volcaniclastic deposits
by a discussion of descriptive lithological criteria has shown that genetic nomenclature is useful in
and their relevance in determining the genesis of representing our understanding of fragmentation,
ancient volcaniclastic rocks. The problems associ- transportational and depositional mechanisms,
ated with the use of the terms 'agglomerate' and especially for pyroclastic deposits. It should also be
'vulcanian' for ancient volcaniclastic rocks are clear that genetic terminology cannot always be
349
350 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANICLASTIC ROCKS
immediately applied, especially to ancient volcani- A. E. Wright & Bowes 1963, Parsons 1969, J. V.
clastic rocks, because of the problems caused by Wright et al. 1980, Schmid 1981). J. V. Wright et
poor exposure, lack of exposure of contact relation- al. (1980) indicated that at least two systems are
ships, weathering, alteration, metamorphism and required:
deformation (Ch. 14). In both modern and ancient genetic classification and
volcanic terrains two different approaches to lithological classification
nomenclature of deposits are needed. An initial
The purpose of a genetic classification is to
non-genetic approach is required, especially for
interpret the genesis of deposits which can then be
those working on ancient successions. Application
related to the history, eruptive pattern and mechan-
of genetic terminology should be .a final step after
isms of a volcano or volcanic terrain. The purpose
all lithological and field facies characteristics have
of a lithological classification is primarily des-
been evaluated, induding consideration of both the
criptive, describing and documenting the major
modes of fragmentation and final deposition.
characteristics of a deposit, such as grainsize and
However, this approach is not obviously em-
constituent fragments. However, these features
bodied in the recommendations of the lUGS
themselves may indicate a particular process and
Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous
allow some conclusions to be made about the
Rocks in their publication on the 'Descriptive
genesis of a deposit.
nomenclature and classification of pyroclastic de-
posits and fragments' (Schmid 1981). Although
12.2.1 GENETIC CLASSIFICATION
Schmid (1981) professes that the approach used is
descriptive rather than genetic, this is not borne out The genesis of a pyroclastic deposit is partly
by the use of terms such as 'tuff and 'agglomerate'. deduced from its lithology, but also from geometry
The nomenclature scheme proposed by Schmid and field relations. Because of this, a genetic
only has application to hand specimen and petrographic classification can only be rigorously applied in the
characteristics being based largely on grainsize, and field to very young, well exposed Quaternary
to some degree on grain types and morphology and deposits. However, even then initial description
fails in not comprehensively reviewing necessary and consideration of the total facies characteristics
field facies characteristics. It is a scheme that should be made before a genetic name can be
merely duplicates the valuable contributions of applied. As discussed in Chapter 1, the term
Fisher (1961, 1966b), does not contribute anything 'pyroclastic', or rock names pertaining to a pyro-
significantly new to Fisher's summaries and does clastic origin (e.g. ash or tuff, agglomerate) should
not attempt to go that one step further in the only be applied to deposits or rocks with a
process of genetic interpretation - that of identifying demonstrated pyroclastic mode of fragmentation
the transportational and depositional origins of and a pyroclastic depositional origin. We have
volcaniclastics. Without considering these aspects already discussed in Chapter 5 how pyroclastic
erroneous use of names can easily occur. We hope deposits can be divided into those derived from:
that by reading this book, particularly this chapter,
pyroclastic falls,
and Appendix II, a clear approach to objective
pyroclastic flows and
description and nomenclature, and then to genetic
pyroclastic surges,
interpretation and nomenclature, will become
apparent. and this will be the basis of the following classifi-
cation schemes.
12.2 Modern pyroclastic deposits Pyroclaslic fall deposils
There is no unique approach to classifying modern For pyroclastic fall deposits the classification scheme
pyroclastic deposits. Many schemes and approaches of G. P. L. Walker (1973b) (Ch. 6) is the most
have been proposed (e.g. Fisher 1960,1961, 1966b, practical approach yet proposed for working on
MODERN PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS 351
* Dispersal and fragmentation of vulcan ian fall deposits depends on whether they are generated by short-lived explosions or
periods of intense maintained explosions (Ch. 6).
t Most sub-plinian and nearly all plinian deposits that have been documented are pumice falls. However, scoria-fall deposits
that are sub-plinian and even plinian in their dispersal characteristics are known (Ch. 6).
+ The type examples used to define these terms were basaltic for surtseyan and rhyolitic for phreatoplinian but. given the
right conditions, it may be possible to find rhyolitic surtseyan and even basaltic phreatoplinian ash falls (Ch 6). Further
studies are needed to characterise air-fall deposits produced in different types of hydrovolcanic eruption, i.e. between true
surtseyan (open vent in a surface body of water - lake, sea) and those formed by interaction of magma and ground water,
but having surtseyan dispersal characteristics.
modern pyroclastic fall deposits. As already discus- the type generated at Mt St Helens in 1980 and
sed, this quantitative scheme relies on the accurate Bandai-san in 1888 (Ch. 5).
mapping of a deposit and detailed granulometric One term that needs further comment is 'nuee
analysis (see Figs 6.15, 16 & 21). Enough data for ardente', meaning glowing cloud. This was first
plinian and sub-plinian deposits are also now avail- used by La Croix (1903, 1904) to describe pyro-
able to use thickness or maximum clast size to clastic flows he observed during the 1902 Mt Pelee
characterise them on 'area plots' (Figs 6.18 & 19). eruption. In a later publication La Croix (1930)
These plots have certain advantages because if, for expanded the use of the term to include all types of
reasons of time or geography, it is not possible to pyroclastic flows. 'Nuee ardente' has since become
map a deposit to the 0.01 isopach, or to carry out an widely used, but in the past few years it has become
extensive programme of sieving, the deposit can still somewhat unfashionable (e.g. see Nairn & Self
be accurately classified. A summary of this genetic 1978, J. V. Wright et ai. 1980). This is because the
scheme for pyroclastic fall deposits is given in Table term was used too generally to describe eruptions
12.1. from many volcanoes, as well as to describe the
mechanism producing widespread ignimbrite
Pyroclastic flow deposits sheets. More-meaningful words should be used to
Pyroclastic flow deposits have been described by a describe the processes and deposits, as it is quite
lexicon of terms and classified in numerous ways. A obvious that La Croix meant 'glowing cloud' to
genetic scheme for the three main types of pyro- describe the complete volcanic phenomenon (both
clastic flow deposit (Chs 5, 7 & 8) is given in Table overriding ash cloud and basal underflow or pyro-
12.2. This is based on the eruptive mechanism and clastic flow proper), and we now know these behave
characteristics of the deposit, and is adapted from differently during transport, and produce very
J. V. Wright et ai. (1980). Some of the other names different types of deposit.
used for these types of flow deposit are shown in Although 'glowing cloud' is perhaps a very good
Table 12.3, which attempts to compare various description of how some small volume pyroclastic
classifications. In our scheme we have also included flows appear when moving down the sides of large
deposits of hot, dry volcaniclastic debris flows of volcanic cones, we would suggest that their deposits
352 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANICLASTIC ROCKS
ignimbrite, pumice
scoria flow
ash-flow tuff*
* In a strict definition, 'ash-flow tuff' should only refer to deposits with >50 wt% finer than 2 mm. 'Ignimbrite' and 'pumice-
flow deposit' can be used more loosely irrespective of grainsize, although 'pumice-flow deposit' is sometimes used to
emphasise those flow deposits with a large proportion of bomb-sized pumice fragments.
(small VOlume)} .
St Vincent type
scoria flow scoria-flow St Vincent-type
deposit
block and ash flow* } sakurajima-type}
Pelean-type small-volume ash-flow
block and ash flowt block- and ash- Pelee-type tuffs (0.001-1.0 km 3 )
flow deposit
block and ash flow:j: Merapi-type Merapi-type
phreatomagmatic juvenile
(outward moving radial base surge cold. wet (vesiculated to
collar and column collapse) (hot. dry) non-vesiculated) ;
accessory lithics
accompanying
pyroclastic fall
eruptions (but ground surge hot. dry juvenile
without generation of (vesiculated)
a pyroclastic flow)
can be better categorised in the manner indicated (1961, 1966b). Concerning the overall grainsize
here. Alternatively, as suggested by J. V. Wright et distribution, granulometric analysis of non-welded
al. (1980), we should restrict 'nuee ardente' to its and unlithified pyroclastic deposits can be an
original definition and only use it for pyroclastic important discriminant in distinguishing different
flows produced by collapse of an actively growing types of deposit. We have seen that a convenient
lava flow or dome. This is indicated in Table 12.2. way of representing grainsize data is an Mdq,loq, plot
eCho 5; App. I). Pyroclastic flow deposits usually
Pyroclastic surge deposits have 0q, values greater than 2.0, whereas in general,
A classification of pyroclastic surges is given in pyroclastic fall deposits have values less than 2.0.
Table 12.4. Ground and ash cloud surges ac- Mdq/oq, plots of pyroclastic surge deposits tend to
companying pyroclastic flows are generated by the overlap both fields. Individual laminae of surge
whole spectrum of mechanisms indicated in Table deposits can be well sorted, while channel samples
12.2. through several laminae are often poorly sorted.
Ground and ash-cloud surges may be better sorted
than base surge deposits, and this may be due to the
12.2.2 LITHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICA nON
cohesion of water-saturated fine ash in the base-
The main bases of a lithological classification are: surge clouds. However, an Mdq,l0q, plot should be
viewed with caution, and not used alone to interpret
the grainsize limits and overall size distribution of the origin of a deposit. Pyroclastic deposits are
the deposit, formed by complex processes. For example, some
the constituent fragments of the deposit and concentration zones or segregation structures in
the degree and type of welding. pyroclastic flow deposits may be as well sorted as
pyroclastic fall deposits or, conversely, some
Grainsize phreatomagmatic ash-fall deposits may be as poorly
Table 12.5 summarises the grain size limits of sorted as flow deposits. In the more-recent publi-
pyroclastic fragments from the schemes of Fisher cations other types of grainsize plots are being used,
354 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANICLASTIC ROCKS
Table 12.5 Grainsize limits for proven pyroclastic fragments and pyroclastic aggregates
(after R. V. Fisher 1961, 1966b).
round and
fluidally shaped angular
agglomerate agglomerate
coarse (bombs) (bombs)
256 - - - - - - - - bombs blocks or or
fine pyroclastic pyroclastic
breccia breccia
~------------------------------~
Table 12.6 Summary of the components in pyroclastic deposits (after J. V. Wright et al. 1980).
Vesicular Non-vesicular
block and ash flow and surge. poor to moderately cognate lithics accidental lithics
(nuee ardente) vesicular juvenile clasts and crystals
and again these should be treated with the same outcrop and applies a genetic classification or
caution. terminology. For example, devitrification of an
originally glassy lava can produce an equigranular
Constituent fragments mosaic or spherulitic texture, so giving a pseudo-
A summary of the dominant components in a granularity in hand specimen. Metamorphism and
pyroclastic deposit provides a qualitative lithological weathering can further accentuate this, so producing
description as well as information on the genesis a granular texture which may be very difficult to
(Table 12.6). distinguish from a truly fragmental texture. Thin
section examination may be no more helpful than
Welding the hand specimen, because t4e original glassy
We have already discussed the process of welding character of the rock may have been overprinted,
and the lithological variations it can produce in with the distinction between a coherent glassy
Chapters 6 and 8. groundmass and vitriclastic (e.g. shards) or epi-
clastic textures being difficult to identify.
Application of genetic terminology to lithified
12.3 Classification oflithified, indurated volcaniclastics should therefore be avoided until
and metamorphosed volcaniclastic thorough evaluation of the complete set of character-
rocks istics of the lithology (or lithologies) has been made,
including:
The foregoing review of the classification of modern
(a) hand specimen characteristics (textural,
pyroclastics is an essential prelude to the con-
compositional) ,
sideration of ancient volcanic successions because it
(b) outcrop characteristics (bedded as opposed to
gives an appreciation of the great range of products
massive; structures and fabrics that are essen-
produced by a diversity of observed (or confidently
tially contemporaneous with emplacement),
inferred) processes in, around and stemming from
(c) contact relationships (sharp or continuous,
modern volcanic vents and centres. Such an aware-
gradational) ,
ness of the possible range of origins is critical for
(d) geometry (three-dimensional form and
the geologist working in ancient successions be-
thickness),
cause, in most instances, the definitive context and
(e) associated facies and
spatial relationship to vent or volcanic centre, that
(f) context and palaeogeographic setting.
are often (but not always) observable or inferable
for modern successions, are lacking. The approach Rarely will anyone of these, or any single
therefore initially has to be more objective and less outcrop, be definitive enough to allow an un-
genetic, with the overall context, extent and equivocal interpretation of the genesis. Further-
characteristics of the lithological unites) having to more, it cannot be assumed, as is commonly done,
be established. that because a rock is volcaniclastic it had a
Other factors which complicate the genetic in- pyroclastic origin. Even having demonstrated that a
terpretation and classification of lithified volcani- rock is of probable pyroclastic origin, it cannot be
clastics include: devitrification, recrystallisation, assumed that it was deposited close to the vent, as is
new mineral growth during diagenesis and low also often done.
grade metamorphism, and deformation, all of Finally, it cannot be assumed that the imprint
which lead to modification of original textures and and character produced by a particular mode of
mineralogy to varying degrees (Ch. 14). Add to this eruption will reflect the final transportational and
that epiclastic volcaniclastics can also be exceedingly depositional mode. For example, pyroclastically
abundant, and equally modified, and that modern fragmented detritus (crystals, pumice, shards) can
weathering also takes its toll in producing con- be transported and deposited by means other than
fusion. It is then a brave person who walks up to an pyroclastic ones (e.g. surface reworking, lahars,
356 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANICLASTIC ROCKS
Table 12.7 Non-genetic classification of volcaniclastic rocks For example, the term 'agglomerate' (which has
(modified from R. V. Fisher 1961) distinct genetic connotations, see Section 12.5), is
frequently used for any volcanic breccia but, as
Volcanic breccia
closed framework seen in Table 12.8, there are over twenty ways of
open framework producing volcanic breccias!
non-cohesive. granular matrix Another example is accretionary lapilli, which
cohesive mud-sized matrix are generally assumed to be diagnostic of air-fall
deposits, formed by rainfall through a downwind
Volcanic conglomerate
closed framework ash cloud or from a moisture-laden eruption
open framework column, especially a phreatomagmatic column. It is
non-cohesive, granular matrix now known that accretionary lapilli are perhaps
cohesive mud-sized matrix more commonly generated within the explosive
2 mm-------------~------------2 mm eruption column, particularly within those of
phreatomagmatic eruptions (Ch. 5). They are
Volcanic sandstone therefore common in base surge deposits and some
0.0625 mm--------------------0.0625 mm ignimbrites, as well as surtseyan and phreatoplinian
ash-fall deposits (Fig. 5.24). They have also been
Volcanic mudstone
noted in fossil fumarole pipes in ignimbrites, and
volcanic si Itstone could form in the secondary explosion columns of
if sufficiently well sorted
) rootless vents formed where pyroclastic flows or
and volcanic origin is clear
volcanic claystone
lavas interact explosively with a body of water (Ch.
3) or ice.
subaqueous mass flows; Ch. 10) and in environ- The following is a brief listing of important
ments away from the near vent area. Consideration descriptive properties of volcaniclastics and some
of genesis therefore involves consideration of both the qualifying comments on their usefulness or limi-
fragmentation mode and final depositional mode. tations. The assemblage of properties should be
A useful starting place with ancient volcaniclastic used together with the larger-scaled outcrop and
rocks before attempting any kind of genetic classifi- field properties and relationships to evaluate the
cation, as presented in Section 12.2, is Fisher's genesis. The majority of the listed properties are
(1961) suggested non-genetic nomenclature. sedimentological in origin, and we feel that such an
Following Fisher's lead, a suggested initial non- approach is a useful one.
genetic terminology is given in Table 12.7. If a
Textural:
wholly pyroclastic, rather than epiclastic, origin can
coherent crystalline Igneous texture versus frag-
be established, then the nomenclature of Table 12.5
mental texture
can be used, and if beyond that the pyroclastic
welding
transportation and depositional origins can be
graznsIze
established, then the appropriate nomenclature of
sorting
Tables 12.1-12.4 can be used.
shape
angularity or rounding, and
framework type
12.4 Descriptive lithological aspects of
ancient volcaniclastic rocks relevant Compositional:
to determining their genesis compositional affinities
compositional homogeneity, and
Few of the textural or compositional characteristics clastic components.
of volcaniclastics are by themselves indicative of
one particular mode offragmentation or deposition.
LITHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ANCIENT ROCKS 357
Table 12.8 Grainsize-textural classes of volcaniclastic rocks and some possible origins (see App. II for sugg0sted diagnostic
characteristics).
B conglomerate - open framework 5 epiclastic reworking and mass-flow redeposition (deposits with granular matrix)
(rounded clasts essential) 6 cohesive pebbly mudflows and lahars
7 non-welded (uncollapsed pumice) ignimbrite and scoria-flow deposits
C breccia - closed framework 8 epiclastic redeposition and mass-wastage (includes gravitational collapse,
(angular clasts essential) including caldera margin collapse breccias)
9 aa lavas
10 block lavas
11 lava dome and flow-front talus deposits
12 agglutinates
13 agglomerates
14 quench-fragmented lavas, cryptodomes and shallow intrusives (hyaloclastites)
15 hydrothermal explosion breccias
16 hydraulic fracture breccias
17 pumice-fall deposits
18 scoria-fall deposits
19 lithic concentration zones (base of layer 2b) and ground layers of
violent ignimbrites
20 co-ignimbrite breccias (lag breccias and ground breccias)
21 fines-depleted ignimbrite
F mudstone 38 epiclastic
(mud-sized grade predominant) 39 fine-grained ignimbrite
40 air-fall ashes or tuffs
41 surge deposits
358 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANICLASTIC ROCKS
Flattened, attenuated pumice fragments (fiamme) mixtures of crystals, glassy fragments and cognate
and in thin section, plastically deformed shards, are lithics may be a compositionally homogeneous
indicative of welding. The distinction between assemblage of components because they can all be
euhedral-subhedral and angular crystals may be derived from the one source, reflecting the frag-
indicative of volcaniclastics as opposed to coherent, mentation of a partially crystallised magma.
un-fragmented igneous rocks, but not always so.
Clastic components
Angularity or rounding Abundance of glass shards, pumice or scoria,
Angularity or rounding of clasts should be inter- certainly indicates a pyroclastic eruption mode and
preted with care. Angularity by itself does not possibly, but not necessarily, deposition by pyro-
imply proximity to the vent or a primary volcanic clastic processes. As the crystal or lithic content, or
fragmentation or depositional origin (Ch. 1). the content of both, increases, and if compositional
Rounded clasts imply post-eruptive reworking by homogeneity decreases, a greater diversity of frag-
surface processes, but exceptions occur. mentation and depositional origins, including
Accretionary lapilli are spherical and rounded, but epiclastic origins, becomes more probable.
clearly have a pyroclastic origin. Rounded fluvial
clasts can be picked up by ignimbrites as accidental
lithics. Pumice clasts become rounded in transport 12.5 Use ofthe terms 'agglomerate',
within an ignimbrite. Rounded edges and corners 'vulcanian breccia' and 'tuff in
on crystals (especially volcanic quartz) may be due ancient successions
to magmatic resorption before eruption, rather than
to post-eruptive reworking. 'Agglomerate' and 'vulcanian' are the two terms
that seem to have caused more confusion and
l'ramezvork-type problems than any others in discussion of old
This is not indicative of any particular origin (see volcanic successions. Both can be highly misleading
Table 12.8), but is nevertheless a useful indicator of terms, and we would try to avoid use of either for
transport conditions. ancient volcanic rocks.
An agglomerate is a coarse pyroclastic deposit
composed of a large proportion of rounded,
12.4.2 COMPOSITIONAL fluidally shaped, volcanic bombs (predominant
grain size is >64 mm). It is essential that evidence
Compositional affinities of true volcanic bombs be present (e.g. shaped or
The actual compositional affinities of a volcanic breadcrust types or bomb sags). In the strict sense
rock are of little use in determining the genesis, the term implies a fall deposit (Table 12.6), and is a
except for the fact that volumetrically the majority very good indicator of proximity to the vent. It is
of basaltic products are lavas, while the majority of perhaps best applied to the scoria deposits that
silicic products are pyroclastic. build strombolian cones (Figs 6.5 & 8).
The main problem is that geologists working in
Compositional homogeneity ancient volcanic successions have used the term
Compositional homogeneity of the clastic aggregate 'agglomerate' indiscriminately for any volcanic
may be useful in identifying the degree of re- breccia, and then, even worse, suggested connec-
working, if any, of the aggregate. Homogeneity is tions with distance from vent or volcanic centre,
probably best evaluated from lithic components, which in many cases could be totally wrong.
including partially crystallised glassy fragments. Caution is necessary when using this term or
Their compositional, and for that matter textural interpreting other geologists' work and maps in
homogeneity, should reflect the degree of mixing of which it is used, because of the obvious genetic
different source materials. Note, however, that implications of the term.
360 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANICLASTIC ROCKS
'Vulcanian' is often applied to (bedded) se- mented by normal surface processes (weathering,
quences of volcanic breccias, and as with 'agglo- physical abrasion, gravitational collapse) or were
merate', suggests proximity to the vent. However, deposited by normal surface processes, irrespective
as described in Chapter 5, vulcanian air-fall deposits of the mode of fragmentation, or both. Therefore,
from individual eruptions are thin, small-volume where pyroclastic deposits are reworked or re-
stratified ash deposits, although near vent they deposited, or both, to any degree by epiclastic
contain large ballistic blocks and bombs. Vulcanian processes (Ch. 10; interpretation comes again from
deposits have a low preservation potential. To facies characteristics) genetic terms such as 'agglo-
identify a breccia as vulcanian in an ancient merate' and 'tuff can no longer be used (Ch. 11).
succession, evidence of ballistic blocks and bombs The deposit is then a volcanic gravel (? breccia),
with bomb sags must be present and, again, as with sand or mud or, where lithified, a volcanic breccia,
agglomerates, most rocks identified as such in the sandstone or mudstone. If such a' deposit still
record are in fact other types of volcanic breccia. clearly contains evidence of its pyroclastic frag-
Although denser clast types of pyroclastic flows mentation mode, then qualifying terms may be
are commonly generated during vulcanian eruptions used, e.g. 'tuffaceous sandstone' or tuffaceous
(Chs 5 & 6), such volcanic breccias are better 'mudstone'. In this way, the general textural
described as scoria-flow deposits or block- and ash- character and the combined influences of pyro-
flow deposits. This avoids the implication that clastic and epiclastic processes in the formation of
'vulcanian breccias' are necessarily near vent. the aggregates are clearly reflected. In some
'Tuff is the lithified equivalent of an ash deposit countries the term 'tuffite' is used for such re-
(Table 12.5). Both terms are genetic and should deposited pyroclastic deposits.
only be applied to aggregates that have been
demonstrably fragmented and deposited by pyroclastic
processes, and in which the grain size of the 12.7 Nomenclature of quench-fragmented
pyroclasts is <2 mm. Where significant propor- and auto brecciatedvolcaniclastics
tions of lapilli also occur (> 10%) the terms lapilli-
ash and lapilli-tuff can be used. The pyroclastic In the foregoing sections we have essentially
fragmentation mode is interpreted from the grain addressed the nomenclature of pyroclastics and
morphology (Ch. 3) and the pyroclastic depositional epiclastics. Quench-fragmented and autobrecciated
mode from field facies characteristics (Chs 5-9). volcaniclastics do not fit into either category, and
Where more-comprehensive indications of the this point cannot be stressed strongly enough.
transport and depositional origins are required, Many workers equate aggregates of angular
terms such as 'ignimbrite', 'air-fall tuff and 'base- volcanic fragments with explosive, pyroclastic
surge tuff can be used. origins. However, in subaqueous, and especially in
deep subaqueous, settings many such aggregates
are the result of quench fragmentation (chilling and
12.6 The consequences of shattering) or autobrecciation, or both (Ch. 3).
redeposition on nomenclature Quench-fragmentation can produce aggregates
that are coarse and angular or finely granulated.
In Chapter 1, Section 1.3.2 pyroclastic and Such deposits are called hyaloclastites (Ch. 3).
epiclastic deposits were distinguished based on However, in the first instance such an origin may
their modes of fragmentation and final deposition. not be clear, especially in ancient volcanic succes-
Pyroclastic deposits are those which have a demon- sions. The initial approach should be non-genetic-
strated pyroclastic mode of fragmentation and a i.e. the aggregates are either volcanic breccias or
demonstrated pyro-clastic mode of deposition (fall, volcanic sandstones according to the grain size
flow, surge). Epiclastic deposits, as defined in (Table 12.7). If the quench origin can be estab-
Chapter 1, are clastic deposits which were frag- lished, the genetic names to use are 'hyaloclastite
FURTHER READING 361
breccia' and 'hyaloclastite sand-stone'. For determined confidently from the other possible
fluidised mixtures of hyaloclastite and sediment, origins of breccias (Table 12.8; App. II), the
formed either when magma is intruded through, or genetic term 'autobreccia' can be used.
lava flows over wet, unconsolidated sediment (Ch.
3), the term 'peperite' or 'peperitic hyaloclastite'
may be used. However, as discussed in Section 3.6, 12.8 Further reading
the term 'peperite' should be used with care and in
a non-genetic, descriptive sense only, because of The paper by J. V. Wright et al. (1980), much of
the diverse possible origins of deposits with peperitic which has been summarised here, is essential
texture. 'Peperitic breccia' may, in fact, be a reading on the classification of pyroclastic deposits.
preferable less genetic term than 'peperite'. The earlier literature, especially the papers by
A similar approach should be used towards Fisher (1960, 1961, 1966b) and Parsons (1969) are
autobreccias (Ch. 3). In the first instance they are also useful.
volcanic breccias. Once their origins have been
Plate 13 LANDSAT image of the Valles Caldera, New Mexico, the source of the Bandelier Tuff. The caldera has a diameter of
nearly 24 km, and is surrounded by the wide, shallow dipping ignimbrite shield. Note that the arcuate alignment of the dome
complex within the caldera. See text for further discussion of characteristics. (After Sheffield 1983.)
362
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
363
364 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
ses should be appreciated before considering ancient volcanic islands are frequently polygenetic, in-
volcanic successions in Chapter 14. volving not only repeated eruptive phases sep:!rated
by significant repose periods from the one vent, but
also being marked by multiple vents or eruptive
13.1 Monogenetic and polygenetic centres. The island of Hawaii hosts several major
volcanoes volcanoes in their own right: Mauna Loa, Mauna
Kea, Kohala, Hualalai and Kilauea (Fig. B.lb),
Volcanoes can be subdivided into two types: not to mention numerous other smaller ones. The
monogenetic and polygenetic. Monogenetic vol- whole complex is clearly a major polygenetic
canoes are built up by the products of one eruption centre.
or one eruptive phase, while polygenetic volcanoes A significant distinction between monogenetic
are those resulting from many eruptions, separated and polygene tic volcanoes appears to be that
by relatively long periods and often involving monogenetic volcanoes have a simple magma
different magmas. An eruption from a monogenetic conduit system used only during one eruption or
volcano could last several years, but is essentially one prolonged eruptive phase. However, poly-
one prolonged eruption involving one magma type. genetic volcanoes may have complex 'plumbing
For example, the relatively recent eruptive phases systems', with an intricate, complicated conduit
of Paricutin, Surtsey and Heimey all represent the system that is used many times, or different parts of
activity of monogenetic centres, even though the which are used, during spaced eruptive phases.
activity varied from months, in the case of the 1973
activity on Heimey, to nine years, in the case of
the Paricutin activity. By contrast, the Hawaiian
(a) (b)
j
19
18
HI$lor Ie fl ows
Other flows
o
fault system N
Inferred fault s. o,
I -_ _ ~I
IOkm
conlour lnf.rvol500 melt'l
Figure 13.1 (a) The island of Hawaii and shield volcanoes. (b) Distribution of lava flows and associated vents of
documented historic eruptions along Mauna Loa's southwest rift zone. (After Lipman 1980.)
BASALTIC SHIELD VOLCANOES 365
13.2 Basaltic shield volcanoes shields (Figs 13.1 & 2) have summit calderas, and
major rift zones marked by spatter cones, spatter
In plan view, basaltic shield volcanoes are sym- ramparts, collapse craters (pit craters), scoria cones
metrical and circular to elliptical in shape. In and smaller superimposed (Icelandic) monogenetic
profile they are convex-up piles of basaltic lava, shields, e.g. Mauna Ulu on Kilauea. Eruptions
with gentle slopes of <10. They are built up by within the calderas occur slightly more frequently
frequent eruptions of fluidal basaltic lava from than on the rifts, but it is the eruptions from the
central vents or flank eruptions, or both. The lateral rifts that give these shields their elongate
smallest shields have basal diameters (Ws) of a few form. Mauna Loa and Kilauea have the largest
kilometres (e.g. Mauna Ulu on Hawaii), whereas calderas, both slightly over 5 km in diameter, on
for the largest shields found in the Hawaiian Islands the island of Hawaii, but older shields on other
Ws is over 100 km (e.g. Mauna Loa; Fig. 13.1; Pike islands in the chain have calderas between 10 and
& Clow 1981). Shield heights (Hs) are on average 20 km in diameter. Vents for eruptions within the
about fa Ws. The flanks of basaltic shields are calderas are generally fissures that cut across their
dominated by well defined overlapping lava flows floors. The Halemaumau crater within Kileaua
(Fig. 13.1b). Lithologically, basaltic shield vol- caldera (Fig. 13.2) is somewhat of an exception. It
canoes are almost entirely composed of lava flows. may have a pipe-like vent, although eruptions still
Both pahoehoe and aa types occur; most lavas are tend to occur through fissures at the bottom of the
pahoehoe near the vent and may change to aa with crater, and it has been the site of a lava lake many
distance eCho 4). times. As well as lavas and minor pyroclastics, the
Other than basalt lavas in the pile, there may be shields are also built by high level intrusions which
minor 1%) pyroclastic deposits, including scoria may be present in the walls of the summit calderas
fall deposits of limited dispersal (hawaiian, strom- (Fig. 13.3).
bolian), and deposits produced by phreatomagmatic The two most active shields on Hawaii are
and phreatic explosions. Oxidised soil horizons (red Kilauea and Mauna Loa. Mauna Loa is the world's
boles) and epiclastic layers which may be of diverse largest active volcano, rising nearly 9 km from the
origins (e.g. glacial as on Mauna Kea; Porter 1979) Pacific Ocean floor to its summit at 4169 m above
may also be interbedded. From Figure 13.1 b it is sea level. The total volume of Mauna Loa is around
obvious that in detail the lava pile will have a 40000 km 3 . At their present combined growth
complex stratigraphy, and it is certainly not of rates (including intrusions) of ~0.1 km 3 year- I
layer-cake character. (Swanson 1972) both Mauna Loa and Kilauea could
In the literature basaltic shield volcanoes are have been built in less than 1 Ma. However, much
sometimes divided into different types. The two of Mauna Loa and Kilauea is likely to consist of
most important are: pillow lava formed by submarine extrusions as the
volcanoes rose from the sea bottom, in the same
Hawaiian or large shields and way as seamounts grow (Section 13.10; Fig. 13.50;
Icelandic or small shields Ch. 15). These shields therefore closely interface
and a third type we shall describe is: with the marine environment. Some of the im-
portant structural features of the shields such as
Galapagos shields. rifts can be traced offshore (e.g. Fornari et al.
