Chapter 3 Mathematical Modeling LNotes

Automatic Control Systems
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

King Khalid University
College of Computer Sciences
Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems
By
Dr. Mehrez Marzougui
Department of Computer Engineering
September 2016
2
Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

Contents
3 Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems 5

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 Block Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4 Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Block Diagram Simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1 Block Diagrams Simplifications Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.4 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2.5 Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.6 Example 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2.7 Example 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2.8 Example 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5 Signal Flow Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Properties of Signal Flow Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 Signal Flow Graph Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4 Signal Flow Graphs of Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.5 Masons Gain Formula for Signal Flow Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.1 Masons Gain Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.6.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.6.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.6.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.6.4 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.6.5 Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.6.6 Example 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.6.7 Example 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6 System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.1 Rouths Stability Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.1.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.1.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.2 Special cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.3 Application of Rouths Stability Criterion to Control System Analysis . . . . . . . 35
6.3.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.3.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.3.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3
4 CONTENTS

Chapter Mathematical Modeling of Control
3 Systems
1 Introduction
A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations that represents the dynamics of
the system. A mathematical model is not unique to a given system. A system may be represented in many
different ways and, therefore, may have many mathematical models, depending on ones perspective.
A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies. The principle of superposition states
that the response produced by the simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is the sum
of the two individual responses. Hence, for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be
calculated by treating one input at a time and adding the results.
A system is usually described by a differential equation that relates inputs to the outputs. A differential
equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent variable. Dynamic
systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-parameter components may be described by
linear time-invariant (constant coefficient) differential equations. Such systems are called linear time-
invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems.
2 Transfer Function
The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving
function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following differential equation:
dn c(t) dn1 c(t) dc(t)
a0 n
+ a 1 n1
+ ... + an1 + an c(t) =
dt dt dt
dm r(t) dm1 r(t) dr(t)
b0 + b1 + ... + bm1 + bm r(t), nm
dtm dtm1 dt
where c(t) is the output of the system and r(t) is the input.
The transfer function of this system is the ratio of the Laplace transformed output to the Laplace
transformed input when all initial conditions are zero, or

L [c(t)]
H(s) =
L [r(t)] zero initial conditions
C(s) b0 sm + b1 sm1 + ... + bm
=
R(s) a0 s + a1 sn1 + ... + an1 + an
n
The highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function define the order of the system. If
the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the system is called an
nth-order system.
The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an operational method of expressing
the differential equation that relates the output variable to the input variable. It is a property of a system
itself, independent of the magnitude and nature of the input or driving function.
3 Block Diagrams
A control system may consist of a number of components. A block diagram of a system is a pictorial
representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram
depicts the inter relationships that exist among the various components and involves three basic symbols:
5
6 Chapter 3 Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems
The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal
to the block that produces the output. The transfer functions of the components are usually entered
in the corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of the flow of
signals.
G(s)
a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing operation. The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead
indicates whether that signal is to be added or subtracted. It is important that the quantities being
added or subtracted have the same dimensions and the same units.
a a+b a ab
+ +
+
b b
A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or
summing points.
3.1 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System
The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with the reference input R(s).
The output of the block, C(s) in this case, is obtained by multiplying the transfer function G(s) by the
input to the block, (s). Any linear control system may be represented by a block diagram consisting of
blocks, summing points, and branch points.
When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is necessary to
convert the form of the output signal to that of the input signal. The role of the feedback element is to
modify the output before it is compared with the input. This conversion is accomplished by the feedback
element (sensor) whose transfer function is H(s).
R(s) C(s)
+ G(s)

B(s)
H(s)
3.2 Transfer Function
The ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error signal (s) is called the open-loop
transfer function (OLTF). That is,
B(s)
OLTF= = G(s)H(s)
(s)
The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal (s) is called the feedforward transfer
function, so that
C(s)
FTF= = G(s)
(s)
If the feedback transfer function H(s) is unity, then the open-loop transfer function and the feed-
forward transfer function are the same.

3. Block Diagrams 7
The ratio of the output C(s) to the input R(s) is called Closed-Loop Transfer Function CLTF, so
that
C(s) G(s)
CLTF= =
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
in fact,
C(s) = G(s)(s), (s) = R(s) B(s) = R(s) H(s)C(s)
Eliminating (s) from these equations gives C(s) = G(s) [R(s) H(s)C(s)]
or
C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
This is often called Black formula.
3.3 Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram
The general method of constructing block diagrams of a linear linear, time-invariant system consists of
three main steps:
1. First write the equations that describe the dynamic behavior of each component,
2. Then take the Laplace transforms of these equations, assuming zero initial conditions, and represent
each Laplace-transformed equation individually in block form,
3. Finally, assemble the elements into a complete block diagram.
As an example, consider the RC circuit:
R
i
vi (t) C vo (t)
i
The equations for this circuit are :
vi (t) vo (t) 1
Z
i= , vo (t) = idt
R C
The Laplace transforms of these equations, with zero initial condition, become:
Vi (s) Vo (s) 1 I(s)

I(s) = = (Vi (s) Vo (s)) , Vo (s) =
R R Cs
The expression of I(s) represents a summing operation. Expression Vo (s) of I(s) is represented by
1
a simple block with transfer function .
Cs
Assembling these two elements, we obtain the overall block diagram for the system.

Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s)

+
R
I(s) 1 Vo (s)
Vo (s)
Cs
(c) (d)
Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s) 1 Vo (s)
+
R Cs
(e)
Vo (s) 1
The transfer function is = where = RC.
Vi (s) 1 + s
Consider the RL circuit .
R
i
uR
vi (t) uL L vo (t)
The equations for this circuit are:

vi (t) = uR (t) + uL (t)
di
vi (t) = Ri + L
dt
di
L = vo (t)
dt
These equations provide a mathematical model for the circuit.
A mathematical model for the transfer function of the circuit can be obtained by applying the Laplace
transform to the preceding equations, assuming zero initial conditions.
Vi (s) = RI(s) + LsI(s)
LsI(s) = Vo (s)
1
I(s) = (Vi (s) Vo (s))
R
a simple block with transfer function Ls.
Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s)

+
R
I(s) Vo (s)
Vo (s) Ls
(f) (g)

3. Block Diagrams 9
Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s) Vo (s)

+ Ls
R
The transfer function is

Vo (s) Ls
=
Vi (s) R + Ls
Consider the RLC circuit :
R L
i i
uR uL
vi (t) C vo (t)
i
The equations for this circuit are:

1
Z
di
L + Ri + idt = vi (t)
dt C
1
Z
idt = vo (t)
C
These equations provide a mathematical model for the circuit.
A mathematical model for the transfer function of the circuit can be obtained by applying the Laplace
transform to the preceding equations, assuming zero initial conditions.
11
LsI(s) + RI(s) + I(s) = Vi (s)
Cs
11
I(s) = Vo (s)
Cs
1
I(s) = (Vi (s) Vo (s))
Ls + R
1
a simple block with transfer function .
Cs
Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s)

+
Ls + R
I(s) 1 Vo (s)
Vo (s)
Cs
(h) (i)
Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s) 1 Vo (s)
+
Ls + R Cs

The transfer function is

Vo (s) 1
=
Vi (s) 1 + RCs + LCs2
3.4 Electrical Systems
Basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoffs current law and voltage law. Kirchhoffs current
law (node law) states that the algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a node is zero. (This law
can also be stated as follows: The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the same node.) Kirchhoffs voltage law (loop law) states that at any given instant the algebraic sum of
the voltages around any loop in an electrical circuit is zero. (This law can also be stated as follows: The
sum of the voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around a loop.) A mathematical model
of an electrical circuit can be obtained by applying one or both of Kirchhoffs laws to it.
In deriving transfer functions for electrical circuits, we frequently find it convenient to write the Laplace-
transformed equations directly, without writing the differential equations. If the two-terminal elements
1
is a resistance R, capacitance C, or inductance L, then the complex impedance is given by R, , or
Cs
Ls, respectively. The complex impedance Z(s) of a two-terminal circuit is the ratio of E(s), the Laplace
transform of the voltage across the terminals, to I(s), the Laplace transform of the current through the
E(s)
element, under the assumption that the initial conditions are zero, so that Z(s) = .
I(s)
Consider the RC system shown in figure 3.1a. In this system, impedances R and C are replaced by
1
complex impedances Z1 , and Z2 where Z1 = R and Z2 = as shown in figure 3.1b.
Cs
R Z1
i I(s)
r(t) C c(t) R(s) Z2 C(s)

i
(a) Electrical RC circuit (b) Equivalent Electrical RC circuit

Figure 3.1. RC Circuit
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the system, we obtain the following equations:
R(s) = Z1 I(s) + Z2 I(s) = [Z1 + Z2 ] I(s)
C(s) = Z2 I(s)
We obtain the transfer function:
1
C(s) Z2 I(s) Z2 Cs 1
= = = 1 = 1 + RCs
R(s) (Z1 + Z2 )I(s) Z1 + Z2 R + Cs
Consider the RL system shown in figure 3.2a. In this system, impedances R and L are replaced by
complex impedances Z1 , and Z2 where Z1 = R and Z2 = Ls as shown in figure 3.2b.

4. Block Diagram Simplifications 11
R Z1
i I(s)
r(t) L c(t) R(s) Z2 C(s)
(a) Electrical RC circuit (b) Equivalent Electrical RC circuit

Figure 3.2. RL Circuit
R(s) = Z1 I(s) + Z2 I(s) = [Z1 + Z2 ] I(s)
C(s) = Z2 I(s)

C(s) Z2 I(s) Z2 Ls
= = =
R(s) (Z1 + Z2 )I(s) Z1 + Z2 R + Ls
Consider the RLC system shown in figure 3.3a. In this system, impedances R, C and L are replaced by
1
complex impedances Z1 , Z2 and Z3 where Z1 = R, Z2 = Ls and Z3 = as shown in figure 3.3b.
Cs
R L Z1 Z2
i i I(s) I(s)
uR uL
r(t) C c(t) R(s) Z3 C(s)
i
I(s)
(a) Electrical RC circuit (b) Equivalent Electrical RLC circuit

Figure 3.3. RLC Circuit
R(s) = Z1 I(s) + Z2 I(s) + Z3 I(s) = [Z1 + Z2 + +Z3 ] I(s)
C(s) = Z3 I(s)

1
C(s) Z3 I(s) Z3 Cs 1
= = = 1 =
R(s) (Z1 + Z2 + +Z3 )I(s) Z1 + Z2 + Z3 R + Ls + Cs
1 + RCs + LCs2
4 Block Diagram Simplifications

It is important to note that blocks can be connected in series only if the output of one block is not affected
by the next following block. If there are any loading effects between the components, it is necessary to
combine these components into a single block. Any number of cascaded blocks representing nonloading
components can be replaced by a single block, the transfer function of which is simply the product of the
individual transfer functions.

A complicated block diagram involving many feedback loops can be simplified by a step-by-step rear-
rangement. Simplification of the block diagram by rearrangements considerably reduces the labor needed
for subsequent mathematical analysis.
In simplifying a block diagram, remember the following.
1. The product of the transfer functions in the feedforward direction must remain the same.
2. The product of the transfer functions around the loop must remain the same.
It should be noted, however, that as the block diagram is simplified the transfer functions in new blocks
become more complex because new poles and new zeros are generated.
4.1 Block Diagrams Simplifications Rules
Combining blocks in cascade
R(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)

G1 (s) G2 (s) G1 (s)G2 (s)
Combining blocks in parallel or eliminating forward loop
R(s)
G1 (s)
+ C(s)
+
R(s) C(s)
G2 (s) G1 (s) + G2 (s)
Eliminating feedback loop
R(s) C(s)
+ G1 (s)

R(s) G1 (s) C(s)

G2 (s)
1 + G1 (s)G2 (s)
Transformation comparator summing point
R1 (s) C(s)
+
R1 (s) C(s) +
+

