Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

2. PAVEMENT TYPES

Introduction
A roadway pavement is broadly defined as any hard-surfaced path upon which vehicles can
travel from one place to another. Although the term pavement is sometimes taken to mean
only the surface of the roadway, it is more commonly understood as being the set of structural
layerssurface, base, and subbase coursesplaced on a subgrade to support traffic loads and
distribute those loads to the roadbed (Christopher et al. 2006). Figure 2-1 presents a typical
pavement cross-section, including the key structural components and the underlying foundation.

Surface Course
Base Course
Subbase Course
Compacted/Natural Subgrade

Embankment/Natural Soil

Figure 2-1. Basic components of a typical pavement system.

The subgrade is the top surface of a roadbed upon which the pavement structure (and shoulders,
typically) is constructed (Christopher et al. 2006). The purpose of the subgrade is to provide a
platform for construction of the pavement structure and to support traffic loads without undue
deflection that would impact the structures performance. For pavements constructed on-grade
or in cuts, the subgrade is typically the natural soil at the site; although select borrow material
may be brought in for poor soils or in particularly problematic areas. The upper layer of this
natural soil may be compacted and/or stabilized (usually to a depth of 6 to 12 in.) to increase its
strength, stiffness, and/or stability. For pavements constructed on embankment fills, the
subgrade is typically a compacted borrow material.

The subbase course is a layer (or layers) of specified or select material placed on the subgrade to
support the base course or to provide other functions (Christopher et al. 2006). The subbase is
granular in nature and is usually of somewhat lower quality than the base course above it. In
some cases, the subbase may be treated with portland cement, asphalt, lime, fly ash, or
combinations of these admixtures to increase its strength and stiffness, and reduce moisture
susceptibility. A subbase course is typically included when the subgrade soils are of very poor
quality.

In addition to contributing to the structural capacity of the pavement systems, subbase layers
have additional secondary functions (Christopher et al. 2006). These include preventing the
intrusion of fine-grained subgrade soils into the base course, providing additional pavement
thickness to combat frost-heave effects of susceptible subgrades, increasing the distance above a

2-1
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

groundwater table, providing drainage for free water that may enter the pavement system, and
providing a working platform for construction operations in cases where the subgrade soil is very
weak and cannot provide the necessary support.

The base course is a layer (or layers) of specified or select material placed on a subbase or
subgrade (when a subbase is not used) to provide a uniform and stable support for the surface
course (Christopher et al. 2006). The base layer also serves the same secondary functions as the
subbase, including a gradation requirement that retards subgrade migration into the base layer in
the absence of a subbase layer.

Depending on the pavement structure type, the base course can provide a significant portion of
the overall structural capacity or it can significantly improve the foundation stiffness
(Christopher et al. 2006). Base course usually consists of high-quality aggregates, such as
crushed stone, crushed slag, gravel and sand, or combinations of these materials. These higher
quality aggregates are typically placed and compacted unbound, but are sometimes treated with
stabilizing admixtures, such as portland cement, asphalt, lime, or fly ash, to increase the strength
and stiffness and thus provide improved pavement performance. However, for concrete
pavements, base layers that provide uniform support and are erosion-resistant are more important
to performance than increasing the stiffness of a stabilized base (ARA 2004). High stiffness
stabilized bases can results in higher curling stresses, which may lead to premature cracking.
They may also cause reflection cracking in asphalt surfaced roadways. Curling stresses can be
minimized by placing base materials that will yield during concrete slab expansion and
contraction (Siddique, Hossain, and Devore 2004).

The surface course is comprised of one or more layers designed to accommodate the traffic load
(Christopher et al. 2006). The surface course may consist of asphalt bound materials (e.g., hot
mix asphalt [HMA], warm mix asphalt [WMA], open-graded friction course), portland cement
concrete (PCC or concrete), bituminous or asphalt surface treatments (BST or AST), or, in the
case of some low-volume roads, aggregate materials. In addition to providing a portion of the
overall structural capacity of the pavement depending on the thickness of the surface course, the
surface layer minimizes the infiltration of surface water, provides a smooth, uniform, and skid-
resistant riding surface, and offers durability against traffic abrasion and climatic forces.

Depending on the specific type of pavement, other components of the pavement structure include
drainage elements, geosynthetic paving materials, and embedded steel. Drainage elements may
be in a variety of forms (e.g., drainable layers for surface and/or subsurface moisture, open-
graded aggregate, transverse drain pipes, longitudinal edge drain collector systems) and are
intended to quickly remove infiltrated water from the pavement structure. Geosynthetic
materials may be used to retard or control reflection cracking, to provide separation between
layers to prevent migration of fines into the base, or to provide additional structure or load-
carrying capacity over soft subgrade soils. Embedded steel in concrete pavements may include
dowel bars and tie bars. Smooth dowel bars are provided at transverse joints to provide load
transfer at otherwise weakened points in the slab. Deformed tie bars are provided across
longitudinal joints to hold adjacent slabs together and keep them in vertical alignment.
Similarly, distributed steel reinforcement is provided in some jointed concrete pavements to keep
any cracks held tightly together and to keep them from breaking down under traffic loadings. In

2-2
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) structures, longitudinal reinforcing steel is

designed to create a pattern of closely spaced transverse cracks that can be effectively held
together by the deformed bars.

Pavement Types
Pavements can be categorized in many ways. The most common way of categorizing pavements
is through a combination of structural type (i.e., rigidity or flexibility of the structure and how it
behaves structurally when exposed to loading) and basic material type (i.e., basic type of paving
materials that include asphalt, concrete, and/or aggregate, used to give structure to the
pavement). Descriptions and illustrations of the four main pavement types given by this form of
categorization are provided below, along with their basic functionality and application/use.