1979). Gravity sliding and slumping of their flanks
into the ocean basin has also occurred, e.g. at
13.2.1 HAWAIIAN SHIELDS
Kilauea (Duffield et al. 1982). The southern flank
The Hawaiian volcanoes are well known through of Kilauea is constantly being displaced towards the
the studies of Gordon MacDonald and the reader sea along normal faults (pali) as a result of
should refer to MacDonald (1972) and MacDonald oversteepening caused by addition of lava flows and
and Abbott (1979). The largest polygenetic basaltic the intrusion of magma into the summit and rift
366 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
---
Figure 13.2 Map of Kilauea
shield volcano showing
o Zkm eruption centres, principal rift
....' - - ' - --"
Conlou, 1.1... 01 on mel,es zones, fault systems and pit
craters.
zones (Figs l3.1 & 2). The area south of the Hilina These are concentrated along the rift zones of the
Fault system may be part of a large gravity slide volcano and reach a density of eight per square
extending to the base of the volcano at abyssal kilometre (Fig. 13.4). The explosive eruption of a
depths (e.g. J. G. Moore 1964). rare highly differentiated trachytic magma on
Volcanologists have recognised a series of stages Hualalai formed the Puu Waawaa pumice cone
in the growth of the Hawaiian shields, and these are (located on Fig. l3.1). A high aspect ratio lava flow
sometimes named after the volcano showing those was also extruded during this eruption and this is
characteristics, e.g. Mauna Kea stage. Although we morphologically very different from the basaltic
do not wish to go into details here, it is important to lavas of this shield or elsewhere on the island.
note that compositional differences occur between Frequency of eruptions also decreases with time,
the different stages, and lavas and other erupted but the precise nature of the transition between
products change from tholeiitic, becoming more stages in terms of compositional and output vari-
alkalic with time, although some of the earliest ations remains unclear. This is discussed by
submarine products may be alkaline. More ex- Feigensen and Spera (1981), who presented a
plosive activity accompanies the eruptions of alka- dynamic model for temporal variation in magma
line magmas, and over 300 scoria cones have been type and eruption interval at Kohala volcano.
built on the sides of Mauna Kea during the last
phase of its eruptive activity (Porter 1972, 1973).
BASALTIC SHIELD VOLCANOES 367
(a)
/
/
o
~ 0
/'/' ---
". J
-
- - - - - - 2 5 0 0 m"
..-
0
))
""':"--..............
o
0
./
~\
/"
/ /// ..----3 G (
/ OOO",~__
/ 0. -- -----' \\
( . .V" // ( . \
/
/" .//
"""
.J~
//
/
/
/
/0 -35
"''''0-_ 6l \\,
// 10
\'
00
/ /1
/ . I
01~
) I \
I
I
0 (
J
J @ \
r. 0\
rt~/ I
0/
/
/
/
\ /
( /
I
o '\ 0 /
o
~~ //~~
Figure 13.4 Map showing
o 4km
~'--~--~----'-~'
perhaps indicative of the style of activity involved in Flood basalts are some of the largest single
the building of Icelandic shield volcanoes. The eruptive units known, and are believed to have
Surtsey eruption involved the eruption of over flowed great distances from source eCho 4). Re-
2 km 3 over the four years of activity. The activity of peated eruptions build up a flood basalt pile,
Mauna Ulu on the flanks of Kilauea in 1969 to 1974 forming a vast lava plateau which may cover areas
can also be cited as an example of the duration and of > 106 km 2 , and which generally has slopes
style of eruption producing Icelandic shield <2-3. These are typified by the Columbia River
volcanoes. Plateau in Washington, Oregon and Idaho which is
of mid-Miocene age (Fig. 4.1b). The Columbia
River Plateau basalts cover an area of about
13.2.3 GALApAGOS SHIELDS
220 000 km 2 , have an estimated volume of
The Galapagos Islands of Isabela and Fernandia 195 000 km 3 , and were erupted during a very short
have several major polygene tic shield volcanoes. interval of only 2 or 3 Ma (Swanson et al. 1975,
These are very regularly spaced occurring about Swanson & Wright 1981, H. Williams & McBirney
35-40 km apart at the intersections of orthogonal 1979). Other younger examples occur in Iceland
tectonic lineaments. Ws at sea level varies from 45 (G. P. L. Walker 1963), the Tertiary North
to 80 km, and Hs is between 3000 and 3500 m Atlantic volcanic province, and the mid-Tertiary
above sea level (Pike & Clow 1981). These shields Ethiopian-Yemen plateaux. Older examples in-
have gentle lower slopes which rise to steeper clude the Cretaceous Deccan Traps in northwestern
central slopes that flatten off around spectacular India, which cover an area of more than 500 000
summit calderas. The summit calderas are between km 2 and have a volume of more than 1 million km 3
3.0 and 8.7 km in diameter (the largest being on (Choubey 1973, Subbarao & Sukheswala 1981), the
Sierra Negra), and are surrounded by well defined Cretaceous Parana plateau of southern Brazil-
concentric fissures which are marked by small Uruguay, the Jurassic Karoo in South Africa, the
scoria and spatter cones. Lavas have been erupted central sector of the Siberian platform, which is
from these, some pouring back into calderas, and early Mesozoic in age, and the Proterozoic Kewe-
lavas have also issued from radial fissures on the enawan district of north-central America.
flanks of the shields. Alkaline basalt is more Many flood basalt plateaux are closely associated
important than in the Hawaiian shields. It has been with the initiation and early development of rifted
suggested the high level intrusion of dykes and sills continental margins eCho 15). Some of the above
may account for their characteristic shape. examples became active during the formation of
new continental margins born with the Mesozoic-
Cenozoic fragmentation of Pangaea. The Ethiopian
13.3 The source vents in flood basalt flood basalt province, the evolution of which has
plateau and plains basalt provinces been recently reviewed by Mohr (1983), is shown in
Figure 13.6. The area covered by Tertiary flood
So far we have looked at volcanic centres dominated basalts in Ethiopia (even excluding the once con-
by effusive, lava-forming eruptions. In this section tiguous Yemen province) is about 600000 km 2 ,
we look at the nature of vent systems with high and must have been close to 750 000 km 2 before
magma discharge rates that are the sO:J.rce of plateau uplift and ensuing erosion occurred during
extensive plateau basalts and plains basalts, as Pleistocene time.
discussed in Section 4.5. This is done to show that The characteristics of flood basalt lavas and their
not all vents are necessarily parts of central or eruptions are described in Chapter 4. Plateaux are
point-source volcanoes. In a strict sense, these vent built of simple lava flows which cover vast areas
systems are source vents to entire provinces rather because they may be erupted at discharge rates as
than single localised volcanoes, but because of their high as 106 m 3 S-I. (Compare this with eruptions
importance, we consider them here. that produce Icelandic shields which may take
370 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
(0) Iniliol downwarp and f roclurln o and near-vent areas (Fig: 13.7, Table 13.1) are
I BROAO PROTO-RIFT
DEPRESSION
defined by remnants of spatter cones and ramparts,
----------~1~ ~ agglutinates and welded scoria which are the typical
(b) Flood batallt and warplno near-vent products of lava-fountaining. Lava flow
units are also more abundant in these areas.
____---F=-=q~~ ~~----- Vent systems within flood basalt plateaux are
(c) Shield volcanou and mlorallon
of f inure zonu
therefore likely to be large and to have complex
stratigraphies, with overlapping spatter cones and
___ ~<1?~:::;:~ interdigitating agglutinated layers, clastogenic lavas
(d) Plaleau uplift and erotlon and welded scoriar fall deposits (Chs 4 & 6).
WESTERN (ETH IO PIAN) Downwind, fall deposits may have formed when
PLATEAU
scoria was not incorporated into moving lava, and
(e) Generallon 01 new crull
because of the very high discharge rates these might
have wide dispersals of perhaps plinian proportions .
. ' ....
n, .. bOlolllc cruI! . '
'.' ..
.' '"
Table 13.1 Vent and near-vent areas for the Roza flood basalt flows (after Swanson et al. 1975).
500 bed of scoria and spatter, welded at base, between two Roza lava flows
2 490 thick beds of spatter and scoria, in places welded, partly define cones and ramparts
4 470 spatter and scoria ramparts and cones overlain and bulldozed by Roza flows
5 470 spatter and scoria, in places welded, interbedded with thin flows; small dykes; relics of
cones and ramparts
6 475 bed of spatter and scoria overlain by a Roza flow
11 760 four thin Roza flow units with interbedded ash and spatter
12 645 thick beds of spatter and scoria, dykes and thin flow units associated with Roza flows
13 790 spatter and cinder
14 770 welded spatter between two Roza flows
15 1035 large cone of spatter and pumice cut by Roza dykes and associated with thin, dense Roza flows
16 1360-1385 thick piles of dense, viscous Roza flows; platy joints and ramp structures
17 1465-1525 thick piles of dense, viscous Roza flows; platy joints and ramp structures
19 610 at least seven dykes (some wider than 2 m) of Roza chemistry and lithology
As discussed in Chapter 4, the vents in plains diameter, and have volumes of less than 7 km 3 .
basalt provinces are both of the central vent type, These low profile shields have also been described
largely within low profile shields, as well as fissure on Hawaii and Iceland (Greeley 1982). In the Snake
systems (Greely 1982). As such, these provinces River Plain, many contemporaneous sets of shields
share characteristics of both flood basalt provinces appear to be aligned in distinctive rift zones,
and shield volcanoes. According to Greeley (1982) representing fissures along which localised eruption
some lava fields consist of coalescing very low points formed.
profile shields, others of moderate-sized, fissure-fed In the type example of plains basaltic provinces,
lavas. The lavas are frequently multiple or com- the Snake River Plain, scoria cones, spatter cones,
pound types, their volumes are small to moderate tuff cones and maars are not common.
(cf. flood lavas) and the inferred magma discharge
rates are considered to be considerably less than
those for flood basalt provinces. 13.4 Scoria cones (and pumice cones)
The lava shields have slopes less than ! except 0
,
at the summit where slopes may rise to 5. The Scoria or cinder cones (Figs 13.8 & 9) are small
summit region may also be marked by one or more volcanic landforms built typically during subaerial
irregular craters. The shields are up to 15 km in strombolian eruptions (Ch. 6) of basaltic and
372 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
(a)
surface pro. lie of aCflve volcano (Fig. 6.8d). The different deposits found in the
prohle ofltr 10000yea" (eQ ChaTn. d.. Puy,)
prahl. after I Ma ('0 0 ) interiors of scoria cones have been fully discussed
prolile oller 4 Mo ( '0 C':alller) and illustrated in Chapter 6. A large proportion of
the explosively ejected scoria is transported down-
~~~~1 ~ prevoiconlll; surface
wind to form a mantling fall deposit of usually
limited dispersal, although more widely dispersed
(sub-plinian and plinian) examples are known (Ch.
6). Most cones have accompanying lava flows which
Figure 13.11 Changes in cone morphology with increasing form during cone-building, or when degassed
age in the Massif Central. France. (After Kieffer 1971.) magma continues to be extruded after explosive
activity has ceased. Scoria cones generally have
have slopes several degrees shallower than the most smaller volumes than their associated lavas, and
recent cones, and that slopes of cones 1 Ma old are
as low as 15 (Fig. 13.11). Cones 4 Ma old are (0 )
x Sun .. 1 Cra lor 10 3 year.
marked only by residual necks, the scoria having + Mt rnom AOt 51 10 4 yta "
been completely removed. With time and increasing Tappan Age 0 .2-0.1my
.. Woodhouse Age 0.6 - 3.0my
degradation, cones show decreases inReo, Reo: Weo
ratio and slope, but the ratio of Wer : Weo does not 300
appear to change (c. A. Wood 1980b). Variation in
Reo and Wco for 38 scoria cones of different ages
from the San Francisco volcanic field are shown in E 200
o
Figure 13.12a (after C. A. Wood 1980b). The two
young cones from this field shown in Figure 13.8 ::r:O
100
are of Merriam age. In Figure 13.12b the future
degradation history of Sunset Crater, which is the
youngest cone in the San Francisco field, is 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 .0 2 .5
therefore the cone only represents a small part of and such fields may be active for 106 years. There
the total magma erupted. are many examples of this type of basaltic volcanic
Scoria cones are typically monogenetic. They field which are today potentially active. One ex-
most commonly occur as isolated cones in large ample is the Newer Volcanics in southeastern
basaltic volcanic fields, but they also occur in Australia (Fig. 13.13), where volcanic centres are
nested clusters within complex tuff ring and maar dated from <5 Ma BP to as young as 4000-
centres (Section 13.5) and as parasitic cones on 6000 years BP (Aziz-Ur-Rahman & McDougall
polygenetic shield and stratovolcanoes, on which 1972, G. Blackburn et at. 1982, Joyce 1975).
they are also essentially monogenetic elements. Basaltic volcanism may be active for much longer
Eruptions range in duration from a few days to a periods (5 x 10 7 years) in the same region when a
few years (e.g. the nine year eruption of Paricutin number of separate magmatic provinces (l06 years)
in Mexico between 1943 and 1952). Of observed are relatively closely related in space and time. The
scoria cone eruptions, 50% have lasted for less than Older Volcanics of Victoria are an example of this,
30 days, and 95% stopped within one year (c. A. and basaltic volcanism persisted from 95 to 17 Ma
Wood 1980a). Later eruptions produce new cones BP (Wellman 1974, Day 1983).
at separation distances of a few kilometres, and it Pumice-forming eruptions can also build steep-
has been speculated (McGetchin & Settle 1975) that sided cones at vent, although pumice cones are not
these distances may be approximately equal to the well documented in the literature. An example
depths of the magma reservoirs. Repose periods in previously mentioned in this chapter is the trachytic
these basaltic fields are in the order of 102_10 3 years, cone Puu Waawaa on the side of the Hualalai shield
-.... -:.& ....
. ..
......... ::. .&'"
'.
..
:.:.:.c,;.=~.'. ..
.. 1' :',0.1. ~.. it
: ~".
.... : ....~ ..'\
...
. t* ""
'!".:.,
". ", . ) ,
'It
....
l'
. o ~ t . '+..
.lAo.J.
.' " -I.,.
~.
.. '.. ' .
...... ". ~.l 0"
. ..
~~
....... '" ",... 0 .... ","
'
o ______
I
~ ~!
50_ _ _ _ _ _ 1 00~m
~I
Figure 13.13 Map showing distribution of scoria cones and other volcanic centres in the Newer Volcanics basaltic field
in southeastern Australia, and relationship to basement contours and sedimentary cover (after Joyce 1975). Mt Elephant
(MEl; Fig. 13.9) is identified, and the maar-type volcanoes (some with associated scoria cones), Lake Purrumbete (P),
Tower Hill (TH) and Mt Leura (ML) and a scoria cone, Mt 'Eccles (MEc) discussed in text and Figures 13.15 & 22, are also
highlighted.
SCORIA CONES 375
(Fig. 13.1). Some very large examples with basal predominantly of steeply dipping, reversely graded
diameters much greater than those found for scoria mass-flow layers, e.g. as at Puu Waawaa. However,
cones occur within La Primavera volcano (e.g. Figs lava spatter, agglutination and welding are probably
4.21a, 4.22e & 13.37; Section 13.9). Larger cones not found except in peralkaline examples (see
have complex stratigraphies and may be poly- Section 6.11). Effusion of lava produces short
genetic. Many smaller ones seem quite similar coulees (Ch. 4).
internally to scoria cones, and are constructed
Figure 13.14 Maars, tuff rings and tuff cones, (a) Crater
(e) Elegante, Pinacate Volcanic Field, Sonora, Mexico (after
C. A. Wood 1979), (b) East Ukinrek Maar, Alaska, View into
crater during eruption on 3 April 1977 (after Kienle et at.
1980), (c) Fort Rock tuff ring, Oregon, USA. with spectacular
wave cut cliffs cut into palagonite, The volcano is an isolated
feature in a flat lake basin; the south rim was breached by
waves of the former lake, (d) Koko Crater tuff cone, Oahu,
Hawaii. (e) Diamond Head tuff cone, Oahu, Hawaii,
376 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
(a) (b)
r-------~~~~----~~~,----------------------,
- LAKE PI)RRI)M8ETE
o,
Ikm
!
~ Siony RItes basal! Figure 13.15 Maps of two maars in the Newer Volcanics
luff cli ff basaltic field. (a) Lake Purrumbete . (b) Tower Hill whi ch is a
poloeocurrenl directIon
_ quarry
very large nested maar- scoria cone complex. The strati-
graphies of these two centres are discussed later in the text.
aquifer-bearing Cainozoic sediments overlies the Figure 13.16 North-south cross section through western
Victoria (see Fig. 13.13) showing the distribution of maar-
Palaeozoic basement (Figs 13.13 & 16). Examples
type craters and other volcanoes (scoria cones and lava
of other magma compositions are also common, shields) in relation to the basement of Palaeozoic rocks and
e.g. rhyolitic (Sheridan & Updike 1975), dacitic trough of Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments. (After Joyce
(Sillitoe et al. 1984), phonolitic (Schmincke et al. 1975.)
MAARS, TUFF RINGS AND TUFF CONES 377
Peuli" pumice
d~po",s
.000 tlU
tOn~lomerOIJ
sandstone 'Upper JUrassIc
and shol~ No nok Formollon
Figure 13.19 Schematic cross section showing the setting of the Ukinrek maars in
Alaska. formed during the April 1977 eruption (also see Figs 13.14b & 5.18c).
Subsurface geology is inferred and shows the proposed basaltic dyke that triggered the
explosive eruption. an evacuated feeder under West Maar which led to collapse of the
crater rim along arcuate fractures. and a dyke feeding a lava dome which was extruded
on the crater floor of East Maar. The ground water contained in the underlying till and
silicic volcaniclastic deposits from nearby Peulik volcano controlled the dominantly
phreatomagmatic course of the eruption. (After Self et al. 1980.)
MAARS, TUFF RINGS AND TUFF CONES 379
.
and constructional phases around the rim during
..... , ...
SOm
suroe
the eruption . On a small scale these may represent , . deposits
"
changes in the direction of movement and velocity
'. ,
surQ! with
minor "
of surge blasts . On a large scale they could result
from a change in the position of the vent, or
air -fall
doposlts
,
, .
-......
..; : ...
. :.-"....!. .
renewed activity from the same vent after a major
..
manlvt'
volcanic air fall
,,~ breccia
0
break in the eruption. '. tuff or
..
laplil l
The evolution and eruptive histories of these depos it
.
volcanoes have been discussed by Wohletz and
Sheridan (1983) and Heiken (1971). Generalised
stratigraphic sections of the deposits found in suroe
with
maars, tuff rings and tuff cones are shown in Figure minor
alr-
13.21. Typically the first deposit to be ejected is a fal/
Figure 13.21 Generalised stratigraphic doposlts
volcanic breccia consisting of coarse angular frag- sections for (a) maars and tuff rings and
ments of broken country rock. This is essentially (b) tuff cones. (After Wohletz & volconic
the product of initial phreatic explosions. Most of Sheridan 1983.) breccia
380 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
metres j-.:s~oll;.........---,
45
40
20
15
10
was initially phreatomagmatic, but there was in- spatter cones, and a lava flow also occurs in the tuff
sufficient water for this phase to continue long ring moat. Base surge layers and scoria-fall deposits
enough to form a tuff ring . At Lake Purrumbete are closely interbedded where the transition from
(Fig. 13.1Sa) abundant ground water was available phreatomagmatic to magmatic activity took place
throughout the eruption which was solely phreato- (Fig. 13.23a) . This may have been due to pulsations
magmatic. Both Mt Leura and Tower Hill (Fig. in the magma discharge rate subtly controlling the
13.1Sb) are major 'nested' tuff ring-or maar-scoria water-magma ratio, and hence the type of eruptive
cone complexes. The eruption at Mt Leura gradually activity. Tower Hill has a much more complex
progressed from a phreatomagmatic phase during eruption history, and the maar crater wall shows a
which a tuff ring was formed to a strombolian phase succession of interbedded phreatomagmatic and
when a scoria cone complex was built (Fig. 6.6a). magmatic deposits (Figs 13 .22 & 23b). Magmatic
Lava fountaining along a fissure also built a series of activity also built a considerable scoria cone complex
MAARS, TUFF RINGS AND TUFF CONES 381
(a)
Figure 13.23 (a) Base surge and scoria-fall deposits near the top of the tuff ring at Mt Leura. Victoria. Australia. showing the
change from phreatomagmatic to strombolian activity. (b) Interbedded phreatomagmatic and scoria-fall deposits (dark layers
with arrows) near top of crater wall at Tower Hill. Victoria. Australia.
382 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
and eruption points were clearly aligned on fissures arinsson 1953). Secondary explosions are caused by
(Fig. 13.1Sb). Constantly alternating phases in the steam trapped under a lava, and small volcaniclastic
style of activity may be due to a very complex cones are built. Littoral cones form in a similar way
interrelationship between rate of supply of water, when basaltic lavas enter the sea, and are best
from a ruptured and fracturing subsurface aquifer, described from Puu Hou, at the southern end of
and magma supply rate (Edney 1984). Hawaii (Fisher 1968). These examples formed in a
The original basaltic glass (sideromelane) in the five day period when two lava channels from the
phreatomagmatic deposits of some craters is quickly 1868 Mauna Loa flow entered the sea. A cone
altered by hydration to palagonite (Hay & Iijima complex consisting of overlapping half-cones was
1968; Ch. 14). This produces indurated and lithified constructed on land. They are built of poorly
tuffs, and primary textures become obscured, bedded hyaloclastite fragments and layers of
especially in layers composed of fine ash. Palago- agglutinated spatter which show crude welding
nitisation seems to be more commonly found in tuff profiles and form clastogenic lavas. Older littoral
cones rather than the other types of crater rw ohletz cones along this stretch of coastline show identical
& Sheridan 1983), although many tuff rings are features (Fig. 13.24).
altered (e.g. Fort Rock, Fig. 13.14c). Wohletz and These types of volcanic cone are important
Sheridan (1983) suggest that this is because tuff palaeoenvironmental indicators, and it is important
cones are largely constructed by less-inflated surges not to misinterpret examples as primary centres
(Ch. 7) containing a high proportion of water which (e.g. see Cheshire & Bell 1977). The distinctive
is then trapped in the ash after emplacement. association of facies to look for is the combination
Alteration of the glass may also be caused by steam of:
moving through the deposits with mild hydro-
thermal activity, as has occurred at Surtsey. (a) pillow lavas,
Eruptions of maars, tuff rings and tuff cones (b) palagonitised hyaloclastite breccias which may
have, rarely, been witnessed. The two Ukinrek show crude foreset bedding (flow-foot brec-
maars which erupted in the tundra of the Alaskan cias) and define a lava delta (Ch. 4) and
Peninsula between 30 March and 9 April 1977 are (c) shallow marine and lacustrine sediments (and
the best documented examples of the formation of marine or freshwater fossils to distinguish
this type of crater (Kienle et al. 1980, Self et al. between marine and lacustrine shorelines).
1980; Figs 13.14b & 19). Historical eruptions
forming maars suggest durations from a few days to
a few weeks. The eruption that produced Tower 13.7 Stratovolcanoes
Hill deposits perhaps persisted for a few months
(Fig. 13.22). Only one major erosional uncon- Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are the
formity is found near the top of the succession and characteristic volcanic landform found at sub-
this does not necessarily indicate a long time break. ducting plate margins, and are the most abundant
The best known tuff cone is the marine volcano, type of large volcano on the Earth's surface (Fig.
Surtsey, which began to erupt in November 1963 13.25). Stratovolcano morphology results from
and continued into the summer of 1965, although repeated eruptions of pyroclastics and relatively
satellite vents remained active until 1967. short lava flows from a central vent. The textbook
diagram usually shows a symmetrical cone with
steeply dipping pyroclastic deposits interbedded
13.6 Pseudocraters and littoral cones with lava flows. However, in detail the shapes of
these volcanoes are more variable (e.g. there may
These are small secondary cones or rootless vents. be several eruptive points, or the presence of a
Pseudocraters from Iceland have been described, caldera), and they rarely have a layer-cake geology.
and form where basalt lavas flow into lakes (Thor- It is also important to stress that mass-wastage is
STRATOVOLCANOES 383
(a)
just as important as, if not more important than, include basalts, dacites and rhyolites, and some are
volcanic processes in determining their character- basaltic centres, e.g. Fuji in Japan. Alkaline magmas
istics and lithologies (Ch. 10), although obviously also generate stratovolcanoes which are on average
an aggradational landform would not be present larger than their calc-alkaline counterparts (Table
without the volcanic activity. Volcaniclastic de- 13.3). Examples built up oftrachytic and phonolitic
posits (pyroclastic and epiclastic) are usually very products are common on the Mid-Atlantic islands
important volumetrically, and on some volcanoes of the Azores and Tenerife (which are not associated
can make up to 70-80% or more of the succession. with subduction margins; Ch. 6), and a basaltic
However, the variations in the proportions of lavas example is Etna. Again it should be clear that
to volcaniclastics can vary enormously from one chemical composition cannot be the sole control of
stratovolcano to another. Some may be dominated volcano shape, and indeed the 'classic' stratocone ,
by lava eruptions (e.g. Bultitude 1976a). However, Fuji , is basaltic. Fuji has much lower average
even on volcanoes such as Ruapehu (Fig. 13.2Sd), magma discharge rates than basaltic shield-forming
where lavas are important in the edifice, they are volcanoes.
surrounded by extensive ring plains of volcaniclastic
debris .
13.7.1 MORPHOMETRY
At destructive plate margins , stratovolcanoes are
built by eruptions of calc-alkaline magmas (Ch. Pike and Clow (1981 ) collated morphometric data
15). They are usually broadly andesitic or basaltic- for over 200 stratovolcanoes. They divided strato-
andesite in composition, but their products may volcanoes into a number of classes according to
384 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
(c)
Figure 13.25 Examples of stratovolcanoes. (a) Mt Shasta in the Cascades, westem USA. (b) Crater Lake, western USA.
(c) Mt Egmont. North Island, New Zealand. (d) Ruapehu, North Island. New Zealand.
whether the magma type is calc-alkaline or alkaline, Monte Somma (Table 13.3) which forms a low
and according to the presence of a summit crater, ridge encircling the active cone of Vesuvius on its
sector collapse scar (Ch. 5) or caldera. Those northern and eastern sides.
volcanoes with calderas were further subdivided
according to the proportions of silicic and pyro-
13.7.2 OUTPUT RATES, REPOSE PERIODS
clastic products. Data for these different classes are
AND LIFE EXPECTANCY
summarised in Table 13.3. Some stratovolcanoes
are topographically very impressive, rising steeply Little information on the output rates of strato-
as high as 5 km above their bases. The tallest seems volcanoes is available because the activity of very
to be Queen Mary's Peak on Tristan da Cunha. few centres has been monitored over a sufficient
Average slopes of stratovolcanoes range from about time interval. Output of Cerro Negro in Guatemala
15 to 33. has averaged 0.15 km 3 per 100 years for the first
Another term we need to note in connection with 121 years of its lifetime (c. A. Wood 1978), and
the morphology of stratovolcanoes is 'somma'. This Fuego has averaged 0.38 km 3 per 100 years for the
is used to describe a high, circular or crescent- past 450 years (Martin & Rose 1981). The three
shaped ridge with steep inner walls, which may be active stratovolcanoes on Sao Miguel, Sete Cidades,
the rim of an older crater or caldera surrounding a Agua de Pau and Furnas, have a combined average
central volcanic cone. The name is taken from output rate of 0.1 km 3 per 100 years (dense rock
STRATOVOLCANOES 385
Table 13.3 Summary of dimensions of different classes of stratovolcano (after Pike & Clow 1981).
6 alkaline with 57 6.5-87 350--4700 0.75-9 250 Sete Cidades. Agua de Pau.
caldera Furnas. Kilimanjaro. Tambora
7 alkaline with 19 7.5-64.5 100-1250 1.8-18.5 200 Lake Bolsena. Monte Somma
caldera, more silicic (Vesuvius). Pantelleria. Fantale
and more pyroclastics than 6
* Average height of crater or caldera rim crest above pre-volcano topographic datum.
(a)
(') M! Mlury
~;+J):=-- -- --
columns have been dispersed to the south-east and 10
east by upper tropospheric winds.