R2 (s) 1
R2 (s)
Moving a summing point after a block
R1 (s) C(s)
R1 (s) C(s) G(s) +
+
+ G
+
R2 (s)
R2 (s) G(s)

Moving a summing point ahead of a block
R1 (s) C(s)
R1 (s) C(s) + G(s)
+
G(s) +
+
R2 (s) 1
R2 (s)
G(s)
Moving a branch point after a block
R(s) C(s)
R(s) C(s) G(s)
G(s)
1 R(s)
R(s) G(s)
Moving a branch point ahead of a block
R(s) C(s)
R(s) C(s) G(s)
G(s)
C(s)
C(s) G(s)
Permutation of summing points
R1 (s) C(s) R1 (s) C(s)

+ + + +
+ + + +
R2 (s) R3 (s) R3 (s) R2 (s)
4.2 Examples
4.2.1 Example 1
Simplify the block diagram shown in the following figure. Then, obtain the closed-loop transfer function
C(s)
.
R(s)
R(s) C(s)
+ + G1 + G2

H1 H2
H3

First, group blocks G1 and H1 in one simple block and also group blocks G2 and H2 in one simple
block .
R(s) G1 G2 C(s)
+
1 + G1 H1 1 + G2 H2
H3
Combining the blocks in series, we get
R(s) G1 G2 C(s)
+
(1 + G1 H1 )(1 + G2 H2 )
H3
Eliminating the feed back path, we get
G1 G2
R(s) (1+G1 H1 )(1+G2 H2 ) C(s)
1 + (1+G1 HG11)(1+G
G2
2 H2 )
H3
The closed loop transfer function is:
C(s) G1 G2
TF = =
R(s) (1 + G1 H1 )(1 + G2 H2 ) + G1 G2 H3
4.2.2 Example 2
C(s)
.
R(s)
H3
R(s) T1 C(s)
+ G1 + + G2 G3

H2
H1
Shifting the branch point beyond the block G3 we get:
H3
R(s) C(s)
+ G1 + + G2 G3

H2
G3
H1
G3

Combining G2 and G3 and eliminating H3 (feed back loop), we get
R(s) G2 G3 C(s)
+ G1 +
1 + G2 G3 H3
H2
G3
H1
G3
H2
Eliminating the feed back path , we get
G3
G2 G3
R(s) 1+G2 G3 H3 C(s)
+ G1 G2 G3 H2
1+ 1+G2 G3 H3 . G3
H1
G3
Combining all the three blocks, we get
R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)
1 + G2 G3 H3 + G2 H2 + G1 G2 H1
C(s) G1 G2 G3
The closed loop transfer function is: T F = =
R(s) 1 + G2 G3 H3 + G2 H2 + G1 G2 H1
4.2.3 Example 3
C(s)
R(s)
R(s) C(s)
+ + G1 + G2

H1 H2
H3
Re-arranging the block diagram, we get:
R(s) C(s)
+ + G1 + G2

H2
H3
H1 H2

Eliminating H2 loop and combining, we get
R(s) G1 G2 C(s)
+ +
1 + G2 H2
H3
H1 H2
Eliminating the feed back path H3 , we get
R(s) G1 G2 C(s)
+
1 + G2 H2 + G1 G2 H3
H1 H2
Eliminating feed back loop H1 H2 , we get
R(s) G1 G2 C(s)
1 + G2 H2 + G1 G2 H3 + G1 G2 H1 H2
C(s) G1 G2
TF = =
R(s) 1 + G2 H2 + G1 G2 H3 + G1 G2 H1 H2
4.2.4 Example 4
C(s)
R(s)
H3
R(s) + C(s)
+ G1 + G2 + G3 G4

H1 H2
First move the branch point between G3 and G4 to the right-hand side of the loop containing G3 ,
G4 , and H2 . Then move the summing point between G1 and G2 to the left-hand side of the first
summing point.

1 H3
G1 G4
R(s) + C(s)
+ + G1 G2 + G3 G4

H1 H2
By simplifying each loop, the block diagram can be modified as shown in following figure:
H3
G1 G4
R(s) + G1 G2 G3 G4 C(s)
+
1 + G1 G2 H1 1 + G3 G4 H2
The Open Loop Transfer Function is :

G1 G2 G3 G4 H3
OLTF =
1 + G1 G2 H1 1 + G3 G4 H2 G1 G4
C(s)
Further simplification, the closed-loop transfer function is obtained as :
R(s)
R(s) G1 G2 G3 G4 C(s)
1 + G1 G2 H1 + G3 G4 H2 G2 G3 H3 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H1 H2
C(s) G1 G2 G3 G4
=
R(s) 1 + G1 G2 H1 + G3 G4 H2 G2 G3 H3 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H1 H2
4.2.5 Example 5
C(s)
.
R(s)
H2
R(s) C(s)
+ + G1 + G2 G3
+
H1
First move the summing point between G1 and G2 to the left-hand side of the second summing
point. The block diagram can be modified as shown in following figure :

H2
G1
R(s) C(s)
+ + + G1 G2 G3
+
H1
Eliminating the feed back path H1 and combining, we get
H2
G1
R(s) G1 G2 C(s)
+ + G3
1 G1 G2 H1
H2
Combining blocks in cascade and eliminating feed back loop , we get
G1
R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)
+
1 G1 G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2
G1 G2 G3
CLT F =
1 G1 G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3
4.2.6 Example 6
C(s)
R(s)
R(s) 1 1 C(s)
+ K
s+a s
+
+ s2
0.1
1
First move the branch point between and K to the right-hand side of the of the block K. Then
s
s2
combine blocks in parallel and 0.1 :
K

R(s) 1 K C(s)
+
s+a s
s2
+ 0.1
K
Eliminating the feed back loop, we get
R(s) K
1 s
C(s)
s+a K s2
1+ (
s K + 0.1)
4.2.7 Example 7
C(s)
R(s)
G4
R(s) + C(s)
+ + G1 + G2 G3 +
+ +
H2
H1
First move the branch point containing H1 ahead of the block G2. Then combine forward blocks
(G2, G3 and G4) and move again the branch point containing H1 after this resulting block, we get
:
R(s) C(s)
+ + G1 + G4 + G2 G3
+ +
H2
H1 G2
G4 + G2 G3
Eliminating the feed back loop H2 and combining with the cascade block G1, we get
R(s) G1 (G2 G3 + G4 ) C(s)