Asphalt PavementAn asphalt pavement structure is one that maintains intimate contact
with and distributes loads to the subgrade, and depends on aggregate interlock, particle
friction, and cohesion for stability (Christopher et al. 2006). As illustrated in Figure 2-2,
this type of pavement is surfaced with asphalt and is supported by stabilized and/or
unstabilized base and subbase layers. The asphalt layer may include a variety of mixtures
(e.g., hot mix asphalt, warm mix asphalt or surface treatment). The pavement structure
undergoes more concentrated stresses under applied traffic loadings, causing it to bend
or deflect.

Asphalt

Base Course

Subgrade

Figure 2-2. Asphalt pavement structure and load distribution.

Asphalt pavements comprise about 82 percent of U.S. paved roads (FHWA 2008a). They
are used in a wide array of applications, from low-volume county roads and city streets to
high-volume interstates and freeways.

Concrete PavementA concrete pavement structure is one that distributes loads to the
subgrade through a concrete slab having relatively high-bending resistance (Christopher
et al. 2006). As Figure 2-3 shows, the stiffness of the slab creates a wider distribution of

2-3
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

stresses from applied traffic loadings to the underlying subgrade. The concrete layer may
consist of various cement types, such as portland cement and hydraulic cement.

Concrete

Base Course

Subgrade

Figure 2-3. Concrete pavement structure and load distribution.

Concrete pavements comprise about 6 percent of U.S. paved roads (FHWA 2008a). They
are also used in a variety of applications, but are commonly considered for use on high-
volume roadways with heavy loads.

Composite PavementA composite pavement structure is one that combines the

elements of both asphalt and concrete pavement systems and acts as one composite
material (Christopher et al. 2006; Flintsch et al. 2008). While most composite pavements
consist of an HMA surface placed over a concrete layer (either a new base or an existing
concrete pavement surface) (see Figure 2-4), they may also consist of a concrete surface
placed on an HMA layer (either a new base or an existing HMA pavement surface). The
former structure takes advantage of the strong support provided by the rigid base and the
latter structure benefits from a stronger, less erodible bound base (compared to an
unbound base).

Asphalt Surface Course

Concrete Surface Course

Concrete Base Course (or existing layer)

Asphalt Base Course (or existing layer)

Base (and subbase) Course Base (and subbase) Course

Embankment/Natural Soil Embankment/Natural Soil

a. Asphalt over concrete b. Concrete over asphalt

2-4
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Figure 2-4. Composite pavements.

Composite pavements comprise approximately 12 percent of U.S. paved roads (FHWA

2008a), which includes HMA overlays of new and existing concrete pavements. Like
asphalt and concrete pavements, they are used in a variety of applications, including low-
volume city roads and streets and high-volume interstates and freeways.

Aggregate Surfaced: Aggregate surfaced roadways are used for low volume roadways,
frequently with access to agricultural properties. They are not a major component of
state agency systems.

Each of the four main pavement types (asphalt, concrete, composite, and aggregate-surfaced) is
discussed in the sections below. Further breakdowns of each type, in terms of structural design
(i.e., arrangement and degree of use of paving materials and other structural elements in the
pavement system) are presented, along with other defining aspects, such as:

Surface Material Type: Specific type of paving material used at the surface of the
pavement.
Construction Type: New construction, reconstruction, rehabilitation, or some forms of
preservation.
Drainage Design: Type and degree of drainable features (subsurface and/or surface)
included in the pavement system.
Design Longevity: Conventional or long-life (perpetual) design philosophy.

Asphalt Pavement
Asphalt pavements consist of an asphalt-bound surface course placed over a stabilized and/or
unstabilized base and subbase layers. Drainage layers may also be provided to remove water
quickly from the pavement structure and, in some cases, various geosynthetic materials (e.g.,
fabrics, geogrids) may be installed to prevent or delay the onset of reflection cracks in the
surface, to provide separation, or to provide additional structural support over soft soils.

The asphalt-bound surface course in an asphalt pavement typically consists of a wearing course
and a binder (or intermediate) course (Christopher et al. 2006). The wearing course is the
topmost layer and normally contains the highest quality materials. Its primary objectives include
waterproofing the pavement system and providing a smooth, quiet, rut-resistant, and skid-
resistant surface for vehicular traffic. The wearing course usually consists of a dense-graded
HMA, but it may also consist of an open-graded HMA (e.g., open-graded friction course
[OGFC] or permeable friction course [PFC]), a gap-graded HMA (e.g., stone matrix asphalt
[SMA] or thin bonded wearing surface), or a surface treatment (e.g., chip seal, slurry seal,
microsurfacing).

Wearing courses are usually accompanied by a binder course. The purpose of the binder course
is to distribute traffic loads so that stresses transmitted to the pavement foundation do not result
in permanent deformation (i.e., rutting) of that layer (NAPA 2001). The binder course also
facilitates the construction of the wearing course, helping ensure adequate compaction and

2-5
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

smoothness of the wearing course. Binder courses may have a coarser aggregate gradation and
lower liquid asphalt contents than wearing courses for economic and durability reasons.

The base and subbase courses in an asphalt pavement can consist of various types and qualities
of aggregate, with or without treatment by different stabilizing admixtures, including cement,
lime and/or flyash. Reclamation of existing flexible pavement may also provide the base. While
the materials used in these layers are less stiff than the surface course materials, they are still
important to pavement strength and provide protection from the damaging effects of moisture
and frost. A separator layer of geotextile may be used to reduce fines migration into the base
layer. They help define the seven most common asphalt pavement structural designs listed below
and illustrated in Figure 2-5 (ARA 2004).
Conventional Asphalt.
Long-Life Asphalt.
Semi-Rigid.
Porous Asphalt.
Deep-Strength Asphalt.
Full-Depth Asphalt.
Surface-Treated.