5
In addition to these types of 'primary' strati-
graphic complexity, further problems arise because
mass-wastage and epiclastic processes are very Figure 13.28 The effect of a layered wind system and
important on stratovolcanoes, and their deposits height of eruption columns on the dispersal of air-fall
form major parts of the successions (Ch. 10, deposits erupted from Mt Misery, St Kitts. The lower
Sections 14.8.2 & 6). tropospheric easterlies are today confined to altitudes of
-5-9 km depending on season. We have depicted the
The volcanic successions of two modern strato-
boundary during the wet summer season. The tropopause
volcanoes are illustrated in Figures 13.29-3l. occurs at -17-18 km. Trajectories are schematic transport
Stratigraphies show complex and rapid changes in paths of air-fall ejecta. (After Roobol et al. 1985.)
388 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
m
o 0 0 "'. \77m)
o 0
'o~'o ~o~; ~~' hthics
0 0 0 0
". ~'."
o o
.... ,r '.'':
0 ...
pumice
o 0 0 0
0000_ 0
Plinian
00 0 0 00
o 0 0 0 deposit
... -- ... '" m fine
64
..-,... .......
.- .... .. coarse
83
, ... '...
t.~ JI.
82=
61
60--
2417
P 25
40123
m f-'M,:,,:....~~t-- 24-
-12'3
~~~$4.23~- 22=
m 30/20 21 20-
57117 19
o m
o o m
o
o 0
o
10m
58=
... ~ .. o 0 ~ '0;;
56/- "OOOOa O
57
.
0,..:.
000 Go-.oo/J 0
0. 0 0,.0 0
5-114'9 55 56 =
4 6/16 54:
':0 ,,~;'.'-:;-~~~
81/29 00. o 53
~:ooJ~o.o~
o . ..
' '~ '. '',;,.
0 0 ", 0.
m 60/52
Figure 13.29 Composite section through part
of the volcanic succession of the Agua de Pau
4 0/-
00.00001100
~oooooooOoooQog 52 volcano on Sao Miguel. The section comprises
. ~. '';:0'0 00
50
51 -- 65 separate trachytic pumice-fall deposits,
~ o~.rt0ooJ' ~oo numbered 1-65 in sequence upwards, and
48 - 49 - . 22 /- includes several plinian (P) deposits, together
. . ! .. :'~'.,
0 000. with three thin basaltic ashes, one welded
00 00.
P41 ignimbrite, a number of mud flows (m), some
0.0.00 0
<;ooO.~o m of which have been omitted, and a lava flow.
.":.~ .~'. ?. ? The thick, in part, very coarse fall deposit
19 46==b numbered 14, has a local source. The figures
~~~~~~~ ~!~;o~Y
0\0 ooooo~o8 45 to the left of the column give the average
.~ ...o_~ .~~?!,?p.
maximum diameters in centimetres of, respec-
12/ 43=44..~2
".. ~. '''~'''''I 40 - 41 -
tively, the three largest pumice clasts and the
'~~' """" ~ .. . 39 three largest lithic clasts found . The Fogo A
5 1 /1-7 38 = = lava
eruption has been 14C dated at 4550 years BP,
f low
and the volcano has erupted four younger
trachytic pumice-fall deposits not shown here,
the last being in 1563 (Ch. 6). Probably several
tens of thousands of years of activity are
represented by the section. Carbonised wood
found in deposit number 14 has given a 14C
age of >34 200 years BP. It is also quite
probable that some of the falls were erupted
o Q m from other vents. (After Booth et al. 1978.)
o o
------
STRATOVOLCANOES 389
Bu I
.,>-
'"
I m,llIon yeors
B
EiJ
~
pan,on pumICe roll deposll
lon lmb, il .
co -i onimbrife brf'ccia
-
~
bosolt ic 10 andu,I,c lavas
ooolulinoies and
~ wo ldod $Cori o
W scorio
docilic 1o rhyodocilic
lovo, and domes
(c)
STRATOVOLCANOES 391
~ Figure 13.31 Three consecutive views of the caldera wall of Santorini illustrating part of the volcanic succession shown
opposite. Views move north-south from south of Cape Skaros to south of Thera town, and cover a distance of about 2 km.
Height of caldera wall is up to 300 m. Key stratigraphic markers: Lower Pumice Series (deposits of younger Bu II eruption) is
prominent light coloured layer in (c); Middle Pumice Series (Thera welded tuff, Ch. 6) is prominent dark layer in lower part of
(b). this mantles the Lower Pumice to south which is cut-out by the Bu caldera; Upper Pumice Series (Minoan deposits) is
white layer seen at the very top of the succession in (c) which can be traced northwards on top of cliffs.
392 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
2 air-falls and
voleonle
pyroclastic flows
fecles
(olluv,ol 3 -2 debris flows
Ions)
4 -20-30 braided fluvial transport and
delta construction
:!Jl distal volcantc focles
t s,nuou.ond
braided chonn.'.
l. J< flood bosin and
cooSilln. ) short pulses. Since major eruptions between 1972
and 1974, at least 6 x 106 tonnes of volcaniclastic
debris have been removed from the cone of Fuego,
which is at present in a Phase 4 stage (Table 13.5;
(b) Section 10.2). More data describing fluviatile
processes on Fuego are given in D. K. Davies et ai.
(l978c).
Kuenzi et ai. (1979) also described fluvial and
deltaic sedimentation on the Guatemalan coastal
plain in front of Santa Maria volcano. They
document effects of the dramatic increase in sedi-
~
;; ment supply after the 1902 plinian eruption (Chs 6
o
U
-
C
0
~
& 10). The bed of the Samala River was raised
u- 10-15 m, and between 1902 and 1922 a deltaic
~~~
platform prograded approximately 6.4 km seaward
and deposited a prism of sediment having a volume
of about 4 km 3 (Figs 13.33 & 10.1). However, with
X, waning sediment supply, the delta was destroyed
pyroclo.IIC deb". flow deposil'
and sands were redistributed laterally into pro-
olr loll depo.lI. fluv ial chonn r l. grading shoreface and beach environments. This
Figure 13.32 Facies model of a stratovolcano based on developed the present arcuate shoreline, which has
studies of Fuego, Guatemala. In (a). Tvc are massifs of essentially remained unchanged since before 1947.
Tertiary volcaniclastics which separate elongate troughs Figure 13.34 shows facies patterns resulting from
filled with modern volcaniclastic sediment. The active cone
long-term progradation along the entire length of
is flanked by numerous alluvial fans (dotted areas) which
extend onto the edge of the coastal plain. X to X' is the the coastal plain supplied by Santa Maria and
cross section shown in (b). (After Vessell & Davies 1981.) nearby stratovolcanoes of the Guatemalan volcanic
front (also see Fig. 10.1). In this setting, pro-
eruptions. On Fuego, only eruptions producing gradation would not be constant along the length of
greater than 6 x 10 7 m 3 of ejecta were found to be the volcanic arc, but would vary with time, and
capable of triggering large-scale sedimentary with magnitude and frequency of volcanic erup-
events, and the repose period between these tions. Sporadic episodes of delta formation and
eruptions is 80--125 years. Minor eruptions with a subsequent reworking of deltaic sands along sedi-
shorter repose period do not significantly affect the mentary strike would produce a complex sand body
sedimentary system, which proceeds as a series of showing a variety of vertical sedimentary sequences
INTERMEDIATE-SILICIC MULTIVENT CENTRES 393
GuOtemolon
"iolconu; tronT
I prOXImal volcanic
tociu
2 ollu.,ol lod
3 shoreline toe,",
o
~ { --~ lava mantled
~ .. ... " by pumicf
o
> @l pumice cone
\6J with crolfr
a::
~ ~ 10k. d.po.lt.
'" (;:;~
~ i;nimbrlt. limits
IL lava d.br is
'" ~ flow dtpo. il
...J ( ' caldera rim
<II
~ @ rhyolite lava
U'" dill! bosoll.
~ ~ andesite
> tr;i .
Aeotlan Ignlmbr,lf
f5 ~ limits
~ (7). older volcanicJ
o ~ (Tertiary 71
Figure 13.37 Geological map of La Primavera volcano and adjacent areas. A-C refer to different ignimbrites
erupted separately; B is the Rio Caliente ignimbrite. Numbers are rhyolite hills: 1. EI Majahuate; 2. Pinar de la
Venta; 3. EI Pedernal; 4. San Miguel; 5. Cerro Las Planillas; 6. Cerro Pelon; 7. EI Colli. The lava debris flow deposit
results from the collapse of an obsidian flow on Las Planillas. (After G. P. L. Walker et al. 1981 d.)
396 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
, I
I
,
I
I ,
I
, ' ,, ,
I
I
,
'
,
", ,,
,,
1/ ,
,'
,, ,
LAKE TAUPO
I
~",
;;
... '----
, I
, I
, I
, I
:>-- riVer IITSl rhyolite 10YO domes ond flows 0 oluYlol ond eplclast lc depos its
-
foull 0 doc Ile domes
Figure 13.38 Map of Taupo volcanic centre, showing the major inward drainage system developed in this low profile
volcano, the diversity and distribution of volcanic and epiciastic products, and older basement. (After Grindley 1960.)
may be scattered over a few hundred square interbedded pumice-fall and epiclastic deposits.
kilometres, and situated within a shallow caldera The whole form is therefore of a broad shield , and
(Figs 13.37 & 38). These rhyolite hills are composed C. A. Wood (1977) has drawn an analogy between
of rhyolite domes, coulees and pumice cones . The their shape and basaltic shield volcanoes .
hills rise from gently sloping ignimbrite sheets,
often containing more than one ignimbrite, and
RHYOLITIC VOLCANOES OR CENTRES 397
.I(-A, GiU
OCIOOO'r ... .
o EI Colli lovo (0.3km 3)
0.
00
26 ~(J00 0
Pe lon la vas ( 2 .5 km 3 )
pumice fall J (0-8m, 3 . 4 km 3 )
I
10
E I Pedernal avos ( 3 .1km 3)
9~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
120-100
Pre-8 lavas
The ignimbrite-forming eruptions are generally produce a nearly complete ring of rhyolite lava. La
associated with major structural changes of the Primavera (Fig. 13.37) and Valles (Fig. 13.42)
volcano and with caldera collapse (Ch. 8). Caldera volcanoes illustrate these features particularly well.
collapse occurs after or during the eruption, around At Valles all the rhyolite lavas are located on the
a circular ring fracture formed above the drained or ring-fracture of the Valles caldera, or part of an
draining magma chamber. At this time, caldera- incomplete ring related to the earlier Toledo
collapse breccias of the type envisaged by Lipman caldera. Each of these domes is probably mono-
(1976) may form by the caving or gravitational genetic with a repose period of perhaps 103 years
collapse of the caldera walls, producing rock slides between eruptions. La Primavera is somewhat
and falls, which may be interbedded with ignimbrite more complicated. Some of the lavas are located on
(cf. co-ignimbrite breccias, Ch. 8). an almost complete ring, with some lavas on a
Later volcanic activity is then concentrated on transverse line which crosses it. Most of these
this ring fracture, perhaps for 105 years. Explosive domes are again monogenetic, with a vent-to-Iava
phases producing plinian and sub-plinian air-fall ratio of 1: 1. However, there are three larger,
deposits and small ignimbrites precede the eruption polygenetic structures which could be called in-
of rhyolite domes and flows. Individual rhyolite dependent volcanoes in their own right. These are
lavas do not travel far from the vent (Ch. 4), but in younger, petrologically different (Fig. 13.39), and
time they may coalesce on some volcanoes to may lie on an outer second ring structure. Rhyolite
RHYOLITIC VOLCANOES OR CENTRES 399
i
~~~
G.cordonCf
palrolo l
.pl elo, IIC
1
A
pyroc lO ,r lc 11.1(91'
Cltn,."pumlc.t IQftlmt,," t
C CO-Ionlmbrite o,h-fOIl
m muOf low
,t bomb lOQ
10
10
15
Figure 13.40 Twelve measured stratigraphic sections showing lateral variations and established correlations for
the rhyolitic pumice-fall succession erupted from La Primavera volcano. (After G. P. L. Walker et al. 1981 d.l
400 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
distribution of eruptive points than magmatic -,:T normal foult L']J }UPPtr
8ande lier Tull
processes. .,.. dip of beds ~ lower
The central parts of some rhyolitic calderas are ~ lat. rhyol ilt D lote pyroclas'ics
lake beds, olluvlum
updomed giving rise to resurgent domes (R. L. rhyo li 'e layas of
{
~ middle rhYO ll le} =
Voiles Coldera ~ ear l y caldero fill
Smith & Bailey 1968; Ch. 8). This is thought to early rhyoll ,.
occur when new magma surges back into a magma Figure 13.42 Geology of the Valles and Toledo calderas.
chamber following a climactic ignimbrite eruption. Jemez Mountains. New Mexico. (After R. L. Smith & Bailey
R. L. Smith and Bailey (1968) suggested that these 1968.)
RHYOLITIC VOLCANOES OR CENTRES 401
the buoyant uprise of a new pluton (G. P. L. hydrothermal alteration and precipitation. The
Walker et ai. 1981d). Updoming, resurgent or near-surface intrusion of rhyolite domes and
otherwise, has significant structural effects, particu- magma at depth below these long-lived centres can
larly on deposits within the caldera . promote very active geothermal systems. Hot
Although rhyolitic volcanoes generally contain springs associated with rhyolitic volcanoes are
little other than rhyolite, there is usually a small important environments for the formation of epi-
proportion of basaltic volcanic rock, and character- thermal gold-silver deposits (Henley & Ellis 1983;
istically there is a so-called bimodal association Ch. 14).
(e.g. Cole 1970). Basaltic rock may be present as Submarine rhyolitic calderas are thought to be
scoria or mixed pumice in rhyolitic pyroclastic very important sites for the formation of Kuroko-
deposits (e.g. in J at location 4, Fig. 13.40), as
cognate xenoliths in rhyolite lavas, or as small
scoria cones (e.g. near Cuxpala, Fig. 13.37). The
evidence of mixed magma deposits suggests that
basaltic magma may participate in at least some of
the eruption of rhyolitic magma. Rhyolite magma
chambers are widely thought to be generated and
stoked up by basalt from a mantle source. Oc-
casionally basaltic dykes do reach the surface, but
generally only outside the rhyolitic centre (defined
by the caldera rim) which may be a shadow zone
above the magma chamber through which higher
density, but lower viscosity, basaltic magma cannot
pass.
Epiclastic processes and deposits are also signifi-
cant, and it is important to stress the repose periods
between eruptions, and the possible effect on the
hydrologic and geomorphic system of a large
ignimbrite eruption. Rhyolitic volcanoes are rn Plot~ou I~n lm br i '~
characterised by the rapid production of vast
*
A"f In t.ned cold.ro ring frect ure
volumes of loose, easily erodible sediment over
rhyolite demu
irregular intervals. This sediment can be trans-
ported out of the volcano by rivers, or back into the 'C! rhyolite pumice cone
o 20km
system to be deposited in the caldera (Fig. 13.43). ! I
Caldera fills are complex sequences of fluvial and Figure 13.44 Distribution of the Plateau ignimbrite and
lacustrine epiclastic sediments, pyroclastics and outline of a submarine rhyolitic caldera between Kos and Yali
lavas. Also very significant are the products of in the Dodecanese Islands.
402 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
Figure 13.46 (a) Giant pumice blocks enclosed in bedded rhyolitic tuff rings and
lacustrine sediment. (b) Field sketch showing disturbed and
contorted lake sediments with blocks of giant pumice. Some
hydrothennal explosion craters.
blocks show cooling joints normal to their margins. (After
Clough et al. 1981.)
404 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
but non-pillowed lavas are also common (Ch. 4). At The neovolcanic zone (the zone of recent and on-
the foots of fault scarps talus fans of brecciated lava going volcanism at the spreading centre, cf. on the
are found (e.g. Ballard & van Andel 1977). ridge flanks) is only 1-2 km wide. At low spreading
Hydrothermal vents and fissures are also very rates the neovolcanic zone lies within a well defined
important features. One of the most exciting recent rift valley (Fig. 13.49) and is dominated by a
discoveries in volcanic and economic geology has discontinuous line of central volcanoes. These are
been the direct observation of active sulphide- elongate parallel to the spreading axis, and typically
depositing vents, or black 'smokers', on the East have dimensions of 1-4 km in basal diameter and
Pacific Rise (Francheteau et ai. 1979, Hekinian et heights of about 250 m. They are dominated by
ai. 1980, Ballard et ai. 1984). There are close pillow lava (Ballard & van Andel 1977, Luyendyk
similarities between these active hydrothermal & Macdonald 1977, Macdonald 1982).
systems and the fossil ore depositing systems that At intermediate spreading rates the medial rift
have formed Cyprus-type massive sulphide deposits valley is less well defined, and the volcanoes are
(Rona 1984; Ch. 14). more elongate along strike, appear to be fissure-fed,
Macdonald (1982) pointed out that spreading and may be interrupted by en echelon offsets (Fig.
rates not only affect the morphology of the ridge 13 .49). Heights are only a maximum of 50 m and
crest, but also of the volcanoes from which the pahoehoe-like sheet flow lavas are more common.
basalts of layer.2 of the oceanic crust are erupted. At high spreading rates there is no definable axial
406 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
Figure 13.49 Schematic illustration of characteristics of volcanoes and the central rift of mid-oceanic spreading ridges with
different spreading rates. (After Macdonald 1982.)
rift valley. The central volcano resembles a very relatively easily definable for mid-oceanic ridge
elongate hawaiian-type shield volcano (see Section spreading systems is not easily definable in marginal
13.2) with gentle slopes and a summit rift (Fig. basins. In addition, magnetic anomaly patterns are
13.49c). The 'volcano' is only 1-2 km wide (cf. also difficult to define clearly, suggesting that the
Hawaiian shields), and may be 100 km long, so is spreading process may be more diffuse and the
clearly fissure-fed. Both pillow lavas and massive eruptive centres less clearly identifiable.
sheet lavas have been observed (Macdonald 1982).
The only sediment deposited is from pelagic
13.10.2 SEAMOUNTS
sources. A pelagic sediment mantle only becomes
prominent at the edges of the median rift valleys, This is a poorly known group of submarine
and on the ridge flanks and abyssal plains as the volcanoes which, because they have not been
lithosphere spreads with time away from the readily observable, have not received much atten-
MORs. The pelagic sediment layer and the under- tion until recently. However, advances with sub-
lying basaltic crustal layer make up layers 1 and 2, mersibles, high resolution side-scan sonar and
respectively, of the oceanic crust. These should be narrow-beam bathymetric surveys have greatly
closely associated with an underlying mafic sheeted increased our understanding of the morphologies of
dyke complex, and gabbroic and mafic cumulate these volcanoes. Recently Searle (1983, 1984) and
igneous rocks. Such crustal profiles coincide with Batiza and Vanko (1983) have added considerable
ophiolite profiles, as discussed in Chapter 15. insight to the nature of submarine seamounts and
Marginal seafloor spreading centres (Ch. 15) also guyots documented by earlier workers such as
produce a similar crustal profile, but in addition the Menard (1964, 1969). These central volcanoes are
basaltic crust should be overlain by a mixed variable in size and shape. Volcanoes that are near
volcaniclastic-carbonate clastic mass-flow sediment circular in plan-view have basal diameters ranging
apron derived from associated island arcs. from the minimum limits of resolution 1 km) to
It is uncertain, however, what the nature of the 25 km (although usually less than 10 km), and their
volcanic centres is, since little or no work has been heights are usually several hundred metres, but
done on these. Although the axial spreading systems may exceed 2 km. They have dominantly concave-
are usually topographically elevated ridge regions up or sometimes convex-up slopes, which at their
of high heat flow, the axial rift morphology that is maximum are inclined at up to 40, and on average
SUBMARINE SPREADING RIDGES AND SEAMOUNTS 407
about 20. The summits are usually flat-topped into very large, complex polygene tic centres, such
with diameters up to lO km, and frequently these as Hawaii. In this case the subaerial part of the
have well defined craters or caldera collapse struc- volcano has evolved into a major shield volcano
tures less than a kilometre in diameter (Hollister et (Section 13.2.1).
aI. 1978, Searle 1983, 1984, Batiza & Vanko 1983). Variations in shape and form stem from variations
Although seamounts are probably mostly rela- in conduit geometry (Batiza & Vanko 1983).
tively small monogenetic centres, some may evolve Submarine central volcanoes are frequently located
along fracture systems of the oceanic lithosphere,
(d) Terraced and subsided and may have associated lava fields.
Oceanic seamounts are cones and domes that
grow upwards from the abyssal plains near spread-
ing ridges, or away from them, in which case they
are thought to be derived from mantle hot spots.
They are therefore essentially basaltic, and pillow
lavas appear to be prominent in the basal parts
where, due to the great water depth of the vent, the
hydrostatic pressure of the water column is suf-
(c) Truncated and subsided ficient to prevent explosive eruption of the basalt
(Fig. 13.50), although hyaloclastites could form. If
the (pillow) lava pile grows closer to sea level,
where the hydrostatic pressure is less, exsolving
magmatic volatiles or hydrovolcanic interaction, or
both, may be capable of producing explosive
eruptions, so that the basal pillow pile becomes
mantled by pyroclastics and/or hyaloclastites of
variable grainsize (e.g. Fig. 4.15). If the seamount
(bJ Emerged emerges above sea level and the vent is no longer
intruded by sea water, more-passive lava eruptions
will produce a lava cap over the volcaniclastic layer.
Lavas flowing into the sea may transform into
flow foor
breccia - - '" pillow lavas or, more commonly, will quench-
fragment and build out coarse hyaloclastite deltas
and flow-foot breccias eCho 4; J. G. Jones 1966,
J. G. Moore & Fiske 1969). Complex relative sea
level changes associated with large tidal ranges or
(0 ) Subm erged tectonic movements could produce complex strati-
0 , . . . ,
graphic-structural relationships in the upper part
of the stratigraphy, including several levels of
~
coherent lava-flow-foot breccia transition, as dis-
lava ~ cussed by J. G. Jones and Nelson (1970) (Fig.
4.17). Surtseyan volcanoes (e.g. Thorarinsson 1967)
are examples of basaltic seamounts whose eruptions
were initiated in relatively shallow seas. As a result
Figure 13.50 Growth of oceanic seamounts, as first the initial products are phreatomagmatic pyro-
postulated by Jones from his studies on intraglacial
clastics (J akobsson & Moore 1980) the usual early
volcanoes (see Fig. 13.51). (After J. G. Jones 1966.) Recent
work suggests that even in stage (a) a flat-topped mor- pillow lava and hyaloclastite stage of deep water
phology may be developed (see text). seamounts being by-passed. After Surtsey emerged
408 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
above sea level and its vent was protected from lava grow out into the meltwater, eventually
access by the sea, a passive lava cap formed. forming an equidimensional table-mountain.
However, some seamounts with flat tops never Intraglacial basaltic eruptions in Iceland have
reached sea level (Searle 1983). Searle's explanation formed very substantial deposits, often referred to
for their morphology is that the steep slopes are as 'moberg'. Overlapping centres form compounded
-
built of pillow breccias and hyaloclastites (Lonsdale
& Batiza 1980) tumbling over the edge of the flat- (a)
topped summit, which is built of sheet flows with
high effusion rates, and pillow lavas. Flat tops are
-- -= -=:----
--.--:::- "..-:::: .....
-~~-=-
-- -
- --.: -.
----
--
therefore not necessarily produced by wave erosion
and truncation, as was previously thought.
Older seamounts are stabilised by precipitation
of volcanogenic ferromanganese crusts and ele-
ments. They may become colonised by fringing,
framework-building biota, which will then con-
tribute carbonate clastic debris to the submarine
flanks of the volcanic pedestal. Prolonged growth of
the seamount could produce an apron of coarse
volcaniclastic and carbonate clastic detritus, trans-
ported and deposited by mass-flow processes fed
through a well developed canyon system. The facies
of such a seamount should merge laterally into the
pelagic sediment facies mentioned above. Isostatic
subsidence of the seamount and cessation of volcan-
ism could lead to the development of an atoll and
eventually complete submergence of the seamount.
I
-b moyemlnt process of alternating construction and fragmen-
tation of lobes. Rhyolite lavas which have been
C4 emplaced into wet sediments show similar lava
Fin al .'age column ar
jolnlld lobes at their margins (Clough et al. 1982; Section
- .............:.. rhyolill
13.9), and these, as well as extensive quench-
fragmentation, seem to be an important feature of
Figure 13.52 Evolutionary model for formation of the two rhyolites intruded into water-saturated hosts.
types of silicic hyaloclastite and lava lobes during a Also associated with subglacial eruptions are
subglacial eruption. (After Fumes et al. 1980.) huge meltwater floods, called 'jokulhlaups' in
Iceland. These have deposited large debris fans
deposits extending tens of kilometres and forming (sandurs; Fig. 1O.24b), and some of the larger flows
mountains up to 1500 m in height, and resulted are believed to have continued into the North
from eruptions during the latter parts of the late Atlantic Ocean and deposited volcaniclastic turbid-
Pleistocene. Older moberg masses (late Pliocene- ites (Laughton, Berggren et al. 1972).
early Pleistocene) are also known and are buried by
younger volcanic rocks.
Several rhyolitic subglacial accumulations of 13.12 Further reading
smaller volume (0.01-0.1 km 3) also occur in Iceland
(Fumes et al. 1980). These consist of two main Several data sources are now available which list
components (Fig. 13.52): active and potentially active volcanoes. The
International Association of Volcanology and
(a) hyaloclastites and
Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) has
(b) lava lobes averaging a few metres 10 m) in
published the invaluable Catalogue of the active
diameter.
volcanoes of the world including solfatara fields.
410 MODERN VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
This, at present, consists of 22 volumes, which are by the Volcanological Society of Japan and the
listed on the back of every issue of Bulletin IAVCEI, and this appears in Bulletin volcanologique,
Volcanologique which now continues from 1986 as and will continue to do so in the new Bulletin of
Bulletin of Volcanology. Descriptions of the different Volcanology which will also release condensed
centres vary in quality, but for many a geological reports from the SEAN Bulletin.
map, short description, summary of historic activity In addition, more-general literature sources on
and some petrological information are found. the characteristics of different types of volcanoes
Simkin et al. (1981) of the Smithsonian Institute include MacDonald (1972), Bullard (1976) and H.
have compiled Volcanoes of the world, which presents Williams and McBirney (1979), on basaltic vol-
a very large amount of data in digital format. When canoes, C. A. Wood (1980a, b and in press),
eruptions do occur, the location and type of activity Greeley and King (1977) and Basaltic volcanism on
are reported in the Scientific event alert network the terrestrial planets (Basaltic Volcanism Study
(SEAN) bulletin published by the Smithsonian Project 1981), and on calderas, the special issue of
Institute. Also, the Bulletin of volcanic eruptions is an the Journal of Geophysical Research (volume 10,
annual report of world volcanic eruptions published BIO edited by Lipman et al. (1984).
-----:--::::-:;;;;;;~~~ alaeogeograp y .
. s relationships
p et aI. t981.1 h and facie
.In the lower
Plate 14 A. schematic
Volcaniclastics,
reco~~stralia.
southeastem ""ctioo (After
of theCas
412
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
413
414 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
for discussing the analysis of facies, depositional lost or their original extent and geometry may be
setting and general palaeogeographic context of severely modified. A consequence of this is that, in
ancient successions. However, in ancient succes- many volcanic successions, much of the original
sions all of the facies descriptors (geometry, lithology, volcanic and sedimentation record is lost, resistant
sedimentary structures, sediment movement patterns units may be disproportionately preserved in the
and fossils; Ch. 1) are subject to varying degrees of rock record relative to original abundance, and
modification by processes contemporaneous with original depositional geometries are frequently not
deposition or post-dating it, or both. The former preserved. Lateral facies and age relationships may
processes are represented largely by erosion and therefore be complex, change abruptly (Fig. 1.2),
hydrothermal alteration, and the latter by protracted and are not necessarily related to fault contacts.
hydrothermal alteration, diagenesis, metamorphism Furthermore, unconformities may be common,
and deformation. These are considered before relatively local in significance, not related to
proposing an approach to facies analysis and the regional deformation, and the erosion that uncon-
construction of general facies models. formities represent may have been initiated by an
The facies models we will develop represent aggradational (eruptive) event rather than tectonic
generalised summaries of many of the volcano types uplift.
discussed in Chapter 13, and the descriptions of the Nevertheless, volcanic terrains are also the sites
various facies models in this chapter should be read of contemporaneous crustal movements and, given
in close association with the relevant parts of that many are associated with orogenic belts, they
Chapter 13. However, in this chapter we take the may also be the sites of subsequent penetrative
discussions of Chapter 13 one step further, by deformation. Deformation may also therefore
placing the various volcano types and their succes- severely change original stratigraphic relationships
sions in a broader geographic context, i.e. within and, where strain is high, the original geometry of
the context of the basins within which volcanism is rock units. However, until evidence one way or
occurring. As such the facies models that are another is found, deformational influences should
developed should have significance in basin analysis be demonstrated rather than assumed, and be given
studies involving volcanic successions. only as much weighting as erosional contacts in
assessing lateral discontinuities.