+ +
+ 1 H2 (G2 G3 + G4 )
H1 G2
G4 + G2 G3
Eliminating the feed back loop, we get

R(s) G1 (G2 G3 + G4 ) C(s)

+
1 H2 (G2 G3 + G4 ) G1 G2 H1
The closed loop transfer function is
G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )
CLT F =
1 H2 (G2 G3 + G4 ) G1 G2 H1 + G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )
4.2.8 Example 8
C(s)
R(s)
H3
R(s) C(s)
+ G1 + + G2 G3

H2
H1
First move the two branch points containing H1 and H2 after the block G3. Then eliminate the
feedback loop H3 , we get :
R(s) G2 G3 C(s)
+ G1 +
1 + G2 G3 H3
H2
G3
H1
G3
By simplifying each loop, the block diagram can be modified as shown in following figure :
R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)
+
1 + G2 G3 H3 + G2 H2
H1
G3
The closed loop transfer function is
G1 G2 G3
CLT F =
1 + G2 G3 H3 + G2 H2 + G1 G2 H1

5. Signal Flow Graphs 21
5 Signal Flow Graphs

The block diagram is useful for graphically representing control system dynamics and is used extensively
in the analysis and design of control systems. An alternate approach for graphically representing control
system dynamics is the signal flow graph approach.
A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. When
applying the signal flow graph method to analyses of control systems, we must first transform linear
differential equations into algebraic equations in s.
A signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by directed branches. Each node
represents a system variable, and each branch connected between two nodes acts as a signal multiplier.
The direction of signal flow is indicated by an arrow placed on the branch, and the multiplication factor
is indicated along the branch. In the following example, E = R.I.
I E
Figure 3.4. Example of a signal flow graph.
5.1 Definitions
Before we discuss signal flow graphs, we must define certain terms:
Node: A node is a point representing a variable or signal. (nodes x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 ).
Transmittance: The transmittance is a real gain or complex gain between two nodes. Such gains
can be expressed in terms of the transfer function between two nodes.(gains a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i).
Branch: A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes.The gain of a branch is a transmit-
tance.
i
h
x1 a x2 b x3 c x4 d x5 e x6 1 x6
f
Figure 3.5. Example signal flow graph.
Input node or source: An input node or source is a node that has only outgoing branches (node
x1 ). This corresponds to an independent variable.
Output node or sink: An output node or sink is a node that has only incoming branches (node
x6 ). This corresponds to a dependent variable.
Mixed node: A mixed node is a node that has both incoming and outgoing branches (nodes
x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ).
Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of the branch arrows. If no node
is crossed more than once, the path is open. If the path ends at the same node from which it began
and does not cross any other node more than once, it is closed. If a path crosses some node more
than once but ends at a different node from which it began, it is neither open nor closed.
Loop: A loop is a closed path.
Loop gain: The loop gain is the product of the branch transmittances of a loop.

Nontouching loops: Loops are nontouching if they do not possess any common nodes.
Forward path: A forward path is a path from an input node (source) to an output node (sink)
that does not cross any nodes more than once.
Forward path gain: A forward path gain is the product of the branch transmittances of a forward
path.
5.2 Properties of Signal Flow Graphs.
A few important properties of signal flow graphs are as follows:
A branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal on another. A signal passes through
only in the direction specified by the arrow of the branch.
A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all outgoing branches.
A mixed node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches, may be treated as an output node
(sink) by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance (x6 ). However, we cannot change a
mixed node to a source by this method.
For a given system, a signal flow graph is not unique. Many different signal flow graphs can be
drawn for a given system by writing the system equations differently.
5.3 Signal Flow Graph Algebra
To determine the input-output relationship, we may use Masons formula, which will be given later, or
we may reduce the signal flow graph to a graph containing only input and output nodes. To accomplish
this, we use the following rules:
The value of a node with one incoming branch, as shown in the figure, is x2 = ax1 :
x1 a x2
The total transmittance of cascaded branches is equal to the product of all the branch transmit-
tances. Cascaded branches can thus be combined into a single branch by multiplying the transmit-
x1 a x2 b x3 x1 ab x3
tances:. =
Parallel branches may be combined by adding the transmittances:

a
x1 x2 x1 a+b x2
=
b
A mixed node may be eliminated:

x1 x1
a ac
c x4
=
b x3 x4 bc
x2
x2
A loop may be eliminated, as shown in follows:

ab
x1 a x2 b x3 x1 ab x3 x1 1 bc x3
= =
c
bc
In fact,
x3 = bx2 , x2 = ax1 + cx3
Hence :
ab
x3 = abx1 + bcx3 Or x3 = x1
1 bc
5.4 Signal Flow Graphs of Control Systems
Some signal flow graphs of simple control systems are shown in the next figure. For such simple graphs,
C(s)
the closed-loop transfer function can be obtained easily by inspection. For more complicated signal
R(s)
flow graphs, Masons gain formula is quite useful.
R(s) C(s) R(s) G(s) C(s)

G(s)
R(s) C(s) R(s) (s) G(s) C(s)

1
+ G(s)

H(s)
H(s)
N (s)
N (s)
R(s) R(s)
C(s)1 (s) G1 G2 C(s)
+
+ G1 (s) + G2 (s)

H(s)
H(s)

N (s)
N (s)
R(s) C(s) R(s) (s) G1 C(s)
+ 1 1
+ G1 (s) +
C(s)
H(s)
H(s)
R1 (s) S1 (s) R1 (s) G11 S1 (s)