2-6
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Conventional Deep-Strength Long-Life

Rut-Resistant Asphalt
Asphalt
Asphalt Fatigue and Rut
Unbound Base Resistance Asphalt

Fatigue Resistant
Unbound Subbase Unbound Base Asphalt

Compacted Subgrade Compacted Subgrade

Pavement Foundation
Natural Subgrade Natural Subgrade

Full-Depth Semi-Rigid
Asphalt
Asphalt
Asphalt Binder Asphalt or Cement
Treated Base

Asphalt Base Unbound Subbase

Compacted Subgrade Compacted Subgrade

Natural Subgrade Natural Subgrade

Figure 2-5. Common asphalt pavement structural designs (modified from ARA 2004) Used by
permission ARA and AASHTO.

2-7
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Surface-Treated Porous
Surface Treatment
Porous Asphalt

Unbound Subbase Crushed Stone

Recharge Bed
Natural Subgrade

Non-Woven Geotextile

Uncompacted
Subgrade

Figure 2-5. Common asphalt pavement structural designs (modified from ARA 2004) Used by
permission ARA and AASHTO (continued).

Three other important components in an asphalt pavement structure are leveling courses, prime
coats, and tack coats. A leveling course is a thin layer of HMA used in rehabilitation (prior to
the placement of other layers, such as an HMA overlay) to correct minor variations in the
longitudinal and transverse profile of the pavement (NAPA 2001). Prime coats and tack coats
are thin liquid asphalt coatings that are applied to a surface (prime coat for an aggregate layer,
tack coat for a stabilized layer) immediately before an HMA layer is placed, in order to promote
bonding of the two layers. Layer bonding improves the layers response to loading by acting in
unison.

Conventional Asphalt
Conventional asphalt pavements consist of an HMA surface course placed on a higher-quality
dense-graded aggregate base and somewhat lower-quality dense-graded aggregate subbase (see
Figure 2-5). In some instances, a surface treatment may be used for the wearing course. The
thicknesses of the layers vary; depending on truck traffic volume, subgrade strength, climate, and
how many times the pavement has been resurfaced (or received a preservation treatment).
Typical thickness ranges for newly constructed or reconstructed pavements are 3 to 5 in. for the
HMA surface, 6 to 12 in. for the base, and 8 to 16 in. for the subbase.

Conventional asphalt pavements are the most common type of asphalt pavement. They are used
by all state highway agencies for mostly low- to moderate-volume roadways. The design service
life of original conventional asphalt pavements is usually between 10 and 20 years. In some
cases, they may include an open-graded aggregate base that either drains into an edge drain
system or is daylighted to the roadside ditch.

2-8
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Deep-Strength
Deep-strength asphalt pavements consist of a thickened asphalt section over a granular base (see
Figure 2-5). This type of pavement, as originally designed and constructed, includes the HMA
surface course (typically, 2 in. or greater), an HMA base course (typically 4 in. or greater) placed
in one or more lifts, and a high-quality aggregate base (typically, 6 to 12 in.).

Because of their added structure, deep-strength asphalt pavements are commonly used by
highway agencies for moderate- to high-volume roads. While a surface treatment may be used
for the wearing course, the higher traffic levels generally favor an HMA wearing course. The
design service life of this type of pavement is typically 15 to 25 years, slightly longer than a
conventional asphalt pavement, so as to minimize traffic disruptions due to future rehabilitation
treatments.

Long-Life Asphalt Pavement

Long-life asphalt pavements often are asphalt pavements that are designed and built to last
longer than 50 years, without requiring major structural rehabilitation or reconstruction, and
needing only periodic surface renewal in response to distresses confined to the top of the
pavement (Newcomb et al. 2010). Long-life asphalt pavements incorporate multiple layers of
HMA material that are specially arranged so as to minimize bottom-up fatigue cracking and
HMA and subgrade rutting, thereby producing a long-lasting road with only periodic renewal of
the surface course. The term perpetual pavement has been used for these structures.

The concept of a long-life asphalt pavement is derived from the historical performance of many
well-built, thick asphalt pavements that were categorized as either full-depth or deep-strength
pavements that had been in service for decades with only minor periodic surface rehabilitation to
remove defects and improve ride quality (Newcomb et al. 2010). The long-life pavement section
consists of:

A renewable rut-resistant HMA surface layer. The surface layer is designed to not only
resist rutting, but to also resist top-down cracking. Mix type selection of the surface layer
is typically dependent on local experience and often includes either a stone mastic asphalt
(SMA), an open-graded friction coarse (OGFC), or a dense-graded HMA layer. Typical
thickness ranges from 1.0 to 3 in.
A fatigue and rut-resistant intermediate HMA layer that provides additional structural
support. The intermediate layer must provide the pavement structure with both stability
and durability, which can often be obtained using an aggregate structure that provides
stone-on-stone contact and an asphalt binder that will resist rutting (i.e., a higher-
temperature performance grade binder). Typical thickness of intermediate layer ranges
from 4 to 7 in.
A HMA base layer that resists tensile strain due to traffic loadings (i.e., fatigue or bottom
up cracking). The fatigue resistant base layer is obtained by increasing the layer
thickness, increasing the asphalt content, or a combination of both to reduce the tensile
strain at the bottom of the layer, typically to levels between 75 and 200 microstrains
(Prowell et al. 2010). Typical thickness of base layer ranges from 3 to 4 in.

2-9
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

In addition, in order to resist rutting in the underlying unbound layers, the pavement foundation
should provide support for the anticipated traffic loads and not be susceptible to volume changes
(i.e., expansive soils) or freeze-thaw cycles (Newcomb et al. 2010). The pavement foundation
may consist of compacted subgrade, chemically stabilized subgrade, stabilized granular material,
and/or unstabilized granular material. A number of studies suggest a minimum subgrade CBR
value of 5 percent, or a resilient modulus (MR) of roughly 7,500 psi for adequate foundation
support (FMT 1989; LCPC 1992; Nunn et al. 1997a).

Studies conducted by Nunn (1997b), Mahoney (2001), and Newcomb (2002) have indicated that
a minimum total HMA thickness of 6 to 8 in. for typical traffic loadings is recommended to
reduce the potential for fatigue cracking originating at the bottom of the HMA layer.