Furthermore, although deformation may cause
14.2 Facies geometry and facies- steep dips, these are not necessarily the consequence
stratigraphic relationships: factors of tectonic deformation in volcanic terrains.
affecting them in ancient successions Volcanoes may have steep initial slopes upon which
deposition occurs. Fall deposits may mantle an
Ancient volcanic successions are, on the whole, the irregular, steep topography, producing steep
erosional relics of complex volcanic centres and very depositional attitudes (Fig. 5.2), which may be at
few ancient centres will look the same as presently least partly preserved in the rock record.
active volcanoes. In the first instance, the preser- It is also clear from the preceding that discordant
vation of the constituent facies and their geometry is stratigraphic relationships (e.g. high angle un-
dependent on the interplay between aggradation conformable contacts, Figs 8.55 & 1O.32b) maybe
(deposition) and degradation (erosion; Chs 1, 10 & common, and need not represent major, regionally
13). Because of the relatively high slopes and the extensive deformational events or time breaks. It
generally high availability of loose debris in proxi- may be difficult and unrealistic in some instances to
mal and near-vent settings, erosion rates in such construct conventional 'layer-cake' stratigraphies or
settings are usually high (Ch. 10). Unless a particu- columns. This is particularly so in proximal and
lar unit is resistant (lavas, welded deposits) or is near-vent settings, with the irregularities in topo-
rapidly buried under a resistant unit, or both, it will graphy and the diversity and frequency of events
be eroded. The record ,of such rock units may be (eruptive, depoS;itionaf, erosional, tectonic). Unless
LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND DEPOSITION 415
rock composition has some effect on the secondary alteration types, processes and assemblages the
alteration mineralogy, the main influences are the interested reader is referred to Ellis (1979), Franklin
permeability of the rock pile, temperature, and the et al. (1981), Beane (1982), Titley (1982), Urabe et
composition of the fluids moving through the rock al. (1983), Henley and Ellis (1983) and R. W.
pile. Hutchinson (1984). One general comment that
Hydrothermal alteration can take many forms. should be made about alteration is that many of the
Some of the alteration minerals produced include 'type' alteration minerals (e.g. chlorite, silica,
amorphous silica, quartz, K-feldspar, albite, calcite, sericite) can also be produced by low grade
montmorillonite, montmorillonite-illite, illite, metamorphism. Silicification can also be produced
kaolinite, alunite, chlorite and a wide array of simply from circulating meteoric waters passing
zeolites and low grade metamorphic minerals. through a glassy pile. It may also be difficult to
Needless to say, bulk rock compositions can be distinguish the effects of devitrificatiol'l. from true
very significantly altered. Stages of alteration or hydrothermal silicification.
distinctive alteration mineral assemblages, or both, Hydrothermal alteration and processes are, of
are identified by a variety of terms, which are by no course, an extremely important adjunct to epi-
means standardly defined and used (e.g. chloritic, thermal precious metal and base-metal sulphide
sericitic, potassic, phyllic, argillic and propylitic mineralisation (see preceding references as well as
alteration, silicification, etc.). For a discussion of Rona 1984). From our point of view it is also
extremely important because of the modifying contact between the zones or patches of different
effects it can have on original rock textures, and the alteration which is the key to recognising the
problems this can lead to in terms of recognising complication of polyphase alteration. Contacts
original rock types. Rocks may be subjected to between stratigraphically distinctive and adjacent
more than one alteration event or type, and these lithological units should be relatively sharp, and not
may occur in close spatial and temporal relationship. gradational in terms of colour, alteration and
Where this occurs the resultant textures and intensity of alteration (Fig. 14.3) as frequently
mineralogy may be complex. seems to be the case in polyphase altered volcanics.
The alteration takes place as a result of ion Where such polyphase alteration is overprinted by
diffusion and fluid migration. Neither is necessarily a penetrative tectonic cleavage, the apparent clastic
pervasive in its coverage, leading to variation in the texture can resemble eutaxitic texture because the
intensity of the alteration from barely perceptible, apparent clasts are streaked out within cleavage
to patchy, and in the extreme to pervasive. The planes. Irregularly smeared out, highly strained
second of these stages may cause the most signifi- crystals can also produce an apparent or pseudo-
cant complications. Patchy alteration may juxtapose eutaxitic texture.
areas of original texture and mineralogy, or of an
earlier alteration event, with later superimposed
alteration effects. The overall effect of this may be
to produce an apparent clastic texture (Fig. 14.2)
wherein the relic patches appear as clasts in a dif-
ferently coloured, mineralogically different matrix.
The 'clasts' may even resemble fiamme and are some-
times called 'pseudo-fiamme'. R. L. Allen (pers.
comm.) has shown convincingly that Palaeozoic
rocks in southeastern Australia that were previously
interpreted as acidic pyroclastic and epiclastic
volcaniclastics are mostly variably devitrified, poly-
phase altered acidic lavas, cryptodomes and quench-
fragmented equivalents. Allen suggests that the
apparent clastic texture represents intensely
sericitically altered patches in less sericitic, silica-
sericite material, or intensely chloritically altered
patches in less chloritic, more siliceous material. In
both cases, original glass has been initially altered
and then incompletely silicified. Recognition of
such effects depends on recognising relic primary
(pre-alteration) textures, even if only ghosts of the
original texture. Relic primary textures which were
Figure 14.3 Effects of variable alteration type or intensity,
important to the correct identification of lithology
or both, on rock type. (a) Six core samples through the same
in Allen's study were faint, alteration-modified flow dacite unit. In order from left to right the principal alteration
banding, evidence of quench fragmentation, auto- phases are: 1, quartz-kaolinite-sericite; 2, sericite-chlorite;
brecciation, and continuity of homogeneous 3, chlorite-pyrite; 4, sericite-quartz-chlorite; 5, chlorite-
porphyritic texture from the apparent clasts into the sericite; 6, sericite (pale)-chlorite (dark) resulting in an
apparent clastic, breccia texture. (b) Variable visibility of
apparent matrix. In both 'matrix' and 'clasts',
phenocrysts in a dacite as a function of varying intensity of
similar crystals (or their ghosts) occurred in similar sericite-quartz alteration Phenocrysts are easily visible in
proportions, sizes and distribution. Apart from the core on the left. moderately visible in cores 2 and 3 and
these criteria, it is also the gradational nature of the barely visible or imperceptible in the other cores.
418 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
Although the emphasis here has been largely on varying conditions of temperature, pressure, time
textural changes, it is inherent from the types and and fluid compositions. He was able to simulate
intensity of processes operating that significant many of the devitrification textures found in natural
chemical changes should also occur, causing glasses, including spherulites, bow-tie aggregates,
significant changes to the original igneous bulk- axiolites, orb texture and devitrification fronts (cf.
rock compositions. Ross & Smith 1961). Devitrification can occur in
both lavas and pyroclastic rocks. Given the scarcity
of natural glasses in rocks older than Tertiary, it
14.3.2 DEVITRIFICATION
must be assumed that glasses either devitrify
Since glasses are thermodynamically unstable they penecontemporaneously or are altered because of
can undergo post-eruption devitrification, which their metastable state, as discussed above, under
involves the nucleation and growth of fibrous diagenetic to low grade metamorphic conditions.
crystallites of largely quartz (after cristobalite and The stages defined by Lofgren (l971b) are an
rarely tridymite) and both sodium-rich and potas- initial hydration stage, a glassy stage, a spherulitic
sium-rich alkali feldspar (Lofgren 1970, 1971a & stage and a granophyric stage. The hydration stage
b). Lofgren's studies involved the experimental is characterised by a polygonal mosaic of fractures
devitrification of rhyolitic obsidian glass under in glass enclosed by a sharp curviplanar fracture,
Figure 14.4 Devitrification features of glassy rocks. (a) Radiate, fibrous devitrification spherulites from Carboniferous rhyolite
dyke, Bathurst. New South Wales, Australia; plane-polarised light; width of field is 10 mm. (b) As in (a). crossed nicols. (c)
DevitrificatiOn spherulites, sometimes amalgamated and arranged in trams, Upper Devonian Boyd Volcanic Complex, New
South Wales, Australia; slab is 8 cm long. (d) Granophyrically recrystallised, originally glassy dacite lava, Lower Devonian
Merrions Tuff Formation, New South Wales, Australia.
LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND DEPOSITION 419
called the hydration front. In addition, a strain- cation rate by four to five orders of magnitude, and
induced birefringence, a change in colour from pale the hydration rate by one to two orders of magni-
yellow-green to pale green and pale reddish brown, tude.
and the development of micrometre-sized bubbles The original textures of all glassy rocks are
were noted. The glassy stage is marked by felsitic therefore inevitably modified by devitrification and
texture and minor spherulites, whereas the spheru- ensuing alteration. However, in addition Lofgren
litic stage is marked by abundant spherulites and (1970), following the observations of Lipman (1965)
micro-poikilitic quartz. Spherulites consist of radi- and Noble (1967), found that there were significant
ating clusters of fibres, and vary in size from changes in the bulk rock chemistry accompanying
100 mm to several centimetres (Figs 14.4a & b; hydration and devitrification, especially variations
Section 4.10.2). When large, they are generally in Si0 2, H 20, Fe20iFeO ratio, Na20 and K 20
spherical with smooth surfaces, but some irregular- contents (up to 2% for individual element oxides).
ities are found (Fig. 14.4c). Sometimes spherulites Ancient glassy volcanics are unlikely to reflect
can amalgamate to produce an elongate train of original chemistry on this count alone, not to
connected, overlapping spheroids (Fig. 14.4c) , mention the effects of alteration, diagenesis and
often concentrated and aligned along flow layering. metamorphism.
Large spherulites with internal cavities or vughs are Devitrification in ignimbrites can be more
called lithophysae (Fig. 14.4c). Lofgren (1971a) complex. It can have a zoned .distribution through
found that the morphology of spherulites varied ignimbrites, and be accompanied by vapour-phase
according to the temperature of the run. At runs crystallisation and hydrothermal or fumarolic
below 400C their outlines were nearly circular, alteration. The essential devitrification stages
between 400C and 600C bow-tie shaped aggregates (hydration, glassy, spherulitic and granophyric)
occurred and at 700C lath-like fibres, or open can all occur. However, because of the variation in
framework circular clusters of spaced fibres occur- welding and zonation in welding (Ch. 8), different
red. The granophyric stage, although not noted in degrees of devitrification can occur at different
Lofgren's experiments, is common in old, de- levels (R. L. Smith 1960b, Lipman & Christiansen
vitrified glassy rocks and is dominated by fine- 1964, Lipman et al. 1966, Scott 1971, Briggs 1976,
grained, roughly equidimensional, recrystallised Carr 1981; Ch. 8). Carr (1981) also suggested that
aggregates of quartz and feldspar, rather than devitrified pumice seemed to host spherulite growth
elongate fibres (Fig. 14.4d). more than the glassy welded matrix. In addition, in
Devitrification can produce an apparent granu- the porous, partially and non-welded zones of
larity through the development of spherulites and ignimbrites, especially the upper zones, vapour-
orbs, which at times may give rocks an apparent phase crystallisation can occur. Vapour-phase
clastic character and overprint original textures. crystallisation involves the growth of tridymite, less
Patchy devitrification can also give rocks a patchy commonly cristobalite (both of which readily invert
domainal texture, the boundaries between de- to stable quartz), alkali feldspar (usually sanidine),
vitrified and non-devitrified zones (glassy, altered) haematite and, less commonly, biotite, amphiboles
being called devitrification fronts. and zeolites in open pore spaces (e.g. between
Devitrification and hydration occur through the uncompacted shards and pumice, in the vesicles of
depolymerisation effects of water in breaking uncollapsed pumice). It occurs contemporaneously
Si-O-Si bridges and hydrolysing tetrahedral oxygen with or after devitrification, and at least the early
to OH-. The liberated Si04 tetrahedra are then free va pours from which these secondary mineral species
to reorganise and to nucleate quartz and feldspar are precipitated, are derived from trapped volatiles,
crystal structures in the presence of alkalis (network volatiles which continue to exsolve or diffuse, or
modifiers), which diffuse through the glass network both, from juvenile glassy fragments, and heated
(Lofgren 1970; see also Ch. 2). Lofgren found that ground water, which percolates through the ignim-
adding alkalis in solution increased the devitrifi- brite shortly after its emplacement and during
420 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
cooling (Gilbert 1938, R. L. Smith 1960b, Ross & pillows became thicker with age. A manganese
Smith 1961; Ch. 8). These fluids escape and move crust precipitated from sea water was observed on
upwards during compaction and welding. After the surfaces of pillows, and was also noted to be
emplacement of an ignimbrite, downward perco- thicker as the age of the pillows increased. Moore
lation of rain water leaches elements out of the also suggested that tachylite could be replaced by
porous, glassy top of the ignimbrite, and may also palagonite but Kawachi et al. (1983) found that this
lead to secondary mineral precipitation in open had not happened with their Eocene pillow lava
pore spaces. succession. Kawachi et al. (1983) indicated that
In basic rocks, spherulite-like radiating aggre- palagonite was a mixed-layer montmorillonite-illite
gates of largely feathery, needle-like crystals of mineral and that palagonitisation involved con-
plagioclase and pyroxene are called variolites and siderable element mobility. In general palagonitic
the texture variolitic texture. Variolites may in part layers were depleted in Si, Mn, Ca and Na, and
result from devitrification, but where they occur in enriched in K and H 20. Fe was either depleted or
submarine glassy rocks, especially in the margins of enriched, as were Ti, Mg and AI. Ti, contrary to its
pillows, they may be a product of quench-induced reputation as a stable element, was found to be
crystallisation. considerably mobile.
Palagonitic alteration of basaltic glass is thus
clearly pre-metamorphic, is essentially a weathering
14.3.3 PALAGONITISATION
effect due to the interaction of water with metastable
When basaltic magma is chilled or quenched by basaltic glass 0. G. Moore 1966, Hay & Iijima
contact with water it forms a pale brown to reddish- 1968, MacDonald 1972), and produces significant
brown glass called side rome lane or a black glass compositional changes in affected rocks. Jakobsson
called tachylite (MacDonald 1972). Tachylite was (1978) has summarised his significant research on
thought to be black due to very fine, dispersed the palagonitic alteration of the tephra erupted on
grains of magnetite (Peacock & Fuller 1928, R. E. Surtsey during 1963. He indicates that palagon-
Fenner 1932, MacDonald 1972, Kawachi et al. itisation can occur at normal surface temperatures
1983). However, Kawachi et al. (1983) have estab- and pressures over the years, but is speeded up by
lished that the black grains are not magnetite but the influence of temperature. In the area of a
quenched crystallites of pyroxene. In pillow lavas significant thermal anomaly, palagonitisation
the two glass types may occur together in layers at appears to have occurred within 1-11/2 years, under
the margins of pillows O. G. Moore 1966, Kawachi the influence of temperatures between 40 and
et al. 1983). These glasses, especially sideromelane, 100C. In association with concurrent precipitation
are susceptible to alteration. of secondary minerals such as opaline silica, zeolites
When sideromelane alters it changes to a pale- and calcite Oakobsson 1978, Jakobsson & Moore
yellow to yellow-brown hydrated altered glass 1980) palagonitisation has the potential to stabilise
called palagonite (Peacock & Fuller 1928, J. G. and cement Surtseyan volcanic piles within several
Moore 1966, Hay & Iijima 1968, MacDonald 1972, years after cessation of volcanism.
Kawachi et al. 1983), which is either finely fibrous
or gel-like, and isotropic. The formation of
14.3.4 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
palagonite involves hydration and ion-exchange
0. G. Moore 1966). Moore found that during the If a fluid system in the subsurface develops a
formation of palagonite in submarine hawaiian pressure which exceeds the tensile strength of the
basaltic glasses, sodium, calcium and manganese enclosing rock and the minimum principal stress
were lost, whereas potassium, iron and titanium component, then that fluid has the capacity to
were gained relative to the unaltered glass, pre- propagate a fracture or fracture system, and to open
sumably due to exchange with sea water. He also it in a tensile manner (see Chs 3 & 15; Secor 1969,
found that the palagonite layers at the margins of Phillips 1972, Shaw 1980). Such fracture propa-
LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND DEPOSITION 421
14.3.S DIAGENESIS
The concept of diagenesis encompasses the miner-
alogical and textural changes associated with
lithification and the early stages of burial of any
Figure 14.5 Hydraulic fracturing . and brecciation, and
sediment or rock system. It is of fundamental
copper-gold mineralisation in Permo-Carboniferous rhyolite importance in hydrocarbon exploration because it
intrusive, North Queensland, Australia. Core diameter is modifies original porosity, generating secondary
3.5 cm. (Photograph by R. Allen.) porosity and causing hydrocarbon maturation.
Significant textural and mineralogical changes can
gation and opening may lead to brecciation of the be produced by dissolution of original components,
wall rock associated with the fracture, or system of precipitation of and replacement by new mineral
fractures. The rock is essentially shattered in tensile phases, and compaction. These processes occur
fashion by the overpressured fluids working through under the influence of increasing pressure, tem-
the rock (Fig. 14.5). The resultant fracture need perature and significant fluid flux during burial.
not be involved in shear motion, and so the breccia Diagenesis can be viewed as the low grade, initial
fragments and the associated wall rock to the stages of metamorphism.
fracture need not be pervasively foliated or sheared. In volcanic rock systems, diagenesis is just as
This fluid induced fracturing and brecciation is significant if not more so than in sedimentary
called hydraulic fracturing (see Secor 1969 and systems, given the usual abundance of metastable
Phillips 1972 for further discussion of the mech- glassy material and the presence of labile mineral
anics and principles). components, especially in basaltic to intermediate
In volcanic successions, hydrothermal fluid rocks. Granophyric recrystallisation can be con-
systems have enormous potential for causing sidered to be a diagenetic process. In addition to
hydraulic fracturing and brecciation. The breccia these, the growth and overprint by burial meta-
fragments are generally angular, blocky to splintery morphic mineral assemblages, typically zeolite
in shape (Fig. 14.5) and, out of context, could be facies assemblages, can be significant in causing
confused with quench-fragmented hyaloclastite major modification of original rock textures and
deposits. Where observable in outcrop, hydraulic components (e.g. Raam 1968, D. K. Davies et ai.
fracture breccias should be distinguishable by their 1978b).
cross-cutting character and confinement to a fracture
zone. The width of such hydraulic fracture zones
may vary from several centimetres to many metres.
422 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
succession is significantly altered, either in discrete be beyond recogmtlon, depending on its post-
zones or at large, the affected areas will be depositional history. Fiske (1969) suggests a com-
mechanically weakened and will preferentially bination of both careful hand specimen and thin-
absorb more strain than unaltered zones will. As section examination to verify the existence of
suggested above, there may thus be significant pumice.
variations in the degree of deformation.
Although pumice is one of the most abundant The point of carefully documenting the character-
components in pyroclastics and epiclastic volcanic istics of facies is to identify those characteristics
sediments in modern silicic volcanic terrains, its which give clues to the mode of deposition or
recognition can be very difficult in the rock record. environmental conditions, or both, at the time of
Not that pumice should be any less abundant in the emplacement. For example, angle of repose cross-
rock record than it is today. It is, however, one of bedding in epiclastics suggests tractional sediment
the components most susceptible to post-depo- transport and deposition; structureless to faintly
sitional modification. It is porous and so readily laminated epiclastic claystones or mudstones sug-
allows passage of circulating fluids; it is glassy and gest settling out of suspension and very quiet
metastable, so readily alters or is replaced; and it is aqueous conditions; well defined eutaxitic texture in
mechanically weak, so may take up significant a thick, massive, undeformed volcaniclastic deposit
strain during burial compaction or deformation, or suggests welding and deposition by pyroclastic flow.
both. It also hosts vapour phase crystallisation (in However, there are few facies or facies character-
ignimbrites) and diagenetic minerals, and it readily istics which by themselves unequivocally identify
devitrifies and may preferentially develop de- the host depositional environment or the spatial
vitrification spherulites. context of a facie:>; within a broader palaeogeogra-
In ancient volcanic successions pumice is most phy. This applies in both sedimentary and volcanic
readily identified in welded ignimbrites since its terrains. For example, eutaxitic texture by itself
flattening produces the characteristic eutaxitic tex- may indicate a near vent, welded air-fall deposit
ture (Ch. 8; Fig. 8.38). Even in metamorphosed, (Ch. 6) or ignimbrite (Ch. 8), in both cases
weathered ignimbrites the flattened pumice lenticle suggesting a subaerial setting. Only more detailed
foliation, or fiamme may be distinctive and etched analysis, and consideration of related facies will
out by weathering. In non-welded ignimbrites and determine which it is and, if it is ignimbrite,
sediments the pumice fraction could be especially whether it is proximal or distal. Pillow lavas (Ch. 4)
susceptible to weathering. It could also be flattened indicate a subaqueous depositional environment,
by mechanical, brittle collapse during burial and but the environment could have been a lake or the
compaction, or it could be 'densified' by the sea. The water depth could be anywhere from only
precipitation of secondary minerals in vesicles, and several metres to kilometres, and the vent could
so retain an original unflattened shape, perhaps have been subaqueous or subaerial. Also, sub-
making distinction from lithics difficult. aerially erupted basaltic lavas can flow into water
Fiske (1969) addressed the problem of recog- and transform into pillow-lavas (Section 4.6).
nising pumice in ancient marine volcaniclastic Accretionary lapilli (Ch. 6) indicate the existence of
deposits, and he noted the problems outlined subaerial conditions, but final deposition could
above. However, he cited the preservation of have been in a subaerial or aqueous environment
pumice in rocks as old as Precambrian. Essentially, and may have occurred close to or far away from
pumice may be preserved in nearly pristine state or vent (Ch. 5). Ballistic bomb-sag structures are one
424 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
of the few diagnostic facies features of volcanic 14.6 A suggested approach to facies
terrains, suggesting a near-vent (within hundreds of analysis
metres) setting (Ch. 5). However, impact sag
structures can also be produced by epiclastic A thorough, careful analysis of facies and associ-
processes (Section 10.3). ations of facies in ancient volcanic successions will
Therefore, to arrive at a sound interpretation and inevitably involve several stages.
reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment and its
Stage 1: where surface exposure or subsurface mine
conditions, the geologist working in ancient terrains
exposure occurs, produce an outcrop map, which is
has to establish significant associations of facies.
a map showing where each outcrop occurs, its size,
The context of any single facies is most likely to be
its composition and any relevant structural infor-
revealed by its relationship to and association with
mation. Outcrop maps, being 'fact maps', are
other facies. For example, a lake-deposited facies in
important because they constrain the degree of
a subaerial volcanic terrain could be part of an
confidence that can be put on final interpretations,
eruptive centre (crater or caldera lake) or could
and serve as a basis for critically evaluating the
have formed in the surrounding landscape far from
possible spatial and age relationships between
an eruptive centre. The facies by itself may not
different facies. Where subsurface core is available,
suggest which setting, but the associated facies, e.g.
detailed logging will be necessary, and two- or
perhaps thick, areally restricted rhyolite intrusives
three-dimensional correlation fence diagrams
and flows (Ch. 4), proximal ignimbrite facies (Ch.
should be attempted.
8), base surge deposits (Chs 5 & 7), critical
epiclastic facies (Ch. 10), should help to identify the Stage 2: determine the structure of the succession.
relevant setting.
Stage 3: identify and describe all facies present
Similarly, a succession of ignimbrites could
based on field outcrop, core characteristics, hand-
represent an intra caldera fill succession, or a series
specimen characteristics, and personal thin-section
of outflow ignimbrites deposited tens of kilometres
observations, using the facies descriptors outlined
from the vent. For example, McPhie (1983) has
in Chapter 1. Measure detailed sections or logs to
identified a succession of Carboniferous ignimbrites
represent facies characteristics. In successions that
(both welded and non-welded) as an outflow
have been variably altered and deformed, facies
succession. This was based on the association of
analysis should first be done in the least altered
moderately thick ignimbrites (cf. very thick intra-
areas or cores, and when confidence in recognition
caldera fill ignimbrites, Ch. 8) with valley fill
of original facies has been developed, only then
morphologies, with fluvial volcaniclastic sediment-
work back into more altered areas and cores.
ary rocks, and the absence of the expected association
Petrographic work should be done personally by
of caldera related facies as summarised in the
geologists. Petrographic descriptions made by con-
previous example.
sultants who do not see the rocks in context should
So, in summary, there are few facies in volcanic
be avoided if possible.
terrains that will be unique to a particular setting or
environment, so that interpretation should be based Stage 4: work out the spatial and age relationships
on the association of facies. Associated sedimentary of facies (sharp, gradational, conformable, uncon-
facies will be most valuable indicators of immediate formable, faulted, intrusive) from outcrop patterns
sedimentary environments and the sedimentary and cross sections, and represent these on interactive
processes and conditions operating. Readers are diagrams (Section 14.2).
referred to current sources for the detailed facies
Stage 5: assess the possible modes of fragmentation
characteristics of modern sedimentary environ-
and/or formation, transportation and deposition.
ments and successions CR. G. Walker 1984,
Reading 1978, Selley 1978, f98-2, Friedman & Stage 6: consider the possible genetic relationships
Sanders 1978, Blatt et al. 1980). between associated facies, and then make genetic
FACIES MODELS 425
interpretations of each facies and the total associ- just as important as the recognition of the simi-
ation of facies in terms of origins (stage 5), larities.
environment of deposition and environmental The construction of a facies model for a particular
conditions. type setting involves recognition of the essential
elements common to all the examples (modern and
Stage 7: if a broader palaeogeographic context is
ancient) of that type setting and encapsulating these
required, then look at the identified significant
into the general facies model. It also involves
associations of facies and their relationships to each
ignoring the local, insignificant pecularities of each
other. Where outcrop permits, this could be
example, the guideline being that the omi~sion of
supplemented by collecting data on transport and
that idiosyncracy does not fundamentally affect the
source directions such as palaeocurrent measure-
distinctive character of the facies model. R. G.
ment, contouring of maximum clast sizes, and
Walker (1984) called this process of incorporating
thickness variations.
the essentials and omitting the insignificant idio-
syncracies the distillation of a general facies model.
One common element in the approach to the
14.7 Facies models - what they represent interpretation of facies and the development of
and their uses facies models in both non-volcanic and volcanic
successions is the need to develop a framework of
Roger G. Walker, introducing the excellent volume focal elements for reference, and to provide a scale
he edited on facies models for sedimentary suc- perspective. For example, in fluvial successions the
cessions, writes: focal element is the channel; in deltas, alluvial fans
and submarine fans it is the system of distributary
a facies model . . . [is] a general summary of a
channels; in near-shore marine successions it is the
specific sedimentary environment. ... The basis
shoreline; and in volcanic terrains it is the eruptive
of the summary consists of many studies in both
centre. Irrespective of whether it is the actual
ancient rocks and recent sediments. . . . The
eruption centre complex or the environments
increased need for models is due to the increasing
marginal to that complex that are of interest (e.g.
amount of prediction that geologists are making
for exploration purposes), it is necessary to locate
from a limited local data base. This prediction
the centre in order to predict where the marginal
may concern subsurface sandstone geometry in
environments and facies will be found.
hydrocarbon reservoirs, the association of mineral
Another common approach in the analysis of
deposits with specific sedimentary environments,
facies in sedimentary successions and in the devel-
. .. In all cases, a limited amount of local
opment of facies models is to identify distinctive
information plus the guidance of a well-understood
sequences of facies, which may define trends
facies model results in potentially important
unique to particular environments. For example,
predictions about that local environment. CR. G.
meandering fluvial facies models are dominated by
Walker 1984, pp. 3-4)
upward fining channel-point bar packets of sedi-
Walker goes on to emphasise that a facies model ment; transgressive successions are upward fining;
has four principle functions: as a norm for compari- regressive successions are upward coarsening; mid-
son, as a framework and guide for further obser- fan lobes of deep submarine fans are typically
vations, as an initial predictor in new geological depicted as upward coarsening with beds thicken-
situations and as a basis for hydrodynamic interpret- ing; associated channel fills are typically depicted as
ation of the environment it represents. However, as upward fining with beds thinning (see R. G.
discussed further in Section 14.8, although the Walker 1984, Reading 1978). Such facies sequences
facies model acts as a general guide, each case will are produced by a dynamic equilibrium in the
have peculiar features that are slightly at variance to sedimentary environments, leading to an essentially
the norm. The identification of these differences is predictable progression of facies. However, in vol-
426 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
intraglacial basaltic and rhyolitic volcanoes even pillow lavas, may be found. If regional
Precambrian volcanism volcanism occurred in a continental edge setting, it
may have been accompanied by regional updoming
or tumescence, which is compensated by regional
14.8.1 CONTINENTAL BASALTIC subsidence after volcanism ceases, perhaps leading
SUCCESSIONS to marine transgression. Throughout the section
fossil soils should be found, reflecting the long
Selected references erosion-weathering intervals between short-lived
Sections 13.3-6, Greeley and King (1977), Swanson volcanic episodes. Magmas in these provinces may
et at. (1975), Swanson and T. Wright (1981), Waters be alkaline to tholeiitic in composition.
(1961), Ollier (1967b), OIlier & Joyce (1964), Joyce
(1975), Mohr (1983), Choubey (1973), Subbarao Facies model
and Sukheswala (1981), Bultitude (1976b) White See Figure 14.7.
(1960) and Bristow and Saggerson (1983).