G11 +
+
G21
G21
G12
G12
G22
R2 (s) + S2 (s) R2 (s) S2 (s)
G22 +
5.5 Masons Gain Formula for Signal Flow Graphs
5.5.1 Masons Gain Formula
Masons Formula permits to determine the relationship between an input variable and an output variable
of the signal flow graph. The transmittance between an input node and an output node is the overall
gain, or overall transmittance, between these two nodes. Masons gain formula, which is applicable to
the overall gain, is given by :
P P
Pk k Pk k
P = k = P P kP
1 i Li + i,j Li Lj i,j,k Li Lj Lk + ... ... + ....
where:
Pk = path gain or transmittance of kth forward path

= determinant of graph
1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+ (sum of gain
products of all possible combinations of two nontouching
= loops) - (sum of gain products of all possible combinations
of three nontouching loops) + . . .
X X X
= 1 Li + Li Lj Li Lj Lk + ... ... + ....
i i,j i,j,k
X
Li = sum of all individual loop gains
i
sum of gain products of all possible combinations of two
X
Li Lj =
i,j
nontouching loops
X sum of gain products of all possible combinations of three
Li Lj Lk = nontouching loops
i,j,k

cofactor of the kth forward path determinant of the graph

with the loops touching the kth forward path removed,
k =
that is, the cofactor k , is obtained from A by removing
the loops that touch path Pk
5.6 Examples
5.6.1 Example 1
Consider the system shown in next figure.
H2
R(s) + C(s)
+ + G1 + G2 G3

H1
A signal flow graph for this system is shown by the following figure. Let us obtain the closed-loop transfer
C(s)
function b y use of Masons gain formula.
R(s)
H2
R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)
1 1 1
H1
In this system there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and the output C(s). The
forward path gain is
P1 = G1 G2 G3
The signal flow graph shows that there are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are:
L1 = G1 G2 H1
L2 = G2 G3 H2
L3 = G1 G2 G3
Since all three loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching loops. Hence, the determinant
is given by
= 1 (L1 + L2 + L3 ) = 1 + G1 G2 H1 G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3
The cofactor 1 of the determinant along the forward path connecting the input node and output
node is obtained from by removing the loops that touch this path. Since path P1 touches all
three loops, we obtain 1 = 1.
Therefore, the overall gain between the input R(s) and the output C(s), or the closed-loop transfer
function, is given by
C(s) P1 1 G1 G2 G3
=P = =
R(s) 1 + G1 G2 H1 G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3

5.6.2 Example 2
Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the corresponding signal flow graph and then
C(s)
obtain the closed loop transfer function H(s) = by use of Masons gain formula.
R(s)
R(s) 1 1 C(s)
+ K
s+a s
+
+ s2
0.1
The corresponding signal flow graph is:
1 1
R(s) s + a C(s)
s K
s2
0.1
1 1 K
P1 = k=
s+as s(s + a)
there are two individual loops. The gains of these loops are:
1
L1 = .s2 = s
s
0.1K
L2 =
s
All two loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching loops. Hence, the determinant
is given by
= 1 (L1 + L2 )
0.1K
=1+s+
s
node is obtained from by removing the loops that touch this path. Since path P1 touches all two
loops, we obtain 1 = 1
K
C(s) s(s+a)
=
R(s) 1 + (s + 0.1K
s )
K
= 3
s + s2 + 0.1Ks + as2 + as + 0.1aK
1
0.1a
= a+0.1K a+1 2 1 3
1+ 0.1aK s + 0.1aK s + 0.1aK s

5.6.3 Example 3
Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the corresponding signal flow graph and then
C(s)
R(s)
G4
R(s) + C(s)
+ + G1 + G2 G3 +
+ +
H2
H1
G4
R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)
1 1 1
H1
H2
In this system, there are two forward paths between the input R(s) and the output C(s). The
forward path gains are:
P1 = G1 G2 G3
P2 = G1 G4
There are five individual loops,The gains of these loops are:
L1 = G1 G2 G3
L2 = G1 G2 H1
L3 = G2 G3 H2
L4 = G4 H2
L5 = G1 G4
All five loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching loops. Hence, the determinant
is given by
= 1 (L1 + L2 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 )
= 1 (G1 G2 G3 + G1 G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 + G4 H2 G1 G4 )
node is obtained from by removing the loops that touch this path. Since path P1 and P2 touche
all five loops, we obtain
1 = 1, 2 = 1

C(s) P1 + P2
= P
R(s) 1 i Li
G1 G2 G3 + G1 G4
=
1 (G1 G2 G3 + G1 G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 + G4 H2 G1 G4 )
G1 G2 G3 + G1 G4
=
1 + G1 G2 G3 G1 G2 H1 G2 G3 H2 G4 H2 + G1 G4
5.6.4 Example 4
Consider the system shown in the following figure. obtain the corresponding signal flow graph and then
C(s)
R(s)
H3
R(s) C(s)
+ G1 + + G2 G3

H2
H1
H3
R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)
1 1 1
H2
H1
In this system, there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and the output C(s). The
forward path gain is:
P1 = G1 G2 G3
There are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are :
L1 = G1 G2 H1 , L2 = G2 H2 , L3 = G2 G3 H3
All three loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching loops. Hence, the determinant
is given by
= 1 (L1 + L2 + L2 ) = 1 (G1 G2 H1 G2 H2 G2 G3 H3 )
three loops, we obtain 1 = 1