As with any pavement structure, attention to construction techniques and practices is critical to
achieving the maximum potential service from a long-life asphalt pavement. Specifically, this
includes (Newcomb et al. 2010):

Obtaining adequate density to minimize cracking of the lower HMA layers and rutting in
the upper HMA layers.
Minimizing moisture infiltration by eliminating the potential for aggregate segregation
during production and temperature differentials during mix transport and paving
(Willoughby et al. 2002).
Obtaining adequate density at longitudinal joints to minimize water infiltration.
Obtaining adequate bond between each HMA lift.
Maintaining quality control during mixture production and placement.

Semi-Rigid
Semi-rigid flexible pavements consist of an HMA surface course placed on an asphalt- or
cement-treated base (ATB or CTB) (in some cases, a lime-fly ash-treated base), and a dense-
graded aggregate subbase (see Figure 2-5). In some cases, a surface treatment may be used as
the wearing course. The treated base provides increased strength/stiffness and durability, thereby
improving pavement performance. Typical layer thicknesses for newly constructed or
reconstructed semi-rigid flexible pavements are similar to those of conventional pavements,
except that the base course is typically between 4 and 8 in. thick.

Although semi-rigid flexible pavements can be designed for low- to high-volume roadways, they
are most prominent on moderate-volume roads. The design life of original semi-rigid flexible
pavements is usually between 10 and 20 years, and some designs may incorporate subsurface
drainage in the form of an asphalt- or cement-treated permeable base (ATPB or CTPB)
connected to an edge drain system or daylighted to the roadside ditch.

Full-Depth Asphalt
Full-depth asphalt pavements also consist of a thickened asphalt section. However, unlike deep-
strength asphalt, HMA mixtures are employed for all courses above the compacted or improved
subgrade (occasionally, granular material may be placed on the subgrade for construction
purposes) (see Figure 2-5). The total thickness of the asphalt-bound layers is typically 6 in. or
more.

2-10
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

The applications for full-depth asphalt pavement vary significantly, from low-volume local roads
and streets to high-volume interstates and freeways. Correspondingly, the design service life of
this pavement type can also vary significantly (10 to 25 years). The use of a surface treatment
for the wearing course generally depends on the traffic loadings.

Surface-Treated
Surface-treated pavements are thin asphalt pavements consisting of one or more BST layers
placed on a granular base (see Figure 2-5). Depending on whether the structure is new or has
received subsequent BST, the total thickness of the asphalt-bound surface layer may range from
0.5 in. to as much as 3 in. or more. The granular base is generally of low to medium quality and
often ranges between 4 and12 in. thick. Surface-treated pavements are used extensively on low-
volume roads and streets.

Porous Asphalt
Porous asphalt pavements are specially designed asphalt pavements that use porous HMA mixes
to laterally or vertically drain storm water runoff (Iowa LTAP 2007). Porous HMA mixes have
traditionally been used as surface courses on new asphalt pavement structures or as part of HMA
overlays placed on existing pavements. Often referred to as open-graded surface or friction
courses (OGSC or OGFC) and PFC, these surfaces are designed to facilitate storm water runoff
and prevent the development of water films that decrease friction and increase splash/spray and
hydroplaning potential. The high air voids of this mix also help to reduce pavement-tire noise.
These noise reductions may not extend for the full service life, especially in areas where studded
tires are used.

Porous HMA mixes have more recently been incorporated into full drainable pavement systems
that substantially reduce runoff and promote natural infiltration of water into the soil. In this
system, a somewhat thicker (2 to 4 in.) porous HMA layer is placed on top of a thin (1 to 2 in.)
choke stone layer (0.5-in. chips) and thick (typically 10 to 12 in.) aggregate recharge
bed/reservoir course (1.5 to 2-in. stone), lined with a geotextile filter fabric. The porous HMA
layer could consist of an OGSC/OGFC/PFC layer and an ATPB layer containing even higher
voids. Storm water flows through the porous HMA surface into the aggregate recharge bed
where it is stored and allowed to infiltrate into the soil between rainfalls (FPO 2008).

Concrete Pavement
Concrete pavements generally consist of concrete slabs constructed on either a granular or
treated base layer and a prepared subgrade, as depicted in Figure 2-6 (Christopher et al. 2006).
The inclusion of a base layer provides a number of benefits, including the prevention of pumping
of fine-grained soils at joints, cracks, and slab edges, the provision of additional load-carrying
capacity, the provision of lateral drainage, the reduction of potential frost-heave effects, and the
provision of a construction platform for the concrete slab.

The surface course in a concrete pavement is the concrete slab. In addition to providing the
majority of strength to withstand traffic loadings, it must provide key functional characteristics
(e.g., smoothness, friction, noise control) and serve as a waterproofing layer for the underlying

2-11
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

system. Depending on the structural design, the concrete surface may require transverse joints
located at specific intervals along the length of the roadway, and different types of embedded
steel (at joints).

Concrete Slab

Base Course

Compacted Subgrade

Natural Subgrade

Bedrock

Figure 2-6. Typical concrete pavement cross-section (modified from ARA 2004) Used by
permission ARA and AASHTO.

A key component in all concrete pavements is joints. Joints are linear discontinuities formed
into the concrete surface to serve various purposes. The types of joints and their purposes are
summarized as follows (AASHTO 1993; ACPA 2010):
Contraction JointsSawed, formed, or tooled grooves that create a weakened vertical
plane, thereby controlling the location of cracking caused by dimensional changes in the
slab (see Figure 2-7a). Contraction joints are the most common joint type. They are
installed both transversely (generally at regular, fixed intervals) and longitudinally
(typically at 12 ft intervals to correspond with lane widths).
Construction JointsFull-depth joints formed between slabs that are placed at different
times (see Figure 2-7b). Construction joints can be longitudinal (between adjacent lanes
or a lane and shoulder) or transverse (separation between the end of one days paving and
the start of the next days paving) orientation.
Isolation JointsFull-depth joints formed to separate the pavement from structures or
objects (e.g., drainage features, bridges, sidewalks, curb) so to allow for the independent
movement between the pavement and structure or object (see Figure 2-7c).