Economic significance
Description These settings may host concentrations of alluvial
The principal volcanic elements of continental precious metals and stones (called 'deep lead'
basaltic provinces and the basins in which they deposits) in river channel successions buried by
occur will be flood and valley-fill lavas (Chs 4 & flood basalt lavas. Diamonds may occur in kimber-
13), cinder cones, maars or tuff rings and shield lite pipes, diatremes and breccia pipes in the root
volcanoes. Important accessory sedimentary en- zones of maars and tuff rings.
vironments will include fluvial channels, which will
be constantly relocated as flood lava ponds in
valleys. The fluvial systems will be incisive and 14.8.2 CONTINENTAL STRATOVOLCANOES
erosional, acting against the aggradational effects of
the basaltic volcanism in building up the topo- Selected references
graphy. Fluvial successions will therefore not be Section 13.7, Pike and Clow (1981), Vessell and
thick or extensive, and will only be preserved in the Davies (1981), Roobol and Smith (1976), Fiske et
rock record through the capping effects of valley-fill at. (1963), Lipman and Mullineaux (1981), Thomp-
lavas, producing 'deep lead' deposits which, in son et at. (1965), Gregg (1960), Grindley (1960),
eastern Australia, are renowned for their precious Neall (1979), Gorshkov (1959), Aramaki (1963) H.
metal and precious stone alluvial resources. Williams and McBirney (1979, pp. 312-3), Branch
Lacustrine and swamp deposits and environments (1976) and R. W. Johnson (1976, 1981).
may also be relatively short-lived. Their origin
could be either within maars or tuff rings, or Description
craters, or be due to damming up of valleys by lavas Stratovolcanoes show complex primary variations
or ponding within the flat landscape dominated by in erupted products in time and space, and
flood lavas. They may be short-lived because epiclastic processes and mass wastage of the steep-
contemporaneous erosion could breach their sided cones further complicates the stratigraphy of
physical margins or because they become buried the pile (Ch. 13). We have already discussed the
under a new lava flow. The basaltic succession may principal volcanic elements of stratovolcanoes in
be underlain by alluvial-fluvial deposits and base- Chapter 13. Short lavas, domes and shallow intrus-
ment from which it may be separated by a regional ives (commonly basaltic andesite to dacite in
unconformity, and upwards may pass again into composition) are the main cone-building elements,
alluvial-fluvial successions as volcanism wanes. and armour the cone against erosion. These are
Locally, where lavas have flowed over swampy flanked by, and interdigitate with, various types of
areas, or into lakes or rivers, hyaloclastites, and pyroclastic and epiclastic rocks. Pyroclastics may
428 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
-
0 5 IOkm
I ! !
rn
tuff "no ce mpl"
beument
E:1 felS,1 .ells on bOlolt lava ,hle ld velcanlc pll,
D flUVia l .. dlment,
D bOlalt laval
G pyroclalt i t and or hydro-
cie.l,c basal1 lc aOQreoates
~
~- loke .. d,menls
~ deoroded cinder centl feeder tondu,"! dykes
show a wide range in composition and eruptive deep valleys channelling the coarse debris of
style. However, it will only be the deposits of large pyroclastic flows and other types of volcani-
plinian and ignimbrite eruptions, especially welded clastic flows, and the presence of lavas will be
tuffs, that tend to be preserved in the geological characteristic;
record. Other pyroclastic deposits will be for the (c) Near to the vent, a large proportion of volcani-
most part eroded and redeposited as mass-flow clastic breccias, which may be pyroclastic flow
deposits and reworked epiclastic sediments in basin deposits of various types and facies (Chs 7 &
areas marginal to the volcanic centre. Much of this 8) or secondary epiclastic flows due to mass-
probably occurs very shortly after their eruption wastage (Ch. 10); these will be closely spatially
(1-10 years) with much of the deposition taking associated with lavas, domes and shallow
place on the developing ring plain of these vol- intrusives, together constituting the 'core' of
canoes. the volcano; and
Are there any generalisations that can be made (d) Away from source, thick successions of im-
about the volcanic successions of stratovolcanoes? mature volcanic detritus in alluvial or marine
It seems that their variability is their most important settings, or both.
characteristic, and we can conclude that the strati-
graphies of stratovolcanoes show: Facies model
See Figure 14.8. Note that this model is a very
(a) Rapid inconsistent lithological and compo-
generalised one, depicting a relatively large pro-
sitional changes in the vertical succession;
portion of volcaniclastics. However, as noted in
(b) Rapid lateral lithological changes which,
Chapter 13, many stratovolcanoes consist of a much
moving away from the source, may fit into a
higher proportion of lavas and intrusives than
systematic facies pattern. Around the cone,
shown here, especially in the near-vent 'core' area
facies will be discontinuous, controlled by
(e.g. Bultitude 1976a).
FACIES MODELS FOR VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS 429
.I' .
pyroclOSht fait and volcan ,clcllt,e
mou - lIow de pol l"
.roded remnontl of pyrocloltlc
f. 1I deposlt l
epiclall,c .. d imenll -
..
, conlemporaneous
youn9,r poII- volcon llm
eplclo,t lc "d lmentl - from
eroded fiolconoes 19 In
monne tronsQreu llJ to londlton ...
I al har I
2
l ahar
flUVial s.1(hmenIS
E3 ma lor trO, lon' dflQrodo, Ion
surface
2 ' h.lv.al cr yS101 - rich epIC'OSlIe boslment
sedlmenls 3 phn,.n fa ll depo .. t
3
4
thin plo n,on fall depos it
10,1
4
5
so,1
$eo" o fa ll dep.,,,
D subsurface InlnU1V'
Figure 14.8 Generalised facies model for continental stratovolcanoes. Note the significant variations from the proximal near-
vent cone facies to the distal ring plain environment where epiclastic volcaniclastics are dominant. Also see Figure 13.32.
gently inward dipping slopes and may have associ- shield are largely erosional, and depositional proces-
ated caldera margin collapse breccias (Ch. 13). The ses are restricted to alluvial settings and to local,
rhyolitic lavas and domes will lie within or at the shallow lakes formed in valleys, or perhaps devel-
margins of the caldera structure, although some oped on the low slopes of the shield. The eroded
may be erupted outside the caldera. The caldera volcaniclastic debris is largely removed from the
subsidence basin will host not only lavas and domes volcano and is deposited in basins marginal to the
(or cryptodomes), but also thick intracaldera ignim- centre, and the shields are therefore composed
brites (Ch. 8). These can be extremely thick (much dominantly of ignimbrite with volumetrically small
thicker than ignimbrites of the shield outside the amounts of epiclastic interbeds. Large volumes of
caldera), they may have associated near-vent co- pumice, ash and crystals will be removed to be
ignimbrite breccias, they are frequently crystal-rich deposited in large fluvial outwash plains flanking
and often lack evidence of significant ash-loss the ignimbrites (perhaps more than 50% of most
associated with eruption. This caldera-fill succession ignimbrites ends up in such epiclastic sequences),
will also contain intercalated epiclastic sediments. or are even transported into the marine environ-
Contemporaneous basaltic scoria cones may occur ment. Many, especially small-volume, non-welded
around the margins or beyond the limits of caldera ignimbrites such as the Taupo ignimbrite (Chs 7 &
structures, but rarely within the caldera confines. 8) have a low probability of even being preserved in
Hydrothermal systems including sinter deposits the geological record.
and pools will be common within and outside the When a number of silicic centres are associated
caldera, and these may be associated with hydro- together in time, such as in the Taupo Volcanic
thermal explosion craters. Zone in New Zealand or the San Juan Volcanic
Epiclastic deposits may be volumetrically import- Field in the western USA, ignimbrite shields will
ant caldera-fill elements, covering areas between overlap. Anyone stratigraphic section could there-
102 and 104 km 2 . Such deposits could include fore contain a number of ignimbrites from different
fluvial sediments, subaerial mass flows, and caldera centres, and in both pf these fields ignimbrites from
and valley-ponded lake deposits, subaqueous debris one centre are known to fill in older calderas of the
flows and turbidites of pumiceous and dense other centres. Facies associations will be diverse,
rhyolite debris, hemipelagic lacustrine muds, lateral facies relationships will be abrupt and
horizons of floated pumice, and even diatomaceous stratigraphic relationships will be complex.
oozes. Where caldera centres are resurgent, caldera
fill strata could be significantly tilted, faulted, and Facies model
even folded. See Figure 14.9.
The ignimbrite shield or plateau outside the
caldera is dominated by relatively thin (tens of Economic significance
metres or more), sheet-like ignimbrites, known as Precious and other epithermal metal deposits are
outflow ignimbrites. Interspersed with these are the most important resource associated with conti-
pyroclastic fall deposits and epiclastic deposits nental silicic volcanoes. Epithermal deposits of
(McPhie 1983). Erosion will be important between mercury, arsenic, antimony, gold, silver, lead and
ignimbrite eruptions. Valleys, typically steep-sided zinc may be found associated with shallow level
box canyons, are quickly incised into freshly hydrothermal systems both inside and outside the
erupted ignimbrite as the drainage pattern tries to caldera margins, and may be associated with
re-establish itself (e.g. Figs 8.7 & 42). If welded, diatremes and breccia pipes (Sillitoe et ai. 1984). In
the non-welded top will be stripped off in time (e.g. addition, porphyry copper-gold deposits may be
102_10 5 years, depending on size and climate), associated with deeper-level intrusives. Bedded
otherwise rapid degradation of the whole sheet will sulphides may occur in deep caldera lakes, but no
continue unless covered by another ignimbrite, or substantial deposits of this type are yet known from
other deposits. Epiclastic processes within the continental silicic centres.
FACIES MODELS FOR VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS 431
ep.claslic sediments
0 10 20km
~
o 0 plinian fa ll deposit s younger succeulon
Figure 14.9 Facies model for continental silicic volcanoes depicting the variations in facies associations from the focal
caldera complex to the ignimbrite plateau or shield outside the caldera.
432 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
14.8.4 SUBMARINE BASALTIC RIFT small piles resembling seamount facies models
VOLCANISM (Sections 13.10 & 14.8.5; Fig. 13.50) to large piles
similar in character to the median rift valley
Selected references volcanoes of MORs (Section 13.10; Fig. 13.49)
Section 13.10, Macdonald (1982), Ballard and van could be expected. Pillow lavas, massive lavas and
Andel (1977), Luyendyk and Macdonald (1977), hyaloclastites (quench-fragmented lavas) should be
Macdonald and Luyendyk (1977), Searle and prominent. If eruption occurs in shallow enough
Laughton (1981), R. N. Anderson et al. (1982), water, and there is explosive interaction between
Newmark et al. (1985), Moores (1982) and magma and water (Ch. 3), then pyroclastics should
Coleman (1977). also be present. Talus slopes and pelagic sediment
or epiclastic sediments, or both, may also be
Description prominent. Breaks in eruption activity will be
As summarised m Section 13.10, basaltic rift recorded by pelagic-hemipelagic sediments and
volcanism associated with mid-ocean spreading perhaps redeposited volcanic sediments, and
ridges (MORs) occurs within the median valley. hydrothermal activity and water depth permitting,
The morphology of the volcanoes varies from the bedded to massive sulphides.
central type where spreading rates are low, to
elongate, fissure-fed ones with intermediate spread- Facies model
ing rates, to very elongate shield-like volcanoes at For a typical ophiolitic facies model see Figure
high spreading rates. Both pillowed and non- 15.1. For ensialic rift basaltic facies model, see
pillowed lavas are common in these volcanoes. Figure 13.50.
However, ridge crests and oceanic lithosphere are
dominated by ridge-parallel fractures and faults, Economic significance
which form in the environs of the ridge due to Marine basaltic rift volcanism is significant for its
tectono-isostatic adjustments as the lithosphere potential as a source of Cyrus-type copper-pyrite
ruptures and spreads away from the ridge crest. mineralisation (and to a lesser extent zinc, lead,
Because of this, the original volcanic mounds are manganese, nickel, cobalt, silver and gold). Ore
likely to be highly dismembered. In the rock record deposits occur as massive bodies at the sediment or
their recognition as discrete volcanoes, or parts seawater-basalt interface, and as subjacent, in-
thereof may be nearly impossible. More commonly, tensely hydrothermally altered stockworks.
their activity and original presence is preserved Manganese nodules with significant concentrations
only as an almost imperceptible part of the layer 2 of Mn, Cr, Ni and Co may form post-depositionally
basaltic layer of oceanic crust and ophiolites. at the sediment-basalt interface and within the
A veneer of pelagic sediment and downward sediment pile. Mineralisation at seafloor spreading
transition into a mafic sheeted dyke complex and centres has been reviewed by Rona (1984).
gabbroic and mafic-ultramafic cumulate rocks,
complete the stratigraphy associated with MOR 14.8.S OCEANIC BASALTIC SEAMOUNTS
volcanism (Ch. 15). This stratigraphy is similar to
that of ophiolites, as discussed in Sections 15.2 and Selected references
3. Section 13.10, J. G. Jones (1966), J. G. Moore and
Basaltic rift volcanism may also take place in Fiske (1969), Batiza and Yanko (1983), Searle
marine settings within submerged sialic crust (e.g. (1983), Thorarinsson (1967) and Kokelaar and
some Archaean greenstone belts). In this situation Durant (1983).
the nature of the volcanic pile will depend on the
nature of the vent (whether a point-source or Description
fissure), the rate of extension, the rate of magma See Section 13.10. Where basaltic seamounts
discharge and the water depth. All transitions from develop on oceanic lithosphere, their preservation
FACIES MODELS FOR VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS 433
potential in the rock record must be poor. They, sided, they may have summit calderas, and they
like their substrate, face being subducted. During have diverse magmatic compositions (Section 13.7).
this they may become detached from the substrate However, they are significantly different in that
and are likely to be variably dismembered, depend- they have a foundation built in submarine conditions
ing on the tectonics of the subduction setting. So, and a summit region which may be subaerial. If the
like the volcanoes of MORs their recognition may initial eruptions are basaltic to basaltic andesite,
be difficult. then the lower submarine parts of the strato-
Where basaltic seamounts develop on submerged volcanoes may develop similar stratigraphy and
sialic crust in a setting not necessarily subjected to characteristics to volcanic seamounts, being
subduction tectonics, they may be preserved in the dominated by lavas including pillow lavas and
record, and their recognition will be dependent on hyaloclastites. However, stratovolcanoes may be
recognising the up sequence facies changes first longer lived than individual oceanic seamount
documented within an overall facies model by J. G. volcanoes, and they may build substantial subaerial
Jones (1966) (Section l3.10; Fig. l3.50). After cones dominated by lavas, pyroclastics and im-
cessation of volcanism, the shallow tops of some mature epiclastics intruded by feeder bodies. Such
centres may be sites for atoll and limestone cap volc2rloes are almost invariably associated with
formation. island arc systems (Ch. 15) built on prominent arc
crustal blocks which consist of older, deformed arc
Facies model volcanic piles, associated intrusives and younger
See Figure l3.50. Note: eruptions that begin in carbonate cappings, upon a foundation of sub-
relatively shallow waters (e.g. Surtsey, Thorarins- merged oceanic or continental crust. Such settings
son 1967), may consist only of the upper pyroclastic are associated with significant epiclastic erosional,
succession with or without the succeeding subaerial transportational and depositional processes (Ch.
lava cap. 10). High rates of subaerial mass-wastage and
shoreline erosion will be accompanied by major
Economic significance submarine mass-flow processes, shedding debris
Basaltic seamounts are not noted for their resource into associated basins. These produce coarse,
potential, although development of ferromanganese proximal forearc and back-arc sediment aprons
crusts (see Section 14.3, discussion on palagonitisa- built up largely by mass-flow deposits (debris flows,
tion) and nodules could produce significant manga- rubble avalanches, turbidity currents, slumps and
nese deposits, which in ancient successions have slides). In this regard, emergent stratovolcanoes
been called Lahn-Dill-type deposits. will be different from seamounts in that their initial
lava-dominated foundation will be buried by, and
14.8.6 MARINE STRATOVOLCANOES flanked by a volumetrically, equally significant,
volcaniclastic apron.
Selected references The back-arc apron, which is under the direct
Section l3. 7, Bryan et al. (1972), Bauer (1970), influence of the active volcanic are, will contain
Black (1970), Ball and Johnson (1976), Pichler and much juvenile, contemporaneous volcanic debris,
Friedrich (1980), Pichler and Kussmaul (1980), as well as older epiclastic, volcanic detritus.
Self and Rampino (1981), Sigurdsson et al. (1980), Sigurdsson et al. (1980) suggested that in the Lesser
Mitchell (1970), J. G. Jones (1967b), Klein (1975), Antilles arc system the back arc apron is depleted in
Klein and Lee (1984) and Ricketts et al. (1982). primary pyroclastic fall material because of the
preferential transport of ashes eastwards by strong
Description prevailing westerly wind systems at higher altitudes
Marine stratovolcanoes are generally similar to their (Ch. l3; Fig. l3.28). Most of the back-arc apron
wholly subaerial counterparts: they have significant therefore consists of mass-flow deposits (Klein
relief above their base, they are large and steep- 1975, Klein & Lee 1984). Both aprons may contain
434 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
oI 5 IOk m
vOlcan iclastic depOSIts of slratovolcano
! I
I bath pyroclasllc and oPICIO,l lc)
I~:~~;ii
D
hyaloclosllies pelagic and hemipelagic sed iments where
open ocean, Or lerr lgenous ,.dlmeol where
,n prOK lmlty to a I micra) conllnent
feeder Ilnlruslve Igneous bod ies with
hydrothermal olloralton envelope and malar eras lonl degradallon
vl ln stockwork mlnerallsallon surface
Figure 14.10 Facies model for marine stratovolcanoes and environs. Compare with the model for continental
stratovolcanoes. The significant differences are the presence of pillow lavas and submarine mass-flow volcanic
sediments in the marine stratovolcano pile.
may be subject to considerable epiclastic erosional volcaniclastics, mudstones, the focal massive
and mass-flow depositional processes long after sulphides and their associated chemical sedimentary
eruption has ceased, so that ore precipitation could facies. The commonly preferred setting of the
be interrupted or could also be redeposited down- Kuroko deposits is in deep marine conditions, in a
slope by mass-flow processes, or both. rift basin. The interpretation for water depth is
based on both palaeontological grounds (Guber &
MerillI983), and by the need to prevent the boiling
14.8.7 SUBMARINE FELSIC VOLCANOES
off of ore fluids (Ridge 1973, Franklin et at. 1981).
AND VOLCANIC CENTRES
The latest estimate of the depth of the depositional
Selected references environment is about 3500 m (Guber & Merill
1983), although it may be a little less. Such depths
M. A. Reynolds and Best (1976), M. A. Reynolds
have two effects on the eruption modes and
et at. (1980), Ohmoto (1978), Kouda and Koide
products. First, because of the confining pressure
(1978), Ohmoto and Takahashi (1983), Sato (1977),
of the water column at such depths, exsolution of
Sangster (1972), Spence and De Rosen-Spence
volatiles may be considerably inhibited, so main-
(1975), De Rosen-Spence et at. (1980) and Kokelaar
taining low magma viscosities. If the volume of
et at. (1984, 1985).
magma that is erupted and the discharge rate is
large, this could lead to areally extensive felsic lavas
Description which flow anomalously large distances given the
Although acidic magmas can be erupted in intra- magma type (Ch. 4). Small volume, high viscosity
oceanic settings and result from differentiation and lavas will be local in extent and produce small
fractionation processes m basic-intermediate domes, as appears common in the Kuroko situation.
magma chambers, they are more common in Secondly, the confining pressure of the water
marine environments floored by continental (sialic) column at depths of -3000 m will preclude ex-
basement (Ch. 13; Fig. 13.44). The popularity of plosive fragmentation (Ch. 3). Although the volcani-
submarine felsic and silicic centres as exploration clastics associated with the Kuroko deposits have
targets stems from their association with Kuroko- been described as tuff-breccias, lapilli-tuffs and
type and Canadian Archaean base-metal ore de- pyroclastics, they are unlikely to be in situ pyro-
posits. Because of the difficulties associated with clastics, particularly given their low vesicularity of
observing modern marine (especially submarine) 17-34% (Ch. 3). At the water depths suggested
volcanoes much of the current understanding above, they are more likely to be redeposited
comes from the rock record, especially from the volcaniclastics derived from shallower depths
closely studied Kuroko successions of Japan and 500 m), or quench-fragmented hyaloclastites.
those of the Archaean Abitibi greenstone belt of Only at shallow eruptive depths are true, in situ
Canada. Although some workers have interpreted pyroclastics likely to be significant, in which case
the Kuroko successions as submarine calderas significant sulphide precipitation may be precluded
(Kouda & Koide 1978, Ohmoto 1978, Ohmoto & because of boiling off of host fluids. In situ
Takahashi 1983), others (Cathles et at. 1983) have hyaloclastites will also be important elements,
suggested that volcanism occurred in a narrow associated with both surface domes and shallow
extensional rift-like basin, presumably from scat- cryptodomes intruding water-saturated sediments.
tered point sources. The two ideas are, in fact, not With the former the domes may be mantled by
mutually exclusive, and are similar in many regards aprons ofhyaloclastite. The hyaloclastites associated
to the ideas about the Canadian volcanic centres with the cryptodomes may be dynamically mixed
(e.g. Spence & De Rosen-Spence 1975; see Section with the sediments they intrude through boiling-
14.8.10). induced fluidisation of the interstitial pore fluids,
The essential elements of the Kuroko successions producing peperitic textures (Ch. 3).
seem to be subaqueous dome-like lavas, associated In summary, relatively deep marine silicic vol-
436 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
canic centres should be dominated by lavas, perhaps 14.8.8 DEEP-MARINE FACIES DERIVED
in overlapping nests, hyaloclastites, redeposited FROM SHALLOW-MARINE-
volcaniclastics derived from shallower eruption SUBAERIAL SILICIC VOLCANIC
points, deep-marine pelagic-hemipelagic sediments CENTRES
representing hiatus in eruptive activity, possible
associated sulphides, and variable proportions of Selected references
terrigenous sediments, depending on proximity to Cas (1978b, 1979, 1983a), Cas et al. (1981), Fiske
land masses. Further consideration is given to the and Matsuda (1964), Fiske (1963) and J. V. Wright
Canadian Archaean successions in Section 14.8.10. and Mutti (1981).
Intermediate depth to shallow water centres will
contain progressively increasing proportions of in Description
situ pyroclastic deposits. Intermediate depth centres Shallow-marine to subaerial silicic volcanic centres
will contain local pyroclastic successions such as produce abundant pyroclastic deposits, and the
tuff cone and tuff ring deposits (e.g. Bunga outlier successions of the centres themselves will be similar
of the Boyd Volcanic Complex, southeastern to those of continental silicic volcanoes (see Section
Australia, Tuluman Volcano, Papua New Guinea; 14.8.3). However, where such centres interface
Reynolds & Best 1976, Reynolds et al. 1980). directly with deep-marine basins, a significant
Shallow water centres may be highly explosive, and proportion of the erupted products will be deposited
produce ignimbrites, that may be deposited in in these basins. Much will be redeposited by
shallow waters or on exposed islands, as well as normal subaqueous mass-flow processes, perhaps
abundant water-lain tephra fall deposits, abundant derived from shoreline settings. Slides, rubble
redeposited pyroclastic debris, and domes. The avalanches, debris flows and turbidity currents
geology of Kos in the Dodecanese islands of Greece (Ch. 10) will build an apron of volcaniclastics
is representative of subaerial accumulations associ- interdigitating with normal basinal facies. Other
ated with shallow submarine calderas (Fig. 13.44). deposits will result from the interaction between
pyroclastic flows and sea water (Ch. 11). Except for
Facies model dense block and ash flows, there is considerable
See Figure 14.11. doubt that most pyroclastic flows will continue to
flow underwater as gas-supported pyroclastic flows
Economic significance (Ch. 9). They may interact explosively with sea
Massive stratiform sulphides are the most significant water, and the debris may then be redeposited as
resource likely in such settings. These should large-volume, very thick mass-flow deposits of
accumulate during quiescent times or in quiescent juvenile volcanic debris, in associated basins,
settings associated with pelagic-hemipelagic sedi- frequently well away from the original volcanic
ments, or both, may be in local trapped basins centres. In these settings stratigraphy may be
(between several domes), or perched (on top of continuous, and the volcaniclastic succession will
domes) basins. There they will be protected from interrupt the accumulation of normal basinal sedi-
the influx of significant volumes of pyroclastics and ments and will interdigitate with them. These basin
epiclastics. Such settings should be fed by hydro- sediments will be largely sandy turbidites and
thermal springs. It appears that many Kuroko-type interbedded hemipelagic mudstones.
massive sulphide deposits show clastic textures and
are thought to have been mechanically transported. Facies model
Hence, the difficulty lies in finding environments See Figure 14.12.
marginal to domes where these redeposited,
slumped sulphide deposits have come to rest. A Economic significance
footwall stockwork system of sulphides and perhaps These successions will have little resource potential
precious metals may also be prominent. unless they are associated with distal hydrothermal
FACIES MODELS FOR VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS 437
oI ,
2km
0
sediments, are horizons (block)
D early, exlenSlye submorone
felsic layo
zone 01 ollerotlon
D
post - yolconl c epiclosllc
vol can Ic sed iment
I,' "1
~
lelsoc submarine loyos /
Intrusive cryptodomes ~
hyoloclo.t~es (quench - Irogmented
lavas I Inlruslves)
post - yolconic succesSion
Figure 14.11 Facies model for relatively deep marine felsic (silicic) volcanic centres. The model depicts areally extensive
deep-marine felsic lavas, followed by smaller dome-like bodies. The mineralisation is depicted as being associated with
the youngest. smallest domes, as appears to be the case in the Kuroko region. Intermediate depth volcanic centres may
also contain local in situ accumulations of pyroclastic deposits, such as tuff cone and tuff ring successions.
(0)
~ --
-..-..
-- 15 19
T------T~r---~------._------~I_----- ~~ -
20
-- ~.:-:;~-:.?
~~~=~:
-- ----
We st
15
o 5~m
lSI
Merrlons Tuff
f]I] Mamb..r 0
1,'=" 1 Member B
0
Membe r PcioSI ies
.nferred closlics loyos
0 Member E
cIOSl,C$
Member M
closlics 0 Member A
clastics ~
Merr ions Tuff clostlcs enclosed
by reglonol molri. rocks
0 @
Membe r J Member L Membe r F
pem es ~ closll cs ~ closl iC! lime plones
~-, Member H
loyos 0 Member C
peliles 0 Member K
cloltica ~ meolured secllon
Figure 14.12 Facies model for deep-marine voicanic successions derived from shallow marine-subaerial silicic
volcanic centres. (a) Basin floor facies fed by subaerial ignimbrites flowing into water and subaqueous fissure lava
eruptions, interdigitating with normal basin terrigenous epiclastics, Lower Devonian Merrions Tuff, southeastern
Australia. The three cross-sectional perspectives are arranged from northernmost (top) to southernmost (south).
Each clastic interval consists of multiple thick, massive sedimentation units (after Cas 1978). Also see Figure
10.27 for greater detail. (b) (opposite) Volcanic apron, interdigitating with normal deep-marine basin, epiclastic
terrigenous sediments, Lower Devonian Kowmung Volcaniclastics, southeastern Australia (after Cas et al. 1981).
FACIES MODELS FOR VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS 439
Wollondilly
volcanics
wombeyan
volcanics
Cobra Kowmung
Creek River
LAMBIE
GROUP
-825
800
UNCONFORMITY
~ E G;
"0.0
3"'5e
-
o C ..
III 8" 600 600
Silicic Breccia
Member ./ "
breccia ./
./
altered
vitriclasts
./
limestone
~ clasts
mudstone
E:;] intraclasts
'c S/or
vOIC~~:te clasts
quar a
block shale
intensely
deformed zone
zone of no
outcrop d
thinly interbeddde
sandstone on
mudstone d'mentation
graded se I
unit
Vertical scale
in metres
440 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
than as parts of basaltic and rhyolitic volcanic However, whether the volcanic centres were
complexes, as discussed in previous sections. similar in character to modern ones is not clear.
Perhaps their nature was affected by the different
tectonic regime, influenced by the possibly higher
14.8.10 PRECAMBRIAN VOLCANISM geothermal gradient and a substantially thinner
crust and lithosphere. In this regard, few compre-
Selected references hensive accounts of the structure and modern
Arndt and Nisbet (1982), Huppert et al. (1984), affinities of Precambrian volcanic piles have been
R. W. Hutchinson (1973, 1980), Naldrett and ventured. Two distinctive types of volcanic pile
Macdonald (1980), Ricketts et al. (1982), Dimroth have been recognised in Precambrian successions:
et al. (1978), Sangster (1972), Spence and De mafic-ultramafic komatiite-bearing (Ch. 4) piles,
Rosen-Spence (1975), De Rosen-Spence et al. and cyclical basic-intermediate-felsic piles (Nald-
(1980) and Thurston (1980). rett & Macdonald 1980, R. W. Hutchinson 1973,
1980).
Description Mafic-ultramafic volcanic piles are dominated by
How different were physical volcanic processes in high temperature tholeiitic to komatiitic lavas and
the Precambrian from those operating during the intrusives, and volcaniclastics and sediments seem
Phanerozoic? Tectonic controls, settings and con- to be a minor component. Lava thicknesses are very
ditions may have been different, and some of the variable, ranging from about a metre to several tens
erupted magmas may have been different from of metres. The features of komatiitic lavas have
those erupted in more-recent times. In particular, been briefly touched on in Section 4.12. These piles
during the Archaean, the atmosphere may have had are thought to have been associated with early to
a different composition and density, and the mid-Archaean rifts (R. W. Hutchinson 1980) at a
occurrence of komatiite lavas (Ch. 4) in Archaean time when there was little or no crust and the near
greenstone terrains records the eruption of very surface geothermal gradient may have been higher.
high temperature ultramafic lavas quite different Basic-intermediate-felsic volcanic piles (Sangster
from any magmas erupted in modern settings 1972, R. W. Hutchinson 1973, 1980) appear to
(Huppert et al. 1984, Arndt & Nisbet 1982). The have become prominent from the mid-Archaean
geothermal gradient may have been different and onwards, and to have continued into the Protero-
the tectonic regime was also almost certainly zoic. Sangster (1972), R. W. Hutchinson (1973,
different. Nevertheless, the basic physical principles 1980) and Spence and De Rosen-Spence (1975)
that we have reviewed in this book should be as indicate that these centres were polygenetic, and
applicable to Precambrian volcanic successions as erupted magmas ranging from basalts through to
they are to more-recent volcanics. Lavas of all types rhyolites: 'The volcanism is envisaged as the quiet
(basaltic, andesitic and rhyolitic) in all physical outpourings of lava sheets on to the sea floor from
forms (pillowed, massive and dome-like) have been magma rising through numerous fissures and small
described in Precambrian successions (e.g. Ricketts vents ... ' (Spence & De Rosen-Spence 1975,
et al. 1982, Dimroth et al. 1978, De Rosen-Spence p. 94). The volcanic piles are often constructed of
et al. 1980). Similarly hyaloclastites, ignimbrites, multiple cycles, commencing with basalt, followed
air-fall deposits and redeposited epiclastic volcani- by intermediate and then silicic lavas. Where
clastics have been recognised (Ricketts et al. 1982, mineralisation occurs it is most likely to be associ-
Dimroth et al. 1978, De Rosen-Spence et al. 1980, ated with the rhyolitic phase, which appears to be
Thurston 1980). It is clear that the physical associated with domal masses, and has similarities
volcanic processes were therefore similar to those to the successions described in Section 14.8.7. This
operating in modern volcanic settings, although the style of volcanism appears to have developed at a
larger-scale tectonic controls, processes and settings time when the upper mantle and crust were
may have been different. becoming differentiated. Piles as thick as 10 000 m
SUMMARY 441
UM UM UM
-
~ \
mafic volcanics
~
Iron formation - sulphide
facies
D
Late Archaean - PrOlerozolc
crust - Ihlckening Sialic,
Includ" Archaean g"enalones,
gneisses
( Pb - ) Zn -Cu (- Ag ) are
~
, II Intermed la e yolcanlcs body
La te Archaean - Proterololc
~.. granitOids
dlment. - coarse clostics.
baSin mar gi n
Figure 14.13 FaCies model for Precambrian basic-intermediate-felsIc volcanic cycle, representing perhaps one of
several such cycles In many volcanic piles (After Hutchinson 1973) Also see Figure 14.11, which can be taken to reflect
details of the top of such piles
442 FACIES MODELS FOR ANCIENT SUCCESSIONS
with an approach to facies analysis, and with volcanic successions. The models are based on
schematic facies models to be used as norms for understanding of both modern and ancient vol-
comparison. In particular, we have emphasised the canoes and their products. Both the modern and
effects of various forms of post-emplacement alter- the ancient have important strengths from a learning
ation and deformation in causing significant prob- point of view. In modern terrains the processes, the
lems in identifying original textures. This hinders way they interact, and their products can be
identification of the original rock types and depo- directly observed. Workers in ancient terrains who
sitional facies. Even apparent clastic textures, with have not looked first-hand at modern settings are at
all kinds of potentially misleading implications for a major disadvantage. On the other hand, ancient
depositional processes, can result from polyphase terrains also have much to offer, especially with
alteration. Careful observation, description and regard to subaqueous volcanic processes and pro-
interpretation are therefore necessary, and must be ducts. In addition, the long-term development of
based on thorough understanding of Chapters stratigraphy of particular settings can be better
1-14. Recognition of significant associations of evaluated and, most importantly, the context
facies, and an understanding of the depositional of volcanic hosted resources can be most easily
context, may be very important guides in interpret- assessed.
ing problematic rocks. We have emphasised again
that volcaniclastic rocks may have diverse modes of
formation. Some may be pyroclastic, but many may 14.10 Further reading
be quench-fragmented, or epiclastic, and the as-
sumption must be avoided that volcaniclastics by Although Williams and McBirney (1979) and
and large are pyroclastic in origin. This must be Fisher and Schmincke (1984) give some attention to
proven rather than assumed. analysis of ancient volcanic successions, there are
The facies models are an initial attempt to no other comprehensive reviews known to us like
summarise the essential characteristics of different the one in this chapter.