C(s) P1
= P
R(s) 1 i Li
G1 G2 G3
=
1 (G1 G2 H1 G2 H2 G2 G3 H3 )
G1 G2 G3
=
1 + G1 G2 H1 + G2 H2 + G2 G3 H3
5.6.5 Example 5
C(s)
Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the closed-loop transfer function by use
R(s)
of Masons gain formula.
G7
G6
R(s)G G2 G3 G4 G5 C(s)
1 1
H1
H2
In this system, there are three forward paths between the input R(s) and the output C(s). The
forward path gains are
P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 , P2 = G1 G6 G4 G5 , P3 = G1 G2 G7
There are four individual loops,The gains of these loops are :
L1 = G4 H1 , L2 = G2 G7 H2
L3 = G6 G4 G5 H2 , L4 = G2 G3 G4 G5 H2
Loop L1 does not touch loop L2 . Hence, the determinant is given by
= 1 (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 ) + L1 L2
= 1 + G4 H1 + G2 G7 H2 + G6 G4 G5 H2 + G2 G3 G4 G5 H2 + G4 H1 G2 G7 H2
The cofactor 1 , is obtained from by removing the loops that touch path P1 . Therefore, by
removing L1 , L2 , L3 , L4 and L1 L2 from the last equation, we obtain 1 = 1
Similarly, the cofactor 2 is: 2 = 1
The cofactor 3 is obtained by removing L2 , L3 , L4 and L1 L2 from the last equation, giving
3 = 1 L1
C(s)
The closed-loop transfer function is then
R(s)
C(s) 1
= P = (P1 1 + P2 2 + P3 3 )
R(s)
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 + G1 G6 G4 G5 + G1 G2 G7 (1 + G4 H1 )
=
1 + G4 H1 + G2 G7 H2 + G6 G4 G5 H2 + G2 G3 G4 G5 H2 + G4 H1 G2 G7 H2

5.6.6 Example 6
C(s)
Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the closed-loop transfer function by use
R(s)
of Masons gain formula.
1
1 1 1
R(s) C1 s R1 C2 s C(s)
1 1 1
1

1 R2
1 1 1
P1 =
C1 s R1 C2 s
There are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are:
1 1
L1 =
C1 s R1
1 1
L2 =
C2 s R2
1 1
L3 =
R1 C2 s
Loop L1 does not touch loop L2 . Hence, the determinant is given by
= 1 (L1 + L2 + L3 ) + (L1 L2 )
1 1 1 1
=1+ + + +
R1 C1 s R2 C2 s R1 C2 s R1 R2 C1 C2 s2
three loops, we obtain 1 = 1
C(s) P1 1
=
R(s)
1
R1 C1 C2 s2
=
1 1 1 1
1+ R C + + +
1 1s R2 C2 s R1 C2 s R1 R2 C1 C2 s2
R2
= 2
R1 C1 R2 C2 s + (R1 C1 + R2 C2 + R2 C1 ) s + 1
5.6.7 Example 7
C(s)
Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the closed loop transfer function H(s) =
R(s)
by use of Masons gain formula.

6. System Stability 31
H2
R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)
1 1 1 1
H1
H1
G4
In this system, there are two forward paths between the input R(s) and the output C(s). The
forward path gains are:
P1 = G1 G2 G3 , P2 = G4
There are three individual loops,The gains of these loops are:
L1 = G2 H1
L2 = G1 G2 H1
L3 = G2 G3 H2
All three loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching loops. Hence, the determinant
is given by
= 1 (L1 + L2 + L2 + L3 )
= 1 (G2 H1 + G1 G2 H1 G2 G3 H2 )
The cofactors 1 and 2 of the determinant along the two forward paths connecting the input
node and output node are obtained from by removing the loops that touch these paths. Since
path P1 and P2 touche all three loops, we obtain
1 = 1, 2 = 1
P
C(s) j Pj j
= P
R(s) 1 i Li
G1 G2 G3 + G4
=
1 (G2 H1 + G1 G2 H1 G2 G3 H2 )
G1 G2 G3 + G4
=
1 + G2 H1 G1 G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2
6 System Stability
While considering the performance specification in the control system design, the essential & desirable
requirement will be the system stability. This means that the system must be stable at all times during
operation. Stability may be used to define the usefulness of the system. Stability studies include absolute
& relative stability. Absolute stability is the quality of stable or unstable performance. Relative Stability
is the quantitative study of stability. The stability study is based on the properties of the TF. In the
analysis, the characteristic equation is of importance to describe the transient response of the system.
From the roots of the characteristic equation, some of the conclusions drawn will be as follows,

When all the roots of the characteristic equation lie in the left half of the S-plane, the system
response due to initial condition will decrease to zero at time t = . Thus the system will be
termed as stable.
When one or more roots lie on the imaginary axis & there are no roots on the RHS of Splane, the
response will be oscillatory without damping. Such a system will be termed as critically stable.
When one or more roots lie on the RHS of S-plane, the response will exponentially increase in
magnitude; there by the system will be Unstable.
Some of the Definitions of stability are,
A system is stable, if its o/p is bounded for any bounded i/p.

A system is stable, if its response to a bounded disturbing signal vanishes ultimately as time t
approaches infinity.
A system is unstable, if its response to a bounded disturbing signal results in an o/p of infinite
amplitude or an Oscillatory signal.
If the o/p response to a bounded i/p signal results in constant amplitude or constant amplitude
oscillations, then the system may be stable or unstable under some limited constraints. Such a
system is called Limitedly Stable system.
If a system response is stable for a limited range of variation of its parameters, it is called Condi-
tionally Stable System.
If a system response is stable for all variation of its parameters, it is called Absolutely Stable system.
The most important problem in linear control systems concerns stability.
That is, under what conditions will a system become unstable? If it is unstable, how should we
stabilize the system?
A control system is stable if and only if all closed-loop transfer function poles lie in the left-half s
plane.
Most linear closed-loop systems have closed-loop transfer functions of the form:
C(s) b0 sm + b1 sm1 + . . . .. + bm1 s + bm

=
R(s) a0 sn + a1 sn1 + . . . . + an1 s + an
where the as and bs are constants and m n

A simple criterion, known as Rouths stability criterion, enables us to determine the number
of closed-loop poles that lie in the right-half s plane without having to factor the denominator
polynomial.
6.1 Rouths Stability Criterion
The procedure in Rouths stability criterion is as follows:

Write the polynomial in s in the following form:
a0 sn + a1 sn1 + . . . . + an1 s + an = 0 (3.1)
where the coefficients are real quantities. We assume that a 6= 0; that is, any zero root has been
removed.
If any of the coefficients are zero or negative in the presence of at least one positive coefficient, there
is a root or roots that are imaginary or that have positive real parts.Therefore, in such a case, the
system is not stable. If we are interested in only the absolute stability, there is no need to follow
the procedure further.