Concrete pavements can be divided into the following major categories:

Jointed Plain Concrete.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete.
Continuously Reinforced Concrete.
Prestressed Concrete.
Long-Life Concrete.
Pervious Concrete.
Precast Concrete.

2-12
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Roller Compacted Concrete.

Two-lift Concrete.

a. Contraction joints.

b. Construction joints.

2-13
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

c. Isolation joints.

Figure 2-7. Concrete pavement joints ( ACPA 2010).

Brief descriptions of these concrete pavement designs are provided in the sections below.

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements

Jointed plain concrete pavements (JPCP) are by far the most common concrete pavement type
being constructed today (Hoerner et al. 2001). As illustrated in Figure 2-8, these pavements
consist of nonreinforced concrete slabs that are typically 12 to 14 ft wide and 15 ft long (i.e.,
transverse joints spaced at regular intervals of 15 ft). Slab thickness typically ranges from 6 to 8
in. for low-volume roads to 10 to 13 in. for high-volume, heavily loaded routes. Transverse
joints are typically sawed into JPCP to create a weakened plane to control the crack location
within the slab. The contraction joints may either be left undoweled such that load transfer is
provided solely through aggregate interlock or they may be fitted with a series of dowel bars
(typically, 1 to 1.5 in. diameter and spaced at 12-in. intervals) to provide positive load transfer
from one slab to the next. Undoweled JPCP pavements are usually most appropriate on low-
volume roads, whereas doweled JPCP pavements are recommended for use on moderate- to
high-volume roads. Typically no dowels are used when thickness is less than 8 in. Slabs in
adjacent lanes or shoulders are normally tied together across longitudinal joints using tie bars.
However, to minimize the potential of longitudinal cracking, industry guidance suggests that no
more than 48 ft of concrete pavement width be tied together (ACPA 1997).
3.7 to 6.1 m (typ.) 3.7 to 6.1 m (typ.)
1520
12 (12
to ftto(typ.)
ft20(typ.)
ft) 1520
12 (12
to ftto(typ.)
ft20(typ.)
ft)

Longitudinal Joint
Transverse Joints (with tiebars)
(with or without dowels)
Figure 2-8. Schematic of a JPCP pavement design (Hoerner et al. 2001).

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements

Jointed reinforced concrete pavements (JRCP) were commonly constructed in the 1960s and
1970s (mostly in the midwestern states), but are no longer constructed due to long-term

2-14
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

performance problems (Hoerner et al. 2001; ARA 2004). As Figure 2-9 illustrates, JRCP
pavements employ both steel reinforcement (smooth or deformed welded wire fabric or
deformed steel bars) and contraction joints to control slab cracking. Slab thickness typically
ranged from 7 to 10 in. Steel reinforcement contents in JRCP are lower than in CRCP, typically
around 0.2 to 0.3 percent of the cross-sectional area. Also, contraction joint spacings in JRCP
are longer than those in JPCP, typically between 30 and 40 ft. Dowel bars are typically used at
the transverse joints to assist in load transfer.
7.6 to 18.3 m (typ)
30(25
to 40 ft (typ.)
to 60 ft)

Welded Wire
Fabric Reinforcing

Transverse Joints Longitudinal Joint

(with dowels) (with tiebars)
Figure 2-9. Schematic of a JRC pavement design (Hoerner et al. 2001).
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP) are routinely constructed by six state
highway agencies, most notably on high-volume, urban roadways (Hoerner et al. 2001). As
shown in Figure 2-, these pavements utilize continuous reinforcing steel bars (typically, #5 or #6
deformed bars) in the longitudinal direction to both induce the formation of closely spaced (3 to
8 ft) transverse cracks and to keep those cracks held tightly together. Although the steel provides
some additional stiffness, it is not intended to contribute to the load-carrying capacity of the
pavement. The longitudinal reinforcing bars are located near mid-depth to the upper third in the
slab and typically constitute 0.6 to 0.8 percent of the cross-sectional area. As with JPCP
pavements, tie bars are normally used across longitudinal lane-lane and lane-shoulder joints.
Depending on the projected traffic loadings, slab thickness typically ranges between 9 and 14 in.

2-15
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Continuous Longitudinal
Reinforcement
(Deformed Bars)
Typical Crack Spacing
(0.9
(3to
to2.4
8 ft)m)
(3 to 8 ft)
Longitudinal Joint
(with tiebars)
Figure 2-10. Schematic of a CRC pavement design (Hoerner et al. 2001).
Prestressed Concrete Pavements
Prestressed concrete pavements (PSCP) are similar to CRCP pavements, except that the
longitudinal reinforcement consists of continuous steel strands that are prestressed prior to
placing the concrete (or post-tensioned after the concrete has hardened) (Christopher et al. 2006).
The initial tensile stress in the reinforcement reduces the tensile stress in the concrete caused by
traffic loads and thermal forces, thereby decreasing the required concrete thickness. Prestressed
concrete pavements have not seen widespread use in highway pavements.

Long-Life Concrete Pavements

A number of state highway agencies (e.g., Illinois, Minnesota, Texas, Washington State) have
identified in-service concrete pavements (both JPCP and CRCP) that have exceeded their
original design lives. Currently, many states are designing concrete pavements for service lives
of 40 or more years (FHWA 2007). Tayabji and Lim (2006) have identified the following
characteristics for a long-life concrete pavement:

Service life of 40 or more years.

No premature construction or material-related distress.
Reduced potential for cracking, faulting, and spalling.
Maintain desirable ride and surface texture characteristics with minimal intervention
activities, for ride and texture, joint resealing, and minor repairs (when warranted).

