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Table of Contents
Table of Contents..................................................................................................................................2
What is Stigma?..........................................................................................................................4
References..........................................................................................................................................12
Mental Illness
Andrade (2013) reports that there is an annual prevalence rate of 30% for mental illnesses in the
general population of the United States. Of that 30%, about two-thirds of people with these
illnesses are not getting any treatment (Andrade et al., 2013; Sharma et al., 2008; Thornicroft,
2008). The situation remains influenced by the existence of a combination of numerous factors.
A combination of factors contributes to this situation. It is argued that mental health has not
attracted needed attention in public health settings and discussions (Thornicroft, Rose, and
Kassam, 2007). This lack of proper attention unarguably influences the general health quality of
the affected individuals (Saxena, Thornicroft, Knapp, and Whiteford, 2007; Schwartz and Meyer,
2010). The situation is much worse for neglected populations, especially women and children
Several studies have been performed to design a framework for understanding how gender,
racial, religious and other forms of identity within present-day socio-political contexts affects
beliefs and perceptions about mental illness and treatment. Additionally, researchers are seeking
to identify how environments shape and affect the mental health of minorities in the United
States and many other parts of the world (Abu-Ras and Suarez, 2009; Evans-Lacko, Brohan,
Mojtabai, and Thornicroft, 2012; Govender and Penn-Kekana, 2008, 2009; Hatzenbuehler,
McLaughlin, Keyes, and Hasin, 2010; Laird, Amer, Barnett, and Barnes, 2007; Lasalvia and
Tansella, 2008; Zur and Nordmarken, 2013). Furthermore, other scholarly studies are
increasingly exploring the quality of health care received by these minorities (Laird et al., 2007).
The beliefs about or perceptions of stigma, attitude, and cultural related issues are barriers
restricting access to mental health care among communities (APA, n.d.; Evans-Lacko et al.,
3
2012; Govender and Penn-Kekana, 2008, 2009; Jablensky and Kendell, 2002; Shives, 2008). In
addition, culturally rooted religious beliefs and practices have also been identified as barriers for
the majority of global communities (Levin, Chatters, and Taylor, 2005; Neighbors et al., 2007;
Thornicroft, 2008; Waldron, 2010). What is more, the research literature in this field involves
investigation of many factors that affect help-seeking habits for mental illness among various
by many authors (Daradkeh, Eapen, and Ghubash, 2005; Eapen and El-Rufaie, 2008; Jaspal and
Cinnirella, 2010; Jaspal and Siraj, 2011; Saxena et al., 2007). Hence, it is important to
have documented gender health inequalities across different continents and countries; this theme
has in recent times snowballed into improved policy objectives in many developed countries,
especially the U.S. Bleich, Jarlenski, Bell, and LaVeist (2012) described the time drifts in health
inequalities using sex, ethnicity (or race), and socioeconomic status. Time drifts identify efforts
to lessen health inequalities; and level of success or progress made to eradicate inequalities
within health sectors in the U.S., United Kingdom, as well as other Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. According to their results, the U.S. time-trend
data illustrates a reduction in the gap between the top best groups and top worst-off groups in
such indicators of health, as life expectancy, but widening gaps in others, such as diabetes
prevalence.
What is Stigma?
According to Goffman (2009), the modern day stigma is an illuminating excursion into the
situation of persons who are unable to conform to standards that society calls normal (Goffman,
4
2009, p. 154). Goffman further explains that stigma is a reflection of a social attitude or
response to mental problems that is totally demeaning and a locus of social humiliation. Stigma
also targets an individuals social identity by means of stereotypes and false imagery derived
from media and other virtual sources. This can be confusing to an individual because the
stigmatizing attacks do not address that individuals personal qualities, skills, and personality.
Goffman (1999) explains how just one isolated attribute of a stigmatized individual can be blown
out of proportion and made into a substitute target based on inaccurate assumptions about the
whole person. Such assumptions run deep and viciously in the American collective psyche.