Plate 15 Aerial view of part of the East Africa Rift system on the border of Tanzania and Kenya. North is to the right. The
volcanoes and lakes are characteristic of the landscape of the rift. The major volcano in the centre left is Ngorongoro
Immediately above (west of) Ngorongoro is Olduvai Gorge. (After Sheffield 1981.)
444
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Volcanism and
tectonlC settlng
Initial statement
The relationship between volcanism and tectonic itself. The tectonic setting can only be evaluated by
setting is a diverse topic. One approach to this considering the overall regional geological frame-
subject in recent years has been from a geochemical work of the volcanics in question, combined with a
point of view, the approach being to correlate consideration of the original tectonic controls that
particular geochemical properties or trends in allow volcanism to occur in the first place. In this
modern volcanics with their specific tectonic setting, chapter, we review the known tectonic settings in
and to use the patterns derived from modern which volcanism occurs and the overall geological
successions in trying to identify the tectonic affin- characteristics of these settings, and propose guide-
ities of ancient volcanic successions. Ancient vol- lines for the evaluation of tectonic settings in
canic successions not only suffer from the effects of ancient terrains.
deformation in masking the original tectonic con-
text, but also from the chemical overprints of meta-
morphism and alteration. In spite of advances in
isotope and trace-element geochemistry, the geo-
chemical approach offers little hope of unambigu-
ously clarifying the original tectonic context by
445
446 VOLCANISM AND TECTONIC SETTING
15.1 An introduction to volcanism in the carefully by the scale of supposed modern ana-
modern global tectonic framework as logues, as well as by a clear understanding of all the
a guide to the tectonic settings of dynamically important tectonic elements of each
ancient volcanic successions tectonic setting, their relationships and extent.
However, having said this, care needs to be taken
The plate tectonic model for the modern global with Archaean terrains, because it is uncertain
tectonic framework has produced a reasonably clear whether the geothermal gradient was the same as at
picture of the patterns and conditions of volcanism present, and whether the scale of tectonic systems
associated with different tectonic settings, and it is a was the same as modern ones, or perhaps smaller.
useful starting place for developing an approach to Areas of modern volcanic activity can be classified
interpreting the tectonic setting of ancient volcanic into one of the following tectonic settings:
successions. The following is written with the aim
(a) open ocean (mid-ocean) spreading ridge
of formulating guidelines for interpreting the tec-
volcanism,
tonic context of ancient successions.
(b) marginal sea-back-arc basin-interarc basin
Although the approach of using modern global
spreading volcanism behind oceanic island
tectonic settings as analogues for past tectonic
arcs (e.g. Lau-Havre Trough, Marianas
configurations is not new, many attempts at doing
Trough),
so suffer from two weaknesses: first, they fre-
(c) intra-plate oceanic volcanism (e.g. Hawaiian
quently overestimate the scale of ancient configur-
chain and other oceanic volcanic seamounts),
ations compared with the scale of supposed modern
(d) intra-plate continental (flood) volcanism (e.g.
tectonic analogues and, secondly, they frequently
eastern Australia Cenozoic volcanism),
lack critical evaluation of whether all the essential
(e) continental rift volcanism:
dynamically important tectonic elements of the
narrow, linear zones (e.g. East Africa rift
modern analogue can be found in the ancient
zone), including aulocogenes, and broad,
configuration. For example, modern plate margin,
wide zones (e.g. Basin and Range Province,
volcanic island arc systems are not small-scale
western USA),
tectonic systems. They are regionally extensive
(f) young island arc volcanism associated with
systems hundreds to thousands of kilometres long,
oceanic trench subduction zones (e.g. Tonga-
usually hundreds of kilometres wide, and include at
Kermadec, Marianas, Aleutians, Hellenic,
least the volcanic arc itself, the forearc region
Scotia arcs),
including the accretionary prism, perched basins
(g) micro-continental arc volcanism associated
and the trench, and they may include back-arc
with oceanic trench subduction zones (e.g.
basins (see Section 15.7). The volcanic arc consists
Japan, New Zealand, Indonesia) and
of a line of stratovolcanoes with basal diameters of
(h) continental margin arc volcanism associated
at least 20 km. The spacing between individual
with oceanic trench subduction zones (e.g.
stratovolcanoes in a modern plate margin/arc system
Andes, Cascades volcanic belt, western USA).
is in the order of 10 1_10 2 km or more. The length
of a volcanic arc is usually hundreds to thousands of
kilometres. Therefore, in an ancient orogenic belt a 15.2 Mid-oceanic ridge volcanism and the
linear volcanic belt only tens of kilometres to a geology of the crust and lithosphere
hundred kilometres long does not constitute a plate
margin/arc system. This is especially so without the Mid-ocean ridge (MOR) volcanism (Sections
proven coexistence of a contemporaneous forearc 13.10.1 & 14.8.4) appears to issue from fissures
accretionary prism system, which is the physical which are arranged en echelon within a median
evidence of the subduction process. The point of valley (Searle & Laughton 1981, Macdonald 1982).
this digression is that reconstructions of ancient Small volcanic mounds and a topography of over-
tectonic configurations have to be constrained lapping flow-fronts are prominent in this median
MID-OCEANIC RIDGE VOLCANISM 447
SEDIMENTS
LAYER 2
Vp 5.1 km 5-1
CANYON
MOUNTAIN 2
DIABASE TRONDJ.
TRONDJ.
PYROXENITE 6
E
MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY
~
8
.c
Q.
PERIDOTITE PERIDOTITE 41
0
PERIDOTITE PERIDOTITE UPPER
MANTLE 10
Vp 8 .1 km 5 -I
12
14
(b)
~ 0
(; u
. ~
n
0
c0"
.
0
..
c u
:;; ,
"c "c 0
..
.. "
> .s::;
00 E
"" '"
0
2 Ii:
~ "c 0 0 0 c
.
.a
:;; 0:: (; 0
unconformity
Pelagic sediments or abyssal deep-sea fan
terrigenous or arc type deposits
transitional contact
Dyke complex, commonly with dyke within dyke relations.
transitional contact
Massive - noncumulate plutonic rocks with dlorrte, plagiogranite
also With intrusive breCCia with fragments 01 dolomite.
HOT
(c) SPRINGS
5048
, _- _- - - - - . . , Sea floor
- i!!!ii
----
oqu,fer
274m
.
375m
G~eeRO
-............ p,lIows
, .. '~i~m brecclo
~ flows
846m
, IfIHlntl_<:>M........ tronSlhon
I055m
ASTHE OSPHERE
Figure 15.1 (a) Comparison of stratigraphy of several known ophiolites with the seismic stratigraphy of
oceanic crust and mantle (after Moores 1982). (b) Expanded definition of a complete ophiolite (see text) (after
Moores 1982). (c) Schematic representation of the section intersected in Deep-Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Hole
504B, southern flanks of the Galapagos spreading centre, south of the Costa Rica Rift (after R. N. Anderson et
al. 1982)
will also be marked by significant thicknesses of ter- described as being oceanic tholeiite in character
rigenous sediments. Oceanic crust formed near (Basaltic Volcanism Study Project 1981), and the
island arcs will be mantled by pyroclastic and geochemical characteristics indicate derivation from
redeposited volcanic sediments (see Section 15 .3) poorly evolved magmas. However, although the
The areal extent of oceanic crust during active magmatism is clearly mantle-derived, it need not be
ocean basin life is huge and measurable in terms of exclusively mafic. Silicic differentiates, including
millions of square kilometres. However, because of small-scale ignimbrites, an' known on the rare
the developmenl of subduction systems and the subaerial exposures of mid-oceanic ridges such as in
subducted. In old orogenic belts preserved oceanic Icdand (G. I' I. \X'alker lY621. Vay rart' occur
potential of oceanic crust is low, as most will be rences 01 subaenal lava , pyroclastic and epiclastic
subducted. In old orogenic belt preserved oceanic facies may be lound. It should bt' noted here,
crust is likely to occur as long fault slices caught up however, that Iceland is very atypical of spreading
in accretionary prisms of subduction complexes, ridge volcanism. More strictly it should be con-
or as slabs obducted over the leading edge of the sidered as a region of oceanic platform volcanism
overriding plate and its volcanic arc , whether it be that happens to L'oincide with an active spreading
oceanic or continental (e.g. Coleman 1971, H. L. ridge axis. In places alkaline volcanism may also
Davies & Smith ]971, Moort's 1992). occur, especially along transform faults,
Oceanic crust is pervasively normally faulted. Alteration may be variab!t~ in its grade, intensity
This faulting occurs during the initial stages of and distribuuon, and varies from low grade sea
rifting, as the oceanic crust moves from the initial floor weathering products [u at least greenschist
vok-ank rift valley beyond the flanks of the ridge facie~ assemblage mmerals. The variation is due to
(Macdonald I n2). It need not be the result of variable permeabilities controlling the throughtlow
su bseq uen! deformation. of hydrothermal flUids (R. N. Anderson el al.
The geochemistry of the basalts is typically ]n2).
450 VOLCANISM AND TECTONIC SETTING
In ancient terrains, true oceanic crustal basaltic topography, little or no sediment cover, high heat
volcanism derived from mid-oceanic spreading flow and limited magnetic anomaly patterns over
centres will be distinguished not so much by elevated basin centre areas (e.g. Sclater et al. 1972).
geochemical characteristics as by overall, regional The successive splitting of the arc block and the
geological context. The basement to the volcanic seaward migration of the frontal arc should produce
succession should be clearly simatic; the layer 2 a sequence of progressively younger back-arc basins
basalts should interface directly downwards with a oceanwards, by successive 'small-scale' seafloor
sheeted dyke complex, which is the principal spreading in these basins (also see Section 15.7).
physical evidence of the tectonic extension associ- The part of the rifted block that stays behind is
ated with spreading; an essentially full oceanic called the remnant or third arc. The basins and
lithosphere stratigraphy should be developed (layers ridges or rises east of Australia and east of the
1--4); and the relict oceanic lithospheric slices should Chinese mainland have the ages predicted by this
form an integral part of a complex orogenic terrain, model, and are floored by oceanic crust (Burns,
irrespective of whether the final tectonic emplace- Andrews et al. 1973; Andrews, Packham et al.
ment of the slices was by subduction-related 1975; Karig, Ingle et al. 1975; Hussong, Uyeda et
accretionary prism offscraping and thrusting, or by al. 1981). The currently active, youngest of these,
obduction (Moores 1982). The scale of the whole the Lau-Havre Trough and the Marianas Trough,
complex should be large enough to be compatible are marked by high axial heat flow and have a '
with an original large oceanic basin setting and a sufficiently linear, though not always symmetrical
subsequent major subduction setting. or well defined, magnetic anomaly pattern to
suggest axial, if diffuse, spreading from a basin
15.3 Oceanic back-arc basin-interarc axial, irregular topographic rise (e.g. Karig 1970,
basin-marginal sea spreading 1971, 1974, Sclater et al. 1972, Bracey & Ogden
volcanism and its geological context 1972, Bibee et al. 1980, B. Taylor & Karner 1983,
Eguchi 1984). The crustal thickness is thin (5-15
Karig (1970, 1971, 1974) has shown that in the km, Brooks et al. 1984) and oceanic in nature, and
western Pacific many marginal basins are the the crust could also be expected to have an
product of the successive splitting and rifting of ophiolitic profile consisting oflayers 1-3 as outlined
subduction-related volcanic arc blocks, and the in Section 15.2, overlying a layer 4 upper mantle
oceanward migration of the frontal half of the rifted basement.
block, by the opening of a new back-arc or interarc However, not all arc systems necessarily have
basin containing a small-scale seafloor spreading back-arc basins originating from the rifting of an
centre (Fig. 15.2). This is suggested by irregular arc block (Cooper et al. 1977, B. Taylor & Karner
1983, Brooks et al. 1984). For example, the Although the geochemistry of modern marginal
Aleutians arc appears to have formed upon old sea layer 1 basalts is generally similar to that of mid-
open ocean lithosphere and to have 'trapped' part of oceanic ridge basalts (MORB), i.e. oceanic tholeiite
this in the associated back-arc basin. (Sclater et al. 1972, Gill 1976, Hawkins et al. 1984,
Tamaki (1985) has suggested that some associ- B. Taylor & Karner 1983), it shows sufficient
ations of marginal basins may have opened simul- geochemical differences to be considered tran-
taneously. He cites the two areas of the Sea of Japan sitional between MORB and island arc tholeiites
that are floored by oceanic crust and separated by (B. Taylor & Karner 1983).
the submerged block of continental crust of the In terms of recognising ancient marginal sea
Yamoto Rise. Tamaki (1985) suggests that these crust volcanism in the rock record, the most
back-arc basins opened simultaneously as the compelling criteria are the ophiolitic stratigraphy
micro continental arc of Japan separated from the outlined above, the distinctive volcaniclastic
Asian mainland. He suggests that this dual basin character of layer 1 sediments, and the association
system resulted because of a shallow dipping with a regionally extensive, well documented con-
subduction zone and that single back-arc basins temporaneous arc succession and its forearc com-
form where subduction zones are steep. Although plex. The scale of the whole system should be
Tamaki's suggestion may be correct, it is also compatible with suitable modern analogues (e.g.
possible that the refractory and thick nature of the Cas et al. 1980, Cas 1983b). Modern marginal
continental basement under the Japan arc may have basins are hundreds of kilometres long and similarly
contributed to the opening of multiple basins. wide at their widest parts, but may narrow right
Layer 1 sediments are largely pelagic where they down to converging apices, such as in the Marianas
are formed well away from the influence of sedi- system of the northwest Pacific Ocean. Defor-
mentation from the rifted arc blocks bounding the mational style of the preserved marginal sea succes-
developing marginal sea. However, even within a sion could be variable depending on its tectonic
hundred kilometres of the frontal arc and remnant history. Karig (1972) suggested that the active life
arc blocks, redeposited volcaniclastic sediments of marginal seas may be terminated by the initiation
transported by submarine mass-flow processes will of subduction zones within the marginal seas
form a significant pile of sediments above the layer during complete polarity reversal of the arc system.
2 basalts (Klein 1975, Hussong, Uyeda et al. 1981, Evidence of this should occur in the form of an
Klein & Lee 1984). Various amounts of redeposited intra basinal subduction complex. Simpler defor-
carbonate debris may also be included. Ash-fall mational styles involving regional compressional
layers derived from the active frontal arc block may deformation, perhaps associated with the jamming
also occur. The volcaniclastic character of this layer up of the subduction zone in front of the arc, could
and sediment succession may help to distinguish also occur.
marginal sea crust and lithosphere from large ocean Finally, it should be mentioned that back-arc and
basin oceanic crust, the latter being mantled by only interarc basins can have on-land extensions or
pelagic sediments or terrigenous, continentally equivalents floored by continental crust. For ex-
derived clastics, or both, except where it is being ample the wholly oceanic Tonga-Kermadec island
subducted at an island arc plate margin, in which arc extends into the microcontinental mass of New
case it may also contain a volcaniclastic element in Zealand. The arc volcanoes in New Zealand (Section
layer 1. These continentally derived clastics are 15.8) are nested within the major Taupo graben
likely to be more compositionally mature (quartz- system which Cole (1984) has described as an
rich) and diverse in their provenance than the en sialic marginal basin.
sediment fill of an interarc basin. However, mar-
ginal basins directly adjacent to continental masses,
may contain both provenance elements (e.g.
Rodolfo 1969).
452 VOLCANISM AND TECTONIC SETTING
Intraplate oceanic volcanism occurs upon a base- Intraplate continental volcanism (Section 14.8.1) is
ment of older oceanic crust and lithosphere, the also essentially basaltic, although rarer, more acid
characteristics of which have been described in centres are also known. Basaltic provinces are
Section 15.2. It can be represented by a single characterised by plains of valley-fill lavas (plains
oceanic volcano (Sections 13.10.2 & 14.8.5), or basalts) dotted with cinder cones and tuff rings
lines of volcanoes such as the Hawaiian-Emperor (Section 13.5), such as occur in southeastern
seamount chains. Individual seamounts may be Australia (Ollier & Joyce 1964, Joyce 1975; Figs
< 1 km to tens of kilometres in diameter and will 13.13 & 16), and the Snake River Plain (Greeley &
have a volcanic pedestal stratigraphy up to several King 1977), or thick, regionally extensive flood lava
kilometres thick (e.g. J. G. Jones 1966, J. G. sheets (plateau basalts; Section 13.3), such as the
Moore & Fiske 1969; Fig. 13.50). This will consist early flood basalts of Ethiopia (B. H. Baker et ai.
of a basal pile of predominantly basaltic pillow 1972, Mohr & Wood 1976, Mohr 1983), and the
lavas, hyaloclastites, and if the seamount approaches Columbia River Basalt Plateau (Swanson et ai.
sea level, a veneer of pyroclastic-hyaloclastic layers, 1975, Schmincke 1967c, Swanson & Wright 1981;
capped by coherent submarine lavas, perhaps all Ch. 4). The effect of the outpouring of fluidal
fringed and ultimately surmounted by limestones, basaltic lavas into valley topography is to reorganise
organic colonies, etc., as atolls form. (Such a the drainage, in some cases damming up valleys,
volcanic stratigraphy can also be produced sub- producing swamps and lakes. Fluvial, swamp and
glacially, e. g. J. G. Jones (1969); Section 13 .11 ; lake sediments should be interspersed with the
Fig. 13.5l.) The basaltic rocks may be alkaline or basaltic volcanics (Fig. 14.7), but are probably best
tholeiitic and geochemically variable (MacDonald developed below and above the relatively short-
1968, Frey & Clague 1984, Hawkins & Melchior lived volcanic succession.
1984). Associated sediments are likely to be pelagic Linear age trends in the eastern Australia
and volcaniclastic, and carbonate mass-flow deposits Cainozoic province have also been interpreted in
are likely to form aprons. Lines of oceanic islands terms of the passage of a lithospheric plate over a
with increasing age trends away from and perpen- mantle hot-spot (Wellman & McDougall 1974) and
dicular to MORs are interpreted in terms of passage by intraplate extension (Pilger 1982). The geo-
of a lithospheric plate over resurgent sub-litho- chemical character can range from alkaline to
sphere mantle hot-spots (J. T. Wilson 1963, tholeiitic and more-differentiated rocks, including
Menard 1964, McDougall 1974), and trace the trachytic rocks, are also common. The predomi-
direction of movement of the host lithospheric nance of basic volcanics in such settings suggests
plate. that the magmas are rising from mantle sources and
As for volcanism associated with mid-oceanic passing through the crust rapidly enough to prevent
ridges and crust formation, the preservation poten- partial melting of the crust, and the production of
tial of oceanic volcanic islands in the rock record is more-acidic magmas. Kimberlites could also be
low and they, too, should get subducted along with expected in these settings.
the oceanic lithosphere. They could conceivably be Intraplate continental volcanics should have a
preserved as parts of ocean crust slices in conver- moderate preservation potential in the rock record,
gent margin accretionary complexes (Section 15.2), the major counteracting influence being long-term
or as discrete ofT-scraped, sheared-off blocks in post-eruptive erosion in a tectonically, relatively
these settings (e.g. G.]. Macpherson 1983), in stable continental setting. Volcanic successions of
which case they may be highly deformed, even this type, erupted upon a stable continental rock
dismem bered. record, should be recognisable by virtue of a
regionally extensive basaltic suite erupted upon a
demonstrable continental (sialic) basement.
CONTINENTAL RIFT VOLCANISM 453
Figure 15.3 Geography of the Ethiopian Rift Valley between r oo' and 8"40' North, showing the vari ation In volcaniC
landforms and centres and the interaction between volcanism, normal surface processes and enVironment s, and te ctonics.
(After DI Paola 1972)
454 VOLCANISM AND TECTONIC SETTING
(a) (b)
o, 500 IOOOkm
o 200 400km
LEVAN TINE
RIFT
EGYPT
..
I
,
SUDAN
~
r:? ,
~
CARLSB'ERG
RIDGE
Ethlopion Ploteou
Horor (Somolloll)
Ploteou
7 E. UQonda Plateou
Figure 15.4 (a) Setting of the East Africa Rift System (after
B. H. Baker et al. 1972). (b) Distribution of volcanic centres
about the East Africa Rift System. but not including those of
the south em Ethiopian Plateau (after Mohr & Wood 1976).
Volcanoes of the graben-rift system are generally the
youngest. their development coinciding with the initiation of
active rift--graben formation. The widespread volcanism of
the bordering plateaux preceded rift formation.
become more oceanic tholeiitic in character. The dance of silicic volcanics, derived from subcrustal
up sequence change from subaerial fluvial-alluvial- heating of the lower crust. As the extensional
lacustrine successions to marine sedimentation tectonic regime develops, giving access to more
should be accompanied by fundamental lithological mantle magmas, the thinning continental crust
changes upsequence. Mixed basaltic to silicic vol- becomes injected with mafic magmas, becomes
canics and volcaniclastics or basement-derived, transitional in character and, finally, when spread-
immature, lithic sediments, or both, should become ing proper commences, it becomes oceanic in
increasingly mature, more quartz-rich, and may character. Well defined rift systems are a hundred
give way to marine carbonates (also see Dickinson kilometres or more long and tens of kilometres
1974). Failed rifts or aulacogenes could cease to wide, and may even consist of a dual rift system
develop at any stage (e.g. Burke 1978). such as the East Africa Rift, the Western Australian
The basement in the initial stages is clearly rifted continental margin and others (c. A. Wood
continental explaining, in some cases, the abun- 1984, Veevers & Cotterill 1978). Veevers and
CONTINENTAL RIFT VOLCANISM 455
Cotterill (1978), in describing and modelling the (Christiansen & Lipman 1972, Eaton 1982). The
Western Australia continental margin rift history in silicic rocks include large ignimbrites originating
detail, have provided a useful general account of rift from large caldera structures. The width of the
margin history. whole volcanic-graben terrain is several hundred
kilometres. Magmatic activity may be concentrated
along basement lineaments, and individual mag-
15.6.2 BROAD CONTINENTAL RIFT ZONES
matically active graben basins may be similar in
(e.g. BASIN AND RANGE PROVINCE,
characteristics to the early stages of the linear rift
WESTERN USA)
zones described above. However, they are different
The Basin and Range Province is dominated by a in having many counterparts on a regional scale, so
broad terrain of graben formation, normal faulting producing a regionally broad rift-basin terrain.
and volcanism with a great diversity of petrological Although the basement of the Basin and Range
characteristics (Christiansen & Lipman 1972, R. B. Province is clearly continental, it is thin 30 km
Smith & Eaton 1978, and papers therein, Eaton thick; Scholz et all 1971 , R. B. Smith 1978, Eaton
1982, 1984; Figs 15.5 & 6). The igneous rock types 1984). The Basin and Range Province has anomal-
are frequently described as being a bimodal mafic- ously high heat flow properties. Fault plane sol-
silicic association. Although both basaltic and utions suggest a predominance of normal faulting,
acidic rocks are major rock types, intermediate with the present direction of extension being
rocks also occur. There is a complete spectrum of WNW-ESE, although in mid-Cainozoic times it
clan types from alkaline to tholeiitic to calc-alkaline was WSW-ENE. Basaltic dyke swarms of mid-late
Miocene age are also prominent.
(0)
(b)
t
---.~-, /1
- -
~ .L,
, I
o!
IOOOkm
Figure 15.5 (a) Distribution of grabens and other structural basins in the western USA containing Miocene, Pliocene and
Quaternary sedimentary and Quaternary volcanic rocks (after Eaton 1982). (b) Distribution of Miocene and younger normal faults
with known or suspected Quaternary movement. The extent of the Miocene and younger continental volcanic arc is shown by the
bold line, the modern arc being confined to the northern third of the area shown. Strike-slip faults in southern and coastal California
are also shown. (After Eaton 1984.)
456 VOLCANISM AND TECTONIC SETTING
7.
PROVINCE
the volcanics. These are typical continental sedi-
ments (fluvial, alluvial fan and lacustrine), fre-
y/
COLORADO
/ PLATEAU
quently developed within graben basins, and often
trench and line of volcanoes may have a straight- behind the frontal arc block which consists of an
trace (Tonga-Kermadec Islands) or be curved older volcanic-plutonic-volcaniclastic sediment
(Marianas arc, Fig. 15.7). The arc system has a complex mantled by younger volcaniclastics and
regular structure: trench; inner trench wall; forearc perhaps carbonates. This sequential evolution indi-
basin slope (or arc-trench gap), perhaps above an cates that the ages of basins will be successively
accretionary prism; arc block, including an outer younger in an oceanwards direction, and that the
non-volcanic line of islands; volcanic arc-back-arc lifespan of the sediment fills of successive basins will
basin-marginal sea-interarc basin; and, in some be progressively shorter.
systems, a remnant or third arc (Figs 15.2 & 7), all The volcanoes will probably have a similar strati-
developed above an arcward-dipping seismic graphy to oceanic basaltic islands, as discussed in
(Benioff) zone. Karig (1970,1971,1974) has shown Sections 15.2 and 14,8.6. The sediment fills of the
that in the western Pacific many marginal basins are basins will be volcaniclastic mass-flow deposits laid
the products of successive rifting and splitting of the down as aprons on the flanks of the' arc volcanoes, as
arc block and the oceanward migration of the frontal thinning mass-flow sheets in the near reaches of
half of the rifted block by the opening of a new associated basins, and as wedges and sheets in the
interarc basin, as discussed in Section 15.3. The forearc basin. Carbonate debris may also be in-
other half of the rifted arc block is called the remnant cluded in these deposits. Pelagic sediments will also
arc, or third arc. A new line of volcanoes forms be important. During the active life of the volcanic
arc, pelagic sediments will be best represented
furthest from the active arc apron, but are thin or
non-existent in the basin centre. In volcanically
inactive basins pelagic sediments will also mantle
PACIFIC
the previously active volcanic apron and will be
OCEAN interspersed with a declining proportion of epiclastic
BASIN
volcaniclastic sediments derived from the remnant
arcs. Whereas some arcs are wholly intra-oceanic,
others develop in relatively close proximity to
continental masses . In old successions terrigenous
clastics in basinal sequences can be used as an
indication of proximity to continental crustal masses
(e.g. Cas et al. 1980).
PARECE
VELA Most young island arc rocks are basalts or basaltic-
BAS IN andesites of 'island arc tholeiite' character derived
from the subducting lithosphere and/or the over-
lying mantle and crust (Bryan et al. 1972, Ewart et
al. 1973, Gill 1981, Hawkins et al. 1984, Gill et al.
1984). More recently, boninites (Mg, Cr, Ni en-
riched basaltic and andesitic rocks; see Hawkins et al.
1984, and references therein) have been considered
to be important magmatic products emplaced in the
- 4 - bathymelrlc contour. (km) forearc region of the frontal arc block, although these
... active volcanau
non - valcanlc sI lands
can also occur in continental settings (Wood 1980).
topographic mid - slape basement high between Karig (1970) and Gill et al. (1984) also suggest that
volcanic arC and trench
acidic rocks (low-K rhyolites, Gill et al. 1984) may be
Figure 15.7 Principal elements of the Marianas island arc
found as initial products of arc-block rifting that
system (after Karig 1971). Note the arcuate character of the
system and the apical terminations of Mariana Trough, the leads to formation of a new interarc basin. Sample
present active back- arc basin. and Karig (1982) noted that magma production rates
458 VOLCANISM AND TECTONIC SETTING
can vary along arcs, apparently as a function of an orogenic belt remains a problem, and some of
variable along-arc subduction and back-arc spread- the criteria considered necessary (scale, oceanic
ing rates. Locally more-silicic differentiates may basement and subduction accretionary prism com-
occur within the arc volcanoes (e.g. Bryan et al. plex) have been alluded to in Section 15.1.