The ability to achieve even longer-life concrete pavements does not require any new technology
or materials and can be designed and constructed with currently available practices and
procedures (FHWA 2007). The states that have demonstrated long-life concrete pavements have
done so through proper design procedures, material selection, and quality construction practices.
Procedures and practices for obtaining long-life concrete pavements include:

Materials and mix design Include high-quality, durable aggregates, combined optimized
aggregate gradation, hydraulic cement plus pozzolans or slag cement for durability,

2-16
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

minimum cementitious content (e.g. 500 lb/yd3), effective air-void system for
environment, and a maximum water-cementitious material ratio (w-c) of 0.45.
Structural design Design a sufficient slab thickness to carry anticipated loading over the
entire design period. Based on a summary of international and state highway practices,
typical slab thickness for long-life concrete pavements range from 8 to 13 in. (Tayabji
and Lim 2007; Hall et al. 2007) and for lower volume roads, a minimum thickness of 5
in. is recommended (ACPA 2006). For moderate to heavy truck traffic, in excess of 650
trucks per day in the design lane, the use of a lean concrete base (LCB), cement-treated
base (CTB), or asphalt-treated base (ATB) should also be included.
Joint design Using a short joint spacing of 15 ft or less has been shown to work well for
most highway type pavements, although this does depend on slab thickness (e.g., thinner
slabs may need to have shorter joint spacing). If joints are sealed, use a high quality
sealant that will result in longer resealing cycles. When dowel bars are required
(typically for slabs greater than 8 in.), use corrosion resistant dowel bars.
Edge treatments Construct a widened lane (slab paved 1 to 3 ft wider yet striped at 12-
ft) to reduce critical edge and corner stresses and deflections. Incorporating a tied
concrete shoulder is another method of reducing edge stresses and deflections while also
reducing moisture infiltration at the lane-shoulder joint and also serving as an emergency
or future traffic lane. The benefits of edge stress reduction is also obtained with tied
concrete curb and gutter, typical of urban applications. Many agencies construct asphalt
shoulders on concrete pavements. To reduction of edge stresses and deflections is
realized.
Construction practices Ensure uniform production, delivery, placement, and
consolidation of the concrete mixture. Ensure embedded steel, if included, is effectively
placed (properly aligned and adequately consolidated). Provide effective finishing,
texturing, and curing that include minimal handwork. Conduct finishing and texturing
that provides durable, low-noise surface texture characteristics. Provide timely and
adequate curing and joint sawing. Strive to achieve high levels of initial surface
smoothness.
Maintenance treatments Over the life of the pavement provide timely maintenance
treatments (as needed); this may include joint resealing, surface texturing to maintain
rideability and frictional characteristics, and localized repairs.

Pervious Concrete Pavements

Pervious concrete pavements are open or closed pavement systems, whereby high-porosity (15 to
20 percent) concrete is used as a permeable surface layer that promotes the drainage of water into
the underlying soil (open system) or into underlying storm pipes (closed system) for roadside
discharge (Delatte et al. 2007) (see Figure 2-6). The concrete material contains the same
material components as conventional concrete (i.e., cementitious binder, aggregate, water, and
chemical admixtures), but through specific mixture proportioning maintains high porosity for
water percolation (Schaefer et al. 2010). Currently, pervious concrete is primarily used in
parking lots, shoulders, and facility access roads. However, investigations into its use on low-
volume roads, streets, and main-line shoulders are on-going.

2-17
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Pervious Concrete

Crushed Stone (optional)

Subgrade

Figure 2-6. Pervious concrete pavement cross-section.

Precast Concrete Systems

Precast concrete systems are a form of modular pavement technology, whereby pavement slabs
are fabricated offsite, transported to the project site, and installed on a prepared foundation
(FHWA 2008b; FHWA 2009). The precast slabs can be installed as intermittent panel
replacements for existing damaged slabs or in a continuous application as part of a new
construction project or long-length/large-area rehabilitation of badly deteriorated pavement (see
Figure 2-7). The precast slabs come in the form of both conventional jointed systems and
prestressed panels (fewer active joints) that are fitted with dowels and slots for panel connections
and load transfer functionality.

Figure 2-7. Continuous application of precast concrete slabs (Buch 2007)

2-18
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Two-Lift Concrete
Because of diminishing sources of quality aggregate, and driven by increased knowledge in
material use and behavior, advancements in construction equipment, and increased demands for
pavement surfaces that are durable, safe, and result in lower tire-pavement noise characteristics,
the use of two-lift concrete paving has gained increased use both nationally and internationally
(Cable 2004). Two-lift concrete is an engineered system in which a thin (generally 3 in.) surface
layer constructed with durable, higher quality aggregates is placed over a thicker (generally 9 in.)
bottom layer constructed with locally available aggregates. The result is then a surface with
strong durability and that exhibits improved friction and reduced noise characteristics, while the
bottom layer possesses sufficient strength to meet fatigue design requirements. To produce
monolithic behavior, the two layers are placed within a relatively short time period of each other,
generally within 60 minutes, when the concrete of the two layers is still considered to be wet
(also referred to as wet on wet).

There are a number of benefits to two-lift concrete pavements (Cable 2004):

Economically viable where the availability of high-quality aggregate is limited.

Renewable surface layer.
Wear resistant, durable, surface layer that can address noise and friction requirements.
Additional information on two-lift concrete can be found at the National Concrete Pavement
Technology Center.

Roller Compacted Concrete

Roller compacted concrete (RCC) is a stiff, zero-slump concrete mixture that is placed with
conventional or high-density asphalt paving equipment and then compacted with vibratory
rollers. Its low water-cement ratio results in a drier mix than conventional concrete; a mix that
can be placed quickly without forms, dowels, steel reinforcement, and finishing, and one that is
capable of generating higher strengths than conventional concrete. The surface qualities of RCC,
such as smoothness, surface texture and uniformity, and aesthetics, are lower than conventional
concrete.