Stigma also echoes an inconsistency between an individuals virtual social identity; which is
the sum of societal beliefs about a particular individual, and that individuals actual social
identity; which is regarded as any qualities a person could be demonstrated to own or express
(Goffman, 2009, p. 138). Goffman (2009) explains that stigma heightens any attribute; which
can be used to dishonor a particular individual to provoke a set of inaccurate assumptions about
Stigma can rise from a person having an attribute, deemed less desirable or perhaps bizarre, that
somewhat distinguishes that person from others. For instance, within Asian and African cultures,
people who are crippled are hidden from society or otherwise shunned due to their
distinguishable physical features. Henceforth the individual is reduced in society from a whole
and normal somebody to a stained, discountable one (Goffman, 2009). Stigma inherently
dehumanizes and narrows an individuals social value because he or she is judged as being
marked, blemished, and below average. Thus, he or she is stigmatized. A stigmatized trait
always differs from what a society regards as normal and this ultimately triggers societys
negative response, which may be expressed in the form of interpersonal or combined reactions
5
that seek to isolate, treat, threaten, correct, or punish any individual engaged in discounted
behavior.
Scholars and researchers continue to struggle to define the psychological roots of and
motivations for why people are stigmatized. At present a single uniform theory as to the origins
of stigmatization has yet to be developed. However, while there is general agreement as to what
the term stigma means, there is yet a lack of a single, uniform theory that seeks to provide a
concrete definition and understanding of the phenomenon. In other words, there is significant
agreement on the notion that stigma means any kind of mark or behavior that leads to
humiliation or disgrace, and sets an individual or group apart from others. Stigmatization has a
multi-faceted and multi-layered damaging and negative impact on targeted individuals, despite
the lack of a theoretical explanation for the existence and why normal people feel a
There are various conceptualizations and rationalizations to why mental health stigma is
inflicted, yet there is little doubt mental illness stigma has substantial corollaries and many
damaging effects, both to the affected person and his or her close friends and family (Boyd, Katz,
Link, and Phelan, 2010; Lindsey et al., 2010; Livingston and Boyd, 2010; Werner, Mittelman,
Goldstein, and Heinik, 2012). A study by Phelan et al. (1998) underscored the impact of mental
health stigma on family members by creating a forum of 156 parents as well as spouses of
patients who were on first-time admission at a psychiatric treatment facility. Their findings
revealed 50 percent of the participants hid the details of their relatives hospitalization from
others. Also, they found the members of the family of a patient with mental illness were more
unlikely to reveal their family members mental health condition if they did not cohabit with the
6
relative, the relative was female, or the relative had severe undesirable symptoms (Phelan et
al.,1998). Phelan et al.s (1998) findings lend credence to the existence of a certain level of
shame and humiliation that can afflict close members of the family of a stigmatized person.
According to Werner et al. (2012), family members of a person having a stigmatized illness
experience stigma from three dimensions: stigma from caregivers, stigma from the lay public,
Corrigan, Kerr, and Knudsen's (2005) report that stigmatization of individuals with mental illness
can deny them the experience of two predominantly imperative opportunities in life. The first
opportunity is getting decent and competitive employment; the second is living an independent
life in a safe, private, and happy home. Their argument is rooted in the problems that are often
unavoidably encountered in work and housing when an individual suffers from certain mental
health conditions. For instance, mental health conditions such as schizophrenia, which
compromise an individuals social and survival skills, make it difficult for him or her to live
independently or meet the demands of the modern competitive job market. The social status of
employers and property owners who believe stereotypes about mental health disorders may
respond in intolerant and discriminatory manners. A study conducted by Kaye (2012) examined
the impacts of a psychiatric disorder and treatment support services in terms of discrimination as
it relates to housing. Kayes (2012) study showed public stigma towards people with psychiatric
illnesses still constitutes a barrier to having access to decent and affordable housing. This is
contrary to evidence that identifies stable and decent housing as a major factor in recovery from
psychiatric problems and the establishment of public programs and policies to provide people
with psychiatric disabilities with the resources and treatment support they need to assist them in
7
What is more, stigma can distress individuals with mental health conditions who are involved
with the system of criminal justice (Markowitz, 2011). Mental illness criminalization ensues
when an individual with a mental health condition is handled by the police, courts of law, and
jails; as opposed to the appropriate mental health system (Markowitz, 2011; Silverstone,
Krameddine, DeMarco, and Hassel, 2013). This argument comes up because of meager funding
of mental health services and somewhat harsh crime policies (Markowitz, 2011). Researchers
maintain that the publics burgeoning prejudice against criminals has led to creation and
enforcement of strict laws that limit effective planning pertaining to treatment of mentally ill
offenders (Freudenberg, Daniels, Crum, Perkins, and Richie, 2008; Markowitz, 2011; Morabito
et al., 2010; Silverstone et al., 2013). Comparative studies on the arrest rates of the general
American public have revealed that people with mental health illnesses are more vulnerable to
police arrest in comparison to the rest of the population (Freudenberg et al., 2008). In fact,
Steadman, McCarty, and Morrissey (1989) state that this discrimination persists when the
arrested mentally ill individual is jailed. This study revealed that such individuals spend more
time incarcerated than those without a mental health condition. Other researchers warn that
treating people with mentally illness like criminals has serious consequences not only for their
lives, freedom, and welfare, but also for the community will inadvertently lose potential
Persons having mental health disorders may also be negatively impacted by health care systems.
According to studies conducted within the American health system, people who are mentally ill
were found to receive fewer medical services and help than others, and had fewer chances of
getting the same level of insurance benefits as their mentally healthy colleagues (Schoen,
Osborn, How, Doty, and Peugh, 2009). For example, Druss, Bradford, Rosenheck, Radford, and
8
Krumholz (2000) explored types of medical procedures applied after myocardial infarction
within acute care US nongovernmental hospital facilities. In a total sample of 113,653, the
findings illustrated that individuals with co-morbid psychiatric illnesses have lesser chances of
Stigma may affect (Conner et al., 2010; Corrigan et al., 2005; Corrigan, Rafacz, and Rsch,
2011) individuals who are mentally ill, for the fear of social rejection and may limit the extent of
their social networks; causing a decrease in their income (Conner et al., 2010; Corrigan et al.,
2005; Corrigan, Rafacz, and Rsch, 2011). Findings by Holzinger et al. (2004) developed this
view. They interviewed a sample of 210 in patients with schizophrenia or who had experienced
an episode of depression. One-half of their sample lived in small towns and the other resided in
large metropolitan areas. This study revealed that the majority of these patients anticipated
negative reactions or hostile attitudes from people in their environment, especially in the
workplace or in the social lives. Stigmatization was felt acutely in the sphere of interpersonal
interaction. While patients with schizophrenia and those with depression both expected
stigmatization equally often, the former recounted experiences of concrete stigmatization more
often than the latter. Patients who resided in small towns expected stigmatization more regularly
than their counterparts from the city, even though both had experienced stigmatization at almost
9
Media Report: Mental Illness in the Australian Workforce
Mental illness has developed into a pivotal aspect experienced in the workforce as it directly
contributes to the existent levels of productivity among employees. Increased levels of employee
mental illness remains attributed to several factors including increased workload coupled with
organizational pressures. The identification of high workloads with limited levels of work-life
balance delimits the operational capacity of the employee (Di, 2015). In addition, the process
influences the development of the employee stress levels, which increases the probability for
mental illness. An increase in mental illness cases in the workforce remains attributed to
decreasing levels of employee job satisfaction. Job satisfaction develops into an instrumental
element of the workforce as it influences the level of employee involvement in work activities.
Job satisfaction remains instrumental in the workplace as it delimits the level of pressure
experienced among employees (Di, 2015). In addition, the process influences the level of
the development of ineffective work processes increases the level of pressure experienced by
employee thus delimiting their operational level. In addition, increased stress in the workplace
affects the employee psychologically, which provides an avenue for the development of mental
illness.
The development of effective work-life balance strategies have been underplayed by the majority
influences the development of strong sense of tranquility experienced by the employees, which
remains attributed to the existent balance. However, lack of the process reduces the operational
capacity experienced leading to increased levels of stress among the workforce (Di, 2015).
10
Mental illness has developed into a critical element in the workforce as claims developed relating
to mental illness have been on the rise in comparison to work-injury claims experienced in the
workplace. Continuous development of work processes geared towards meeting the stipulated
organizational objectives enhance the process, which develops a fatigued workforce thus
increasing the medical overheads experienced. In addition, increased levels of job strain develop
a situation that integrates high level of demands on the job while providing employees with
limited control pertaining to the processes geared towards meeting the stipulated objectives.
However, organizations may reduce the probability of the level of mental illness experienced in
the organization through the development of viable operational processes. In addition, the
organization may develop platforms geared towards providing the necessary care for employees
suffering from mental illness as opposed to the development of stigma. The process will enhance
the levels of mental health among employees while increasing the organizations operational
capacity.
11
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