1972) and rare, small ignimbrites may occur. The
basement in the basins is clearly oceanic lithosphere,
whereas the basement in the arc block is initially 15.8 Microcontinental arc volcanism
oceanic lithosphere, succeeded upwards by a associated with oceanic trench
variably deformed volcanic- volcaniclastic-pelagic subduction zones (e.g. Japan,
sediment-mafic intrusive complex, about 15 km New Zealand, Indonesia)
thick (Karig 1970). The arc block itself contains an
interesting array of nonnal faults, particularly The arc-block structure is much the same as for the
towards the rear. The inner trench wall may be young island arc system discussed above. The main
made up of an imbricate stack of faulted slices of differences are that the arc block is substantially
off-scraped ophiolite slivers and deepwater sedi- thicker (30-35 km, e.g. Katili 1973, Sugimura &
ments, both pelagic and redeposited volcaniclastic Uyeda 1973, Cole 1984), there are considerable
in origin, in which the faults dip towards the arc proportions of recycled, mature supracrustal sedi-
(Karig & Sharman 1975, Karig 1982; Fig. 15.2). ments, and the arc block is much more sialic in
This deformed, off-scraped sediment wedge or character. This has profound effects on the mag-
accretionary prism may be subducted some depth matic products which are largely silicic and are in
and subjected to high pressure, low temperature large part derived from the lower crust (Ewart &
metamorphism, which should be reflected by a Stipp 1968, Cole 1979, 1984). However, rock types
high pressure mineral assemblage. Tectonic range from mafic to intermediate to silicic in
melanges may also be produced at this time. character (Ewart et al. 1977, Whitford et al. 1979,
Although accretionary prisms should be sought- Cole 1984). Calc-alkaline rocks are very prominent,
after evidence of subduction in the rock but as in Japan and Indonesia, an across-arc trend
record, it is apparent that several modern island arc from tholeiitic nearest the trench to calc-alkaline to
subduction systems lack accretionary prisms. This alkaline and even shoshonitic volcanoes furthest
is apparently due to relatively low sediment influx from the trench, is known (e.g. Miyashiro 1972,
rates and to a low degree of frictional coupling 1974, Whitford et al. 1979, Hawkins et al. 1984).
between the plates, so allowing what sediment there The active volcanic belt is again relatively narrow
is to be subducted in step-like graben sediment (several tens of kilometres), but may migrate
traps in the down-going plate (Uyeda 1983, Von towards or away from the trench with time (e.g.
Huene 1984). Sugimura & Uyeda 1973) or be widened by
Arcs are at least several hundred kilometres long, extensive outflow ignimbrite sheets. Along-arc
the line of active volcanoes is less than 50 km wide, variations also occur, with the more oceanic,
the distance between the active arc and trench may juvenile parts of arc systems (e.g. east Indonesian
be tens of kilometres or more, and the width of the arc, Tonga-Kermadec arc) being more mafic in
basin between the frontal and remnant arc varies character, with the more-mature parts (e.g. Java-
from a few tens of kilometres to hundreds of Sumatra, New Zealand) having more silicic
kilometres wide. products (e.g. Ewart et al. 1977). Large silicic
Karig (1972) suggested that arc polarity may ignimbrites (Ch. 8), large calderas, some submarine
change in time, leading to the development of a in their setting, e.g. Krakatau (Self & Rampino
subduction system in the previous back-arc basin 1981), and stratovolcanoes (e.g. Cole 1979, 1984;
and then to the migration and collision of the arc Ch. 13; Fig. 15.8) are common. Co-magmatic
block back onto the nearby continental mass. The granitic intrusives may also be prominent, and
recognition of an ancient island arc system within testify to the existence of a sialic crust at least 20 km
" NORTH CAPE
-t- gnhthnt
IV
.
0
. / /. q,.
...
"
.......----'
IOO km
Figure 15,8 Extensional. graben-dominated basins and normal faulting associated with the Taupo Volcanic
Zone of New Zealand. (After Sporli 1980.)
460 VOLCANISM AND TECTONIC SETTING
thick - thick enough for anatexis of the lower crust toids. Intermediate volcanics may also be common
to occur. Basaltic volcanics and dykes testify to (e.g. Andes, Cascades), and the volcanics appear to
mantle influences in magma genesis (Cole 1979, be largely calc-alkaline. Forearc basin(s) and ac-
1984). This sialic crust is not only thick, but cretionary prisms should be expected (Kulm et ai.
regionally extensive. For example, the marine 1982, Moberley et ai. 1982, J. Moore et ai. 1979;c.
straits between Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and Borneo' Fig. 15.9) and, as with micro continental arc set-
are underlain by sialic crust, and the submarine tings, extensional basins may be associated with the
Campbell Plateau off southeastern New Zealand is volcanic arc (Zeil 1979, H. Williams & McBirney
also sialic crust. 1979; Fig. 15.10). Sediments associated with the
A forearc accretionary prism may also be devel- arc and back arc will be continental: fluvial, alluvial
oped (e.g. G. F. Moore & Karig 1980, Van der fan and lacustrine. Sediments in the forearc area
Lingen & Pettinga 1980, Sporli 1980, Von Huene will range from continental to shallow marine to
& Arthur 1982, Shiki & Misawa 1982) and blue deep-marine. The volcanic arc will again be hun-
schist metamorphic assemblages should occur dreds of kilometres long, relatively narrow at any
(Miyashiro 1972). A significant structural feature is one time (tens of kilometres), but may migrate
the association of graben, subsidence basins with producing a time-transgressive, wider belt of vol-
the volcanic belt (Sugimura & Uyeda 1973, Hamil- canic rocks (e.g. Eaton 1982) and associated grani-
ton 1979, Healy 1962, Sporli 1980, Cole 1984; Fig. toids.
15.8). In Indonesia and New Zealand there is a In the rock record such a setting should be
significant strike-slip component of movement as- recognisable by the association of a regionally
sociated with the extensional terrains, some basins extensive, linear, acidic-intermediate calc-alkaline
being pull-apart basins (e.g. Ballance & Reading magmatic belt with continental sediments, paral-
1980). In New Zealand the Taupo Volcanic Zone leled by a complexly deformed, forearc accretionary
can be viewed as an on-land extension of the Havre prism, all associated with a basement that was
interarc basin (Karig 1970) and has been described demonstrably sialic.
by Cole (1984) as a back-arc en sialic marginal
basin.
Sediments associated with the arc system will 15.10 Igneous rock-types as indicators of
vary from continental (fluvial, alluvial fan, lacus- basement
trine) to marine. The forearc basin may contain all
of continental, shallow-marine to deep-marine sedi- From Sections 15.2-9, several observations can be
ments. Pelagic sediments will only be prominent in made about the usefulness of igneous rock types
far offshore environments, away from the dominat- and their compositional characteristics in assessing
ing influence of near-arc terrigenous mass-flow
sedimentation. 0.---------- -- -- -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - , 0
492 ~-
SLOPE 491 _ ~";:'f~i'''' ,,--
APRON . -'~ \ 7. \ CONTINENTAL
15.9 Continental margin arc volcanism 488 . ~ ", ,,\, "------..,_ CRUST
~ TR!S'lEN~C!H~~~-,~
, ,,-,,~....,~ .. ,,,, TRANSITION 5
associated with oceanic trench sub- 5 I - ,." <' . '
~ .. ', ZONE
\\~"
duction zones (e.g. Andes, Cascades) OCEANIC
BASEMENT
-"
-\
LANDwARD
OIPPING
REFLECTORS
10 10
Magmatism in these settings takes place upon a o
I
10km
,
skin thrusting of lithosphere). Truly oceanic The term 'convergent' was deliberately chosen,
basement is likely to be ophiolitic and ex- rather than 'compressional' , to avoid the assumption
tensive. Even in old successions, it should be that in convergent plate margin areas the stress field
prominent in regionally extensive suture configuration is compressional in the sense that 0],
zones. Localised ophiolitic bodies could be the maximum regional principal stress component,
allochthonous, could be subvolcanic com- is horizontal and directed parallel to the direction of
plexes, or could be related to restricted crustal convergence. The reasons for making this distinc-
rupturing or rifting without wholesale spread- tion are briefly outlined as follows.
ing. The rise of magma to the surface is dependent on
(f) Several studies of modern volcanic provinces the existence of vertical or subvertical fractures, or
have tried to establish, with reasonable ac- pathways in the crust. Such fractures are most
curacy, based on geophysical information, a likely to form when 0], the maximum principal
relationship between volcano spacing and stress, is orientated vertically (or subvertically) or
crustal and/or lithospheric thickness, in both horizontally, and 03, the minimum principal stress,
oceanic and continental settings (e.g. Vogt is orientated horizontally. Fractures will then propa-
1974, Mohr and Wood 1976). For old de- gate parallel or subparallel to 0] if it is high enough
formed terrains this is an almost impossible to exceed the tensile strength of the rock. Once the
approach, but see Windley and Davies (1978). rock has fractured, the magma will move along
Recently Rickard and Ward (1981) and these fractures only if the magma pressure is greater
Rickard (1984) have used the spacing between than 03 (Shaw 1980, M. A. Etheridge pers. comm.),
granitoids in southeastern Australia and Baja, which is orientated perpendicular to 0]. In a
California, respectively, to estimate the thick- situation where 0] is vertical and 03 is horizontal
ness of the crust at the time of emplacement of (equivalent to normal faulting), the magma will
the granitoids. move through subvertical dyke-like fractures or
(g) Finally, there are always exceptions to general- fracture intersections upward to the surface (Fig.
isations, even these! 1S.lla). Where 0] is horizontal, the resultant
fractures will be subhorizontal if 03 is vertical, and
could lead to low-angle thrusting (Fig. 1S.llb).
The magma will move through subhorizontal sill-
15.11 Volcanism related to regional like fractures, and will not migrate significant
tectonic regimes and local stress distances vertically through the crust. Minor
field conditions volumes may do so if there are already pre-existing
vertical structural inhomogeneities in the crust. If
The plate tectonic-related settings discussed above
01 is horizontal and 03 is also horizontal, vertical
can be regrouped according to whether the prevail-
fractures will be produced and strike-slip move-
ing regional tectonic regime is divergent, 'passive'
ment will occur (Fig. 1S.11c). Such fractures could
or convergent:
also allow the passage of magma to the surface. The
failure mechanics in all three cases range from pure
mid-oceanic ridges
marginal seas or back-arc basins extensional fracture (rare) to extensional shear
of spreading origin failure (more common) (Shaw 1980).
divergent continental rifts Stress-field configurations can be analysed at all
narrow African rift types
broad Basin and Range types scales. A single magma chamber or body generates
its own local stress field, because it exerts a
'passive' { intraplate oceanic volcanic islands significant fluid pressure. If a magma chamber
intraplate continental volcanic provinces
young island arcs }
develops at a shallow crustal level it will be the local
convergent { microcontinental arcs (,orogenic') stress-field configuration in the wall-rock around
continental margin arcs the chamber, particularly the roof, that will control
REGIONAL TECTONIC REGIMES AND LOCAL STRESS FIELDS 463
o --------~ O U
CL>
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ==---'-'----------105 ~
10 E
15 :;:
TOFUA
TROUGH 3-0 ~
Figure 15.12 Normal faulting in
3
LAU BASIN o
"
' ,"-_ 25 50km
. ---"
..........
VE 22.
35 l ,
" 0 (\l
the arc block of the
Tonga-Kermadec arc system.
(After Karig 1970.)
basaltic volcanics will be prominent and that in less 1982), or any combination of these. This
extensional regimes, although basaltic volcanics problem has been addressed by Uyeda and
may not erupt, basaltic magmas are probably the Kanamori (1979) and Uyeda (198'3), who have
heat source for crustal magma-forming processes. introduced the concept of the degree of
These findings pose interesting questions for the frictional coupling between two plates involved
plate-tectonic model. How can significant exten- in subduction to account for the variation in
sional regimes exist in what is supposedly a development of extensional features associated
dynamic, convergent (?compressional), tectonic with arc systems. They recognise two end-
regime? There are two possible answers: member coupling types: Andean-type, involv-
ing subduction of oceanic lithosphere under
(a) The overriding lithospheric plate is arched
continental lithosphere and Marianas-type,
from the trench to the back-arc region. This
involving subduction of oceanic lithosphere
would establish a compressional regime at
under oceanic lithosphere. Andean-type set-
depth, closest to the centre of curvature, and
tings are supposed to involve high degrees of
an extensional regime at shallow levels, where
coupling and few, if any, extensional features;
maximum stretching occurs. Magmas could
frictional interaction between the two plates is
reach the surface in this situation, unless they
high. Marianas-type settings are supposed to
were derived from the mantle, irrespective of
involve low degrees of coupling or frictional
whether it was from the mantle at the base of
interaction, and extensional features such as
the arched lithosphere or deeper. However,
back-arc or interarc basins are well developed.
such mantle-derived magmas do exist in all
convergent plate settings. However, this classification seems a little sim-
(b) The subduction process is not always as plistic, and even untenable. It has been pointed out
dynamic as is believed, only the leading edge above that Andean-type and microcontinental-type
of the overriding plate being a site of compres- subduction settings can also have well developed
sional tectonics for most of the life of the extensional features associated with them, such as
subduction system. This implies that the arc-associated grabens or back-arc ensialic basins
subducting plate is subducting passively, (see Sections 15.6, 8 & 9). The splitting of conti-
rather than thrusting forcefully under and nental fragments and their separation by back-arc
against the overriding plate. This would sug- spreading to produce marginal seas floored by
gest that the leading edge of the overriding oceanic lithosphere (e.g. Sea of Japan, Tasman Sea
plate is simply spreading laterally under its Basins) is evidence that Marianas-type dilatation
own gravitational potential (cf. van Bemmelen can occur as successfully in Andean-type conti-
1974), or that the downgoing plate is sinking nental margin arc systems. Conversely, Marianas-
passively (or in the jargon, has negative type arcs also contain evidence of compressional, as
buoyancy), or the upper plate is experiencing well as extensional, tectonics as, in fact, do
backwards absolute motion (Cross & Pilger Andean-type settings. It is suggested that both types
IGNEOUS ROCKS AS PALAEOSTRESS INDICATORS 465
of settings may experience periods of high frictional 15.12 Igneous rocks as palaeostress
coupling and low frictional coupling. The latter will indicators in the crust and
be reflected by extensional features such as grabens, lithosphere
back-arc basin spreading and abundant magmatic
activity. The former will be represented by wide- In tectonically active regions magmatic activity, or
spread compressional deformation and limited or its absence, may be a potential indicator of the
no surface magmatic activity. Extension and com- stress configuration of the lithosphere. The relation-
pression may be cyclical, i.e. alternating (ZeiI1979, ship between magmatic activity and intervals of
Cas 1983b), and magmatic activity may also be crustal extension and compression has also been
cyclical (Cas & Jones 1979), reflecting alternately noted by other workers (e.g. Noble et al. 1974,
overall lithospheric compression (little or no mag- Bussell 1983). Periods of extensional tectonics
matic activity), and lithospheric extension, or coincide with widespread magmatic activity,
relaxation (magmatic activity). especially volcanism and mantle-derived dyke
The greater propensity for back-arc extension to swarms, whereas lithospheric compression leads to
occur with island arc systems could be a reflection a restriction of magmatic activity. However, com-
of the lesser strength, the less refractory nature and pression may precipitate base of crust melting, as
thinner character of relatively young oceanic litho- mantle-derived magmas are prevented from rising
sphere compared with the greater strength, and the through the lithosphere because of its compressional
more refractory nature and greater thickness of stress state. As soon as relaxation of such litho-
continental crust. Arc systems are also periodically spheric stresses occurs, for example immediately
subjected to compressional deformation, perhaps after the peak of orogenic compressional defor-
when for whatever reason, the subduction system mation, these crustal magmas may rise through the
jams up (or in the jargon, experiences greater crust and be emplaced at shallower levels as
degrees of coupling). The older successions of the granitoids, perhaps with co-magmatic eruptives.
Tongan arc, for example, are deformed (Karig Throughout the 200 million year history of the
1970, Bryan et al. 1972), and prominent unconform- Palaeozoic Lachlan Fold Belt of southeastern
ities occur, as well as breaks in volcanism (Cas & Australia, Cas (1983b) has noted alternations of
Jones 1979). Sample and Karig (1982) also noted magmatic activity, corresponding with associated
synchronous fluctuations in volcanism in arc extensional tectonics and diminished levels of, or
systems, over large regions and perhaps globally, cessation of, magmatic activity corresponding with
but discount these being controlled by subduction compressional events.
rates because no corresponding changes in spread- Nur and Ben-Avraham (1983) and McGeary et
ing rates occur. It is suggested that deformation, al. (1985) have noted that gaps in magmatism
unconformity and a break in volcanism coincide ('magmatic gaps') occur along some arc systems
with an overall compressional stress configuration where an oceanic ridge or plateau collides with, or
in the overriding lithospheric plate, at least as far is being subducted in, a trench. They suggest that
back as the volcanic arc, whereas normally, during the causes of such magmatic gaps could be diverse,
relatively passive subduction, compression only including:
occurs at the very leading edge of the accretionary
(a) complete jamming and cessation of sub-
prism, where the sediment supply exceeds the
duction, so curtailing magma production,
volume of small step-like sediment traps on the
(b) reduction in angle of subduction, so eliminat-
surface of the downgoing plate, so leading to off-
ing the asthenospheric wedge where magmas
scraping rather than subduction of the sediment
are generated between the arc and the sub-
(Uyeda 1983, Von Huene 1984).
duction zone and
(c) continued subduction but the ridge or plateau
changes the local stress field, suppressing a
466 VOLCANISM AND TECTONIC SETTING
rise of fluids as suggested above, or it changes tal, indicating the direction of dyke dilatation. Such
local chemical conditions because it has a a situation implies a local, mildly compressive,
different composition or hydrous sediments strike-slip stress field configuration, which is not,
on its top have been scraped off. however, strong enough to prevent magma rise
through the lithosphere, as, for example, at the
Although McGeary et al. (1985) discount the stress- peak of major compressional orogenic defor-
field effect because of lack of seismic evidence, it is mational events.
peculiar that narrow magmatic gaps occur almost Finally, locations of volcanism can frequently be
everywhere that there is such a collision. We related to major fractures in the lithosphere or
suggest that stress field controls play a relatively intersections of volcano-tectonic lineaments (e.g.
significant part in terminating magmatism in such Wolfe & Self 1982). In the simplest case, seamounts
areas. may occur along lithospheric fracture zones that are
Igneous rocks can also be used in more-specific or were active transform faults (e.g. Searle 1984).
ways to reconstruct the palaeo stress conditions in In the more complex situation, volcanoes may
volcanic terrains. In particular, the orientation of occur along on-land surface projections of fractures
planar or tabular igneous bodies, especially dykes, or above hinge-type transform faults in the sub-
can be used to infer the palaeo stress field configur- ducted plate which divide the downgoing plate into
ation, given the conditions necessary for magma segments of differing dip or age, or both (Nixon
rise through the lithosphere and crust outlined in 1982). For example, in the Central Mexican con-
Section 15.11. Widespread, uniformly orientated vergent arc system, all of these factors contribute to
vertical dykes suggest that 03, the minimum princi- a complex spatial pattern of volcanism as well as an
pal stress component, was orientated horizontally, anomalously(?) diverse array of compositional
perpendicular to the strike of the dykes. 01' the characteristics in the arc volcanics (Nixon 1982).
maximum principal stress component, was therefore
orientated either vertically (equivalent to extension)
or horizontally (equivalent to strike-slip motion). 15.13 An approach to evaluating the tec-
Using principally the orientation of dykes, Zoback tonic context of ancient successions
et al. (1981), Eaton (1982, 1984) and Laughlin et al.
(1983) have been able to indicate the lithospheric Evaluation of the tectonic setting of ancient terrains
extension directions in the Basin and Range has to be based on an appraisal of the total geologic
Province and Mexico, from the mid-Tertiary to the framework, not simply the geochemistry or any
present. From regional considerations, especially other single factor. The following are suggested
associated normal faults in the Basin and Range guidelines, based on the approach adopted by Cas
Province, extensional tectonics with 01 being (1983b) in reviewing the palaeogeographic and
vertical can be inferred. tectonic development of the Palaeozoic Lachlan
In another application of this principle, Naka- Fold Belt of southeastern Australia.
mura (1977) considered the alignment of flank
eruptions, elongation of volcanoes and preferred (a) Divide the time interval of interest into the
orientation development of radial dykes about smallest possible time-slices for which suf-
central volcanoes in modern convergent margin ficiently detailed control of the ages of strati-
volcanic arc systems. In these instances, alignments graphic formations is available. For the
of dykes and flank eruptions and elongation direc- Palaeozoic, time slices of 5 million years or
tion are largely perpendicular to the associated less duration will be rare; 10-20-million-year
trenches, and are therefore generally parallel to the time-slices will be more common, simply
direction of plate convergence. In these circum- because of lack of adequate fossil coverage, or
stances 01 is horizontal and orientated parallel to detailed enough biozonation.
the direction of convergence, and 03 is also horizon- (b) Construct a base map for the whole terrain of
FURTHER READING 467
interest, even if the specific area of interest is (t) Test whether evidence for equivalent dynamic
only a minor part. elements can be found in the ancient terrain of
(c) On multiple copies of the base map, plot the interest. Evaluate the degree of correspon-
outcrops of formations relevant to geology for dence and the degree to which the two can be
each time-slice. For each formation depict considered to be tectonic analogues. Equally
environmentally significant sedimentary importantly, evaluate the degree to which they
facies, volcanics (differentiating their compo- differ and the significance of these differences.
sitions) and plutonics, also differentiating The present is therefore used to test the past
their compositions. Only plutonics with ages critically, as well as to model it.
falling within a particular time-slice should be
plotted.
(d) Find the best available modern palaeogeo-
graphic analogue for the facies configuration 15.14 Further reading
plotted. The analogue must be of the same
scale, and should have an equivalent facies H. Williams and McBirney (1979) cover some of
distribution pattern. the aspects discussed above, while Cas (1983b)
(e) Assuming that the tectonic development of the attempts to evaluate the tectonic setting of magmatic
modern analogue is known, identify the im- activity and sedimentation critically in an ancient
portant dynamic elements in the geological Palaeozoic orogenic terrain. Gill (1981) and Thorpe
framework of the modem analogue that sup- (1982) both consider the distribution of andesitic
port the accepted tectonic history. This should volcanoes and their relationship to plate tectonic
include structural, metamorphic, petrological settings. Shaw (1980) is essential reading on the
(particular suites), facies, and geometrical stress-field conditions associated with the migration
aspects. of magmas in the subsurface.
APPENDIX I
1.1 Physical analysis The methods used to measure these, and the major
uses of these measurements are set out below.
Geologists who work solely on ancient volcanic rocks
often have only a limited conception of the techniques
1.1.1 THICKNESS
employed to study Recent unconsolidated pyroclastic
deposits, and so may not fully understand how the data Maximum thickness of a pyroclastic fall deposit is
are obtained or expressed. Many of the problems measured in centimetres or metres, and the measurements
encountered in the study of modern pyroclastic deposits are used to construct an isopach map. In the figures
are similar to those found in sedimentary rocks, where accompanying Chapter 6 there are a number of examples
grainsize, grain shape, geometry of the deposit and of such maps, which in many cases, are a meaningful
internal fabric must be the tools used to determine the indication of:
physical processes controlling their formation and de-
(a) the vent position,
position. The pioneers in this type of approach were
(b) the dispersal, which can be related to the type of
undoubtedly Japanese volcanologists (e.g. Kuno 1941,
eruption, and
Aramaki 1956, Katsui 1959, Murai 1961, Kuno et al.
(c) the volume of the deposit.
1964), whereas G. P. L. Walker (e.g. 1971, 1973b) can
be credited with extending and developing the approach.
The following are properties that are now routinely Construction of an isopach map entails mapping out
measured in the physical analysis of modern pyroclastic the deposit, sometimes over large areas. However, by
deposits: mapping we do not mean tracing lithological boundaries
between deposits, as these are usually so complex that no
thickness attempt is made to draw them. Thus, a map of a Recent
maximum grain size pyroclastic fall deposit generally shows its inferred
grainsize distribution original distribution, and not its present outcrop pattern,
proportions of components as between datum points the deposit could be partially or
crystal content of pumice clasts completely eroded. Indeed, non-welded pyroclastic
density and porosity deposits may be ephemeral (Ch. 10). In addition,
outcrops may be so rapidly overgrown and badly
469
470 APPENDIX I: STUDYING MODERN DEPOSITS
Table 1.1 Logarithms (base 10) of the ranges of larger pyroclastic particles (after L. Wilson 1972).
1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0
3.5 2.9556 3.0032 30075 2.8261 2.8736 2.8786 1.9790 20211 2.0268
2.5 2.9369 3.0017 3.0070 2.8073 2.8719 2.8785 1.9614 2.0207 2.0267
10
1.0 2.8559 2.9914 30060 2.7242 2.8601 2.8770 1.8830 2.0099 2.0254
0.5 2.7579 2.9760 30043 2.6222 2.8427 2.8753 1.7846 1.9937 2.0236
3.5 3.6440 3.9315 3.9583 3.4896 3.8010 3.8290 2.6641 2.9505 2.9775
2.5 3.5719 3.9208 3.9571 3.4235 3.7897 3.8276 2.5897 2.9395 2.9762
30
1.0 3.3383 3.8680 3.9483 3.1834 3.7329 3.8180 2.3497 2.8843 2.9673
0.5 3.1364 3.7965 3.9356 2.9752 3.6544 3.8036 2.1373 2.8070 2.9540
3.5 4.0418 4.6867 4.9660 3.8644 4.5529 4.8358 3.0228 3.7156 3.9873
2.5 3.7372 4.6173 4.9514 3.7468 4.4821 4.8195 2.9034 3.6437 3.9721
100
1.0 3.6042 4.3999 4.8817 3.4194 4.2548 4.7461 2.5717 3.4116 3.9026
0.5 3.3549 4.2139 4.7912 3.1673 4.0556 4.6504 2.4068 3.2078 3.8097
3.5 4.23894.7075 5.0257 5.3861 5.6581 4.04104.5111 4.86735.23575.5274 3.1877 3.6669 4.0293 4.3988 4.6906
2.5 4.11104.58494.9177 5.2957 5.5914 3.91114.38524.75735.13685.4571 3.05683.53943.91574.30004.6212
300
1.0 3.7592 4.2319 4.6183 5.0127 5.3732 3.5575 4.0304 4.4499 4.8381 5.2261 2.69973.17703.59934.00064.3900
0.5 3.4931 3.9647 4.3891 4.7744 5.1779 3.29063.75904.21034.59205.0199 2.43022.90153.35493.75214.1815
3.5 4.29594.77445.13235.54045.9162 4.0926 4.5719 4.9631 5.3820 5.7887 3.2356 3.7238 4.1204 4.5432 4.9575
2.5 4.1652 4.6458 5.0139 5.4302 5.8157 3.9602 4.4406 4.8427 5.2624 5.6795 3.10243.59123.99644.42274.8464
600
1.0 3.8073 4.2817 4.6933 5.1087 5.5245 3.60134.07584.51554.92565.3690 2.74043.2191 3.66074.08364.5308
0.5 3.5373 4.0098 4.4526 4.8524 5.2928 3.3309 3.8005 4.2660 4.6621 5.1253 2.4679 2.9400 3.4069 3.8174 4.2831
Table 1.2 Details of sieve analyses of a sample of a pyroclastic fall. surge and flow deposit. The samples are all from the Upper
Bandelier Tuff collected from the locality shown in Plate 8. These data are used as a basis for the graphical analysis of the size
distributions shown in Figure 1.1.
techniques are used: field sieves can be used if available, gramSlZe distribution on arithmetic probability paper
linear point traverses can be made in the field, or (Fig. 1.1), and to determine the Inman (1952) parameters
photographs of the deposit can be taken and used to of median diameter (Md<l' graphical standard deviation
determine the proportion of larger clasts. With these last (0<1' which is a measure of sorting and occasionally first-
two methods clast abundances are often expressed as a order skewness (U<I, which is a measure of the
volume percentage rather than weight percentage, but if asymmetry of the distribution (Table 1.3). The relevant
the average density of clasts is measured in the laboratory, formulae are:
then conversions to weight percentages can be made.
Md<l> = <Pso (1.2)
Whenever different techniques are used, or splits taken,
the results must be integrated. 0<1> (<P84 - <P16)/2 (1.3)
There are no set rules governing the size of sample that (1.4)
should be collected for a routine sieve analysis of
pyroclastic and volcaniclastic deposits. In many cases this A standard practice is then to plot Md<l> against 0<1>
is determined by the practicalities of the amount of (Fig. 5.3), as was done by G. P. L. Walker (1971)
material that can be transported back to a field camp or in an important study which set out the major
laboratory. Obviously, the sample size needed to give a grainsize differences between pyroclastic fall and
representative sieve analysis of a deposit becomes larger pyroclastic flow deposits. Because of their sim-
with increasing maximum grainsize, and is also larger if plicity, these two parameters are still mainly chosen and
the sorting in a deposit is apparently poor. For very most of the major grain size studies of pyroclastic deposits
coarse deposits, samples weighing several kilogrammes have used them (Murai 1961, G. P. L. Walker 1971,
may be required, and these would have to be initially Sparks 1976). The validity of these statistics relies on the
sieved in the field and a split of the finer sizes taken. For assumption that the grain size distribution is approxi-
coarse plinian fall deposits (Ch. 6) within a few
kilometres of the vent, samples between 0.5 and 2.0 kg Table 1.3 Grainsize parameters for our three pyroclastic
would be collected. In some very poorly sorted deposits samples. derived graphically from the cumulative curves in
larger clasts can be measured (for instance, by linear Figure 1.1 (a).
traverses) and then much smaller samples of just the
matrix taken. For fine-grained deposits only containing Inman Fall Surge Flow
parameter
ash-sized particles 2 mm) samples weighing a few
grammes to a few tens of grammes may be adequate. -0.35 2.8 0.8
From the raw grain size data (Table 1.2) the usual 1.65 1.85 2.8
procedure is to construct cumulative curves of the
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS 473
30 30
II> ~ 20 20
N
'iii ~
c= 10
-
84
o
.s:
l- -4 -2 0 2 40 -4 -2 0 2 40
II> 16 4 I 1/4 1/16 mm 16 4 I 114 1116 mm
~ 50 1--+---+---14
o Groin diameter Gro in dia meter
o
(.)
~ Surge
i f--t--n "-- -hf--1
o
16
o
II> pumice
>
o
:;
crYllo ls
E IiI hics
::J
U -4 -2 o 4 J5
16 4 1/4 I/l6mm
-2 0 2 4J5
Groin diameter 4 I 1/4 1116 mm
Groin diameter
Figure 1.1 Graphical representation of the three grainsize analyses from samples of the Upper Bandelier Tuff in
Table 1.2. (a) Cumulative plot on probability ordinate. The 16th, 50th and 84th percentiles are drawn, and their
intersection with the grainsize distribution curves gives the grain diameters used to derive the Inman parameters
in Table 1.3. (b) Histograms for components separated by methods described in the text. The components have
their own grainsize distributions, while each deposit has an overall distribution which is the combined distributions
of the three components. The fall deposit is well sorted for a pyroclastic deposit. and is distinctively unimodal,
having a high proportion of crystals within a limited size range in the 0.5 and 1 mm size classes. The flow deposit
is poorly sorted and polymodal. The sub-populations reflect more than one transport process affecting the various
grainsizes and components differently in the moving pyroclastic flow (Ch. 7); note that ngain there is a peak in the
proportion of crystals in the 0.5 and 1 mm size classes. The surge deposit is unimodal, but the distribution has an
extended coarse tail, or is negatively skewed. It is quite well sorted, but not as good as the fall deposit. This
sample is also a core sample through several laminae which make up this depositional unit
mately log normal. In many analyses, the central 68% of Walker (1971), which showed that better sorted pyro-
the distribution approximates a straight line, and it is clastic fall deposits generally had values of Gq, < 2.0,
argued that the statistics are useful for comparison while less well sorted pyroclastic flow deposits had values
between different samples. If used with care, such greater than 2.0 (Fig. 5.3). Table 1.4 shows the essential
statistical information can also be used to aid genetic
interpretation of pyroclastic deposits (Sparks 1976, Bond Table 1.4 Differences in descriptive summaries of sorting
& Sparks 1976). used by sedimentologists and volcanologists.
Most pyroclastic deposits , when compared with normal
sedimentary grain aggregates, are poorly sorted (Ch. I). Sorting Sedimentary Pyroclastic
(0<1 deposits deposits
This has led to unfortunate differences in the descriptive
assessment of sorting given by sedimentologists and 0- 1 very well sorted to very well sorted
volcanologists to sedimentary and pyroclastic deposits, moderately sorted
respectively . To most sedimentologists , any deposit with
1- 2 poorly sorted well sorted
a value of Gq, > 1.0 would be described as poorly sorted.
To a volcanologist, the division between good and poor 2-4 very poorly sorted poorly sorted
sorting in pyroclastic deposits is Gq, = 2.0, and this value >4 extremely poorly sorted very poorly sorted
partly stems from the original Mdq/ocp plot of G. P. L.
474 APPENDIX I: STUDYING MODERN DEPOSITS
III 1
III
:; results from component analysis, used to define the
c enrichment of crystals in a deposit, expressed as an
'E 0 +-----1r----+---i- -I-----;----t-- - + enrichment factor , EF (G. P. L. Walker 1972), given by
-2 -I 0 I -2 -I o
III
~ (c) 25 g em - 3 (d) 3 5 g em- 3 C2 PI (I. 7)
EF= - x-
-=o
o
-
01
2
P2 C1
where C/P I is the weight ratio of free crystals to glass in
artificially crushed pumice and CiP 2 is the same ratio in
o the deposit. For pyroclastic deposits that are depleted in
..J
crystals relative to the magmatic proportion, it is more
appropriate to define a depletion factor, DF, which is the
reciprocal of EF, and quantifies the enrichment in the
glass component.
-I o 1 -2 -I o The weight percentage of vitric material lost (VL)
L0910 particle radius (em) during the eruption and emplacement of an ignimbrite is
Figure 1.3 Computed fall times of particles ranging in given by
density from 0.5 to 3.5 g cm- 3 . The curves (from bottom to
top) are for particles released from heights of 5, 10, 20, 30 (1.8)
and 50 km. (After L. Wilson 1972.)
476 APPENDIX I: STUDYING MODERN DEPOSITS
where K is the weight percentage of grainsizes in the map yields the total mass of free crystals (C') in the
ignimbrite finer than 2 mm (crystal concentration data accessible parts of the deposit. A fourth map is construc-
only applying to the matrix). This material is lost into a ted from the lithic content of sieved samples, and the total
co-ignimbrite ash-fall (Chs 6 & 8), the volume of which mass of <2 mm lithics (L'<.2) is derived. The method
needs to be added to that of the ignimbrite to estimate the used to calculate total erupted mass and volume is
total volume erupted during the ignimbrite-forming summarised in Table 1.5 using the Hatepe pumice as our
event. example (Fig. 104; G. P. L. Walker 1981c). The method
For widely dispersed pumice fall deposits, crystal depends on the fact that liberated crystals fall closer to
concentration studies can be used to estimate the total source than similar sized pumice or glass shards (Fig.
mass and volume erupted, without the need for extra- 1.3), and because of their rather restricted size range
polation of isopachs at the distal limits (as discussed crystals are not a large component in the most widely
earlier). In practice, using the isopach map of the deposit dispersed size classes. Assuming that C' is equal to the
and measured bulk densities of samples of the deposit total quantity of crystals liberated (C), the total erupted
(see below), an isopleth map is constructed to show the quantity of vitric particles in the <2 mm size classes
mass of deposit per square centimetre (Fig. 1.4a). From (P <2) can be determined. A second calculation assumes
sieve analyses a second map can be derived showing the 20% of the crystals erupted fell outside the mapped area.
mass per unit area of pumice that is <2 mm in size (Fig.
lAb). Integration of this map, by estimating the value at
I.l.6 DENSITY AND POROSITY
the intersection points of grid lines, yields the total mass
of <2 mm pumice. From the crystal content of sieved The standard procedure for determining the density and
samples, another map showing the mass per unit area of porosity of a welded tuff (or lava) sample is, first, to oven-
free crystals is derived (Fig. lAc), and integration of this dry the sample at about 100C for 24 h and then to allow it
to cool in a desiccator, after which it is weighed to
(a) Moss of depos it (b) Moss of sub- determine the dry weight in air (M I)' The sample is then
2mm pumice placed in a container from which the air is evacuated, to
extract air from the pore spaces. This container is flooded
with deaerated water and the sample is left immersed
under pressure for two days to allow water to be absorbed.
The sample is removed from the water and quickly
weighed in air, after removing the excess water from the
surface, to give the wet weight in air (M 1) . The sample is
then weighed while immersed in water to obtain the wet
weight in water (M3)' Then:
Table 1.5 Mass and volume calculations for the Hatepe and lavas above or, if the apparatus is not available, by
plinian deposit based on crystal concentration studies (after simple displacement in water. Each clast from a sample is
G. P. L. Walker 1981 c). weighed individually (oven-dry), and then soaked in
water for at least half an hour to ensure that all connected
V' volume within mapped area* (km 3 ) 2.33
vesicle space has been flooded, otherwise intake during
M' mass within mapped area* 1.13
measurement would increase the apparent volume of the
P'.c2<2 mm pumice*t 0044
C' free crystals 0.09
clast. The clast is then immersed in a container or
L'.c2 <2 mm lithics* 0.11 measuring cylinder and the volume of water displaced
equals the volume of the clast. Other methods used
Calculation assuming C' = C involve coating the clasts in waterglass, or cutting cubes
P<2 total <2 mm pumiceH 2.64 out of the clasts (but both of these methods destroy the
mass outside mapped area pumices for further use), or approximating their volumes
P' pumice, all <2 mmt 2.20 to that of equivalent ellipsoids.
L" lithics, all <2 mm~ 0.37 Sometimes it is necessary to know the bulk density of
M" total outside mapped area 2.57
the matrix 2 mm) of samples of pyroclastic flow
V' volume outside mapped area[[ (km 3 ) 3.67
deposits. This can again be determined using a measuring
Mtotal mass of deposit (=M' + M") 3.70
V total volume (= V' + V') (km 3 ) 6.00
cylinder; no voidage correction is necessary.
DRE volume (assuming Q = 2.5 g cm- 3 ) (km 3 ) 1.48
A Conglomerate - Epiclastic reworking heterogeneous clast composition; very good very good
closed framework (fluvial, shoreline) tractional structures;
(rounded clasts (Ch.10) well-rounded clasts;
essential) context with and within
sedimentary succession
479
480 APPENDIX II: GRAINSIZE TEXTURAL CLASSES
10 Block lavas and as for 9 except that clasts are good good
autobrecciated lavas angular blocks; intermediate or
(Ch. 4) (Figs 3.26, silicic composition; thickness up to
4.18a & b) 100 m or more
18 Scoria-fall deposits as for 16, but even more very poor very poor
(hawaiian, strombolian) susceptible to weathering and
(Chs 5 & 6) (Figs 3.16, alteration
5.4, 6.6 & 6.10, Plate 5)
20 Co-ignimbrite breccias as for 19, but deposits thicker and good if good if
(lag breccias and ground clasts coarser; thickness up to capped by preserved
breccias) (Ch. 8) 20+ m(?); upper contact sharp to welded
(Fig. 820) gradational into open framework ignimbrite
co-ignimbrite breccias and other
ignimbrite facies
21 Fines-depleted as for 4, but pumice clasts poor poor
ignimbrite angular
(Chs 7 & 8)
(Figs 7.28 & 30b)
APPENDIX II: GRAINSIZE TEXTURAL CLASSES 483
23 Glacial dropstone as for 22, but thinner and matrix good very good
deposits (Ch. 10) may be coarser, and contained (structure
(Figs 10.2 & 13) within lacustrine and marine facies; distinguished
dropstones may show impact sags; from pyroclastic
may be reworked bomb sags by
context)
24 Epiclastic reworking as for 5 (also see 1). but clasts very good moderate
and/or mass-flow angular to sub-rounded
redeposition with
granular matrix (Ch. 10)
(Figs 10.28a & 31 b)
25 Cohesive debris flows as for 6, but clasts angular to very good moderate
and lahars (Ch. 10) sub-rounded
(Figs 2.13, 10.30 & 31)
26 Ignimbrite (layer 2b). homogeneous clast composition excellent for excellent for
and other (denser clast) (but variable accessory and welded welded
pyroclastic flow deposits accidental lithics); crystal types ignimbrites, ignimbrites,
(block and ash flows, same in pumice clasts and matrix; otherwise poor otherwise poor
scoria flows) (Chs 5, massive depositional units (with
7 & 8) (Figs 5.14,15, exception of veneer deposits in
16, 7.31, 8.38 & 10.32, violent ignimbrites which show
Plate 8) crude stratification); thickness
variable - ignimbrites <5 m to
hundreds of metres; denser clast
flow deposits up to several tens of
metres; evidence of hot state
emplacement (see 6). and in the
case of welded ignimbrites,
development of eutaxitic texture
and columnar jointing; gas
segregation pipes and pods (with
clast support); association with other
ignimbrite facies (layer 2a) and
co-eruptive fall and surge deposits
E Sandstones 31 Epiclastic reworking abundant tractional structures; very good very good
(sand-sized framework (Ch. 10) (Figs 10.19 & 24) cross-stratification is either high
grains predominant) angle of repose or hummocky
cross-stratification (cf. surge
cross-stratification); body and
trace fossils
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many authors, organisations and publishers have Earth Mineral Sci. (Penn. Sf. Univ.) 41, 69-70 by
generously consented to the use of their work. It is permission of the author and the Editor; Figure 3.4
with great pleasure and gratitude that we acknow- reproduced from R. S. J. Sparks,J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
ledge the following copyright holders: Res. 3, 1-37 by permission of the author and Elsevier
Science Publishers; Figures 3.5 and 6.12 reproduced
from L. Wilson,]. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 8, 297-313
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by permission of J. V. Wright and Elsevier Science Figures 3.20, 5.1, 6.2a and 6.25 reproduced from J. V.
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6351-6 by permission of 1. Kushiro and the publisher, permission of R. S. J. Sparks and the Royal Society.
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]., Ser. 7, 1 487-584 by permission of the author; Figures 4.1b and 13.7 reproduced from D. A. Swanson
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513
514 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 515
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lications; Figure 6.22 reproduced from S. Self, N.z. ]. 8.32a reproduced from G. P. L. Walker et al., J.
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by permission of S. Self and Elsevier Science Publishers; permission of M. F. Sheridan and the Geological Society
Figures 6.30a-c reproduced from H. Sigurdsson, Science of America; Figure 7.44 reproduced from J. R. L. Allen,
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516 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 517
Numbers in italic type refer to text figures, and numbers in bold type refer to text sections.
519
520 INDEX
hydraulic fracture breccias 420 nomenclature of pyroclastic and magma rising into a hydrothermal
intra-subglacial basaltic and rhyolitic epiclastic volcaniclastic deposits see system 3.4.5
volcanism 437 classification pyroclastic flows moving into water or
marine stratovolcanoes 434 Novarupta 233 over water-saturated sediments
mid-oceanic ridge rift volcanism 432 nuees ardentes 107, 225, 351-3 3.4.4
oceanic basaltic seamounts 432 surges 5.6.1
Precambrian volcanism 441 obsidian 83-5, 2.10, 4.23, 4.25 water: magma mass ratio 42,45,3.9
submarine felsic volcanic centres 436 definition 18 phreatoplinian fall deposits 131, 6.8.2,
Minoan deep-sea ash layer 9.14 flow, Big Glass Mountain Plate 2 261,6.33-5
Minoan eruption 232, 237 oceanic crust 404 coarse-tail grading 158
Minoan ignimbrite 242, Plate 9, 7.9-12, geochemistry 449 D-F plots 6.36
7.15,8.4,11.4 seismic stratigraphy 447,15.1 grainsize characteristics 6.3 7
mixed pumice 41, 170,3.22 stratigraphy 447-9,15.1 phreatoplinian style eruptions 6.8.2
moberg 409 ogives Plate 2, 85 mechanisms 6.8.3
Mono Craters 79-81,85 Ohakune craters 6.5, 6.8 physical constituents 8
Monte Somma 384 Ohanapecosh Formation 284-5,9.1 Picture Gorge Basalt 4.10
Mt Eccles 379, 4.5,13.13,13.22 Okataina volcanic centre 143, 234, 397, pillow lava 73, 4.11-14
Mt Egmont Plate 10,6.25,10.31,13.25 Plate 1,2.10,4.23,6.14,8.14 intrusive 3.11
Mt Elephant 3.14,13.9,13.13 Older Volcanics 374 plains basalt 4.5.3
Mt Etna 62-3, 71, 383,4.9 Olekele avalanche 299 rift zones 371
Mt Hamilton 4.5 Onikobe caldera 9.1 vents 13.3
Mt Lamington 107, 108, 118 ophiolite 404, 447-50 plate margins and volcanism
Mt Leura 380, 3.14a, 6.6, 6.8, 6.10, stratigraphy 447, 15.1 stress field conditions 15.11
7.44,13.13,13.22,13.23 Oruanui Formation 158-9,6.33,6.35 plate tectonics
Mt Mazama 235 Oruanui ignimbrite 5.2, 5.14, 5.24 setting for volcanism 15.1
Mt Misery 387, 5.15,6.32,13.28 Plateau Ignimbrite 283, 402, 13.44
Mt Napier 3.13 pahoehoe lava 4.5.1, 4.5 Platoro caldera complex 342, 8.38
Mt Pelee 107, 110, 118, 119, 130,202, channels 67 pipe vesicles 73
218,225,351,386,3.20,3.24, lava caves 67 pitchstone 18
5.10,5.15,5.20 lava tubes 67 Pitts Head Tuff279, 9.9
Mt Rainier 301-2, 307, 325, 10.10, palaeoflow indicators 67 plinian fall deposits Plate 6,131,229,
10.14 ropy 67 482,6.13-15,8.12
Mt Ruapehu see Ruapehu shelly 67 area plots 6.18, 6.19
Mt St Helens 45 transition to aa lava 70 basaltic 140
ash cloud surges 120 palaeocurrents 1.3.4 compositional zoning 145
ash fall deposits 165,243,5.8 in ignimbrites 8.8 grain size characteristics 6.16, 6.17,
avalanche 300-2 palagonite 382 6.37,6.38
blast deposit 118, 218-19,7.45 palagonitisation 415, 14.3.3 internal and lateral changes 6.4.2
debris flow deposits 191, 325, 351 chemical effects 420 internal stratification 144, 150
dome collapse 107 Pantelleria 166, 168, 173, 6.46, 6.47 intaplinian ignimbrite 232
glaciers 307 pantellerite 17 reverse grading 144
ignimbrites 1l0, 179,202,223, 7.1, Panum Craters 80 volume estimates Table 6.2
8.6,8.35 Paricutin volcano 140, 364, 374, 6.11 zoned deposits 6.14
lahars 325 particle free fall 10.2 plinian style eruptions 129,6.4,239
landslide 299, 386, 10.6 particulate sediment transport 297-8, column collapse 150-1,8.3,8.8-11
phreatic explosion craters 46, 251, 305-7,308-15,329-30 duration Table 6.4
280,8.35 Pele's hair, tears 134 eruption rates Table 6.3
plinian fall deposits 144 pelean style eruptions 129 general features 6.4.1
pyroclastic flows 5.10, 5.12,7.1 peperites 43, 46, 55, 361 mechanisms and dynamics 6.4.3
Mt Shasta 13.25 perlite 83-5 muzzle velocities Table 6.3
mudflow 323-5, App. II phenocrysts 8 polymerisation in magmas 24, 26
muzzle velocity 6.2,470,6.20 Phlegrean volcanic field 394 polyphase alteration see hydrothermal
Mweelrea Group 280 phonolite 17 alteration
phreatic explosions 34, 3.4, 42 porosity determination App. 1.1.6
nephelinite 17 craters 8.35 Precambrian volcanism-facies models
Newberry Crater 4.23 phreatomagmatic deposits 6.29-32 description 440-1
Newer Volcanics volcanic province 374, phreatomagmatic explosions 34, 40, 42, economic significance 441
379,13.13,13.15,13.16,13.22 157 facies model 14.11, 14.13
Newtonian substances 21, 22, 2.3 eruption column height 103 pressure
turbulence criterion (Reynolds interaction with groundwater 3.4.1 effects on viscosity 2.5.1
Number) 27, 28, 2.9 interaction with surface water 3.4.2 pressure ridges 69, 4.8
Ngauruhoe 108, 154, 190,386,6.25, lava flowing into water or over water- pseudocraters 76, 13.6
6.27,6.28, 7.1, 13.43 saturated sediments 3.4.3 pseudoplastic substances 22, 2.3
INDEX 525
Pukeonake scoria cone 5.24,10.12 pyroclastic fall deposits 5.1.1, 5.3, thickness 7.3.1
pumice 36, 49, 3.19 Ch. 6,5.1,5.2,5.4 valley pond ignimbrite 200
concentration zones in ignimbrites area plots 146,470,6.18,6.19 yield strength 183
188,480 ash cloud deposits 5.2.2 pyroclastic flow forming eruptions 5.4
crystal content App. 1.1.5 ash-fall deposits 104 column collapse 5.4.2, 150,8.3,8.8,
diapirs 86 associated surges 120 8.9,8.10,8.11
density 3.21, Table 7.2 ballistic fragments 133 lava dome collapse 5.4.1
fall deposit (see also plinian fall classification of 130, 351, 6.2, subaqueous 9.4
deposits) 5.4 Table 12.1 pyroclastic flows 7.8
flotation 315, 10.21 D-F plots, 6.1, 6.2, 6.11, 6.25, 6.36 ash elutriation 103, 180
flow deposits (see also ignimbrites) grain size characteristics 5.3, 6.3, 6.7, block and ash flows 107
5.5.3 6.9,6.11,6.13,6.15,6.16,6.21, classification of types Table 7.1,
flow transport mechanics 7.4, 8.23 6.25,6.31,6.35,6.37,6.38,6.43, Tables 12.2, 12.3
giant pumice beds 403,484,13.45, Table I.2, Table I.3 crystal concentration 103
13.46 mantle bedding 96, 5.1,5.2 definition 181
mixed 41,170,3.22 methods of study for modern deposits distances travelled Table 8.2
recognition in the rock record 14.4 App. I entry into water 9.11,9.13
terminal fall velocity 7.23 pumice fall deposits 104 fluidisation 7.2
vesicle nucleation size 36 scoria fall deposits 104 form 7.5,7.24
pumice cones 13.4, 374 thermal facies model Table 6.6 mobility 7.2
Purrumbete, Lake 380, 5.21,7.37, pyroclastic fall forming eruptions 5.2 nuees ardentes 107,225,351-3
13.13,13.15,13.22 explosive eruption columns 5.2.1 passage from air into water 9.5
Puu Hou 382 hawaiian 104 relationship to surges 7.12
Puu Ki littoral cones 13.24 phreatoplinian 104 subaerial Ch. 7
Puu Waawaa pumice cone 366, 374 plinian 104 subaqueous Ch. 9
pyroclastic strombolian 104 submarine eruption 9.4
definition 4, 8, 350 sub-plinian 104 temperature Table 5.1
nomenclature/classification of deposits surtseyan 104 transport and deposition Ch. 7
12.2,360 terminal fall velocity 94 transport mechanics 7.4,7.25,7.29,
pyroclastic deposits - modern ultraplinian 104 7.32,8.23
area plots 470 vulcanian 104 violent flows 96, 179
ballistic clast trajectory-velocity pyroclastic flow deposits (see also viscosity 193
studies 470 ignimbrite) 5.1.2, 5.5, 7.3, Ch. 8, yield strength 183
classification Tables 7.1,12.1-5 5.5,5.6,5.12-16 pyroclastic surge 98, 5.6, 7.6-12
component proportion analysis App. basal layers 7.3.2, 197 ash cloud surge 5.6.2, 7.7.3
1.1.4 bedforms base surge 5.6.1,7.7.1
components Table 12.6 block and ash flow deposits 5.5.1 classification Table 12.4
dating 478 classification 351, Tables 7.1,12.2, depositional processes 7.9
density App. 1.1.6 12.3 energy chain 7.33
fines depletion processes 7.46 coarse-tail grading 96 ground surge 5.6.2,7.7.2,7.34
geochemical fingerprinting 478 compositional zoning 7.3.6 initiation 7.7
grain size characteristics (see also crystal-rich 342 transport mechanics 205
pyroclastic fall, flow, and surge fines depleted ignimbrite 199 pyroclastic surge deposits 5.1.3, 5.7,
deposits) 5.3, 1.1, App. 1.1.3, fossil fumarole pipes 96 7.10
Table I.2 gas segregation pipes 96, 181,7.3.4 ash cloud surge 5.7.3
grainsize determination App. 1.1.3 grading 186, 7.3.3 base surge 5.7.1,7.35,7.40,7.43,
isopach maps 469 grainsize characteristics 5.3,7.13, 7.44
isopleth maps 470 7.17,7.18,7.36,7.45,8.22, Table bomb sags 217
mass calculations 1.4, Table 1.5 I.2, Table I.3 chute and pool structures 98
maximum grain size studies App. 1.1.2 ground layer 198, 202 classification 353, Table 12.4
methods of study App. 1 head deposits 198, 202 comparison with turbidity current
muzzle velocity 470 ignimbrite 5.5.3, Ch. 8 7.11
physical analysis App. I.1 ignimbrite veneer deposit 200 depositional structures 7.10.6
porosity App. 1.1.6 lateral grading 7.3.5 dune-form structures 98,210,213,
relationship to topography 5.1 lithic concentration zones 188 214
sieving 471 methods of study for modern deposits geometry 7.10.1
sorting classes 472-3, Table 1.4 App.1 grain size characteristics 7.10.2, 7.39,
stratigraphic analysis App. 1.2 pumice concentration zones 188 7.41, Tables I.2, I.3
tephrochronology 477 pumice flow deposits 5.5.3 ground surge 5.7.2
terminal fall velocity 475 scoria and ash flow deposits 5.5.2 low angle cross stratification 98, 213
thickness App. 1.1.1 reverse grading 188 methods of study for modern deposits
volume calculations 470, 1.4, thermal oxidation 96 App. I
Table I.5 thermal remanent magnetisation 98 relationship with pyroclastic flows 7.12
526 INDEX
thermal oxidisation 96 ignimbrite sources 8.4, 8.14, 8.16 tectonic setting Ch. 15
thermal remanent magnetisation 98, 281 plains basalt provinces 13.3 volcanoes Ch. 13
tholeiite 17 ring fissure 8.4.2 basaltic shield 13.2, 13.1-5
temperature of magmas 19, 20 subaerial explosive activity 36-8 facies models Ch. 14
till, tillite 307, 494 subaqueous explosive activity 38-40 .intermediate-silicic multivent centres
tindas 408 vesicles 13.8
Toba deep-sea ash layer 289, 8.24 factors affecting growth 37 intraglacial/subglacial13.11, 13.51,
Toba Tuff 243 growth 36, 3.3, 3.4 13.52
Tongariro 6.39, 13.43 nucleation size 36 littoral cones 13.6, 13.24
Tokiwa Formation 271,284--5,9.1 pipe 73 maars 13.5, 13.14-22
Toledo caldera 244,398,13.42 vesiculated tuffs 124 monogenetic 364
Tonga-Kermadec arc 15.12 vesiculation 35, 36 polygenetic 364
tonsteins 244 first boiling 35, 40 pseudocraters 13.6
torrent flow 316-18, 10.23 growth of vesicles 36 pumice cones 13.4
Tower Hill Volcanic Centre 380-2, nucleation size 36 rhyolitic volcanoes/centres 13.9,
5.21,6.10,7.40,7.41,13.15, of magma subaqueously 38-40 13.37-42
13.20,13.22,13.23 second boiling 35, 40 scoria cones 13.4, 13.4, 13 .8-13
tractional sediment transport 308-16, vesuvian style eruptions 129 seamounts 13.10.2, 13.50
329-30,10.16 Vesuvius 116, 129, 143, 158,223,384, shield 13.2, 13.1-5
tractional sedimentary structures 7.13 spreading ridge 13.10.1, 13.48, 13.49
309-14, 10.17-19 viscosity 15,2.4,2.3,2.5--8 stratovolcanoes 13.7, 13.25-7,13.30-2
Treasure Mountain Tuff 342,8.38 Bingham 21, 2.3, Table 2.4 tuff cones 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.21
tuff cones 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.21, calculated 21 tuff rings 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.21,
Table 13.2 effects on lavas 21 13.23
deposits 378 experimentally determined 21 volcano-tectonic depressions 394, 13.36
eruptive activity 379 factors controlling 2.5 vulcanian fall deposits 131,6.7,6.22-4
tuffrings 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.22, measured Table 2.4 D-F plots 6.25
13.23, Table 13.2 of tholeiite 21, Table 2.4 nomenclature 12.5
deposits 378, 13 .23 plastic 21 vulcanian style eruptions 6.7, 6.26--8
eruptive activity 379 pyroclastic flows 193 Vulcano volcano 154, 6.24
rhyolitic 404 vitric ash/tuff 335 Vulsini8.7
'tuff, use of 12.5 vitrophyre 252
Tuluman Islands 79, 88, 403 volatile content Waiareka Volcanics 2.13, 3.11,7.43,
tumuli 69, 4.8 effect on viscosity 2.5.3 10.19, 10.31
turbidite 318-20, 10.26-9 gas pressure 3.5 Waidara Tuff 284,9.1,9.5
ash 9.2.2, 286-7 volcanic centres Ch. 13 Waimihia plinian deposit 470, 3.22,6.19
turbidity currents 318-20, 10.25, 10.26, facies models Ch. 14 Wairakei Formation 158
10.29 volcanic eruptions water
turbulent flow 15,2.7 climatic effects 103 effect on magma viscosity 23, 24
tuyas 408,13.51 effects on sedimentary processes 10.2, exsolution of 34, 35
13.7.4, Table 13.5 solubility in magmas 23,25,3.1
Ukinrek maars 115, 382, 13.14, 13.19 volcanic rocks water: magma mass ratio 42, 45, 3.9
ultrabasic chemical classification 2.1.1, Table 2.1 weathering 294
definition 16 crystal contents 11.3 welded air-fall tuffs 6.10, 6.39-47,
komatiites 4.12 mineralogical classification 2.1.1, 2.1 Table 6.5
lavas 89 volcanic - sedimentary cycles 10.2, characteristics and examples 6.10.1
ultramafic 17, 90 13.7.4, Table 13.5 conditions of formation 6.10.2
ultraplinian eruptions 6.6 volcanic successions thermal facies model 6.10.3,
ultraplinian fall deposits 131, 6.6 facies models Ch. 14 Table 6.6
Taupo pumice 153,8.12.2 rock types in 4 welding 165, 8.10.1, 270, 355, 358,
Usu volcano 78, 4.20 stratigraphic relationships 4, 14.2, 8.37-44
1.1,1.2 subaqueous 9.3
Valles caldera 244, Plate 13,398-400, volcaniclastic Worzel
8.20,13.42 crystal-rich deposits Ch. 11, Plate 11, D ash layer 289,9.18
Valley ofTen Thousand Smokes 11.2 L ash layer 288,9.15
ignimbrite 233, 8.5 definition 8
vapour phase crystallisation 8.10.2,419, deposits Ch. 3 xenocryst 8, 54
8.42,8.45,8.46,8.47 modes of fragmentation Ch. 3 xenolith 8, 54
variolites 420 nomenclature/classification of deposits
vents Ch.12 Yali 402,13.44
central 8.4.4 volcanism Yellowstone volcanic centre 397
flood basalt provinces 13.3, 13.7 plate tectonics 15.1 yield strength 2.4, 64
ignimbrite fissure vents 8.4.1, 8.14 stress field conditions 15.11, 15.11 of fluidised pyroclastic flows 183