RCC was originally used in the construction of pavements for container ports and commercial
facilities, but more recently has been used for base layers and shoulders. In addition, RCC is
being used in new construction or mill-and-inlay for local roads and streets, and for fast-track
construction for high-volume intersections.

Composite Pavements
HMA over concrete composite pavements take one of two formsan HMA overlay placed on an
existing concrete pavement or a newly constructed pavement consisting of an HMA surface
placed on a concrete base (Flintsch et al., 2008). Each is described separately below.

Overlay Compositealthough thin (1 to 1.5 in.) HMA overlays (and various asphalt
surface treatments) have been placed on existing concrete, typically the HMA overlay is
between 2 and 5 in. thick (thicker surfaces are possible with accumulated overlays).

2-19
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Dense-, open-, and gap-graded HMA mixtures are used to satisfy the structural and
functional requirements.
All types of concrete pavement (JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP) can be overlaid with HMA
mixtures. Overlay performance on jointed concrete pavements is generally governed by
reflection cracking from underlying joints and cracks, whereas performance on CRCP is
usually governed by the underlying CRCP support conditions. To combat reflection
cracking, stress-absorbing interlayers or overlay reinforcement materials (e.g., paving
fabrics, geogrids) are often installed with the overlay. Alternatively, the overlay may be
saw cut at the known location of joints. Where drainage in the existing pavement is an
issue, a longitudinal edge drain system is typically installed with the overlay. Pumping of
the existing jointed concrete must be mitigated prior to placing a flexible overlay.
New Compositehistorically, the placement of a new HMA or concrete layer over a new
concrete pavement has been relatively rare. However, as part of SHRP 2 R21 Composite
Pavement Systems, the design and construction of new composite pavements is being
investigated. Specifically, this project is investigating two composite pavement systems
an asphalt layer(s) over a concrete layer and a concrete surface over a concrete layer (wet
on wet). The objective of the SHRP 2 R21 project is to determine the critical material
and performance parameters, develop construction specifications and techniques, and
develop and validate pavement performance models consistent with the MEPDG.
Additionally, concrete overlays of asphalt are another major form of composite pavement.
Bonded thin concrete overlays of existing flexible pavement may consist of 4 to 6 or more inches
of concrete with joints cut at 4-6 feet both longitudinally and transversely.

Aggregate-Surfaced Roads
Aggregate-surfaced roads are typically designed and constructed to a depth of between 5 and 12
in., depending primarily on the projected traffic and subgrade characteristics. In weak soil
situations, stabilization of the soil or use of a geosynthetic fabric can be done to reduce the
granular layer thickness.

A variety of aggregates are available for use in aggregate-surfaced pavements, including gravels,
crushed gravels, crushed stone, and asphalt cold millings (i.e., reclaimed asphalt pavement
[RAP]). Requirements for these materials vary, but generally virgin aggregates are
recommended to consist of a blend of well graded coarse aggregate (0.25 to 2 in. size), sand, and
fine-grained soils. The blending allows material compaction to form a hard, durable surface
crust to carry the load and minimize water infiltration.

2-20
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

References
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). 1993.
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.

American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA). 2006. Design of Concrete Pavement for
Streets and Roads. IS184.03P. American Concrete Pavement Association, Skokie, IL.

American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA). 1997. Concrete Intersections, A Guide for
Design and Construction. TB019P. American Concrete Pavement Association, Skokie, IL.

American Concrete Pavement Association. 2010. Joints. Available online at:

http://www.pavement.com/Concrete_Pavement/Technical/Fundamentals/Joints.asp.

Applied Research Associates, Inc. (ARA). 2004. Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical Design of
New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Washington, DC. Used by permission ARA and
AASHTO. Available online at: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/archive/mepdg/guide.htm.

Buch, N. 2007. Precast Concrete Panel Systems for Full-Depth Pavement Repairs: Field
Trials. FHWA-HIF-07-019. Federal Highway Administration, Washington DC. Available
online at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/pubs/hif07019/07019.pdf.

Christopher, B. R., C. Schwartz, and R. Boudreau. 2006. Geotechnical Aspects of Pavements.

Reference Manual for National Highway Institute (NHI) Course No. 132040. Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC. Available online at:
www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/geotech/pubs/05037.

Delatte, N., D. Miller, and A. Mrkajic. 2007. Portland Cement Pervious Concrete Pavement:
Field Performance Investigation on Parking Lot and Roadway Pavements, Final Report. Ready
Mixed Concrete (RMC) Research and Education Foundation, Silver Springs, MD. Available
online at: www.rmc-foundation.org/images/Long%20Term%20Field%20Performance
%20of%20Pervious%20Final%20Report.pdf.

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2007. Long-Life Concrete Pavements: Best

Practices and Directions from the States. FHWA-HIF-07-030. Federal Highway
Administration, Washington DC. Available online at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/
concrete/pubs/07030/07030.pdf.

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2008a. Highway Statistics 2008. Federal Highway
Administration, Washington DC. Available online at www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation
/statistics/2008.

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2008b. Precast Concrete Panels for Repair and
Rehabilitation of Jointed Concrete Pavements. FHWA-IF-09-003. Federal Highway
Administration, Washington DC. Available online at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/
concrete/pubs/if09003/if09003.pdf.

2-21
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2009. Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement for
Reconstruction and Rehabilitation of Existing Pavements. FHWA-HIF-09-008. Federal
Highway Administration, Washington DC.

Federal Ministry of Transportation (FMT). 1989. Guidelines for the Standardization of the
Upper Structure of Traffic Bearing Surfaces. RS+O 86. Federal Ministry of Transportation,
Bonn, Germany.

Flexible Pavements of Ohio (FPO). 2008. Porous Asphalt Pavement. Technical Bulletin.
Flexible Pavements of Ohio, Dublin, OH.

Flintsch, G. W., B. K. Diefenderfer, and O. Nunez. 2008. Composite Pavement Systems:

Synthesis of Design and Construction Practices. FHWA/VTRC 09-CR2. Virginia Department
of Transportation, Blacksburg, VA. Available online at: http://www.virginiadot.org/vtrc/
main/online_reports/pdf/09-cr2.pdf.

Hall, K., D. Dawood, S. Vanikar, R. Tally, T. Cackler, A. Correa, P. Deem, J. Duit, G. Geary, A.
Gisi, A. Hanna, S. Kosmatka, R. Rasmussen, S. Tayabji, and G. Voight. 2007. Long-Life
Concrete Pavements in Europe and Canada. FHWA-PL-07-027. Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC. Available online at: http://www.pavement.com/Downloads/
LLCP.pdf.

Hoerner, T. E., K. D. Smith, H. T. Yu, D. G. Peshkin, and M. J. Wade. 2001. PCC Pavement
Evaluation and Rehabilitation. Reference Manual for National Highway Institute (NHI) Course
No. 131062. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.

Huang, Y. H. 1993. Pavement Analysis and Design. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Iowa Local Technical Assistance Program (Iowa LTAP). 2007. Popcorn Ball Pavement:
Pervious Concrete and Porous Asphalt. Technology News. January-February 2007. Iowa State
University, Ames, IA. Available online at: http://www.intrans.iastate.edu/ltap/tech_news
/2007/jan-feb/pervious_pavement.pdf.

Kannemeyer, L., B. D. Perrie, P. J. Strauss, and L. du Plessis. 2007. Ultra-Thin CRCP:

Modelling, Testing under Accelerated Pavement Testing and Field Application for Roads.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Available online at:
http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/1320/1/Kannemeyer_2007.pdf.

Laboratoire Central de Ponts et Chasses and Service DEtudes Techniques des Route et
Antoroutes (LCPC). 1992. Realisation des Remblais et des Couches de Forme. Ministere de
lEquipment du Logement des Transports, Paris, France.

Mahoney, J. P. 2001. Study of Long-Lasting Pavements in Washington State. Transportation

Research Circular 503: Perpetual Bituminous Pavements. Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC. Available online at: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/circulars/
circular_503.pdf.

2-22
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). 2001. HMA Pavement Mix Type Selection
Guide. Information Series 128. NAPA (Lanham, MD) and Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC. Available online at: http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/010117.pdf.

National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). 2008. Porous Asphalt Pavements for
Stormwater Management. Information Series 131. National Asphalt Pavement Association,
Lanham, MD.

Newcomb, D. E. 2002. APA 101: Perpetual Pavements: A Synthesis. Asphalt Pavement

Alliance, Lanham, MD, 2002.

Newcomb, D. E., R. Willis, and D. H. Timm. 2010. Perpetual Asphalt Pavements: A Synthesis.
Publication No. IM-40. Asphalt Pavement Alliance, Lanham, MD. Available online at:
http://www.asphaltroads.org/documents/Perpetual_Pavement_Synthesis.pdf.

Nunn, M. 1997b. Long-life Flexible Roads. Proceedings, 8th International Conference on

Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 1. University of Washington, Seattle, WA.

Nunn, M., A. Brown, D. Weston, and J. C. Nicholls. 1997a. Design of Long-Life Roads for
Heavy Traffic. Report No. 250. Transportation Research Laboratory, Berkshire, United
Kingdom.

Pavementinteractive.org. 2010. HMA Pavement. Pavement Interactive.

Prowell, B. D., E. R. Brown, R. M. Anderson, J. S. Daniel, A. K. Swamy, H. Von Quintus, S.

Shen, S. H. Carpenter, S. Bhattacharjee, and S. Maghsoodloo. 2010. Validating the Fatigue
Endurance Limit for Hot Mix Asphalt. NCHRP Report 646. Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC. Available online at: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/
nchrp_rpt_646.pdf.

Schaefer, V. R., J. T. Kevern, B. Izevbekhai, K. Wang, H. E. Cutler, and P. Wiegand. 2010.

Construction and Performance of the Pervious Concrete Overlay at MnROAD. 89th Annual
Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Transportation Research Board, Washington,
DC.

Siddique, Z., M. Hossain, and J. J. Devore. 2004. Investigation of the Effect of Curling on As-
Constructed Smoothness and Ride Quality of KDOT Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)
Pavements. K-TRAN: KSU-01-7. Kansas Department of Transportation, Topeka, KS.
Available online at: http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/24000/24600/24688/KSU01-7.pdf.

Steyn, WJvdM, Strauss, P. J., Perrie, B. D., L. du Plessis. 2005. Roodekrans Trial Sections:
The Role of Structural Support under Very Thin Jointed CRC Pavements Subjected to Heavy
Traffic. 8th International Conference on Concrete Pavements. International Society for
Concrete Pavements, Colorado Springs, CO. Available online at:
http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/1413/1/Steyn_2005.pdf.

2-23
Handbook for Pavement Design, Construction and Management Pavement Types

Tayabji, S. and S. Lim. 2006. Proceedings, International Conference on Long-Life Concrete

Pavements. Chicago, IL, October 25-27, 2006. Federal Highway Administration, Washington
DC.

Tayabji, S. and S. Lim. 2007. Long-Life Concrete Pavements: Best Practices and Directions
from the States. Concrete Pavement Technology Program TechBrief, FHWA-HIF-07-030.
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.

Transportation Association of Canada (TAC). 1997. Pavement Design and Management Guide.
Transportation Association of Canada, Ottawa, Canada.

Willoughby, K. A., J. P. Mahoney, L. M. Pierce, J. S. Uhlmeyer, and K. W. Anderson. 2002.

Temperature and Density Differentials in Asphalt Concrete Pavement. Proceedings, 9th
International Conference on Asphalt Pavements. International Society for Asphalt Pavements,
Copenhagen, Denmark. CD-ROM.

2-24