Note that all the coefficients must be positive. This is a necessary condition.
If all coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows and columns ac-
cording to the following pattern:
sn a0 a2 a4 a6 ...
sn1 a1 a3 a5 a7 ...
sn2 b1 b2 b3 b4 ...
sn3 c1 c2 c3 c4 ...
sn4 d1 d2 d3 d4 ...
.. .. ..
.2 . .
s e1 e2
s1 f1
s0 g1
The coefficients b1, b2, b3, and so on, are evaluated as follows:
a1 a2 a0 a3
b1 =
a1
a1 a4 a0 a5
b2 =
a1
a1 a6 a0 a7
b3 =
a1
..
.
The evaluation of the bs is continued until the remaining ones are all zero.
The same pattern of cross-multiplying the coefficients of the two previous rows is followed in eval-
uating the cs, ds, es, and so on. That is,
b 1 a3 a1 b 2
c1 =
b1
b 1 a5 a1 b 3
c2 =
b1
b 1 a7 a1 b 4
c3 =
b1
..
.
and
c1 b 2 b 1 c2
d1 =
c1
c1 b 3 b 1 c3
d2 =
c1
..
.
This process is continued until the kth row has been completed.
6.1.1 Example 1
Let us apply Rouths stability criterion to the following third-order polynomial:
a0 s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s1 + a3 = 0
where all the coefficients are positive numbers. The array of coefficients becomes:
s3 a0 a2
s2 a1 a3
a1 a2 a0 a3
s1
a1
s0 a3
The condition that all roots have negative real parts is given by: a1 a2 > a0 a3

6.1.2 Example 2
Consider the following polynomial:
s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0
All coefficients of the characteristic polynomial are positive non-zero. The necessary condition is
satisfied.
The construction of the Routh table is as follows:
s4 1 3 5
s3 2 4 0
s2 1 5
s1 6
s0 5
In this example, the number of changes of signs in terms of the first column is 2. This means that
there are two roots with positive real parts. The system is unstable
6.2 Special cases
If a first-column term in any row is zero, but the remaining terms are not zero or there is no remaining
term, then the zero term is replaced by a very small positive number and the rest of the array is
evaluated.
For example, consider the following equation: s3 + 2s2 + s + 2 = 0
The array of coefficients is:
s3 1 1
s2 2 2
s1 0
s0 2
If the sign of the coefficient above the zero () is the same as that below it, it indicates that there are a
pair of imaginary roots. Actually, the last equation has two roots at s = j.
If, however, the sign of the coefficient above the zero () is opposite that below it, it indicates that there
is one sign change.
For example, for the equation:
s3 3s + 2 = (s 1)2 (s + 2) = 0
s3 1 3
s2 0 2
2
s1 (3 + )

s0 2
There are two sign changes of the coefficients in the first column. This agrees with the correct result
indicated by the factored form of the polynomial equation. If all the coefficients in any derived row are
zero, it indicates that there are roots of equal magnitude lying radially opposite in the s plane, that is,
two real roots with equal magnitudes and opposite signs and/or two conjugate imaginary roots. In such
a case, the evaluation of the rest of the array can be continued by forming an auxiliary polynomial with
the coefficients of the last row and by using the coefficients of the derivative of this polynomial in the
next row.
Such roots with equal magnitudes and lying radially opposite in the s plane can be found by solving the
auxiliary polynomial, which is always even. For a 2n-degree auxiliary polynomial, there are n pairs of
equal and opposite roots.
For example, consider the following equation:
s5 + 2s4 + 24s3 + 48s2 25s 50 = 0

s5 1 24 25
s4 2 48 50
s3 0 0
The terms in the s3 row are all zero. The auxiliary polynomial is then formed from the coefficients of the
s4 row. The auxiliary polynomial P (s) is
P (s) = 2s4 + 48s2 50
which indicates that there are two pairs of roots of equal magnitude and opposite sign (that is, two real
roots with the same magnitude but opposite signs or two complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis).
These pairs are obtained by solving the auxiliary polynomial equation P (s) = 0. The derivative of
P (s) with respect to s is:
dP (s)
= 8s3 + 96s
ds
The terms in the s3 row are replaced by the coefficients of the last equation, that is, 8 and 96.
The array of coefficients then becomes:
s5 1 24 25
s4 2 48 50
dP (p)
s3 8 96 Coefficients of
dp
s2 24 50
s10 112.7 0
s 50
We see that there is one change in sign in the first column of the new array.Thus, the original
equation has one root with a positive real part. By solving for roots of the auxiliary polynomial
equation:
P (s) = 2s4 + 48s2 50 = 0
we obtain:
s2 = 1, s2 = 25
or
s = 1, s = 5j
These two pairs of roots of P(s) are a part of the roots of the original equation. As a matter of
fact, the original equation can be written in factored form as follows:
(s + 1)(s 1)(s + 5j)(s 5j)(s + 2) = 0
6.3 Application of Rouths Stability Criterion to Control System Analysis
Rouths stability criterion is of limited usefulness in linear control system analysis mainly because:
it does not suggest how to improve relative stability or how to stabilize an unstable system.
It is possible, however, to determine the effects of changing one or two parameters of a system by
examining the values that cause instability.

R(s) 1 C(s)
+
s(s2 + s + 1)(s + 2)
6.3.1 Example 1
Consider the system shown below.

The closed-loop transfer function is
C(s) 1
=
R(s) s(s2 + s + 1)(s + 2) + 1
The characteristic equation is
s4 + 3s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1
All coefficients of the characteristic are positives non zero, we proceed for the rest of procedure.
The array of coefficients becomes:
s4 1 3 1
s3 3 2 0
7
s2 1
3
9
s1 (2 )
7
s0 1
The no. of sign changes in the 1st column = zero, so no roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane.
6.3.2 Example 2
Applying the algebraic Routh criterion, study the stability of systems represented by the following
transfer functions:
s
1. H1 (s) = 4
s + s3 s 1
1
2. H2 (s) = 3
s + s2 + 4s
s2 + 2s
3. H3 (s) = 3
s + 4s2 + 8s + 12
1
4. H4 (s) = 3 2
2s + 4s + 4s + 12
A necessary but not sufficient condition for the system to be stable is that all of the characteristic
polynomial coefficients are non-zero and with the same signs. This condition is not verified for
systems H1 and H2 . Thus, these systems are unstable.
For systems of transfer functions H3 and H4 , this necessary condition is verified (ie all the coefficients
of the denominator of the transfer function in closed loop are positive non-zero) .
The characteristic equation for H3 is
s3 1 8
s2 4 12
4 8 1 12
s1 =5 0
4
5 12 0 4
s0 = 12 0
5

All coefficients of the first column are nonzero and of the same signs. According to the Routh
criterion, the closed loop system is stable.
The characteristic equation for H4 is
s3 2 4
s2 4 12
s1 2 0
s0 12 0
The coefficients of the first column do not have the same sign. According to the Routh criterion,
the closed loop system will be unstable.
6.3.3 Example 3
Comment on the stability of the system whose characteristic equations is given below:
1. s4 + 6s3 + 21s2 + 36s + 20 = 0
s4 1 21 20
s3 6 36 0
s2 15 20 0
s1 28 0 0
s0 20 0 0
The no. of sign changes in the 1st column = zero. No roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The
given System is Absolutely Stable.
2. 4s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 5 = 0
s3 4 2
s2 3 5
s1 4.66 0
s0 5 0
The no. of sign changes in the 1st column = 2. The given System is unstable.
3. s4 + 2s3 + s2 + 4s + 5 = 0
s4 1 1 5
s3 2 4 0
s2 1 5 0
s1 14 0 0
s0 5 0 0
The no. of sign changes in the 1st column = 2.Two roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The
given System is unstable.
4. s5 + 2s4 + 2s3 + 4s2 + 3s + 1 = 0
s5 1 2 3
s4 2 4 1
s3 0() 2.5 0
4 5
s2 1 0

( 45
)2.5
s1 0 0
( 45
)
s0 1 0 0
The no. of sign changes in the 1st column = 2. Two roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The
given System is unstable.

5. s5 + 2s4 + 2s3 + 4s2 + 3s + 6 = 0
s5 1 2 3
s4 2 4 6
s3 0(8) 0(8) 0(0)
s2 2 6 0
s1 16 0 0
s0 6 0 0
The terms in the s3 row are all zero. The auxiliary polynomial is then formed from the coefficients
of the s4 row. The auxiliary polynomial P (s) is
P (s) = 2s4 + 4s2 + 6
which indicates that there are two pairs of roots of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
These pairs are obtained by solving the auxiliary polynomial equation P (s) = 0. The derivative of
P (s) with respect to s is:
dP (s)
= 8s3 + 8s = 0
ds
The terms in the s3 row are replaced by the coefficients of the last equation, that is, 8, 8 and 0.
The no. of sign changes in the 1st column = 2. Two roots are lying in the RHS of S-plane. The
given System is unstable and limitedly stable.
6. s6 + 2s5 + 8s4 + 12s3 + 20s2 + 16s + 16 = 0
s6 1 8 20 16
s5 2 12 16 0
s4 2 12 16 0
s3 0(8) 0(24) 0(0) 0(0)
s2 6 16 0 0
s1 2.66 0 0 0
s0 16 0 0 0
The terms in the s3 row are all zero. The auxiliary polynomial is then formed from the coefficients
of the s4 row. The auxiliary polynomial P (s) is
P (s) = 2s4 + 12s2 + 16
which indicates that there are two pairs of roots of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
These pairs are obtained by solving the auxiliary polynomial equation P (s) = 0. The derivative of P (s)
with respect to s is:
dP (s)
= 8s3 + 24s = 0
ds
The terms in the s3 row are replaced by the coefficients of the last equation, that is, 8, 24, 0 and 0.
The no. of sign changes in the 1st column = 0. The given System is limitedly stable.

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Automatic Control Systems

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems

Department of Computer Engineering

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

3 Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems 5

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

3.1 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System

3.2 Transfer Function

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

C(s) = G(s)(s), (s) = R(s) B(s) = R(s) H(s)C(s)

This is often called Black formula.

3.3 Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram

3. Finally, assemble the elements into a complete block diagram.

As an example, consider the RC circuit:

The equations for this circuit are :

Vi (s) Vo (s) 1 I(s)

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s)

Consider the RL circuit .

The equations for this circuit are:

Vi (s) = RI(s) + LsI(s)

Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s)

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s) Vo (s)

The transfer function is

Consider the RLC circuit :

The equations for this circuit are:

Vi (s) (s) 1 I(s)

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

The transfer function is

3.4 Electrical Systems

r(t) C c(t) R(s) Z2 C(s)

(a) Electrical RC circuit (b) Equivalent Electrical RC circuit

R(s) = Z1 I(s) + Z2 I(s) = [Z1 + Z2 ] I(s)

We obtain the transfer function:

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

r(t) L c(t) R(s) Z2 C(s)

(a) Electrical RC circuit (b) Equivalent Electrical RC circuit

R(s) = Z1 I(s) + Z2 I(s) = [Z1 + Z2 ] I(s)

We obtain the transfer function:

(a) Electrical RC circuit (b) Equivalent Electrical RLC circuit

R(s) = Z1 I(s) + Z2 I(s) + Z3 I(s) = [Z1 + Z2 + +Z3 ] I(s)

We obtain the transfer function:

4 Block Diagram Simplifications

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

4.1 Block Diagrams Simplifications Rules

Combining blocks in cascade

R(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)

Combining blocks in parallel or eliminating forward loop

Eliminating feedback loop

R(s) G1 (s) C(s)

Transformation comparator summing point

Moving a summing point after a block

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

Moving a summing point ahead of a block

Moving a branch point after a block

Moving a branch point ahead of a block

Permutation of summing points

R1 (s) C(s) R1 (s) C(s)

Dr. Marzougui Automatic Control Systems Lecture Notes

Combining the blocks in series, we get

Eliminating the feed back path, we get

The closed loop transfer function is: