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RehabiMed
Method 1

Mthode
RehabiMed Traditional 2

Architecture
Traditionnelle
Mditerranenne
Mediterranean 3

II. Rhabilitation
Btiments Architecture 4

Mtodo RehabiMed 5

Arquitectura
Tradicional
Mediterrnea
II. Rehabilitation 6

II. Rehabilitacin
El Edificio Buildings 7

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RehabiMed
Method 1

Mthode
RehabiMed Traditional 2

Architecture
Traditionnelle
Mditerranenne
Mediterranean 3

II. Rhabilitation
Btiments Architecture 4

Mtodo RehabiMed 5

Arquitectura
Tradicional
Mediterrnea
II. Rehabilitation 6

II. Rehabilitacin
El Edificio Buildings 7

THIS PROGRAMME IS FINANCED


BY THE EUROPEAN UNION
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EUROMED
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EUROMED HERITAGE

AGENCIA ESPAOLA
DE COOPERACIN INTERNACIONAL

COLLEGI DAPARELLADORS
I ARQUITECTES TCNICS DE BARCELONA
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Consortium RehabiMed: Albert FUSTER Oussama KALLAB (Lebanon)


Jos Luis GARCA GRINDA Nikolaos KALOGIROU (Greece)
Project Manager: Soledad GARCA MORALES Vito LAUDADIO (Italy)
Xavier CASANOVAS Jos Luis GONZLEZ MORENO-NAVARRO Yasmine MAKAROUN BOU ASSAF (Lebanon)
Mara-Jos JIMNEZ Moshe MAMON (Israel)
Members: Jos Manuel LPEZ OSORIO Hilmi MARAQA (Palestine)
Carmen MARZO Filipe MARIO LOPES (Portugal)
Ministry of Communications and Works Irene MARZO Nikolaos MOUTSOPOULOS (Greece)
Department of Antiquities of Cyprus Camilla MILETO Farhat MUHAWI (Palestine)
Person in charge: Evi FIOURI Joaqun MONTN Yael F. NAAMAN (Israel)
Josep MUNTAOLA Yassine OUAGENI (Algeria)
Bureau Culturel de l'Ambassade de la Rpublique Francisco POL Alkmini PAKA (Greece)
Arabe d'Egypte en France Emilio RAMIRO Rubi PELED (Israel)
Supreme Council of Antiquities, Egypte Pere ROCA Avi PERETS (Israel)
Persons in charge: Mahmoud ISMAL et Wahid Cristina THI Simona PORCELLI (Italy)
Mohamed EL-BARBARY Fernando VEGAS Bougnerira-Hadj QUENZA (Algeria)
Antoni VILANOVA Cristina Scarpocchi (Italy)
Collegi dAparelladors i Arquitectes Tcnics de Montserrat VILLAVERDE Sinan SENIL (Turkey)
Barcelona, Espagne Haluk SEZGIN (Turkey)
Persons in charge: Xavier CASANOVAS France Mai SHAER (Jordan)
Persons in charge: Ren GUERIN et Patrice MOROT- Yaacov SHAFFER (Israel)
Ecole dAvignon, France SIR Ram SHOEF (Israel)
Persons in charge: Gilles NOURISSIER Xavier BENOIST Giambattista DE TOMMASI (Italy)
Christophe GRAZ Shan TSAY (Jordan)
Centre Mditerranen de l'Environnement Maria LPEZ DAZ Fandi WAKED (Jordan)
Marrakech, Maroc Michel POLGE Eyal ZIV (Israel)
Persons in charge: Moulay Abdeslam SAMRAKANDI Jean-Alexandre SIRI
Christian THIRIOT
Institut National du Patrimoine, Tunisie Vronique WOOD Scientific Committee of the Rehabimed Project:
Persons in charge: Mourad RAMMAH Brigitte COLIN (UNESCO)
Morocco Josep GIRALT (IEMed)
Persons in charge: Abderrahim KASSOU et Quentin Paul OLIVER (Oxford Brookes University)
WILBAUX
Karim ACHAK
Director: Mohamed BOUAZZAOUI French translation:
Xavier CASANOVAS Hicham ECHEFAA Michel LEVAILLANT
Jamal-Eddine EL-GHORAFI
Coordination of the volumes: Ameziane HASSSANI English translation:
Oriol CUSID Oum-Kaltoum KOBBITE Elaine FRADLEY
Ramon GRAUS Said LOQMANE ADDENDA
Amlia MARZAL Abdellatif MAROU
Ahmed OUARZAZI Spanish translation:
Development and drafting of the method: Inma DVILA, Amlia MARZAL
Oriol CUSID Tunisia
Ramon GRAUS Persons in charge: Radhia BEN MBAREK et Arabian translation:
Abdellatif GHILENE Mahmoud ISMAL
Mourad RAMMAH
Mohamed KERROU Illustrations:
Network of experts of the RehabiMed Consortium: Joan CUSID
Collaborating experts in other Mediterranean
Cyprus countries: Cover illustration:
Persons in charge: Evi FIOURI et Irene HADJISAVVA Fernando VEGAS, Camilla MILETO
Constantinos ALKIDES Nur AKIN (Turkey)
Athina ARISTOTELOUS-CLERIDOU Nazmi AL-JUBEH (Palestine) Photographic material:
Michael COSMAS Mustafa AL-NADDAF (Jordan) RehabiMed, CORPUS and CORPUS Levant teams.
Eliana GEORGIOU Ziad AL-SAAD (Jordan) Other sources are indicated with the photo.
Kyriakos KOUNDOUROS Suad AMIRY (Palestine)
Yiola KOUROU Koksal ANADOL (Turkey) Graphic design:
Athina PAPADOPOULOU Carlo ATZENI (Italy) LM,DG : Llus MESTRES
Agni PETRIDOU Abdelaziz BADJADJA (Algeria)
Eleni PETROPOULOU Kurtel BELMA (Turkey) Website:
Maria PHILOKYPROU Demet BINAN (Turkey) www.rehabimed.net
Eleni PISSARIDOU Can BINAN (Turkey)
Socrates STRATIS Andrea BRUNO (Italy) 2007 Collegi dAparelladors i Arquitectes Tcnics
Khaldun BSHARA (Palestine) de Barcelona pour le consortium RehabiMed
Egypt Yotam CARMEL (Israel) Bon Pastor, 5 08021 Barcelona, Espagne
Persons in charge: Mahmoud ISMAL et Wahid Banu ELEBIOGLU (Turkey) rehabimed@apabcn.cat
EL-BARBARY Vito CENTRONE (Italy)
Mahmoud ABD EL MAGEED Nathalie CHAHINE (Lebanon) ISBN : 84-87104-75-4
Mahmoud EL-ALFY Ofer COHEN (Israel)
Mohamed ELARABY Michel DAOUD (Lebanon) RehabiMed wish to encourage the reproduction of this
Philippe HEARINGER Habib DEBS (Lebanon) work and the diffusion of its contents, with due
Hany HELAL Michelangelo DRAGONE (Italy) mention of its source.
Bernard MAURY Reuven ELBERGER (Israel)
Mohamed SIEF AL-YAZEL Tal EYAL (Israel) This project is financed by the Euromed Heritage
Fabio FATIGUSO (Italy) programme of the European Union and by the
Spain Antoine FISCHFISCH (Lebanon) Agencia Espaola de Cooperacin Internacional (AECI).
Persons in charge: Oriol CUSID et Ramon GRAUS Yael FUHRMANN-NAAMAN (Israel)
Mart ABELLA Giovanni FURIO (Italy) The opinions expressed in this document do not
Josep ARMENGOL Sinan GENIM (Turkey) necessarily reflect the position of the European Union
Santiago CANOSA Feyhan INKAYA (Turkey) or its member states.
Csar DAZ GMEZ Monther JAMHAWI (Jordanie)
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Preface

The first Euromediterranean Conference of heads of state in 1995 saw the launch of the 1
Barcelona process, an ambitious initiative ratified in 2005 at the Barcelona +10 Summit. The
priority objectives are intended to seek sociopolitical, economic, cultural and environmental
synergies from a regional and mutual development viewpoint. It was within this context that the 2
Euromed Heritage Programme emerged in 1998, to contribute towards the improvement and
protection of the diverse heritage shared by the different Mediterranean countries.
3

Traditional architecture, as an essential part of the cultural legacy generated by the collective
imagination of the Mediterranean, plays an important part in the actions carried out by Euromed 4
Heritage. In their first years, CORPUS and CORPUS Levant carried out an enormous task cataloguing
and analysing the characteristics and typologies of traditional Mediterranean architecture,
identifying the problems presented and suggesting the best alternatives for preserving it. 5
RehabiMed wanted to continue this stage of analytical study to develop the essential ideas arising
from the needs and urgent requirements detected by these projects promoting effective,
6
respectful rehabilitation.

Today, in a globalised world, where economic and cultural uniformity mark the development 7
criteria to be followed based on standard patterns, RehabiMed's proposal is even more
meaningful. Rehabilitation counteracts the idea of globalisation, and regional wealth, cultural
diversity, different ways of life and particular local features become essential elements to be 8
preserved.

There are many public and private initiatives aimed at recovering constructed heritage; some are 9
oriented towards singular, monumental heritage, which we call Restoration, and others, as is the
case with RehabiMed, are directed towards more modest, more abundant heritage with a
10
greater presence in the territory, such as traditional architecture in historic town centres, rural
villages and dispersed throughout the territory. This is what we call Rehabilitation, always carried
out to provide buildings the majority of them without any kind of heritage protection with a 11
use. This activity involving action on what has been built presents a wide diversity of situations,
if we look at the Mediterranean sphere. In European countries, rehabilitation activity represents
almost 50% of total activity in the sector, while in the countries of the south and east of the
Mediterranean basin, this activity does not amount even to 10% of activity in the sector, despite
its importance concerning economic development and the social cohesion of the population.

RehabiMed's aim is to reinforce rehabilitation activity and maintaining traditional Mediterranean


architecture as a factor in sustainable (social, economic and environmental) development.
Achieving this objective will allow us to move forward with two historical challenges that may
appear contradictory but from our point of view are perfectly compatible and complementary:
firstly, contributing towards improving the living conditions of residents, who are the people who
give meaning and life to this heritage; and, secondly, contributing to preserving the historical and
cultural identity of Mediterranean peoples.

To achieve this aim, RehabiMed's approach has been to work in three directions. Firstly, we have
developed some strategic and methodological tools orientated towards rehabilitation; alongside
these, we have carried out various publicity actions and training for professionals in the spirit of
the content of the tools developed; and, finally, we have launched four pilot operations with real
rehabilitation work to test, experiment and demonstrate the importance, possibilities and
positive effects represented by good rehabilitation policy.
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They have been three years of hard work, constructive debates and experiences shared with
experts, with students and, above all, with the population directly linked to our actions, which
has allowed us to meet the objective we initially set. We believe that the results are excellent and
that we have created a good starting point for rehabilitation to get off on the right foot, giving
meaning to the tools created, the training given and the experiments carried out.

I am delighted to present the first volume of our methodological work, the result of the effort of
more than 150 experts from different professional spheres in 15 countries. The texts in this
publication contain the RehabiMed Method for rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean
Architecture, which have been considered and drawn up at length to respond to the concerns of
our collaborators and experts. In addition, the publication develops the different points put
forward by the RehabiMed Method to provide guidelines on specific proposals, to facilitate their
application and to show different situations sharing very similar forms of action in the
rehabilitation of the regional and urban heritage of traditional architecture. All this should serve
politicians and officers of the different administrations to make it easier for them to generate and
develop their initiatives to promote rehabilitation from a very broad frame of reference, raising
the awareness of the population and getting it to take an active part in decision-making.

Xavier Casanovas
RehabiMed Project Manager

Barcelona, 30 June 2007


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RehabiMed Method
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
II. Rehabilitation. Buildings

Preface

Introduction
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture 9
A changing world. Architecture under threat 11
Rehabilitating Traditional Mediterranean Architecture 13
The RehabiMed Method on the scale of the building. The Guide and its constituent tools 14

Part 1.
The RehabiMed Guide to the rehabilitation of traditional buildings.
An integrated approach to the building

I / Objectives of the Guide 17


II / The initial agents in the process 18
III / The phases of the Guide 19

I. Knowledge
1. Preliminaries 21
Decision to take action / Interview with the client 21
Preliminary diagnosis 22
The preliminary diagnosis report 22
2. Multidisciplinary studies (analysis) 23
Establishing of provisional hypotheses 23
Programme of multidisciplinary studies 23
Social aspects 23
Historical aspects 24
Architectural aspects 25
Construction aspects 27

II. Reflection and the project


3. Diagnosis (synthesis) 28
Critical evaluation of studies 28
Confirmation of hypotheses 30
Writing a report 30
4. Reflection and decision-making 31
Feasibility 31
Confirmation of criteria 33
Decision-making 33
5. Project 34
Outline proposals 34
Project 34
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III. The work


6. Rehabilitation 37
Tender action 37
Obtaining the building permit 38
Carrying out the work 38
Handover of the work 38

IV. Lifespan
7. Maintenance 39
Publicizing the buildings values among the community 39
Choice of the model of maintenance 40
The identity card 40
Maintenance work according to a timeframe 41

Part 2.
The RehabiMed tools.
An aid to the rehabilitation of traditional buildings

I. Knowledge

Tool 1. Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation


Traditional Mediterranean Architecture. Territory, landscape and traditional
architecture. Jos Luis Garca Grinda 49
Traditional Mediterranean Architectures: collective values. Michel Polge 67
The Social and Cultural Values of Cultural Heritage in Palestine: Whose values, the practitioners
or the owners? Suad Amiry, Farhat Muhawi 72
Architectural heritage: adaptation, use and maintenance. Abdelaziz Badjadja 75
Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Xavier Casanovas, Ramon Graus 78
Traditional architecture and climate in Tunisia. Radhia Ben Mbarek 87
A tool to develop the use of solar energy in Mediterranean basin:
the European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA). cole des Mines de Paris 90

Tool 2. Starting with a precise preliminary diagnosis


Steps for an engineering (and non-structural) survey in pre-diagnosis phase.
Yaacov Schaffer 95
Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage. Ramon Graus 99
The preliminary diagnosis - the Cyprus experience. Yiola Kourou 109

Tool 3. Overall knowledge of the building


The programme of studies. Fernando Vegas, Camilla Mileto 113
Historical studies and archaeological interventions: Tools for the knowledge of Traditional
Mediterranean Architecture. Abdellatif Marou, Jordi Ortega, Montserrat Villaverde 120
Archaeology as a tool for finding out about the building. Evi Fiouri 129
Applying the archaeological method to Lebanese architecture.
Yasmine Makaroun Bou Assaf 133
A comprehensive understanding of the building. Jos Luis Gonzlez Moreno-Navarro 135
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Architectural analysis of buildings. Typologies in Cyprus. Eliana Georgiou 142


Thermal comfort in existing homes. Maria Lpez Daz 145
Acoustic comfort in existing homes. Christian Thiriot 153

Tool 4. Making the graphic survey of the building


Preliminary reflections on the graphic survey of vernacular heritage.
Santiago Canosa Reboredo 161
Pointers for drawing up a good survey. Michel Daoud 165
Graphic Survey. The Cypriot experience. Eleni Pissaridou 169
Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional
architecture. Camilla Mileto 172
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade. Ramon Graus, Cristina Thi 179
The applications of digital photography. Joaqun Montn 189

Tool 5. Understanding structural damages


Structural damages in Traditional Mediterranean Architecture. Csar Daz 195
Seismic risk in the traditional architecture. Giambattista De Tommasi 208
The European-Mediterranean Seismic Hazard Map. Mara-Jos Jimnez 213
The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with
masonry walls. Pere Roca Fabregat 216

Tool 6. Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used


Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce.
Soledad Garca Morales 225
Degradation of Building Materials (stone, earth, timber). Maria Philokyprou 236
Various types of scientific techniques used to identify degradation
mechanisms of stone. Mustafa Al-Naddaf 242
Agents in timber degradation. Joaqun Montn 245

II. Reflection and the project

Tool 7. The criteria of intervention


Criteria of intervention in traditional architecture. Fernando Vegas, Camilla Mileto 255
Technical issues in housing rehabilitation. Michel Polge 265
Choosing the project direction. Jos Luis Gonzlez Moreno-Navarro 267
The innovation value for quality in the traditional architecture
rehabilitation. Fabio Fatiguso 273
Notes on the rehabilitation and reuse of traditional and historical
architectural heritage. Carlo Atzeni 281
Rehabilitating and building using traditional materials. The Egyptian
experience. Bernard Maury 287
The dilemma criteria: The point of view of heritage value. Irene Hadjisavva-Adam 290
Systems and equipment installations challenges. Athina Papadopoulou 292

Tool 8. Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures


Rehabilitation of structural elements in Traditional Mediterranean
Architecture. Csar Daz 297
Reinforcement and treatment of foundation.
Egyptian experiences. Wahid El-Barbary 309
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Technological and structural aspects in the conservation of Old Akko.


Ofer Cohen, Yael F. Naaman 312
Walls strengthen and treatment: the Egyptian experiences. Wahid El-Barbary 319
Seismic improvement and conservation of structural
features. Giambattista De Tommasi 322
Reinforcing traditional Algerian structures to resist earth
movements. Abdelaziz Badjadja 325
Restoring traditional timber constructions: the Turkish
experience. Banu elebioglu 327

Tool 9. Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials


Renderings: consolidation, restoration or replacement. Patrice Morot-Sir 333
The treatment of damp in traditional architecture. Soledad Garca Morales 339
Consolidation of the sandstone monuments of the world heritage
site of Petra. Ziad Al-Saad, Fandi Waked 345
Treating and protecting timber. Joaqun Montn 350
Methods and substances for treating and repairing the wooden
elements, the Egyptian experience. Wahid El-Barbary 355

III. The work

Tool 10. The reality of on-site work


On-site reality. Jos Manuel Lpez Osorio 361
Job creation through restoration towards a sustainable community. Khaldun Bshara 376
Some observations about Project Management. Athina Papadopoulou 379

IV. Lifespan

Tool 11. Maintenance of traditional architecture


Support material for building maintenance: the identity card. Ramon Graus 385
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Introduction

Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

RehabiMed uses the term traditional architecture to refer to


everyday architecture that is alive because it is inhabited,
essentially civilian, domestic and of pre-industrial construction. It is
a form of architecture built using local resources, which covers
materials, techniques and the skills of its constructors, and it is the
fundamental expression of the culture of the different
communities and their relation with nature and the landscape.
It is an architecture that covers different forms of grouping and
the scattered habitat with all its auxiliary constructions, not
forgetting the more modest elements (fountains, paths, etc.),
which, altogether, form the traditional Mediterranean landscape.
RehabiMed focuses broadly on this architecture, including both
the rural habitat, fundamental to the humanization and
structuring of the territory, and the city, the clear expression of life
in community and the optimization of resources and human
relations, going beyond the filters of highbrow architecture to
incorporate all the values of more modest forms of architecture. Elmali, Turkey

Rural architecture is primarily linked to systems of agricultural and


livestock production, which, beyond a simple presence in a
bygone landscape, plays a vital role in understanding the
processes that have produced todays landscape, the result of a
social and a natural history. Rural architecture has always played a
salient role as an element that structures the landscape in which
buildings, crops and nature are in perfect balance, the result of a more than by its walls or the number of its population, by the way
continuous process of change and transformation, a socio- in which it concentrates its activities on the most limited surface
environmental reality generated jointly by biophysical and area possible. The urban habitat covers a large typological range,
socioeconomic factors throughout history. The traditional rural derived to a large extent from geographical differentiation and
habitat takes the form of a heterogeneous variety of built from its origin and historical evolution. This historical and
typologies which may be scattered or form small settlements. It is morphological diversity not only translates as buildings,
also accompanied by a large variety of auxiliary elements and construction procedures or materials used, it is also the
constructions that are vital to the domestication of the territory configuration of the urban form, expressed in the way of
(cabins, dry-stone walls, ovens and kilns, caravanserais, fountains, structuring and considering collective space (streets, squares, etc.),
wells, mills, stables, granaries, etc.), and infrastructures (canals, of organizing constructions and uses which, in the rural world, are
paths, irrigation channels, etc.) which are the result of the scattered (sanctuary, fountain, fortress, etc.), of relating private
historical interaction between natural resources and human ways architecture and public space, developing a greater variety of
of appropriating them that bear witness to the coherent residential typologies that reflects more complex social structures,
hybridization of the biophysical factors of a region and the in the uses of buildings, in the singularity of its infrastructures
socioeconomic factors of the community that inhabit it. (market, school, etc.), and so on. These settlements, which in days
Urban architecture, on the other hand, is built in the context of a gone by exclusively configured the city as a consequence of its
city or urban settlement, being the expression of a more complex growth and transformation, now form an integral part of the
form of community dwelling, in which artisans and traders contemporary city, where they play the role of historical nucleuses.
predominate over the land-related trades and where the new It is, then, the form of traditional architecture that humankind
needs and forms of society find their place (Mumford, 1961). The used to settle and construct its habitat in the territory around the
urban settlement, though also originally linked to the rural space Mediterranean Sea, a palimpsest permanently rewritten by the
and to the need to commercialize farming surplus, appeared as a relations between people and their surroundings, and which has
structure to dominate the territory, defined by Braudel (1968) today become cultural landscape and collective imaginary.

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Introduction
X

Qalaat al Manika, Syria Hacienda Algarrobo, Malaga, Spain

Rovinj, Croatia Lucca, Italy

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Introduction
X

A changing world. Architecture under


threat

The inventories drawn up as part of the CORPUS and CORPUS


Levant (EUROMED Heritage I) projects showed in 2002 the far-
reaching transformations and pressures to which architecture,
landscape and traditional territory are subject. Today, traditional
surroundings are in a dramatic situation throughout the
Mediterranean Basin, reduced to a continuing loss of their social
and cultural character, threatened by intense degradation and
constantly on the retreat. Likewise, the breakdown of the
Arnavutkoy, Istanbul, Turkey
traditional world and the tendency to cultural homogenization as
a result of globalization have brought about disregard for much of
this architecture, often considered to be a symbol of poverty with
values and qualities that are far removed from the mediatized
concept of modernity.
Pressure on the traditional habitat began with the process of
industrialization, though it was much accentuated by the modern
movement and urbanism in the early 20th century, seeking new
models of dwelling and building cities that could overcome the
deficiencies of traditional settlements; it went as far as denying all
functional, social and even aesthetic values, and radically placed
the new before the old. This process emerged at different times
according to the country in question and whether we refer to the
urban or the rural space.
Today, in the era of the global village, when the metropolitan
industrial city is turning into a diffuse metapolis and the borders
between country and city are becoming increasingly hazy, the
pressure on this architecture and the population that it houses is
even greater. Mostar, Bosnia Herzegovina
In the rural environment, many villages are becoming depopulated
due to the lack of alternatives for development, and others are
subject to violent transformation under the pressures of property
or tourism-related speculation without the necessary urban
planning. This contemporary urbanism is upsetting the historical environmental (insalubrity, lack of comfort, pollution)
balance between humankind and nature, and converting the rural deterioration of the urban environment; nucleuses in the process
landscape into a landscape without activity, where traditional of depopulation due to the abandonment of the historic fabric for
architecture loses its meaning and original function, and is reused the city, with the subsequent loss of social values and the
and transformed. deterioration of buildings and architectural heritage; nucleuses
In urban environments, the historical nucleuses are affected by affected by heavy-handed urban renovation work (demolition of
different problems according to each historical and regional heritage, destruction of the historic fabric with the creation of
circumstance, which we could summarise according to four main new expressways, incoherent insertion of new architectures), and,
vectors of pressure, sometimes complementary or simultaneous, finally, nucleuses affected by processes of urban reinvestment, in
and with differing degrees of influence: nucleuses in the process which we can distinguish three main processes: the development
of overpopulation due to migration (south-north or country-city) of tourism, tertiarization (especially in historic centres) with the
with the subsequent physical (over-occupation and modification possible loss of the residential function, and gentrification (the
of dwelling), social (constitution of ghettos, insecurity, etc.) and installation in a run-down neighbourhood of residents from a

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Introduction
X

Tunis, Tunisia Aleppo, Syria Rbat, Morocco

high-income bracket), all processes that can have a


counterproductive effect in social terms.
Institutions such as the UNESCO and ICOMOS have issued
repeated alerts about the loss of this heritage. In this respect,
mention should be made of the recommendations of the
International Charter for the Conservation of Historic Towns and
Urban Areas (Washington Charter) of 1987 and the Charter on
Built Vernacular Heritage (1999). Both charters, in addition to
providing criteria for intervention, stress the need for long-term
action in the form of education and sensitization measures,
involving the promotion of training and specialization
programmes in areas of preservation of traditional architecture,
aimed at technical professionals and politicians, who should head
policies for the assessment and rehabilitation of this heritage, and
seeking the complicity of the population, an active protagonist
and participant in this shared legacy.
It is in this context that the RehabiMed project proposes a series
of measures to encourage the rehabilitation of this architecture on
the basis of sensitization and training.

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Introduction
X

Rehabilitating Traditional Mediterranean


Architecture

In its global dimension, traditional habitat has a great deal to


contribute to a context of sudden changes and urbanization that
is neither sustainable nor environmentally friendly, and is marked
by a need for the reorientation of urban policies in order to reduce
conflicts between humankind and nature, improve quality of life,
encourage basic values of community life and call for the recovery
of the existing territory and recognition of cultural diversity.
For RehabiMed, the concept of rehabilitation covers a broad range Thessalonica, Greece
of action with a view to recovering and updating a lost or
damaged functionin this case, dwelling. On the basis of
present-day concerns, rehabilitation means improving the action
of dwelling by seeking a point of balance between technical
aspects, the preservation of heritage values and criteria of social
justice, economic efficiency and preservation of the environment
(the three mainstays of sustainability).
RehabiMed continues the task begun by the European Charter of
Architectural Heritage and the complementary Amsterdam
Declaration, both dated 1975 and promoted by the European
Council. These documents put forward the concept of integrated
conservation for the recovery of run-down historic centres, based
not just on the restoration of monuments but also on the
promotion of actions to rehabilitate the fabric of dwellings and
social measures.
RehabiMed therefore proposes a methodology that addresses the
rehabilitation process on the basis of integrating traditional space
into a wider territorial context; from the global viewpoint of a Beirut, Lebanon
multisectorial, economic, social and environmental approach; that
is driven by a desire for coordination and calls for consensus of
action between the various agents; that is flexible, due to the
need for continual adaptation to changing realities; and,
essentially, non-dogmatic, not claiming to produce single solutions
to the problems of the traditional habitat in the Mediterranean,
seeking instead solutions that adapt to the conditioning factors
and specificity of each local context.

Istanbul, Turkey

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Introduction
X

The RehabiMed Method on the scale


of the building. The Guide and its
constituent tools

Whereas the first volume of this publication is devoted to the


RehabiMed Method and its intervention on the scale of villages,
towns, cities and the territory, volume two is its complement,
focusing on the scale of the building. It is, then, a text aimed at
the architects, engineers and builders who design, direct and carry
out rehabilitation work on traditional buildings in the
Mediterranean. Dubrovnik, Croatia
Rehabilitation of a building calls for an overview of the territory in
which it is set and an understanding of its relation with the
territorial and urban context. This is why the RehabiMed Project
insists on the need to apply this Guide in the framework of the
overall rehabilitation method outlined in the first volume of this
publication, which sets out a series of shared, coherent criteria for
intervention in order to address the complex problems involved in
these situations.
This second volume is also divided into two different parts: a
methodology, which we refer to as the Guide, establishing
procedures for the successful undertaking of rehabilitation work,
and a practical part containing specific tools for concrete
problems.
The first part is the product of the joint work of a network of
Mediterranean experts who, in the first year of the RehabiMed
Project, drafted the basic principles and procedures of the Guide.
The texts in the Guide have been debated at length after
presentation at the 2005 RehabiMed Symposium in Marseilles, La Selva del Camp, Spain
and constituted the conceptual bases for various training seminars
in 2006 and 2007 (Nicosia, Cairo, Kairouan, Marrakech).
The second part, comprising practical tools, was written by
individual specialists in a variety of fields with a view to providing
elements of support for the various phases of rehabilitation work.
It aims to cover a broad range of problems and sensibilities which,
in our opinion, characterize the Mediterranean basin.
It is true that strict compliance with a guide of this nature calls for
a high degree of commitment and may raise issues that are
difficult to address according to the reality of a given country and
place, but we are convinced that setting high standards will, in the
long term, stimulate the quality of the rehabilitation of our
traditional architecture and contribute to its preservation.

Cairo, Egypt

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First part

The RehabiMed Guide


to the rehabilitation
of traditional buildings

An integrated approach
to the building
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RehabiMed Guide for Rehabilitation of traditional buildings

Objectives of the Guide It is also a guide that sets out to be, as far as possible, scientific,
objective and precise, and one that places a great deal of
emphasis on the initial phases of diagnosis and reflection prior to
the project; it is a guide that disagrees with interventions in built
With the aim of rehabilitating traditional architecture in a environments carried out without a thorough knowledge of the
conscious, orderly and adequate manner, this document offers the building and its circumstances, on the basis of the fact that this is
architect/engineer a guide1 to follow during the rehabilitation of how its always been done; a guide that mistrusts the excesses
traditional buildings. produced by a blind faith in new technologies applied without
The way we have chosen, though not necessarily the only one, criteria; and, finally, a guide that aims to cut back the habitual lack
first of all defends the need to preserve the fact of dwelling, both of economic control of rehabilitation work.
in the sense of improving the living conditions of inhabitants and It is quite true that for each specific building it is necessary to find
preserving the meaning of this architecture within the community. the scale and scope of each of the stages proposed. The
Secondly, it sets out to recognise traditional architecture as part of RehabiMed guide therefore presents a general outline of maxims
the Mediterranean cultural landscape. Its rehabilitation with a to be adapted to each specific case.
minimum rigour represents the transfer to future generations of The guide takes as its starting point the premiss that if we do not
heritage values (historical, artistic, memorial, testimonial, etc.). know, we are unable to reflect and, therefore, we cannot
We have to point out that acting according to these principles calls rehabilitate. It therefore proposes four divisions of the process
for an arduous task of sensitization: of the technical professionals, (knowledge, reflection and the project, the work, lifespan) within
because most of their university training is based on the which the different stages of work are carried out.
construction of new buildings using reinforced concrete and The aspects of architecture and construction proposed in a guide
industrialized techniques that are hard to reconcile with this of this kind for the rehabilitation of buildings might seem to be
architecture, and of the community, because it is vital for it to well known to all, but the very fact that they are known often
recognise the testimonial value of its architecture. To this end, we leads to false premisses in the various stages, and the quality of
propose mechanisms for the communitys active participation in rehabilitation work tends to suffer.
decision-making. TOOL 1 To close this introduction, we would just like to remind that this
guide acquires its maximum value when it is applied in a broader
area of action, whether on the scale of the district, the town or
the territory, and as part of a coordinated action plan as proposed
in the RehabiMed Method for the rehabilitation of traditional
Mediterranean architecture.

Traditional architecture is extremely vulnerable to the pressures of the contemporary


world. Its rehabilitation requires particular care to prevent its values from being
damaged. (Zuccarello, Italy)

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RehabiMed Guide for Rehabilitation of traditional buildings

The initial agents in the process

The foremost agent in any operation to rehabilitate a building is


the owner, who may be public or private, individual or collective.
In all cases, the owner represents the soul of the operation, the
seat of the desire to improve a home, do business, simply keep a
building standing, share in the collective enthusiasm of improving
a street, etc. It is also important to remember that some or all of
the dwellings in an apartment building may be rented, and the
needs and opinions of the tenants therefore have to be taken into
account.
On the other side of the relation, the architect/engineer is the
professional qualified to direct the various stages of rehabilitation
with the collaboration of a multidisciplinary team. This guide uses
the term architect/engineer, though in the Mediterranean context
we find various professionals who are qualified, totally or partially,
for this kind of work, such as the architect, the architect-engineer,
the building engineer, the technical architect, etc. However, the
complexity of careful rehabilitation work means that they are
particularly trained and sensitized to these issues, as well as being
open to the collaboration of experts from different disciplines
(historians, anthropologists, restorers, topographers, etc.).
The third agent in the process is the builder or contractor. The role
and capacity of this figure is different all over the Mediterranean.
In some areas, traditional know-how has completely disappeared,
whereas in others it is still possible to build as it was done in the
past. By protecting traditional Mediterranean architecture, we are
also protecting these crafts.

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RehabiMed Guide for Rehabilitation of traditional buildings

The phases of the Guide As a rough guide, we might say that, while in general practice the
process comprises just two phases (the decision to take action and
the work itself), RehabiMed proposes a sequential procedure, a
process in four consecutive phases that begins with the decision
RehabiMed observes how, in practice, the client decides on a series to act:
of improvements or changes to be made to a building and
immediately undertakes rehabilitation work. In some cases, the client I. Knowledge: any intervention must be preceded by knowledge
will consult an architect/engineer, but the result of rehabilitation is of the building and its occupants. Stage one (1. Preliminaries)
the reflection of the immediate needs of the moment. Some would includes the clients decision to take action but takes the form
argue that it has always been so, that this is an architecture without of a preliminary diagnosis that makes an initial, objective
architects, but we all know that the organic growth of pre-industrial valorization of the proposal and the object of intervention (the
architecture responded to techniques and conducts that were building and its users). The complexity of the building usually
distilled by tradition and carried out by true professionals, calls for a second stage of knowledge (2. Multidisciplinary
experienced workmen, whether master builders, masons or maalem, studies (Analysis)), based on meticulous disciplinary research to
who all form part of a world that has practically disappeared. The analyse3 social, historical, architectural and construction
proposal of the systematic participation of university-trained aspects.
technical professionals may seem a frankly technocratic alternative,
but we think it responds to the reality of the far-reaching social II. Reflection and the project:once knowledge of the building
changes in the Mediterranean basin. All of these technical and its users has been acquired, we can go on to reflection,
professionals have to be aware of the inevitability of most of these which represents a third stage, 3. Diagnosis (Synthesis), that
changes and the fact that, as Kevin Lynch2 reminds us, they will synthesizes4 the information collected during the previous
probably only be able to manage transitions. phase. This stage individually explores problems and their

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RehabiMed Guide for Rehabilitation of traditional buildings

causes, and produces an overview of the buildings potentials IV. Lifespan: it would seem that once rehabilitation of the
and deficits. The fourth stage (4. Reflection and decision- building is complete, the process is at an end, but we also
making) picks up the clients ideas for rehabilitation work and include a seventh and final stage, 7. Maintenance, which
seeks to reconcile them with the reality of the building, its comprises minor cleaning work, repairs and renovations carried
heritage values, economic possibilities for investment, etc. At out according to a timeframe throughout the buildings
this point the criteria of intervention are confirmed (how to lifespan until future rehabilitation (a major operation that will
conserve, to what extent to transform, etc.), and they must restore the building to the standards of the time). Particularly
therefore be guided by a solid professional ethic. And, finally, important in this stage are periodic inspections to detect
on the basis of sound criteria, it is now possible to move on to deficits and new needs before the building begins to decline.
the fifth stage (5. Project) and the drafting of the project
document that enables the contracting, constructing and
control of rehabilitation.

III. The work: Having passed through these two major stages,
phase six (6. Rehabilitation), will be far more precise, preserving
the values of the building, adapting better to the clients needs
and, though apparently contradictory, at a lower economic cost
because the uncertainties surrounding work have been better
defined. But in order to guarantee the quality of physical
rehabilitation work, the contracting of the builder and his
collaborators is vital, be they artisans, restorers or other
specialised companies.

This graph shows the conceptual difference between rehabilitation and As shown in this poster printed by Guarda City Council, although each of the
maintenance: from the moment of its construction, the building starts to age; streets inhabitants carry out with the best of intentions operations that might
if minor maintenance operations are carried out periodically, the building will age be termed rehabilitation, without supervision, a guide or criteria of conservation,
more slowly; finally, it reaches a point when the living standards of the time make the street will ultimately be changed to the point that it is unrecognisable. (Cmara
it obsolete (what we call the end of its lifespan) and a rehabilitation operation will Municipal da Guarda, 1985, Portugal).
be necessary.

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1 Preliminaries

This first stage brings together all the necessary contacts to begin
a buildings rehabilitation process, once the client has decided to
do so. The themes addressed are very varied in order to allow a
sufficiently open initial approach to the general framework of the
operation. This stage turns around what is generally called the
preliminary diagnosis, a phase of orientation for the client.

Decision to take action / Interview with the client


This stage represents an open dialogue between the owner and
the architect/engineer. The architect/engineer has to identify the
clients needs and desires, and detect possible ways of putting the
idea into effect. It is important to bear in mind that the initial
reasons for a commission may differ from the final decision. The
owner will often consult an expert for a minor problem (a crack,
damp, etc.), issues of comfort, municipal conservation
requirements, etc., but it is the architect/engineer who has to be
capable of orienting the owner in order to rationalize the

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intervention and perceive the more determinant needs which may Alongside the inspection, the architect/engineer has to investigate
be different to the owners initial concerns. the buildings legal status with a view to finding out the urban
The owner may also have decided on rehabilitation of the building planning obligations and restrictions to which it is subject
for purposes of financial investment, and in this case the (permitted urbanistic use, level of listing, legal protection imposed
architect/engineer has to be a good advisor with regard to the by urban planning, mortgages, censuses, etc.) and the grants that
legal aspects and economic cost of the operation. may be applied for in the event of rehabilitation. The degree of
heritage protection of the area and/or building is generally decisive
Preliminary diagnosis TOOL 2 to the operation. Initial contact with the corresponding authorities
The key point in this first stage is the preliminary diagnosis. This (municipality, regional administration, etc.) may help to clarify this
involves an initial global approach to the building, its values context. It is also necessary to detect the legal conditions of the
(architectural, historical, etc.) and its problems (related to buildings occupants: low-rent tenants, occupied dwellings, sublet
construction, habitability, etc.) by means of a preliminary tenants, etc.
inspection of the building. This first visit takes the form of a visual
inspection in which the architect/engineers experience plays a The preliminary diagnosis report
fundamental role. A visit to the whole building will be conducted After inspection and legal consultations, the architect/engineer has
in an attempt to recognise the construction system used, its an initial understanding of the building and will have detected its
characteristic architectural values, the pathologies affecting it, deficits and potentials.
associated social problems, etc. Particular attention will be paid to The preliminary diagnosis report may clearly include in summarised
the load distribution and water drainage. form the data collected, and must evaluate the buildings state of
All of this information can be compiled in one or various conservation and set forward recommendations. The expert may,
systematized inspection sheets. This is the case of the MER in then, from the start of the process, inform the owner of the
France and Switzerland, and the Test Mantenimiento in Spain, etc. possibilities of rehabilitating the building and technical and economic
Some of these inspection methods have recently incorporated restrictions. At this point, the client has to decide whether to
data associated with the buildings energy behaviour and other continue with his or her initial ideas or reformulate the intervention.
environmental parameters. This report may of course take the verbal form of an interview, but it
In situations of major fragmentation of ownership of the building, is always best to make a written record, as the client may wait several
a series of interviews is required to guarantee the participation of months to make a decision or consult another expert, and the
all owners and users of the building. written word is always more precise.
If the building is in a good state of repair and no major changes are
foreseen, we can go straight on to stage 7 (7. Maintenance) and
propose a preventive maintenance plan. However, 90% of cases call
for a second stage of multidisciplinary studies before starting
rehabilitation.

During the first visit, the architect/engineer has to acquire an overview of the
buildings problems (Como, Italy)

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intervention begins. By this token, it is advisable to set the


2 Multidisciplinary studies (analysis) objectives and some initial hypotheses5 in accordance with the
information collated in the preliminary diagnosis report and to
verify them as the studies advance.

Programme of multidisciplinary studies


This stage of the process consists of the systematic collection of These hypotheses will be taken as a basis to plan a feasible,
information in all the fields requiring research in order to produce coherent study campaign using the means available. At this point,
full knowledge of the object of study. the architect/engineer must be fully aware of the scale of the
Conducting these multidisciplinary studies successfully depends intervention (a small house, a large building containing many
on the training of the expert responsible for carrying out or dwellings, a listed building of great monumental value, etc.). The
directing them (the corpus of knowledge of the technical expert work may also be staggered to allow subsequent verifications to
may, in the simplest cases, be concentrated in one person with, at be made of initial ones. By this point it should be clear who the
some points, the consultation of various specialists). We cannot director of all the studies is to be.
trust exclusively to our own experience and intuition, which,
though very necessary, must be accompanied by the systematic Social aspects
collection of information, which, in some cases, will be backed by Depending on the type of rehabilitation, socioeconomic aspects
specialized tests. TOOL 3 may be crucial to the intervention. The basis for study tends to be
a sociological survey to detect family units and possible problem
Establishing of provisional hypotheses situations (overcrowding, marginalization, unemployment,
The multidisciplinary studies stage is fundamental to gaining abandonment, etc.) and their relation with the district as a whole.
sufficient knowledge of the building and its context before According to the type of operation, the possibility of provisional or

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definitive rehousing of inhabitants with very close links to the knowledge of both cultures and the possibility of combining them
municipality should be organized. harmoniously.
Furthermore, in the world of traditional architecture, anthropology
may provide us with valuable data about the social significance of Historical aspects
the house, use of spaces, customs, etc.all the intangible aspects Architecture, and this also applies to the traditional form, is valued
related to the communitys perception of its architecture. In the when it can be recognised as part of a tradition. The introduction
case of constructions that are as fragile as traditional architecture, of historical studies always helps to set far more solid criteria of
anthropological studies should be promoted to document forms intervention.
of dwelling that are in danger of disappearing. The fact that many First of all, the historical method explores documentary sources
dwellings in traditional neighbourhoods are now inhabited by (notary archives, family archives, old photographs, past projects
people emigrating from other traditions implies the need for for the building) in order to compile data that helps to understand
the building and its transformations. At the same time, the
building itself is a splendid historical document that can be
carefully studied as material culture using the archaeological
method that is generally conducted alongside the graphic survey
of the building (test drilling in walls, analysis of construction
materials, stratigraphic analysis of the building, etc.).
Another historical discipline, oral history, plays an important role in
the rehabilitation of traditional architecture. Asking questions of the
elderly may produce very useful data about the building and also
about traditional construction techniques that are disappearing.

Architectural aspects
Without a good graphic survey of the building it is difficult for the
architect/engineer to understand it and therefore to produce a
project in keeping with reality. The level of complexity of the
building and planned interventions will suggest the most suitable
An understanding of the customs associated with traditional lifestyle is part and
parcel of a careful approach to its architecture. The ethnographer Violant i Simorra
studied the customs of the people of the Pyrenees before transformation.

Rehabilitating a building is not intervening in an object; a house is the reflection of Deeds, wills, bills of sale and old plans form part of a rich documentary heritage
the people who live there, and it is necessary to find out their concerns, aspirations that provides first-hand knowledge about the history of a building (Santa Perptua
and needs. (Baakline, Lebanon) de Moguda, Spain, 1777 ACA).

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type of plan and its degree of precision. The type of survey may be techniques and their pathologies from a construction
manual (using a tape measure), topographic or photogrammetric. viewpoint. TOOL 4
In all cases, all efforts must be made to produce a precise plan, The way a 21st-century architect/engineer sees traditional
since it will provide the basis for all subsequent work. architecture is inevitably a present-day viewpoint marked by
At the same time, good photographic or video documentation is present-day concerns. It is important to take into account the fact
extremely useful, since it retains elements that may go unnoticed that the very idea of cultural heritage is a cultural construction of
at first sight. the last 200 years. In this respect, the value and authenticity of
A graphic plan is not only an abstract measuring operation. traditional Mediterranean architecture, in all its diversity, cannot
Drawing the building is the best way to discover and understand be valorized by a fixed criterion. The necessary respect for the
it. An important part of the plan is recognition of the buildings cultures of the Mediterranean basis calls for an understanding of
architectural values and the graphic plan of materials, construction architecture in its tradition.

The method of producing the graphic plan may be complicated by the


characteristics of the dwellings as well as the degree of precision. (Cave dwelling in
Matmata, Tunisia Institut National du Patrimoine, T. Dammak and M. Chakroun)

An evaluation of the values and transformations of the traditional dwelling can be


represented by the layers of finishes on the dwellings surfaces (floors, ceiling and
walls). (Dwelling in Tinerhir Ksar, Morocco III Atelier de Rhabilitation des Kasbahs
du Sud de lAtlas)

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The inspection will involve an unbiased study of the buildings


architectural values (integration in the place, spatial configuration,
singular structure, type of ornamentation, etc.), attempting to
avoid fragmentary appreciations and seeking the unitary logic that
produced the architecture.
During this stage we recommend consultation of the completed
studies about the buildings typology and, in some cases, the
carrying out of further studies about singular aspects of the
building. Traditional architecture is particularly characterized by
the surfaces of its walls (colour, texture, irregularities, etc. of
faades and interiors), making studies of colour and applied
decoration very valuable. This will involve multidisciplinary
participation, because the focus on the use of colour or applied
paint calls for a study of the history, art and construction of
traditional techniques.
It is also important to remember that though change is slow in the
pre-industrial world, a traditional building grows and is modified
in keeping with the needs and means of each period. It is
In order to understand a building within the architectural tradition of the area, it is therefore advisable to study the buildings architectural
important to consult works of reference about local architecture (historical or transformations, once again with recourse to a historical study, in
typological studies, etc.). (J. Revault: Palais et demeures de Fs, CNRS, 1988,
Morocco) order to understand its present-day configuration.
This stage will also require detailed consultation of the buildings
legal and urbanistic framework. In the case of listed buildings,
their records will be studied in order to understand why they are
partially or completely listed.

In order to discover spatial and constructional transformations, the architectural A building tends to have a long life, and the exterior image may have changed
analysis has to be based on a historical analysis that dates and identifies stylistic several times in its history. Colour studies analyse the layers of painting and/or
influences. (Building in Barcelona, Spain qaba.documentaci histrica) stucco on the faade with a view to discovering its original decoration and how it
has evolved. (Faade on the Rambla in Barcelona, Spain)

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Construction aspects TOOLS 5-6 The approach to problems has to be as scientific as possible:
This stage includes the identification of all the buildings physical detection of lesions, a preliminary hypothesis as to their causes
and construction elements, and observation of its lesions. Here we and verification of these hypotheses. The architect/engineer will
should point out that the training of architects and engineers since also have access to a series of experts (chemists, geologists,
the 19th century has centred on the study of construction by biologists, etc.) and tests (on site and in the laboratory) that will
subsystems (foundations, walls, floors, facings, etc.); in traditional allow him/her to identify materials, possible alterations,
architecture the building was constructed as a whole, and it is monitoring of fissures, wood boring insect attacks, etc.
important to address it from this global viewpoint. This stage It is particularly important to evaluate the buildings structural
therefore calls for an architect/engineer who is familiar with the safety in order to avoid accidents. This involves soil investigation
traditional construction methods of the region, with a solid (by means of a geotechnical report if necessary), an analysis of the
scientific and technical training in the pathology of traditional structural coherence of the whole and the structures load
buildings. capacity. This evaluation is particularly essential in seismic areas,
where a careful study of the buildings vulnerability is necessary.
This is a particularly conflictive issue, since structural safety
standards are designed for new constructions of steel and
reinforced concrete, and it is practically impossible to assimilate
them to the traditional reality. The dilemma of simultaneously
conserving and making a building secure can be nuanced by
knowledge of the buildings structural behaviour over long periods
of time.
When approaching the rehabilitation of a building, we
recommend introducing criteria of sustainability and
environmental protection. This involves analysing the buildings
water and waste cycles and energy consumption, and studying
winter and summer comfort levels. Mediterranean construction
tradition has countless bioclimatic solutions that should not be
undervalued due to ignorance of them during an intervention.
This phase should not overlook verification of the buildings
connectivity (state and position) with basic infrastructures
(drainage, drinking water, electricity, telephone networks, etc.) in
order to foresee from the start the effective possibilities of
connection, which in some cases would call for work that is simply
unfeasible.

An evaluation of the gravity of a buildings lesions calls for detailed knowledge of


how the building was constructed. (Thessalonica, Greece, 1997 Manos
Anagnostidis, Maria Dousi, Olympia Hatzopoulou)

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3 Diagnosis (synthesis)

Critical evaluation of studies


The diagnosis6 stage involves a task of synthesis and critical
reflection that is based on the multidisciplinary studies carried out
during the previous stage. This evaluation has to lead to unitary
planning to avoid excessively fragmentary results due to
limitations on the material available.
In order to organize and establish information it is always
necessary to place it beside other information and highlight it. For
example, superposing it graphically over the geometric plan of the
building. Three types of maps can be systematically drawn (in floor
plan, elevation, section): firstly, a map of values with notes about
the spatial, colouristic, historical and artistic values of each part or
the whole of the building; secondly, a map of deficits with notes
on the buildings social problems, features, and lesions and
degradations; and thirdly, the map of former and/or existing uses
showing how the building was and is used before intervention.

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The diagnosis phase must bring together all information in orderly fashion (plans of
values, deficits and previous uses). The team of Professor Luigi Zordan at the
Universit degli Studi dellAquila (Italy) has developed a reasoned guide offering
examples of how to represent this data in order to produce a judicious diagnosis
(Luigi Zordan: Le tradizioni del costruire della casa in pietra: materiali, tecniche,
modelli e sperimentazioni, 2002).

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Confirmation of hypotheses
The initial evaluation should produce an overview of the building
and confirm the hypotheses put forward at the start of
multidisciplinary studies, based on observations and tests.
However, it is always possible to raise new hypotheses (initial
hypotheses not subsequently confirmed, appearance of new
conditioning factors, etc.) and return to the study phase in order
to verify them.

Writing a report
At the end of this stage it is once again necessary to establish, in
writing, the knowledge gained about the building. This report will
list the buildings composition, describe and justify its values, list its
deficits and their causes, and offer recommendations. The
diagnosis report will always be written on the basis of
individuation of problems and their causes, according to the
criterion of technical impartiality.
This is a reasoned expert report and must be written so that other
technical professionals external to the process can understand it,
but it must also include a summary that can be understood by a
non-professional reader. The conclusions must be clear, concise
and complete. This note will specify the strong and weak points in
order to show the potential for rehabilitation of the existing
building.

Beside, a map of the original uses of a building produced by a historical study


(Antic Hospital de clergues de Sant Sever, Barcelona, Spain qaba.documentaci
histrica)

At the end of this stage we will have a report on the state of the building that lists
the causes of its deterioration, abandonment, etc. (Istituto de ricerca sul legno,
Florence, Italy)

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4 Reflection and decision-making

Feasibility
Now, with a perfect knowledge of the building and its users, it is
possible to study the feasibility of the clients ideas. A further
dialogue will take place with the owner about his/her future needs
and economic possibilities with regard to the potential of the
existing building.
The feasibility study will be based on three partial studies: 1. What
we call the transformability map, which simply compares and
contrasts the maps of values, deficits and previous uses produced
in the last stage, showing which parts of the building would be
subject to changes (eliminations, additions, alterations, etc.) and
which parts should be conserved to preserve their value; 2. The
programme of new uses proposed by the client (the brief) and
rationalized (surfaces, relations between uses, etc.) by the
architect/engineer; 3. The evaluation of regulatory conditioning
factors associated with parameters of urban planning and listing
And, finally, it is time to go back to the clients ideas and analyse their feasibility.
of cultural objects. (Meeting at Selva del Camp Town hall, Spain)

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Another two examples from Professor Zordans guide show us how to graphically
represent what he calls the map of transformability and processes of compatibility
with a view to reflecting on the integration of new uses.

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Continuity of use is generally accepted as the best way of


protecting this architecture, though in some cases its revitalization
involves a change of use. It is important to suggest sensible
changes of use, since some proposals may involve the practical
total loss of the values of traditional architecture.

Confirmation of criteria TOOL 7


As commented above, due to its great diversity, traditional
Mediterranean architecture cannot be approached with fixed
criteria.
In this stage, the architect/engineer has to establish the criteria to
be applied to the project (additions, eliminations, priority of
aspects of habitability, reintegration of lost parts, reversibility of
risky interventions, consolidation of ruined parts, etc.). Initially,
neither extreme should be dismissed: pure conservation or pure
restoration. The Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage
represents a first general framework to consider7.

Decision-making
Having confirmed the criteria, the compatibility of the type of
intervention has to be considered, striking a balance between
improvement to the inhabitants living conditions, safety of the
structure, safeguarding heritage values and the available
economic resources.
And, finally, the decision can be taken, with full knowledge of the
type of rehabilitation work (from conservation to restoration).

Three examples of buildings restored according to different criteria. (Lefkara, Cyprus


/ Thessalonica, Greece / Damascus, Syria)

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5 Project

Outline proposals
The outline proposals are a stage of comprehensive dialogue with
the client, during which it should be possible to activate the
participation of the inhabitants or users of the building. It will gauge
which of the various planning alternatives best adapt to the
proposed alterations and the existing building by applying the
criteria outlined during the previous phase. From the start, particular
attention will be paid to compliance with the legal framework.
Finally, the client will reach an informed agreement as to the type of
intervention contained in the project.

Project TOOLS 8-9


The working drawings will describe the intervention in sufficient
detail to be able to follow administrative procedures, contract the
The outline proposals phase systematically studies the alternatives for the integration
work and carry it out without deviating from established costs. of the new programme of uses into the building to be rehabilitated. One method is
The project interprets the criteria of intervention and applies a J.N. Habrakens, which studies the flexibility of spaces on the basis of what he calls
the theory of supports, used in some European rehabilitation work (J.N. Habraken:
series of technical parameters for the physical construction of the Denken in Varianten, het methodisch ontwerpen van dragers, 1974).
intervention.

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As a general rule, therapeutic intervention in a buildings problems


must address the causes, not just the symptoms.
The choice of a traditional or a modern technique will also depend
on the kind of builder who is contracted. It is now a question of
finding out whether traditional techniques are still used in local
construction and whether it is possible to recover them to carry
out rehabilitation.
Here we would like to mention a trend in theory that we think
could usefully be adapted to the rehabilitation of traditional
architecture and which centres on a necessary knowledge of
traditional techniques for responsible intervention in this form of
architecture. It includes the works by the Compagnons du Devoir
in France, studies on timber structures (Carpintera de lo blanco)
by Enrique Nuere in Spain and, most particularly, by Paolo Marconi
in Italy, who has put this knowledge to practice in the Manuale del
Recupero. The Manuale documents local construction tradition
(generally of a municipality or homogeneous region) and presents
professionals with forms of traditional intervention. Another step
forwards taken in Italy is the Codice di Pratica which introduces
methods of analysis and intervention in traditional architecture
(structural consolidation, earthquake, etc.), seeking to reconcile
traditional construction and more modern techniques. These
documents should be consulted during this phase and their

The design of the project calls for consultation of publications on local construction The project specifies interventions to consolidate and reinforce the building in
(Paolo Marconi: Manuale del Recupero del Centro Storico di Palermo, 1997 / sufficient detail on the right scale. (Reinforcement of the timber floor of Can
Antonino Giuffr and Caterina Carocci: Codice di Pratica per la Sicurezza e la Plantada, Spain Cristina Gonzalo Diego)
Conservazione del Centro Storico di Palermo, 1999).

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II. Reflection and the project


X

recommendations followed when working on the project.


It was these documents that launched the debate in Italy about
the use of modern techniques to reinforce and consolidate old
structures. During the design of the project, the impact of each of
the techniques used will be studied, along with their compatibility
with the existing building and the final visibility of the
intervention.
The same pains should be taken when integrating modern
installations into the building. From the outset, measures must be
taken for their integration without detracting from faades and
interiors, for example by proposing specific layouts.
The project also has to incorporate such parameters of
sustainability as are reasonable for the scale of the intervention
(water- and energy-saving measures, introduction of renewable
energies or facilities for the correct management of domestic
waste, etc.).
At the same time, each of the design decisions will study what is
now called the maintainability of construction solutionsthat is,
ensuring that all elements are accessible for subsequent ease and
safety of maintenance. The most obvious example is a window
that is practically impossible to clean, etc.
The project must be detailed but open to modifications justified by
discoveries made during rehabilitation work. It will include the
following documentation: geometric definition of the proposal
with measurements (floor plans, sections and elevations), plans of
the structure, finishes and installations, technical description, bill
of quantities, budget, technical specifications, and health and
safety measures.

Some municipalities have a traditional colour card for reference when drafting the Work on recovering faades specifies colours but also the type of chemical product
project. (LEscala City Council, Spain) to be used and how to apply it and control the quality. (Faade in Barcelona, Spain
Chroma Rehabilitacions Integrals SL)

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Stratgie
III. The work
X

6 Rehabilitation

Tender action
In order to guarantee correct rehabilitation, the choice of the
builder or contractor is very important. In some regions it is still
possible to find builders who are familiar with and use traditional
construction techniques, though they are, sadly, fast disappearing.
In some cases it may be possible to train the builder(s) in specific
techniques, but in most cases it is simply not possible to use
certain techniques because of their economic cost. If working with
a construction firm that has little specialized knowledge, particular
attention must be paid to the contract in order to supervise
materials and techniques. The type of contract will guarantee the
quality of work and the professionalism of the builder(s).
Some tasks of cleaning delicate walls or artistic works call for the
temporary contracting of restoration professionals using specific
methods and techniques.

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III. The work


X

Obtaining the building permit work to the planning of the entry of several trades, to studies of
The programming of rehabilitation has to take into account the site accessibility (a great deal of the work is carried out in the
waiting time for the relevant authorities to issue permits. In the narrow streets of historic centres), interior work using small
case of listed buildings, waiting times may be longer. The report machines (low heights, narrow passages, etc.), foreseeing the
may also be unfavourable, necessitating a return to the project protection of certain parts of the building from the elements and
phase. rehabilitation work itself, and avoiding accumulation of workers.
Furthermore, it is difficult to envisage demolition operations on a
Carrying out the work TOOL 10 rehabilitation site; these will in fact be deconstruction or
Works direction in the case of a traditional building calls above all dismounting operations. At the start of work, elements to be
for flexibility and dedication. Unforeseen events tend to arise as dismounted for reuse will be marked (collecting tiles, timber
work is carried out, and it is difficult to only apply what is beams, etc.) and measures will be taken for the correct disposal of
indicated by the project. site waste. The project supervisor must at all times supervise
The follow-up of the work may, then, allow the ongoing revision dismounting work and take the necessary safety measures to
of the project and reinterpretation of the building in the light of avoid accidents due to partial imbalances in the building or the
new discoveries, which, in some cases, may call for changes to the appearance of materials or products that are dangerous for health
project. (asbestos cement, asbestos insulation, electrical transformers with
The project describes construction solutions to reinforce, PCBs, etc.).
consolidate or renovate an element. During work it will be
necessary to establish mechanisms to verify the suitability of the Handover of the work
construction solution and its correct functioning. Upon completion of the work, legal procedures will be carried out
Important aspects to follow up are initial considerations, economic to consider it finished and, in some cases, to apply for grants.
supervision, and control of the effectiveness of solutions to It is important to use this stage to analyse the management,
reinforce and coordinate the safety of work. construction and compliance of the project with planned uses.
During work a mechanism will have been established to produce Though at this point some aspects can be corrected, this feedback
a dossier about all the work carried out, upon completion. This stage should serve to improve the project phase for subsequent
comprises a series of plans that reflect how the rehabilitation as commissions; no opportunity to learn from mistakes should be
built. This document is vital for documenting work in accordance wasted.
with the Venice Charter but also for organizing a maintenance
programme (see stage 7).
There are also a series of organizational aspects of the work that
have to be taken into account, ranging from the programming of

When organizing the work site, it is useful to put up a notice board showing the
main plans to ensure an overview of the process and pinpoint problems at all times.
(Beit Baluk, Damascus, Syria)

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Stratgie
IV. Lifespan

7 Maintenance

As we have commented several times, traditional architecture is


extremely vulnerable. Custom has been responsible for its
conservation (whitewashing during spring celebrations, checking
tiles after high winds, etc.), but socio-cultural changes in todays
world (the culture of disposability) have accentuated the
abandonment of this form of architecture.
If the need for rehabilitation has arisen, it is due in part to such
abandonment. Having made the effort to undertake
rehabilitation, it is important to make the most of the opportunity
to promote its upkeep, because on the very day rehabilitation
work is completed, the building starts to age.

Publicizing the buildings values among the community


The breakdown of the traditional world and cultural
homogenization have led to disregard for much of this
architecture as a symbol of the poverty and backwardness of its

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IV. Lifespan

population. Once rehabilitation work is complete, it has to be a


priority to acquaint the community with its values and make them
part of its rehabilitation. Each case will be different but it is
important to promote some kind of sensitization activity to show
the value of the work carried out (a small event to show how work
was carried out, publication of photographs of before and after
rehabilitation, publication of the work in the local press, etc.).

Choice of the model of maintenance


An initial definition of building maintenance would be the series
of periodic tasks carried out in order to conserve it, during its
lifespan, in suitable conditions to cover foreseen needs.
Maintenance is habitually associated with the idea of repairing
damaged elements, what we call corrective maintenance, but
what the RehabiMed method proposes is to think in terms of
planned and preventive maintenance.
Planning involves the preparation of a calendar of maintenance
operations, and preventing means carrying out maintenance
operations before the construction element deteriorates.

The identity card TOOL 11


It is a good policy to promote care of rehabilitated housing by instituting public In order to systematize this way of organizing maintenance, we
initiatives that value heritage. (1987 Prize for the whitest street, Serpa, Portugal)
propose to give the building an identity card, a document that
compiles all the information about the building and incorporates
a timeframe to programme maintenance operations. This card will
be presented to the owner (in some cases to all the tenants) so
that recommendations can be followed. In most cases, the
architect/engineer who completed work and is perfectly
acquainted with the building will prepare the information about
the building and a timeframe of maintenance operations.
Information about the building will comprise the dossier as built
(see previous stage) and recommendations for use of the building.
The timeframe will also programme maintenance operations for
the coming 10 years (cleaning, inspections, repairs and
renovation). The timeframe should also indicate who will carry out
these tasks (the user, a trusted builder, an installer, a specialized
firm or the architect/engineer).
These cards can also be used to make a note of maintenance
operations carried out, incidents that have taken place and
alterations made, so that with the passing of the years it becomes
a record. The identity card, a kind of clinical record about the
building, will also in the long term provide invaluable information
for the conservation of and future interventions in the building.

Maintenance extends the lifespan of buildings and slows the ageing process.
(Cairo, Egypt)

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IV. Lifespan
X

6 Diagnosis: act of deciding the nature of an illness by observation of the symptoms


Maintenance work according to a timeframe
and signs.
The operations programmed on the calendar will include a series
7 Guidelines in practice of the Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage, ratified by
of periodic inspections by an architect/engineer to evaluate the
the ICOMOS 12th General Assembly, in Mexico, October 1999:
buildings safety (for example, in relation to detachment of 1. Research and documentation
faades, risk of gas leaks, structural deformations) and Any physical work on a vernacular structure should be cautious and should be
preceded by a full analysis of its form and structure. This document should be
reprogramme the timeframe. In some cases, it will be possible to
lodged in a publicly accessible archive.
detect serious problems in time and propose the repeat of the 2. Siting, landscape and groups of buildings
entire process (1. Preliminaries). Interventions to vernacular structures should be carried out in a manner which will
In this way, the architect/engineer will become, like a family respect and maintain the integrity of the siting, the relationship to the physical
and cultural landscape, and of one structure to another.
doctor, the general technical practitioner with the building 3. Traditional building systems
among his or her records, thereby ensuring long-term The continuity of traditional building systems and craft skills associated with the
sustainability of what is now a complete rehabilitation project. vernacular is fundamental for vernacular expression, and essential for the repair
and restoration of these structures. Such skills should be retained, recorded and
passed on to new generations of craftsmen and builders in education and training.
4. Replacement of materials and parts
Alterations which legitimately respond to the demands of contemporary use
should be effected by the introduction of materials which maintain a consistency
of expression, appearance, texture and form throughout the structure and a
consistency of building materials.
5. Adaptation
1
Adaptation and reuse of vernacular structures should be carried out in a manner
To guide: to go before, showing a path.
which will respect the integrity of the structure, its character and form while being
2 LYNCH, Kevin: What time is this place?, 1972. compatible with acceptable standards of living. Where there is no break in the
3 continuous utilisation of vernacular forms, a code of ethics within the community
Analysis: distinction and separation of the parts of a whole in order to discover
can serve as a tool of intervention.
its principles and elements.
6. Changes and period restoration
4 Synthesis: composition of a whole by the joining together of the parts. Changes over time should be appreciated and understood as important aspects
5 Hypothesis: a provisional theory or supposition taken as the basis for research to of vernacular architecture. Conformity of all parts of a building to a single period
confirm or deny its validity. will not normally be the goal of work on vernacular structures.

The maintenance timeframe programs operations over the year and indicates which
professional should carry them out. (Carnet dentretien, PI-BAT, 1991, Switzerland)

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RehabiMed Guide for Rehabilitation of traditional buildings

Good state, without new go to


needs

1 = programme
maintenance plan 7
PRELIMINARIES Good state, with new MAINTENANCE
needs
= extend studies

Decision to Preliminary diagnosis Preliminary Habitability problems


take action / diagnosis = extend studies
Interview report
Visual inspection of
with the
building
client
Conservation problems
(obsolete)
= extend studies
Identification of
users
Important value for the
community (listed)
Start of participatory = extend studies
process
(building and users)

Serious problems of
I. KNOWLEDGE

go to
habitability (over-
crowding, fire security)

2
Legal framework of
building and users
= extend studies

Serious problems of
structure MULTIDISCIPLI-
NARY STUDIES
= evacuation and
extend studies
(ANALYSIS)

2 Social aspects
Socioeconomic
Historical aspects

Study of documentary
go to

5
MULTIDISCIPLI-
NARY STUDIES
approach

Anthropological
sources
3 PROJECT
(ANALYSIS) Archaeological method DIAGNOSIS
approach
(SYNTHESIS)
Oral history
Establishing Programme
Outline proposals Project
of of
provisional multidiscipli- Architectural aspects Construction aspects Technical parameters Documentation
Planning alternatives
II. REFLECTION AND THE PROJECT

hypotheses nary studies


Local construction Working drawings
Graphic survey Construction system knowledge

Degradation Visibility of the Production information


Integration in the place intervention
phenomena
Incorporation of ideas
from the participatory
Structural and fire Technological Bill of quantities
Typological analysis process
security compatibility

Integration of modern Budget


Spatial analysis Comfort parameters installations
(building and users)

Agreement with the


I. KNOWLEDGE

client
Colour and decoration Environmental Sustainability Technical specification
study parameters

Legal and urbanistic Infrastructure Maintainability Health and safety


framework connectivity measures

return to

2 3 6 Obtaining the
building
permit
DIAGNOSIS REHABILITATION
MULTIDISCIPLI-
(SYNTHESIS)
NARY STUDIES
(ANALYSIS)

Tendering process Carrying out the work Handover of


Critical evaluation of the Confirmation Writing a report the work
studies of Follow-up Organization
II. REFLECTION AND THE PROJECT

Choice of the builder


hypotheses Buildings composition
Ongoing revision of the Programming of works
project

Map of values Call for tenders


Description of studies
Effectiveness of the Protection of building
(historical, artistic...) carried out
construction solutions
- from the elements
- from the rehabilitation
Justification of building Building contract
Evaluation of new work itself
values
discoveries
Map of deficits
(social, features, Description of deficits
Training workers Coordination of works Reuse of materials,
lesions...) safety waste control...
III. THE WORK

Diagnosis
Dossier of work as built Avoid accumulation of
Map of former and/or Contracting specialists
workers
existing uses
Recommendations

Decision- go to
Programme
making maintenance plan

4 Rehabilitate the faade


and/or the roof
7 7 The identity card
Information about the building
Maintenance work
according to a timeframe

REFLECTION MAINTENANCE MAINTENANCE


AND DECISION- Dossier of work as built Cleaning Adapt the
Improve basic
MAKING habitability maintenance
programme
Improve energetic Recommendations for use Inspections
performance and Choice of the model
Feasibility Confirmation of criteria comfort of maintenance
Repairs
Improve environmental
Maintenance timeframe
II. REFLECTION AND THE PROJECT

performance Preventive The building needs


Transformability map maintenance further
(values + deficits + Cleaning Repairs Renovation rehabilitation
existing uses) Improve basic
equipment and supplies
Maximum
conservation Inspections Renovation
Extensions, change of Corrective
Programme of new use maintenance
uses

Structural consolidation

Maximum
Publicizing the
Evaluation of
transformation go to building's values go to
IV. LIFESPAN

regulatory factors Seismic consolidation among the

Fire prevention
5 community
1
PROJECT PRELIMINARIES

Complete rehabilitation

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Second part

The RehabiMed tools

An aid
to the rehabilitation
of traditional buildings
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I. Knowledge
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Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation
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Tool 1
Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation I. Knowledge

Traditional Mediterranean Jos Luis Garca-Grinda


Doctor of Architecture
Architecture. Professor of the Department of History and Theory o
Territory, landscape and traditional Architecture at the School of Architecture of Madrid 1
(Technical University of Madrid), Spain
architecture

To speak of a Mediterranean territory is to refer to a diversity of


landscapes in which sea and mountains are involved in constant
dialogue and reach out to each other, in a geographical formation
marked by a series of territorial contraststhe fertile and the
desert, mountains with plains, rough and smooth, plateaus with
riverbanks, coastline and inlandwhere the hand of humankind
has shaped the urban and the rural.
The Mediterranean is a space where human activity over the
centuries has used and shaped the territory, leaving marks, traces,
landmarks, references, the products of its historical development.
Cities, towns, villages, caseros, estates, temporary settlements,
cabins, tents, refuges, etc., with miscellaneous arrangements,
spaces and organizations, are the forms of human dwelling in this
territory. Added to these are other non-residential arrangements,
dissociated from the dwelling and associated with productive uses
(farming, stock-keeping, forestry, pre-industrial, etc.), or other
collective and private needs and services.
The network of roads, for vehicles, people on foot or livestock,
along with natural watercourses, aided by ports, wharves,
moorings, etc., interlink and communicate settlements and places. Landscape of rural settlements with farmed terraces: Estellecs (Spain)
In addition to the hydraulic network, artificially created to harness
the territorys water resources, these constitute the organization of
the space constituted by the terrazgo and the montazgo, with
their divisions and limits, and a variety of scattered built elements,
a structured territorial complex with those settlements and
arrangements. All this is the result and reflection of prolonged
interaction throughout different historical epochs and societies
between humankind, nature and the physical environment.
Bearing witness to the relation of developing communities, When referring to traditional Mediterranean architecture, the
individuals and their environment is the creation and shaping of house is the heart and the symbol of this organized architecture as
landscapes in territorial spaces of cultural interest, known as a whole, in both urban and, particularly, rural settlements. It is
cultural landscapesterritories in our geographical scope, in the conceived as the seat and the heart of traditional life and
materialization and personalization of which traditional activities, and, in the words of Viollet-le-Duc, in architecture as a
architecture has a significant role. whole, the home is what best characterizes the customs, tastes
It is important to clarify that professional specializations (urbanism, and uses of a peoplethe way it lives and feels. Set on its own
architecture or engineering) apart, I understand architecture in a site, it may be accompanied by buildings or parts of buildings that
territorial sense, following the definition provided by William meet the various artisan, farming and commercial uses and needs.
Morris in the second half of the 19th century, as a series of The actual estate or private property may also include, though
alterations produced on the surface of the earth at the service of separate from the house or on common land, a whole range of
human needs. This broad definition embraces and ties up with the buildings of this kind, which go to define the characteristic
architectural concept of cultural landscape, including settlements traditional architecture of each comarca or territory. The house in
at their various levels of size and complexity, buildings, this sense is not just a physical structure, it is an institution created
infrastructures and the various treatments presented by urban and for a complex set of ends, and its construction can be qualified as
rural non-built spaces. a cultural phenomenon. It is, then, not unusual in traditional

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Tool 1
I. Knowledge Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture

1 architecture for the concept and actual name of the house to be cisterns, tanks, deposits and supplies of water for human and
used to identify not just dwelling place but also the estate as a animal consumption and watering, such as washing places, water
whole and its associated properties, seen as a symbolic place of troughs, pools, aqueducts and irrigation channels, and the
coexistence and production. constructions and mechanisms that extract water from its natural
These auxiliary architectures vary a great deal in their nature. They courses and wells, such as dams, millraces, crankshafts and
basically serve farming or livestock functions or provide back-up waterwheels, for services such as the forge, the smithy and the
for these productive activities, separated from the house for kiln. Others provided infrastructure for hunting activities, such as
reasons either of function or hygiene, such as stables, sties, ovens hides, kill sites or pits to catch bears, wolves or other vermin. The
and kilns, granaries, silos, barns, drying sheds, storehouses, architectures of civil and religious institutions were represented by
threshing grounds, cellars, dovecots, apiaries, refuges, etc. There the town hall, with various facilities for education, justice, food
are also others that respond to the same needs but are collective supplies, trade, lodging, health, sport and celebrations, such as
in use or ownership, such as granaries, refuges, livestock pens and
folds, etc., some of them permanent and some used in
transhumance.
Another group of architectures provides facilities or public services
to the community, often adopting traditional forms and
organizations, and, on occasion, forming part of the housing
programme. In some cases, these architectural elements were the
property of the council or collective associations, sometimes also
providing revenue for them to support the development of their
activities. These included various types of fountains, wells,

House in Languedoc and Provence (France), with dovecot, drawing by Viollet-Le-


Duc

Caseros in La Axarqua (Spain), based around modern raisin production Alquzar (Spain), Al kassar, a town founded in the 13th century beneath the 10th-
century castle of Arabic origin

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Tool 1
Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation I. Knowledge
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture

schools, prisons, pillories, counsel trees, markets, souks, shops, fulling mills, saltworks, pottery, glass, iron, lime and plaster kilns, 1
guilds, almuds, corn exchanges, fondouk or khan, salt different artisan workshops, textile mills, tanneries, dyers and
storehouses, psitos, tithe barns, tercias, hostelries, inns, taverns, forges. Extraction activities covered mines, quarries, kilns and
hostels, baths, hospitals, poorhouses, hospices, bowling alleys and mineral-panning sites. There was also the organization and
pelota courts, complemented in some cases by private activity. The elements of certain road infrastructures (actual roads, cart tracks
specifically religious included churches, mosques, synagogues, and paths, livestock tracks, paths, or bridges, pontoons,
oratorios, sanctuaries, wayside crosses and cemeteries. footbridges, sewers, etc.) and systems of irrigation and those
Pre-industrial architecture dedicated to production, which may be associated with sailing and fishing activities, such as ports,
listed under some of the previous headings, included mills driven wharves, shipyards, moorings and hatcheries. Another heading
by beasts of burden, water or wind, olive-oil mills, presses, paper was the treatment of public space (pavements, steps, ramps,
and sugar mills, smithies, coppersmiths, water-driven sawmills, roofs, pergolas, benches and vegetation), elements to form and
enclose farming space, such as terraces, fences, hedges, walls,
enclosures, gates, etc., or these elements organized to this end,
exemplified in such exposed spaces as some African oases, where
the palm grove becomes a solar roof, beneath which fruit trees
grow, and the lower level becomes a vegetable garden, feeding
on the structure of irrigation channels, enclosed by dense
palisades made of palm branches that protect it from the desert
sands.
Added to these organizations are the public spaces they form,
which, in both the urban and the rural worlds, are notably
complex. They are defined and organized by significant buildings
and elements, with specialized uses linked to a whole range of
activities (public, civic and religious, representative, commercial,
festive, productive, access-related, etc.) in squares, avenues,
gardens, streets, alleys, dead ends, open drains, atriums,
fountains, watering and washing places, tracts of land, threshing
grounds, crossroads, fords, etc.

House in the country; masia in Cass de la Selva (Spain)

Landscape of terraced crops in La Alpujarra, Ohanes (Spain) The humanization of the landscape: Bentarique (Spain)

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Tool 1
I. Knowledge Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture

1 This represented a whole series of architectures ranging from a truly be termed cultural.
degree of organizational and constructional complexity, the The Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage drafted by ICOMOS
building of which called for the participation of artisans or in 1999, a continuation of the Venice Charter, provides in its
specialist tradesmen, to other, more basic examples, which were introduction a summarized characterization of this cultural
simply built by the individual in question, alone or with the help of product, tabling an incipient territorial vision:
others. In short, a complex and varied body of architecture that
gives the Mediterranean territory its own specific identity, The built vernacular heritage is [...] the fundamental expression
reflecting both local specificity and cultural relations in the of the culture of a community, of its relationship with its territory
architectural forms that were the result of historical exchanges, and, at the same time, the expression of the world's cultural
and in which each part, no matter how small, goes to shape the diversity.
character of these different Mediterranean landscapes that can

The human scale in rural landscapes: casero in Santa Mara de Nieva (Spain) Salobrea (Spain), Greek settlement on a former island, with the sugar cane
plantations, of Arabic origin, and the Arabic and Christian town centre, crowned by the
citadel

Farming caseros, Ecija (Spain) Sanctuary of Sidi ali El-Mekki (Tunisia)

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Tool 1
Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation I. Knowledge
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture

Vernacular building is the traditional and natural way by which phenomena were dominated by the rural nature of their 1
communities house themselves. It is a continuing process surroundings, based on production and evolution within the
including necessary changes and continuous adaptation as a mechanisms of tradition and therefore associated with a specific
response to social and environmental constraints. territory.
The process of designing and constructing this architecture was
based on models that varied in accordance with individual
Values of traditional mediterranean architecture experiences, needs and possibilities. These variations mean that in
many cases we are dealing with open models, characterized by
Traditional Mediterranean architecture can be characterized as a the presence of significant shared elements, forms or parts. Some
pre-industrial product, set in both the urban and, particularly, the authors even consider types as such not to exist, contrasting with
rural environment, where, until well into the 19th century, urban the so-called primitive vernacular architectures, products of
societies with little stratification and limited economic and social
development, in which the types are more closed and constant.
The forms used by the latter are present in the Mediterranean area
above all in the form of refuges, cabins, shacks and tents,
adopting elementary organizations that exist alongside the most
complex traditional architectures.
Models are the result of the collaboration of many people for
generations, including those who used them and those who
constructed the buildings. In this respect, there are no actual
designers, since everyone was familiar with the models. However,

Section of a dovecot, a specialized construction in cereal-growing areas, Fromista


(Spain)

Farm and storehouse, Valle del Mejerda (Tunisia) Waterwheel, washing place, drinking trough and irrigation channel in a row, Pozo
de los Frailes (Spain)

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Tool 1
I. Knowledge Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture

Forge machinery in Compludo (Spain)

Troglodytic oil press, Galipolli (Italy) Watermill adapted to low water levels, Huebro (Spain)

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Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation I. Knowledge
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture

specialist craftsmen were habitually involved in their construction 1


due to their greater specific knowledge of both architecture as a
whole and the more complex or specialized parts of their
construction. Builders, stonecutters, masons, roofers and
thatchers, carpenters and ironsmiths are some of the specialized
workers involved, who often incorporated details and know-how
taken from the historical architecture of designers, even
interpreting and integrating certain aspects to make their built
work stand out from the rest.
Architectural form therefore adapts to given problems, to specific
needs and available means, without conscious aesthetic effort,
though some buildings present distinguishing decorative features
that mark them out, economic possibilities permitting. It is based
on the idea that a common task should be carried out in the
simplest, most direct and least troublesome way possible, in a
society linked to tradition in which changes occur within a given
shared inheritance and hierarchy of values, reflected in the types
of buildings. Its form is characterized by being a product of use
rather than change, marked by its capacity for aggregation and its
openness and flexibility, easily allowing for modification and

Agricultural waterwheel in the river Orontes, Shaizar (Syria)

Public spaces protected by arches can be used as a place for gatherings and doing Windmills in the port of Rhodes (Greece)
business, Ciudadela (Spain)

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1 growth. By this token, it is conceived as something simple, clear daytime, sleeping and eating, and even summer and winter.
and easily comprehensible, in which tradition is expressed as a
form of collective control, even in the field of architecture, as a Historical cultural relations across the Mare Nostrum are often
form of respect for others and the environment. A decrease in the imprinted on traditional architecture in the presence of elements
presence of tradition and greater economic development are and organizations that link architectures from relatively distant
related to the greater individual evolution and diversity of the geographical areas in the Mediterranean, qualifying their exclusive
house, reflected significantly in the differentiation and progressive local specificity. In Spain, for example, the concave undertile,
specialization of living and work spaces, particularly as of the Late known as an Arabic tile, which evolved from the Roman tegula, is
Middle Ages, with the appearance of differentiated rooms for significantly referred to as an Andalusian tile in North Africa, as a

An enclosure and roof for livestock; fold in Sesnndez (Spain) Simplicity and cleanness of detail: drain on a terrace, Arcos de la Frontera (Spain)

Collecting rainwater in a dry climate: rural cistern, Los Almagros (Spain) Classical influences in traditional architecture: house in Minorca.

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result of the arrival in those territories, especially in the 16th and we know of the transport overland and by river and sea, since 1
17th centuries, of the Moors expelled from the Iberian Peninsula, ancient times, of certain special materialstimber, stone and
while the different circumstances of its presence in other marbletransported from one side of the Mediterranean to the
Mediterranean territories give it local names. other. The calceranite from the impressive quarry of El Haouaria in
This architecture uses local materials such as stone, earth, timber Tunisia, extracted since Punic and Roman times, was loaded
and other plant matter, establishing a close relation with the directly onto boats waiting in the caves created at the seas edge.
environment and the place. This use of locally available materials Timber from the Cuenca mountain range was, in the 10th century,
directly relates economy and effort with durability, in accordance transported downriver to the east coast of Spain and the Arabic
with the available building technology and knowledge. Their use ports of Denia and Valencia, where it was used to build ships and
is governed by a hierarchy of quality and durability of the material, buildings, and exported to Egypt.
depending on the budget and the symbolic and functional role of Traditional architecture works with the place, both in establishing
the built work. It is not unusual for the most expensive, long- settlements, seeking prime orientations and preserving fertile
lasting materials to be reserved for the main faade, while the land, and in laying out the house. In the latter case, it adapts
remaining faades, parts and auxiliary constructions, of less knowledge of the microclimate, using simple passive systems
symbolic importance, are built using cheaper and less durable based on the thickness and colour of masonry and differing
materials. It is the use of local materials that determines greater layouts, sizes and coverings of openings to seek protection from
continuity of the different construction types, also influenced by inclement weather. The overall shape of the building and its roof
evolution. It is also important to bear in mind significant changes responds differently to wet or dry climates, with pitched roofs and
produced by a variety of phenomena, such as the replacement of projecting eaves or terraced or flat roofs. There were also specific
plant matter in roofs and visible structures due to fire risk in heating systems, with large kitchens that fulfilled their primary
relatively recent times in many places in our territory. Exceptionally, function as well as comprising the centre of domestic life. The

Coloured renderings in evolved cave dwellings: neighbourhood of La Chanca in Complements for the house: communal oven, Zalduendo (Spain)
Almera (Spain)

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1 Spanish example of the gloria, a successor of the Roman


hypocaust, is a response adapted to deforested cold areas, where
a closed hearth with practically no oxygen allows the slow burning
of small products such as straw. The harnessing of ventilation to
produce through draughts or the construction of fireplaces to
draw hot air out of the downstairs rooms can be found in the
warm areas in northern North Africa and the Far East, drawing the
coldest air from lower-lying north-facing areas, as specific
adaptations in places where climatic conditions are adverse.
Natural plant materials were incorporated into faades and patios
to produce increased climatic comfort with their shade and
moisture, complemented by construction elements to enhance
their effects.
Curved Arabic roof tiles derived from the Roman tiles, with different shaped
This form of architecture also takes into account the specific
imbrexes and channel tiles, Aldea Quintana (Spain) experience of some places as regards natural phenomena, such as
earthquakes and tremors, generating structures that seek defence
from their destructive effects, such as double parallel structures in
the faade and roof, independent of the latter to prevent it falling
in, based on the flexibility of timber structures, present in the east
in Greek and Turkish examples, corresponding to the meeting of
the Eurasian and Anatolian Plates. Another example is the
incorporation of flexible joints implemented horizontally along the
masonry walls or at the buildings corners, comprising joists and

Plant materials: fence to enclose and protect the oasis of Douz (Tunisia)

Timber and stone: floor structure in the Alpujarra, Pampaneira (Spain) Brick: Mudejar influences in Nezta (Tunisia)

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right-angled pieces of timber. Solutions of this kind are present in over 1,500 m. This distribution, along with an organization of 1
various examples of architecture in North Africa, and they are even compact houses, without courtyards, is in fact the cultural residue
used in the architecture of Turkish tradition in the Egyptian of dwellings of Berber origin that can be related to those in the
maritime centre of Rosetta, in a clear example of historical Moroccan Atlas. The construction and correct functioning of these
exportation. terraces is based on the use of a purplish impermeable clay, with
One of the frequently cited contemporary values of popular a high proportion of manganese, called launa, applied in various
Mediterranean architecture is its function, thanks to these simple layers over floor tiles supported by wooden beams. This represents
yet intelligent climatic adaptations, as an example of the new a complement to public space, very limited due to the orographic
bioclimatic architecture. Here, constructional passivity combines difficulties inherent in these settlements on steeply sloping
with adjustments to sunlighting and the creation of systems mountainsides, using terraces as an open-air workplace and a
incorporating ventilation, the creation of shade and moisture, and space to hang out products to dry.
complementary heating systems in which biomass is the energy Along with judicious adaptation to and respect for place, the use
resource generally used, as methods used by this form of of time-honoured artisan building techniques involving the
architecture to improve comfort in response to the climatic controlled use of local materials and the reuse of any useful
conditions. construction element in existing constructions makes traditional
architecture a useful contributor to sustainable development. It
Nor is there any shortage in the rich and diverse array of certainly expresses and conserves the knowledge, accumulated
Mediterranean architecture of solutions that might be termed and handed down over generations, of the huge diversity of
anticlimactic. The houses in the Alpujarra, in the mountainous historical construction techniques based on different varieties and
region of Granada and Almera in southern Andalusia, feature a characteristics of the local materials used. This shared body of
characteristic terrace-type roofnot, apparently, the most ideal traditional knowledge can be regarded as a true cultural legacy of
solution in this mountainous territory with high precipitation and building know-how in the Mediterranean, an intangible heritage
no lack of snow in winter, with some settlements at an altitude of to add to that of tangible reality, clearly applicable to the recovery

Stone: mooring points or nerois in the port of LEscala (Spain)


Cultural transmission and influences: a balcony protected by latticework, the
application of the Arabic ajimez to colonial architecture in the Canary Islands, Icod
de Los Vinos (Spain)

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1 and restoration of historical architecture. It is a form of knowledge


on occasion tinged with ingenuity, since it uses solutions that are
not strictly orthodox in technical terms, but that do offer a freshness
and even a primitivism that gives them an appeal of their own.
Local materials and traditional artisan techniques in themselves
represent a major economic potential. The implementation of
processes to recover and rehabilitate this architecture generate
qualified labour, constituting a market even in areas where there
is no industrial labour alternative, as in much of the
Mediterranean rural world.

Gloria stove and trivet in a cave dwelling, section, Castrojeriz (Spain) Gloria stove and trivet in mountainous area (Spain), drawing by Leonardo
Rucabado, early 20th century

Climatic use of vegetation: orange tree in the courtyard of an Andalusian-style Casero with terraced roof in the Alpujarra, Trvelez (Spain)
rural, Testour (Tunisia)

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The attraction of traditional architecture for modern architects, as 1


a source of inspiration for their language, is directly related to the
simple, rational treatment of many of the solutions it employs, in
a direct relation between form, function and built reality. This
simplicity in the treatment of its forms that merely seek to respond
to specific needs or solve a given problem gives traditional
architecture an absolutely modern concept of formal beauty, in
which reason adopts the form-function binomial. It is no surprise
that masters of the Modern Movement such as Frank Lloyd
Wright, Le Corbusier and Alvar Alto drew on this source. More
recent figures, too, such as Hassan Fathy and Barragn, have used
constructional and plastic forms in their new architectures with a
marked desire to introduce references to it. The pure, cubic, white
volumes of some traditional Mediterranean architecture have
served as a reference to much of the modern architecture
produced since the 1920s. Regionalist eclecticism, too, in some
countries, generated an alternative to this modernity, at the same
historical moment, with architectures that combined motifs taken
from traditional models in a search for a national architecture as
opposed to the internationalization of the Modern Movement.
Their forerunners, the supposed pioneers of the Modern
Movement, such as the Arts and Crafts movement in the second
half of the 19th century, took as their inspiration the vernacular
The urban courtyard as a climatic regulator and a generator of shade and
ventilation, Arcos de la Frontera (Spain) buildings of the Middle Ages to generate a new architecture
based on artisan production. Even earlier, at the time of Neo-

Street covered by projections in the Alpujarra, Pampaneira (Spain) Terraces and chimneys in the Alpujarra, Capileira (Spain)

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Reuse of old stone materials: Bosra (Syria) A washing place built with reused elements, Arcos de la Frontera (Spain)

Direct, rational solutions as a paradigm of modern beauty: Lucainena de las Torres Simplicity of form and volume as the inspiration for modern architecture: cemetery
(Spain) at Casabermeja (Spain)

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Classical architecture and the European Enlightenment, traditional 1


constructions were frequent references in the search for
picturesque and rustic models, with a premium on diversity and
variety of elements as opposed to the rigid classical norm, creating
architecture of recreation or pleasure in country gardens and
mansions.
Today, some sectors of contemporary architecture continue to
refer to popular architecture as a symbol of the local, with their
sights set on sustainability and bioclimatic and ecological solutions
as opposed to globalized or decontextualized languages, seeking
specificity and architecture linked to the place, in a globalized
world where identity is often sought in the local.
There is no doubt that traditional Mediterranean architecture
continues to establish itself as part of the built cultural heritage, as
part of historic centres or singular architectural sites, and as
singular or ethnographic examples, because it constitutes the
historical legacy of our lifestyles in a process that has not been
without difficulties and losses. As cultural heritage, it also has
significant economic potential, complementing built and natural
heritage as a knowledge and leisure resource. It is, however,
equally true that in some Mediterranean countries it has ceased to
be produced for some decades and in others, though still alive, it
might be considered, to use a naturalist simile, a species
Les maisons cubiques et blanches qui ont inspir le langage moderne architectural:
maison rurale dIbiza. threatened by extinction.

Rehabilitation and mediterranean rural space

The rural space is the most fragile as regards traditional


Mediterranean architecture, with the phenomena of
abandonment and destructive transformation related to the
growing influence of the urban environment, subsequent
emigration and abandonment of rural settlements, and the
cultural and economic changes associated with globalization. The
mass introduction of industrial materials unknown to traditional
practice, the incorporation of introduced architectural types
together with new housing demands and needs, and changes in
production now taking place in the rural environment, as well as
the abandonment of part of the habitat, in the context of the
transformation and loss of collective and individual traditional
rural values, mean that traditional architecture is in serious danger
of disappearing from this space.
Here I refer not only to the house, but also to much of the auxiliary
architecture, particularly that which is associated with traditional
productive processes, that fall into disuse as a result of growing
industrialization and modifications to farming, livestock and
forestry uses, and other facilities for miscellaneous communal
The Swiss Cottage is a thatched cottage orn designed by John Nash in the early 19th
century. Inspired by traditional architecture, it sought the picturesque as opposed to the needs. In short, what has been transformed or is threatened by
rigidness of the Neo-Classical architecture of the time, Cahir (Ireland). substantial transformation is this architecture as a whole,
understood and structured in the form of rural landscape.

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1 Rehabilitation as a mechanism for the recovery of traditional


architecture must not, then, be based solely on urban settlements,
but most particularly extend to the wider rural environment, at its
different scales, from the viewpoint of the territory as a whole. Of
particular importance here are the instruments of territorial
organization associated with sustainability, affecting settlements
of different levels and sizes, their public spaces, the individual
scale of each building and detailed architectural treatment, with
attention both to the house and to the auxiliary architectures.
Rehabilitation has to be understood as a complex technique of
recuperation, which pays attention to architecture at its different
scales and complexities, integrated into an approach or even an
overall programme of local sustainable development, requiring the
confluence of different disciplinary viewpoints and experiences
and citizen participation.
As well as professional training in the specific techniques of
rehabilitation, user recognition of this form of architecture as a
part of culture and identity is key to its future. Only that which is
familiar and valued will be conserved and handed on to future
generations. This calls for campaigns of explanation and
dissemination to present rehabilitation work to the population.
Careful rehabilitation work speaks far louder in the rural
environment than a thousand speeches or articles, because it
Urban rehabilitation, recovering coloured renderings, Villajollosa (Spain)).
illustrates how intelligently rehabilitated traditional architecture
provides levels of habitability in keeping with contemporary
expectations and requisites. This process accords importance to
the role of the local artisans with their knowledge of traditional
construction techniques who can pass on their specific know-how
by means of specific experiences of rehabilitation, contributing
their expertise to the training of future rehabilitation experts.
Traditional architecture is a cultural and economic resource and
the basis for sustainable development, and its rehabilitation
represents a lever in these rural communities, as opposed to
models of new construction, that avoids the occupation of
agricultural land. The growing pressure of tourism and its
associated new uses has to be used intelligently and channelled in
such a way as to promote the rehabilitation of this form of
architecture and avoid unsuitable environmental and socio-
cultural transformations of local communities. Some of the early
Spanish experiences in this field showed how rural tourist
accommodation can distinguish different territories by recovering
and rehabilitating traditional architectures. Their inclusion in
programmes of sustainable development is the key to establishing
each territorys visitor capacity in environmental and socio-cultural
terms in order to retain a balance between visitors and local
population, given the limitation and fragility of resources. Tourism
has to be one element more contributing to local economic The reconstruction of significant traditional architectural features as tourist
activities without necessarily becoming a monoculture, though it attractions: marshland dwelling in El Roco with a reed roof, Doana National Park
(Spain)
can act as a catalyst to set everything else in motion in depressed
areas. Quality, locally managed tourism scattered across the

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Rehabilitation of a rural water complex as a tourist attraction. Section of the mill and
hydraulic ironwork in Teixois as part of a rural development programme carried out in
the 1980s.

territory, which conserves local resources and rehabilitates


heritage, is basic to compliance with parameters of sustainability
and non-conflict with the recuperation of traditional architecture.
The specific consideration of cultural heritage necessarily involves
an appreciation of the architecture of the specimens conserved,
with their different levels of quality and durability, and must
qualify the different interventions. Rehabilitation involves the
transformation and partial destruction of the targets in order to
give them a new lease of life, and the key is to establish which
parts and elements should be completely preserved and what
should be the tolerable degree of transformation in order to
prevent loss of identity. There will also be examples that, due to
their singularity in terms of architecture, history, ethnography,
function or landscape, etc., are the object of careful restoration
and conservation, included in architectural restoration policies and
given uses that are compatible with their integrated conservation,
and provide a specific explanation of the traditional lifestyles they
served. The role in the landscape of some territorial elements must
also be considered. They may even be the object of reconstruction
and interpretation, in the case of significant examples that have
disappeared, which may be important to the history and culture of
a specific territory.
Obviously, many examples should be the object of renovation and
Traditional architecture and activities rehabilitated as a living museum: an artisan replacement, for reasons of conservation and obsolescence. The
paper mill at Capellades (Spain), cross section. debate in these cases is deciding which are to be characteristic of
the new architecture, seeking the conservation and integration of
characteristic typological and construction features, with attention

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1 to the experiences of climatic adaptation and values of


sustainability, with no need to produce folkloric falsifications of
traditional architecture. Like any human product, traditional
architecture has not remained unchanged over time; it, too, has
been subject to evolution, qualified throughout its transformative
slowness by tradition. It is possible to identify evolving lines, with
the incorporation of some exceptional innovations, where the
new architecture can be integrated without its presence
necessarily signifying the destruction of the image of the places
and the rural landscape.
These architectures constitute a historical legacy of the way we
live, and in many Mediterranean countries they call for specific
attention to the issues of valuation and rehabilitation in order to
Traditional architecture as tourist accommodation: hotel in a cave dwelling in avoid the process of destruction and disappearance that they
Matmata (Tunisia)
usually suffer. Now, at the start of the 21st century, it seems to be
necessary to extend pilot rehabilitation operations applied to the
rural territory, choosing settlements and significant architectural
types of an exemplary nature, in order to complete and step up
the recuperation work that is usually undertaken in urban
historical centres.

Traditional architecture rehabilitated for rural tourist accommodation: thatched


cottages as bed-and-breakfasts, Adare (Ireland)

Rehabilitation seen as an overall architectural and territorial operation, including


constituent elements, the settlements, their dwellings and constructions, the elements
of public space and their integration into the natural setting, etc. Baget (Spain)

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Traditional Mediterranean Michel Polge


Chief architect and urbanist
Architectures: collective values Technical Director of the Agence Nationale de lHabitat (ANAH),
France 1

The use value-heritage value binomial seems to be marked by


conflict, exclusive choice or Manichean debate. It could be
represented by another old conflict (for the French, at least):
engineer versus architect, or even replacer versus conservator.
An ideological approach to these debates will get us nowhere. If,
on the other hand, we table the issue from the viewpoint of other
questions such as continuity, reparability or improvement, we see
constructions as what they are: existing, used, reusable. Then we
can work on the margin of adaptation of these constructions, on
their cultural value and the conditions of their sustainability.

1.1 The century when the Mediterranean opened up again


The second half of the 19th century was a period of transition. The
Mediterranean once again became an active commercial focus
Deir el Qamar (Lebanon)
after several centuries during which conflict had limited trade.
After the Renaissance, with the colonization of America, Atlantic
trade supplanted Mediterranean commerce, and trade in the
Mediterranean was largely restricted to large blocs: the Ottoman
and the European Mediterranean, at the same time limited by to learn the process. From this point on, globalization of
conflicts between or within these blocs. For better or for worse, construction and architecture models took over at a scale that had
human and commercial exchange were reactivated in the not existed since the Roman Empire, that great disseminator of
Mediterranean in the 19th century with Europes ever increasing models. Industrial production made the process of standardization
influence over the southern Mediterranean, a hold that went hand even more radical.
in hand with declining Ottoman power in both the north and the
south. The Westerners colonized and developed commercial 1.2 The paradoxical destiny of the Marseilles tile
exchanges, going as far as opening the cul-de-sac that was the As of the 1850s, and for several decades, merchant ships set sail
Mediterranean via the Suez Canal, restoring its interest as a from Marseilles with mechanically produced tiles that were loaded
commercial route that went beyond its intrinsic economic in the hold as ballast and then sold in ports. So, in Algiers, Beirut,
capacities. In the late 19th century, the Mediterranean was once Istanbul and even Odessa, roofs were tiled with this new material.
again globalized and industrial Europe began to spread its Houses began to be roofed with Marseilles tiles when the need
models in a process that did not end with colonization. had not hitherto been felt, even more so in countries that
Until the 19th century, expertise spread with the men who bore it, traditionally had terrace roofs. Why was this? There are probably
slowly, adapting it to local resources and materials and pre-existing many reasons, the least of which are technical. Marseilles tiles did
know-how. Andalusian Renaissance architecture, both the not, for the southern Mediterranean, represent progress, in the
highbrow and the popular, is a remarkable example of sense that they were not a material that replaced another without
technical syncretism and evidently things did not stop in needing thorough changes in expertise. The roof structures built
Andalusia: the Spanish then transported their own know-how to in Beirut before the 1914-1918 war show that there were no local
America, the French adopted examples of Spanish stereotomy and roof-building traditions adapted to this new material, nor did the
developed them, and so on. But with the advent of people master the use of this exogenous material (minimum slope,
manufacturing, it was the products that then spread, and on a etc.). In fact, the Marseilles tile was used in southern ports as
very large scale. Factories were needed to produce them, and decoration. It was probably appropriated as the sign of foreign
production initially took place where there was coal, but it later architecture imported from the rich and powerful countries of the
spread everywhere, following engineers and traders. Those time. Cement, industrially produced bricks, metal roof
responsible at local level for the actual building process merely had structuresnew techniques were to follow, with no regard for

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1 We must not judge this phenomenon in hindsight. Indeed, today


we see traditional architecture from a considerable distance: there
are several generations between those who saw it built and
ourselves, and we are no longer swept along by the religion of
progress that caught up the engineers and architects between
1850 and 1970. Furthermore, what remains of this traditional
architecture is the best part: the bottom-of-the-range
constructions, built with few resources and little expertise, have
disappeared, just as the worst built architecture of the industrial
era will disappear. We sometimes tend to see the past and its
material signs as a marvellous civilization, a kind of paradise lost.
These past societies probably were charmingfor a very small
percentage of the population. Likewise, it is pointless to set the
Suez Canal (Egypt)
virtues of artisan production against the vices of industry. The
traditional architecture that remains today must interest us for its
use values, its capacity to adapt to milieus, its value as testimony.
pre-existing know-how. These imported novelties marked a before There is, however, no point in promoting it by comparison with
and an after in traditional architecture: this is how it was done what has come afterwards.
before and this is what is disappearing...
2.1 What does traditional architecture mean?
1.3 The boom in manufactured products Various features characterize what is usually termed traditional
With the Mediterranean back on powerful trade circuits, moving architecture:
beyond traditional areas of exchange, the phenomenon of It is the architecture of artisans: its models are those of in the
industry came into its own. Industry mass-produced construction style of, models that are physically close and visible. It is, then,
materials cheaply and could transport them far and fast by train an apposite architecture.
and ships. Manufactured products flooded the market, and It is architecture without architects: their work was reserved
another process came into play: the artisan as the local actor in exclusively for the important commissions of the powerful:
construction gradually lost his plural know-how and either monuments, palaces, and so on. Architects used highbrow
disappeared or started to use industrial materials. Industry sought models from books and treatises: they were essentially utopian
to eliminate any obstacle to the use of its products: complex in the etymological sense.
implementation was one such, so there was a need for products It is an architecture that uses resources (materials, etc.) that are
that were simple to use and implement, but used on a large scale extracted or produced locally. This is another reason why it is
to encourage a large output: big companies were called for, with apposite.
a highly specialised labour force with few qualificationsthe It is an architecture which, for cultural and economic reasons,
complete opposite of the traditional artisan industry. evolves very slowly, hence the misconception that traditional
Traditional means of constructionthe work locally of artisans architecture is immutable and timeless.
could only have stood up to this onslaught if they were perceived It is a rural rather than an urban architecture, because the
as a value... but they were not. Just as in the first countries to be urban is, by nature, more open to innovation, novelty,
industrialised, the countries newly conquered by manufactured interchange and cultural crossover.
products saw first how local architectures became hybrids and It is an architecture that is generally left out of histories of
gradually disappeared, in an outward movement from the town to architecture, which tend to be more open to architects
the country. The idea that pre-industrial construction has a value architecture and monumental, highbrow architecturethat is,
in itself is a recent one, a distant idea never acknowledged by the architecture of power.
those who inhabited it when it was still flourishing: they were
either rich and sought novelty as a visible sign of their wealth or Of course, there were no strict divisions between architects
were poor and rejected what seemed to be the material sign of architecture and artisans architecture; they influenced each other,
their condition. From this point on, for several decades, traditional the latter trying to copy the former, and the former being obliged
architecture was a theme for picture postcards and artists to use the technical know-how of the latter.
attracted by the picturesque before it was flattened by the new Traditional architectureit would perhaps be more accurate to say
urbanists. traditional architecturesis, then, the result of the production

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processes of the pre-industrial age. As such, it exists as the result Nostalgia is critical of modern society and admires old-fashioned 1
of these processes rather than of a deliberate decision. The very lifestyles (once considerably idealized). From this point of view,
fact of speaking of traditional architectures, of inventing this the idea is to conserve and protect what remains, and preserve
concept, means that there is a historical breakaway from those technical expertise. Its discourse is one of beauty as opposed to
forms of production. To speak of traditional architectures is, in this the truth of heritage. Its intention is often mixed with
sense, a convenient modern concept, despite being a identitarism, insisting the signs of local old societies, regretting
simplification: if there is such a thing as traditional architecture, the apparent standardization of todays world, turning from this
there is also a form of architecture that is not traditional. We have fact to heritage, driven by the passion of finding the differential
seen how the architecture that followed the rupture caused by element. This is a more idealistic stance.
manufacturing and its mass diffusion is, effectively, quite different. Commerce realizes that heritage is, potentially, mass
Yet even before this time, construction was subject to tensions, merchandise.
evolution and the comparison between highbrow and popular (or Functionalism recognises the use value of old constructions and
between architects architecture and artisans architecture, centres on the issue of need to make the old building respond
definitions which are, evidently, not value judgements). to the criteria of present-day quality in association with
In order to be exact, then, it would be better to speak not of economic aspects: the functionalist emerges with the
traditional architecture but of pre-industrial and industrial means disappearance of the illusion of the tabula rasa as a preliminary
of production, as we await the post-industrial, which, I hope, will for constructing the city of tomorrow. This is a realistic stance.
consider both processes for the greater advantage of what is now
called sustainable development. The heritage and functionalist approaches are the two positive
approaches that can serve as a reasoned way of addressing the
2.2 The interest in traditional architecture issue of built heritage, its conservation, transformations,
The usual responses are varying and contradictory: rehabilitation and improvement.
Heritage is interested in the value as testimony of the physical These two approaches are, in theory, complementary rather than
signs of history. The French law on historical monuments, for contradictory, since they bring together the notions of use value
example, refers explicitly to the general interest from a and cultural value. This is even more the case if we add the notion
historical or artistic viewpoint. This is primarily a cultural of sustainability, which brings us to: rehabilitation is better than
reasoning. reconstruction, improvement is better than reconstruction,
sustainable is better than ephemeral, thrifty is better than
extravagant, renewable energies are better than fossil energies,
etc.
Yet the path is not as smooth as it apparently ought to be...
The nostalgia or cultural identity approach seems in theory to be
a rather unconstructive, reactive attitude. Unfortunately, this
approach often creeps into the positive approaches (notably
those of heritage), confusing the truly historical approach of
heritage and an aestheticizing approach that is all the more
dangerous as it is highly subjective.
The purely commercial approach is related above all to tourism.
For the purposes of this article, suffice it to say that tourism is
obviously a good thing for its economic effects, provided it does
not destroy the things it is based on.
If there is a plea to be made for the rehabilitation of traditional
architectures in the Mediterranean, and elsewhere, it is that the
different positive approaches work together: the
cultural/heritage approach and the functionalist/use values
approach. The idea, then, is to combine conservation and
improvement without overemphasizing, forgetting or denying the
economic side. A rehabilitation policy that costs more than new
construction would be socio-economic nonsense: buildings are,
Early 20th-century cement tiles by the firm Escofet (Spain) primarily, to inhabit, to be worked and lived in, not to be looked

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1 at. Likewise, a rehabilitation policy that produced housing or There are just two solutions: to produce new energies or improve
workplaces that were markedly less adapted to modern life than the performance of the existing. So the windows are replaced, as
new construction would merely sentence itself to death. It is no one knows how to repair existing quality windows and
important to know how to both conserve and improve. Perhaps reinforce them (for example, with double glazing). Suddenly,
the happy medium lies in sustainability: we all know now that instead of addressing good technical solutions for
there is no future in the overconsumption of resources as it repair/reinforcement, the debate turns to aesthetics: using glazing
continues to be practised today. bars, using wood... Wood is the automatic reflex reaction: but
are we sure that the wood we use today to make windows, for
2.3 An example of pointless conflict between heritage and the products it contains, for its source, be it known or unknown,
functionalism: windows is automatically as sustainable as all that? Should we not take the
In rehabilitation operations in France, windows are often the cause issue a little further?
of tension when it comes to replacement. So, why do windows
need replacing? This takes us to the limits of our practice: the aesthetic question is
obviously the least important, though it is bought to the forefront,
The first reason is dilapidation due to a lack of maintenance, errors and the real technical and heritage issue is left to one side in the
in the initial conception or, simply, wear and tear. In this case, it absence of suitable technical solutions: as far as I know, it is only
seemsin France, at lastnormal to throw out the old frame and very recently that the Danes started to bring a more sustainable
install a new one. The idea of repairing an old window on a approach to this issue: conserving and repairing existing windows
normal building site would not occur to anyone. I recall seeing with a production chain for this purpose, reinforcing the fittings to
some lovely 18th-century casements sent to the rubbish tip simply obtain better performance.
because no-one had thought to look for a joinersupposing This example serves to show how the rehabilitation debate is easily
there was one in the areawho knew how to repair the bottom distorted when the heritage and the use-value approaches are
part (weathering, sill cove, subsill), as a new in-set window was brought into conflict rather than combined. As in many technical
going to be installed anyway to improve thermal performance. issues in rehabilitation, compromise is necessary, in the positive
sense of the word, leaving to one side the aesthetic questions that
The second reason is to save energy. There is a great deal to be are, by definition, subjective. In the above example, the questions
said about ways of addressing energy saving in older properties. to ask are:
Technical solutions are still the field of great debate, but there is Is the existing window valuable in terms of heritage (for
no space here to add to it. Suffice to say that energy saving is a reasons of age, construction technique) and, if so, how should
major public issue everywhere, that existing housing is frequently it be repaired and conserved?
a very bad pupil in this respect (in France, in any case), and that In this case, how can its heat- and soundproofing performance be
windows are, by definition, an aspect that cannot be neglected. improved: by reinforcing the fittings? With double-glazing? In this
case, what is the appropriate approach to associated issues such
as ventilation?
If the original window is not conserved, what should it be
replaced by and, most of all, using what material?

When we ask this kind of question, the aesthetic issue is returned


to its normal place: secondary. Which it always has been: no
architecture treatise of the past treats the issue of windows and
their design any differently to the most rational of engineers. The
important question for a traditional joiner, whether working for an
architect or a humble client, was how to allow in as much light as
possible, using highly transparent glass in large panes to limit the
number of glazing bars and, furthermore, at an affordable price;
how to produce large opening leaves that were as rigid as
possible, and how to ensure that the fastening was rain- and
windproof (invention of half-round tongues and grooves in the
18th century, for example). The beauty of traditional windows lies
Gokuogen (Turkey) in the possibility of manufacturing rational, efficient, sustainable

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products. This is the lesson to be learned, rather than their supposed But it is not enough to conserve: it is also necessary to improve. 1
aesthetics. By approaching the issue in this way, we would avoid the Traditional buildings have used the means available in successive
olde worlde windows we see all too often in protected areas, which ages to translate the needs of these periods. These needs are not
satisfy neither the historian nor the technical expert. immutable; no one would agree to live today in the same
conditions as two or three centuries ago if there is access to what
the present day can do better. To improve is to take into account
3. Traditional architecture: what are the advantages today? constantly changing needs as regards safety, hygiene, energy and
resource saving. The architecture of old is not an ideal Platonic
The above arguments show various reasons to rehabilitate production just waiting to be rediscovered and re-evaluated.
traditional architecture. Hygienism did not go out with the urban utopias of the last
Firstly, and this is the value most recognised by both the century: built works, be they newly constructed or rehabilitated,
informed and the general public, it has a value as testimony, a must still provide fresh air and light, improve the living conditions
heritage value: to conserve it is to conserve a memory, not for the of their inhabitants and adapt, in Mediterranean towns even more
sake of nostalgia or identity, but because it is a human need to than in many other places. Rehabilitation is a project, not a revival.
establish oneself in time and, in order to do so, to retain signs of Ultimately, traditional architecture has a lot to teach us. Without
it in the form of physical traces. This is why conquerors seek to idealizing it, at its best it has brought an economical approach to
destroy not only people but also their monuments and towns. The technical situations in which our modern solutions may work, but
destruction of Warsaw was a drama representing this point of at too high a cost. It uses local materials profitably, it ventilates
view. houses in hot countries without the need for air-conditioning, and
But ordinary architecture cannot serve merely as testimony. It it implements human expertise in the face of both scarcity and
cannot comprise empty shells conserved as museum pieces. There wealth of resources. These indeed are lessons to be learned, not
are monuments for this purpose, in the primary sense of the word. copied thoughtlessly but analysed to make the most of past
Architecture is, above all, functional, and this is its only experience.
legitimization.
The failure of urban renovation policies in the years after World
War II demonstrates the need to maintain and rehabilitate old
towns. It soon became apparent that the systematic destruction of
old centres to build completely new districts was merely a
dangerous illusion that merely by building everything anew it was
possible to create a better world. This utopia, in the etymological
sense of the word (remember, in the 1950s, urbanists thought
they should build for the coming 30 years, then demolish
everything and rebuild it all even better) rapidly came up against
reality in the form of the economic impasse of this approach, not
to mention human reactions. That reaction was so strong that it
has often led to the opposite extreme: the desire to conserve
everything, to condemn concrete (there is a curious ideological
confusion between forms and material), to imitate the styles of old
towns and architectures, as though the town were merely an
abstract stage set (all things considered, the error of pastiche is the
same as that of the old partisans of the tabula rasa: believing that
the form generates the content). Knowing how to rehabilitate
means knowing how to demolish, because it requires a choice.

So let us unashamedly make economics our central concern:


making improvements at an affordable cost, with the idea of
making something to last, is evidently more acceptable than
constantly reconstructing, abandoning what was still useful
yesterday and will continue to be, provided the right means are
implemented.

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The Social and Cultural Values Suad Amiry


Ph.D. in Architecture
of Cultural Heritage in Palestine: Director of Riwaq
1 Whose values, the practitioners Centre for Architectural Conservation,
Ramallah, Palestine (P.N.A.)
or the owners?
Farhat Muhawi
architect
Associate architect at Arco Office,
Ramallah, Palestine (P.N.A.)

Introduction:

Cultural Heritage in Palestine is rich and diverse. In addition to its


numerous monumental religious sites such as the Dome of the
Rock, the Nativity Church, the Holy Sepulchre, and the Ibrahimi
Mosque, Palestine has a number of valuable historic Monuments
which are of different historic periods and architectural styles; of
most important are 13th century Mamluk public buildings in
Jerusalem. In addition Palestine posses historic city centres such
as the old city of Jerusalem, Hebron, Nablus and Bethlehem.
Further, the Palestinian villages with their organically beautiful
peasant architecture add to the variety and richness of this
heritage. The desert monasteries located in the eastern slopes
illustrate another typology, as does throne village architecture,
which refers to the feudal palaces in the eighteenth and
nineteenth century rural Palestine. The caravanserais along
Mazra'a Alquiblia [Rula Halawani, RPA]
historic trade routes, in addition to the dispersed holy shrines
(maqamat), and the beautifully constructed dry stone farm
houses, within the typically terraced hills of Palestine also policy for protection, and hence the lack of budgets. The scarcity
illustrate the variety and richness of a cultural heritage which the of land in Areas A and B2 resulted from the Oslo Agreement in
Palestinian people have been entrusted with for the World 1993; the lack of efficient cultural heritage authority, in addition
Community at large. The Old City of Jerusalem was included in to the chaotic and unplanned urban sprawl which took place in
the UNESCOs World Heritage List in 1981. A tentative list of the last ten years, left the cultural heritage in Palestine under
twenty Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites of Outstanding continues threat of destruction. Moreover, cultural heritage has
Universal Value in Palestine1 was also prepared in June 2005 by not yet been put as a priority on the national agenda, and is still
the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities through a consultative seen as a liability rather than an economic and social
process that involved Palestinian experts from several cultural development factor.
heritage institutions.
Like most other third world countries, the protection of cultural
heritage in Palestine faces a number of obstacles and challenges The Social and Cultural Values: Whose Values, Practitioners
which makes its protection (let alone its development), an or Owners?
extremely difficult task. Such difficulties vary from the lack of
proper legal frame works, lack of skilled human resources in most This article tries to shed some light on the issue of social and
areas of cultural heritage (conservation, management, cultural (and other) values of cultural heritage in the case of
documentation, planning etc) and the absence of a national Palestine. It tries to discuss the reasons for the immense

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The Social and Cultural Values of Cultural Heritage in Palestine:
Whose values, the practitioners or the owners?

discrepancy which exists between cultural heritage experts and 1


practitioners "agreed upon" aesthetic, historic, scientific, social
values (that of international conventions and charters such as the
UNESO Convention of 1972 and the Burra Charter), and that of
the laymen's and owners of the cultural heritage properties. Is
that gap in developing countries, such as Palestine, much more
than that in developed western countries? And if yes why? And
what are the pre-requisites for bridging that gap?
If one assumes that recognizing the value of cultural heritage is
the first pre-condition or pre-requisite to its protection, then the
question becomes which values and for whom?
It is true that cultural heritage (for us specialists and practitioners)
should be protected for its own merits as it embodies a
Al Nabi Mousa on way to Jericho [John Torday, Riwaq Photo Archive (RPA)]
nations/community/a group of peoples collective memory, history,
and forms an important component of its identity. However this
does not seem to be of relevance even for people like the
Palestinians, whose cultural heritage has been the main target of
eradication and destruction in on going political conflict with the
state of Israel.
As a result of the creation of the state of Israel in 1947, as well
as Israel's continued 38 year policy of grapping more land from
the West Bank, the Palestinians have lost a great deal of their
cultural heritage: the eradication of hundreds of villages, the
demolition of many historic quarters. Most important has been
the systematic Judiazation (manifested in building more
settlements) of the land, which results in the dramatic change of
character of land, landscape and human settlements; from
having an Arab character to that of westernized character3.
The relevant and challenging question is: has such dramatic losses
made the Palestinians value the remaining parts of their cultural
heritage more?
Artas valley [John Torday, RPA] The authors of this paper argue that the sad and surprising
answer is NO.
This is of course manifested in the every day alarming
destruction that one sees in the historic centers of all Palestinian
cities and villages. This is also manifested in the Muqata' the
Headquarters of late President Arafat in Ramallah which
witnessed historic events for a historic figure such as Arafat.
How come this has been easily demolished or "cleaned up" no
traces has been left of that collective memory? The same is true
in Egypt where the house of the most loved singer in the history
of the Arab world; that is the Villa of Um Kulthum, had been
demolished in Cairo with very little attention or consideration to
protect it.
Such sad examples made us as practitioners think: under what
circumstances/conditions or what does it take for people to value
their cultural heritage? How can we make people believe in the
values of cultural heritage when basic every day life need of
cultural heritage owners are not meet under Israeli military
Dead Sea-Jericho [John Torday, RPA] occupation?

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The Social and Cultural Values of Cultural Heritage in Palestine:
Whose values, the practitioners or the owners?

1 Since a lengthy discussion is beyond the scope and length of this play a role in the protection? What is the role of governments in
paper the authors of this paper chose to ask the relevant protecting the right of the public? And what is exactly the role of
questions without necessarily answering them. governments central and local? And particularly in the case of
This brings us to the more complex issue or concept of the Palestine, how does the absence of middle class play a positive or
private versus the public: How does the concept of the private negative role in this matter (issues of ramification)?
space/ownership and the public space/public ownership play into Finally we would like to say that only through the economic value
this? How does the "sacredness" of the private property relate to of cultural heritage do people in third world countries start
the public interest and values? And hence the issue of whose valuing their architectural heritage, i.e. when cultural heritage
heritage it is? How does the concept of citizenship or lack of it becomes an economic source of income.

1 For more information see: Inventory of Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites of
Potential Outstanding Universal Value in Palestine, June 2005. The Palestinian
National Authority, Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Department of Antiquities
and Cultural Heritage.
2 Areas A: Area which was under the security and administrative control of
Palestinian National Authority (PNA) after Oslo peace process. Areas B: only
administrative control o PNA.
3 For more information on this subject see: Benvenisti, Meron. Sacred Landscape:
the Buried History of Holy Land since 1948. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2000.

Beit Wazan [Mia Grondahl, RPA]

Nablus [Rula Halawani, RPA]

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Architectural heritage: adaptation, Abdelaziz Badjadja


Architect
use and maintenance Professor in Architecture at the University of Constantine,
Algeria 1

These days, old architectural heritage excites a feeling of


indifference or even hostility in most people, since buildings
constructed in the past no longer respond to present-day needs or
architectural tastes. Just because it is old, rather than falling
into disuse a building should recover its interest and awaken an
awareness of its cognitive and emotional value; the need to
ensure the conservation of cultural heritage has to be widely
accepted and form part of the sensibility of all social spheres.
However, an interest in safeguarding this precious threatened
heritage by no means conceals a tendency to neglect the needs of
the present day. On the contrary, it is the consequence of changes
in the mentality, inclinations and aspirations of contemporary
society. The conservation of old buildings has to form part of a
wider campaign that seeks to protect and improve humankinds
living conditions.

Inappropriate use

Due to their rapid development and the growing density of their


populations, cities have undergone a far-reaching alteration of
Zaouya Sidi Abderrahmane, Constantine.
both their figurative and building structure. Predominantly
residential constructions are experiencing major changes:
ground floors and mezzanines are, for the most part, converted or distorts its arrangement and decoration. This attitude of
for use to commercial or artisan purposes. modernization according to present-day tastes, comprising a
These inappropriate uses can be attributed to the socio- complete upheaval with no consideration for the character of the
economic conditions of their inhabitants. Families have small construction, causes major and sometimes irremediable damage:
incomes and many young people are unemployed while aspiring
to a certain social status, as the opening up of the market offers Modification of openings in the faade
interesting opportunities for the demands and needs of a Suppression of mouldings (bands, cornices, parapets, niches, etc.)
growing population. A new distribution that does not take into account the layout
The resulting modifications, often without the intervention of a of the faades
professional, are frequently detrimental to the building. When it The use of concrete as a replacement material
proves to be necessary, the choice of a new function is an Renovation of the lower part of the faade involving a
infinitely subtler process because it raises a number of rendering that does not allow predominantly stone walls to
underlying issues: how to conserve the architectural breathe
character of a building after a change of function? remplacement des menuiseries anciennes par des modernes
As a result, work carried out to change a buildings function Use of ostentatious artificial lighting (neon, spots)
(from residential to commercial), often without the intervention Excessive use of modern materials (floor slabs, marble,
of an architect, actually damages the building on different levels. miscellaneous wall coverings, aluminium display cases and
racks, etc.) characterized by a polychromy and texture that
Alteration of the figurative structure and urban profile present a considerable contrast with traditional materials,
The architectural character of the building is erased in the face of shrouded in a patina that gives them a beauty that represents
the additions required by the new function. Building work masks the age-old expertise of humankind.

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1 Destabilization of the bearing structure


When developing a site, a number of parameters must be
addressed in order to ensure optimum use. Work generally
involves:

Extending surface areas


iIntroducing new installations
Increasing ceiling heights
Lighting and ventilation of interior volumes
Treatment of spaces
Renewing old drainage networks.

If carried out without the intervention of a professional, these


operations often involve aberrant solutions that compromise the Constantine.
stability of the building:

Large openings (display cases, windows, etc.) are made in


vertical and/or horizontal bearing elements (openings to build
a stairway, trap door leading upstairs, etc.)
Structural floors are overloaded (storeroom, miscellaneous
apparatus, etc.)
Rather than being resolved, existing defects are ignored and
concealed, for example using wall coverings (tiles, wallpaper)
to hide unsightly manifestations of pathologies such as
blistering, black damp stains, etc.

Lack of maintenance

The occupants of housing in old city centres are largely tenants


and often have ambivalent relations with the property owners.
Their cultural (little or no education) and socio-economic status Dar Meharsi, Constantine.
(social class of rural origin with its specific form of appropriation
of space, characteristically large, low-income families) are
determinant factors in their negative attitude to their built
environment, which is old, run-down and cramped. Their living
environment, often limited to a single room with a high rate of
occupation, receives little maintenance or is completely neglected.
This behaviour can be attributed to:

Ignorance and negligence; the occupants do not even see the


defects as serious progressive pathologies and have no idea of
the extent of subsequent damage
Lack of resources; the work required to correct these defects
involves sums of money that the occupant does not have
A deliberate attitude in the hope of being allocated alternative
housing
As tenants, they feel no concern for the state of the property.
The owner may be absent, unable to afford work or involved in
litigation with the co-owners or neighbours (the existence of Courtyard in the Medina. Constantine (Algeria).

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shared elements in constructions makes it difficult to define the 1


party responsible for a given intervention).

The result of this state of affairs is an almost total absence of


responsibility for the building, which takes the form of lack of
maintenance and inappropriate use.
Building maintenance must not be neglected, because it will
prevent defects that are more serious; a building is subject
unconditionally to a process of ageing by multiple exterior agents
that undermine it and limit its continuity in time. It is also
important to take preventive action that may prevent subsequent
defects: revision of roofs and downpipes, protection of masonry
by maintaining renderings and joints, treatment of wood, etc.
Inappropriate or improper use can also be the cause of serious
progressive pathologies, such as excessive weight on structural
floors (water deposits, storage of objects in a small space),
excessive stress of certain elements of the structure (cluttering of
ribs and ties), and unsuitable cleaning methods (repeated swilling
that in the long term produces rotten timber elements, particularly
windowsills).
In most cases, when these issues are addressed, the defects are
treated superficially, attacking the symptoms rather than the
causes: filling cracks, removing and partial replastering crumbling
renders, laying boards over a sagging structural floor to restore its
horizontality, and so on.
For the inhabitants of a town or city, a well-conserved building or
architectural complex is a lesson in housekeeping, community
spirit and cultural requirements, the symbol of a community. It is
this single element, which must not be a museum or a foreign
body, which informs the whole atmosphere of the city.

Kasbah, Constantine.

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Bioclimatic values in the Xavier Casanovas


Technical architect
rehabilitation of Traditional Director of the RehabiMed European project (Collegi
1 Mediterranean Architecture dAparelladors i Arquitectes Tcnics de Barcelona) and lecturer in
the Department of Architectural Technology II, School of Building
Construction of Barcelona (Technical University of Catalonia),
Spain

Ramon Graus
Architect
Lecturer in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Building Construction of Barcelona
(Technical University of Catalonia), Spain

The traditional architecture we find in the Mediterranean basin


continues to be of an extraordinary richness. It is the product and
the reflection of societies accustomed to intense interchange, and
it has taken form slowly precisely thanks to these interchanges.
It is however important to point out immediately that it is a
disappearing architectural form, because it was produced on the
basis of a logic that we call pre-industrial, when things happened
slowly, when the shapes of architecture were distilled with the
passing generations and when know-how was handed down
from father to son in families of builders (known as master
builders, maalem in Arabic). The societies living in the
Mediterranean have changed radically since the arrival of the
phenomenon of industrialization, now refined for the umpteenth
time in the form of globalization. The communities that built and
dwelt in this architecture have disappeared or are breaking down,
and other logics are now at play (migration, second homes,
creation of ghettos, gentrification, fall in property value leading to
replacement by new buildings, etc.).1
Sometimes, our romantic, melancholic view prevents our seeing
that its inhabitants have to be able to transform it in order to
adapt it to the needs and aspirations of the present day. In this
Covered passages in Cairo (Egypt)
article we will attempt to present the richness in bioclimatic terms
of this architecture and to reflect on the possibilities of
rehabilitating it to make the most of its huge potential, with all the
respect it deserves.
economy), available building materials and, of course, protection
The house in a place in the Mediterranean from the natural environment.
Having ventured to speak of the concept of Mediterranean Firstly, it is important to consider that traditional architecture takes
Traditional Architecture2, we must straightaway stress its wide radical and ingenious forms when environmental conditions are
diversity. In climatic terms, the Mediterranean is characterized by very severe. For example, the wealthy houses in Cairo, Egypt,
a temperate climate that changes rapidly as we move south, developed the malqaf, a kind of skylight, borrowed from hot areas
becoming hot and dry, or becomes quickly colder as we move of Persia, to harness the breeze from the Nile and draw it through
inland and to higher ground in the nearby mountains3. the main rooms in the house for ventilation. Then in various hot,
Its traditional architecture responds to a balance between its dry places in the Mediterranean with rather cold night-time
inhabitants various needs (use of the building, subsistence temperatures (Matmata in Tunisia, Cappadocia in Turkey, Guadix

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The malqaf of El Set Wasela (Egypt) and a diagram showing the ventilation system

and Paterna in the Iberian Peninsula, Matera in Italy), cave quickly. In most Mediterranean countries, the houses tended to
dwellings were built, homes dug into ground that was easy to stand two or three storeys high, with livestock kept in a
excavate, to make the most of the thermal inertia of the site. semibasement ground floor to harness their body heat in the
In colder mountain climes, the kitchen (also the centre of energy) winter (in summer they were sent to graze in the mountains and
is placed at the centre of the house with walls that also harness the interior was cool) and the harvest was dried in the well aired
thermal inertia, though in this case to prevent the heat leaving too attic, providing excellent insulation.

Underground dwellings in Matmata (Tunisia) Underground dwellings in Paterna (Spain)

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Detached house in the Pyrenean foothills in Guixers (Spain), fireplace and loft

However, when the climate is more temperate and there is an night air and keeps the space cool for much of the day, providing
intense cultural residue, the repetition of a specific model of ventilation but not allowing sunlight or sand to enter. In more
architecture is more associated with the culture of a society than benign climates, however, the courtyard is larger but does not
with the climate. Consider the example of the courtyard house. In have a clear bioclimatic function, since it is closely connected to
desert climates, a high, narrow courtyard (for example in the ksar the culture of privacy of an inward-looking house that
of Tamnougalt in the southern Moroccan Atlas), 4collects the cold characterizes Islamic culture.

Courtyard of a kasbah in the Tamnougalt ksar (Morocco) Courtyard of Dar Ben Abdallah in Tunis (Tunisia)

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Then we have to be wary of the word tradition. Since when and 1


in relation to what is a building traditional? For example,
throughout the Mediterranean, the lines between traditional and
cultured architecture are ambiguous and blurred. The
traditional Lebanese house, the house around a central hallway
or the three-arch house5, is very similar in structure and
functioning to the house on the terra firma of Venice, the Catalan
masia and the typical Ottoman house with its central sofa.
From all of the above we can deduce that most traditional
Mediterranean architecture is situated in areas with a temperate
climate. But the conditioning factors represented by the
The Tamnougalt Ksar (Morocco)
temperate climate, to quote Rafael Serra, are merely those of
other types of climates, less harsh but with the essential
characteristic that they may all be present at once. These are the
problem of the cold in the winter, which may be dry or damp, a
distinction that is not important in more extreme climes though it
is in these. The problem of the heat in the summer (dry or
humid), almost as intense as in other climates, despite lasting
relatively few days. Finally, the problem of changing weather in Percentage of openings in the faades of a detached house in the Pyrenean foothills
intermediate periods, when there may be extreme cold or heat for in Guixers (Spain); south, east, north and west faades

short periods of time.6

The art of choosing a good site and the intermediate spaces


It will come as no news to anyone that traditional architecture has
its own particular wisdom when it comes to choosing a site in the
territory. This is its starting point. A form of architecture that is
poorly positioned in relation to the sun, which is the great dictator,
will rarely have bioclimatic virtues. But a good siting also means
concealing from or exploiting the wind, orienting each of the
rooms according to its daytime or night-time use, and so on.
Here we have to insist on the idea expounded above: the more
severe a climate, the more radical the solutions. Here we can give
examples, too: a ksar is a fortified village in the valleys of the
southern Moroccan Atlas Mountains that protects itself from heat, Houses terraced on a natural slope in Berat (Albania)
cold and sand by crowding the houses together and seeking to
reduce the number of faades that exchange heat with the
exterior. Conversely, a farmhouse in the Pyrenean foothills is a
building that can stand open to the four winds on a south-facing
slope and positions its front door in the faade that is protected
from the cold wind.
By this token, villages on mountainsides have always constructed
their streets to follow contour lines with the ground floor of the
building in front dug into the ground to avoid blocking the sun
from the building behind, and its front door on the street above.
This type of arrangement usually guarantees cross ventilation. This
is a concept developed by the Modern Movement, but one that
had long been current in traditional Mediterranean architecture.
One good example is the Lebanese custom of placing small
The sandbag used in Lebanese tradition to prop doors open, creating cross
sandbags at all the doors to keep them open and allow ventilation ventilation of the rooms
between the front and the rear of the building.

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1 In addition, in a temperate climate such as ours, traditional


architecture seeks protection, pleasant views and sea breezes by
means of what we might refer to as intermediate spaces between
the interior and the exterior, which generate pleasant
microclimates according to the period of the year and time of day.
The diversity of these spaces is what makes traditional
Mediterranean architecture so singular.
A covered street or a porch at the entrance to a house is the first
space of this kind. Of solid construction or comprising canes and
plants, such as vines or jasmine, it welcomes the visitor and
protects the inhabitants when they sit at the front door to wile
Foyer of a house in Lefkara (Cyprus)
away the time or mend a tool, etc. This is a key element that in
climatic terms leads to the life in the street and the sociability that
characterize Mediterranean places.
A similar space, and one that is common to the architecture
throughout the Mediterranean, is the gallery, a raised porched
space, usually with columns that support arches, which serves as
a hallway to a series of rooms but is also large enough to sit out
or dry the harvest in. In Catalonia, it is also known as solana (a
sunny outdoor space), which is the same as the Arabic riwaq or
the Greek iliakos.
A particular example from the Near East is the iwan, originating in
Persia. This is practically a room with one of its sides missing, a
Roof of plant matter with jasmine in Jess Maria (Spain) covered but open-air space for a variety of functions, serving as a
hallway for the rooms that open onto it. The simplest structure is
two rooms with a central iwan, but the layout may be further
complicated by juxtapositions, courtyards, etc., producing rather
complex compositions.
A very simple but effective element is the eave, a projection of the
roof that provides shade in summer and allows winter sunlight in
as a result of the varying trajectory of the sun, which is lower at
this time of year. A similar but more sophisticated phase is the
tribuna (bow window), a small room that can be closed off from
the other rooms in the house and that looks out onto the exterior
through a glazed facing. This is a place to spend the winter hours
that harnesses the greenhouse effect for heating and transfers
Gallery of a house in Bda (Syria) some of the heat to adjacent rooms. The tribunes in Barcelonas
Eixample are an obvious example, though it is closely associated
with tradition and can be found everywhere, being particularly
abundant in the architecture of Turkey.
This brings us to the courtyard, the paradigm example of the
inside-outside intermediate spaces of traditional Mediterranean
architecture. Its bioclimatic behaviour and the strong cultural links
that have guaranteed its continuance are outlined above. It only
remains to add that in every region the proportions of its floor
plan and section offer the most suitable response to the climate of
each place. The house with peristyle of Hellenistic tradition was
followed by a series of adaptations of the courtyard: the Roman
domus, the courtyards of the Catalan Gothic townhouses and, of
The vegetation in the Riad Berebere in Marrakech (Morocco) course, the appropriation of the tradition of the courtyard (west

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Eaves of a house in Gjirokastra (Albania) The buildings of Ait Larbi in the Dades Valley merge with the surrounding landscape
(Morocco)

ed-dar, the centre of the house, in Arabic) by Islamic culture and comfortable interior spaces. In this way, the surfaces exposed to
the radicalization of its use, turning it inwards. the suns rays absorbed the heat, but since thick stone or earth
It was in Islamic culture that the courtyard found its ultimate walls transmitted it slowly, the interiors remained cool during the
application, together with vegetation and water. Water was day. The walls then stored the heat and transferred it to the inside,
introduced in the form of a fountain or small pool, thereby maintaining a pleasant temperature throughout the night.
creating a microclimate with a degree of moisture. This This phenomenon, explained here in relation to the walls, is also
environmental improvement also introduced vegetation, as in the applicable to the traditional flat roof. The terrace was a flat ceiling
example of the riad of Marrakech. of timber beams covered by a hands span of earth that provided
a roof and also, depending on the time of year, another room
Local materials, breathability and thermal inertia (bedroom, kitchen, drying shed, threshing ground, etc.). Flat roofs
The world of pre-industrial construction was characterized by low- of this kind are found in the North African Atlas, the mountains of
cost labour offset by the great expense of transporting Lebanon, the Alpujarras of Andalusia and, formerly, across a
construction materials to the site. It was therefore natural to try to whole swathe of the Pyrenees7 and the Alpes-Maritimes.
use the materials closest at hand to the site or those that were Another important factor was the breathability of these walls
easiest to use. This led to earth, local stone, lime mortar or plaster that is, their capacity to absorb moisture and dry out, and to
and wood becoming omnipresent materials in construction. Some balance exterior and interior humidity. This was possible thanks to
materials from the agricultural world, such as straw, were used as a culture of using breathable coatings such as plaster, earth or lime
good insulation in many different solutions. mortar renderings, and whitewashes.
It is interesting to see how this subsistence economy configured
the landscape of a territory. The tones of the earth and stone used Light filters
to build houses blended in with the colours of the surrounding Finally, traditional Mediterranean architecture is characterized by
hills to form an inseparable part of the landscape. an infinite wealth of solutions to provide filters on the openings in
At the same time, what was usually a solid earth or stone buildings (doors, windows, balconies), thereby responding to the
construction (rammed earth, adobe, rubblework, etc.) was variations in our temperate climate with the threefold aim of
characterized by using its thermal inertia to guarantee providing thermal insulation, shade and ventilation.

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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

Gallery with a whole range of filters in Sidi Bou Said (Tunisia) Solar Protection with curtains in the Kasbah of Algiers (Algeria)

Making a hole in a faade has always been a delicate task. There graduate the light and, finally, net curtains or drapes tamed the
was a temptation to make a large hole, but caution advised sun and provided privacy. The Mediterranean is full of different
making it smaller. We have to remember that the use of glass (to types of blinds: adjustable elements to control the intensity of
provide insulation, let light in and allow visibility) was a luxury for indoor light. This is the case of the simple cord blind which, with
those societies and a great deal of ingenuity was needed to make its various positions (completely up or down, half up/down or
as large a window as possible without creating an imbalance in resting on the balcony railing) helps to control the indoor
heat gain. Whereas initially these openings had just a wooden temperature. It also applies to the more complex Venetian (or
shutter with a spyhole (a smaller opening with a small opening Majorcan, depending on the place) blind, a kind of lattice of
shutter), they were gradually succeeded by larger openings adjustable slats on a frame. In this case, the light and air let into a
protected by waxed paper, and it was only considerably later that room can be precisely adjusted: completely open, completely
glass was incorporated. This is a good example of how traditional closed and the endless variations between, as shown by the
architecture is not immutable; it constantly changes as it absorbs, images that accompany this article (directing the light to the
we might say, "modernizations". Adaptability is certainly one of ceiling or to the floor, allowing someone inside to look out, etc.).
the foremost values of this type of architecture, as it has Islamic societies combine the climatic need to filter the light of a
demonstrated over the years. It has taken the incorporation of blazing sun and the culture of the veilseeing without being seen.
technologies that are remote from the human scale to bring about Here the mashrabiyyaa comes to the fore. This carved wooden
a breakaway that traditional Mediterranean architecture continues lattice fills the window, allowing in air and very filtered light while
to resist today as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly allowing those on the inside to look out. Much of the opening is
alternative. fixed but it also has movable frames, also made of wooden trellis.
There is a whole range of solutions. For example, in Catalonia, a
window opening could comprise the frame and the operable sash Conscientious rehabilitation
of the window, protected on the outside by a paravent, or outer Rather than incorporating bioclimatic gadgets, the rehabilitation
shutter, another shutter in the interior behind the glass to of a building has to bring a sensitive approach to the traditional

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Recovery of a parapet to allow ventilation on a terrace roof in Hebron (Palestine)

Exterior and interior views of the mashrebeeyeh of El Set Wasela (Egypt)

elements described here. Conscientious rehabilitation work should criteria (for example, in a thick-walled building the north-facing
not prejudice or ignore them. faade can be hyper-insulated, and less or no insulation used on
However, we also have to accept that these passive systems of the faces that receive more sunlight to exploit their thermal
environmental control do have their limits. In themselves, they inertia), maintains the breathability of the walls (for example,
guarantee reasonable comfort levels, but if we want a constant using lime renderings and breathable whitewashes or silicate
temperature of 20C and relatively humidity of 50% when the paints rather than the cement renderings and vinyl paints that
outside values are 35C and 30%, only an active system will do break with this hygrothermal balance), respects intermediate
the trick. However, this is nothing new: to combat the cold in a places (for example, avoiding the speculative appropriation of
traditional house, the inhabitants light a fire, which is merely these spaces by metal window/door frames) and conserves
another artificial system for producing heat. traditional solar filters (for example, avoiding the systematic
A rehabilitation project has to weigh up the needs of a replacement of frames by simplistic aluminium or PVC solutions).
programme (the clients requirements), the values of the Only after integrating these parameters is it appropriate to
architecture in question (cultural, architectural and also consider the real need to introduce an active atmospheric control
bioclimatic) and knowledge of the current state of the building. system (be it heating or air conditioning).
The RehabiMed method insists on the need for knowledge prior Once the building has been rehabilitated, it is occupied by the
to the interventionthat is, it is necessary to make a careful people who are to live in it. We began this article by saying that
diagnosis of the building (including the thermal balance) before the society that produced this architecture has disappeared so the
undertaking rehabilitation. It is, then, necessary to understand new user might not know how to "work" the building. We think
how the building functions, and to rehabilitate and modernize it that new users have to be told how to use it by means of a short
on this basis. instruction and maintenance manual presented at the end of
Having read this article, readers will deduce that we favour a form rehabilitation work. The Majorcan blind would therefore have
of rehabilitation which, on the basis of traditional construction instructions for use to optimize its functioning, as though it were
and ambient control mechanisms, seeks to adapt the conditions of a domestic appliance.
the building to present-day needs; but also brings a sensitive Although, for example, it requires an effort to maintain a wooden-
approach to thermal inertia as opposed to insulation without framed window rather than install the low-maintenance solutions

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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

1 offered by the market or opt for the convenience of a standard


aluminium blind with remote control, we think that it is these
aspects that demonstrate a conscientious approach to the
rehabilitation of traditional Mediterranean architecture.

1 CASANOVAS, Xavier (dir.): Rehabilitating Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.


Marseilles, 23, 24 and 25 September 2005, Collegi d'Aparelladors i Arquitectes
Tcnics de Barcelona. Barcelona, 2005.
2 NOURISSIER, Gilles; REGUANT, Joan; CASANOVAS, Xavier; GRAZ, Christophe:
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture. cole d'Avignon, Collegi d'Aparelladors i
Arquitectes Tcnics de Barcelona, Ecole des arts et mtiers traditionnels de
Ttouan. Barcelona, 2002.
3 FOLCH, Ramon (dir.): Mediterrnia: territori i paisatge. Atles Ambiental de la
Mediterrnia. Institut Catal de la Mediterrnia, Institut Cartogrfic de Catalunya,
Estudi Ramon Folch. Barcelona, 1999.
4 BADIA, Jordi; CUSID, Oriol; GRAUS, Ramon; MANRIQUE, Emili; NOY, Mart;
VILLAVERDE, Montserrat: [Spanish-French version, Marruecos presahariano.
Hbitat y patrimonio - Le Maroc prsaharien. Habitat et patrimoine. UNESCO,
Collegi d'Aparelladors i Arquitectes Tcnics de Barcelona. Barcelona, 1998.
Translated by Marinette Luria].
5 HUSSEINI, Frdric; NOURISSIER, Gilles; CASANOVAS, Xavier (dirs.): Manuel pour
l'entretien et la rhabilitation de l'Architecture Traditionnelle Libanaise. cole
d'Avignon, Corpus Levant Project. Avignon, 2004.
6 SERRA FLORENSA, Rafael: Les energies a larquitectura. Principis del control
ambiental arquitectnic (1993). Edicions UPC (2nd edition). Barcelona, 1995, pp.
200-219.
7 CASANOVAS, Xavier: "I tetti piani nel Pirineo catalano", CATALDI, Giancarlo (Dir.):
Attualit del primitivo e del tradizionale in architettura. Atti del Convegno
Internazionale 'Le ragione dell'abitare', Prato, 8-9 January 1988. Alinea Editrice.
Florence, 1989. pp. 135-141.

The multiple possibilities of wooden blinds with adjustable slats in Barcelonas


Eixample district (Spain)

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Traditional architecture and climate in Radhia Ben Mbarek


Architect
Tunisia Chief architect and specialist in heritage architecture

Over the centuries, our ancestors acquired a certain know-


how in the field of construction, based on an intuitive
knowledge of their environment and climate. The
construction techniques and materials used were chosen with
great care in order to adapt their dwellings to the climate.
This concern is all the more noticeable in areas with a hot
climate, such as the south of Tunisia.
Cave architecture is a fitting response to the rather harsh
climatic constraints of some southern regions. This type of
habitat comprises a series of dwellings in the ground, using
natural cavities or specially dug-out holes. The principle
condition of this type of dwelling is the presence of damp-
free soft ground.
This type of dwelling is an excellent response to hot climates.
The underground dwelling avoids the intense heat of summer
and the icy cold of winter thanks to the increase in thermal
inertia, due to the mass of the ground. Furthermore, the
notion of exterior faade is absent, which considerably limits
heat gain in summer and loss of calories in winter.
Thus the daily range of temperature is totally irrelevant. The
yearly range of exterior temperatures is the only magnitude
that influences the interior. Tunis, Tunisia
The thermal properties of this habitat vary according to:

The nature of the ground, which may be more or less inert or


insulating
The thickness of the walls dwellings around a courtyard an attractive proposition: in addition to
Exposure to the sun. the grounds thermal inertia, the amount of faade exposed to the
sun is kept to a minimum, as the courtyard increases the amount of
In the south of Tunisia, there are basically two different types of shade. It also makes it possible to exploit the earths radiation
cave dwelling according to the nature of the ground. The first is in (cooling the surfaces of the courtyard). The cool air at the bottom of
the region of Matmata and the second in Chnini. the courtyard noticeably decreases the ambient air temperature.

The cave dwelling in Matmata Cave dwellings in Chnini


In Matmata, the traditionally built habitat comprises dwellings In Chnini, another type of cave home is built on a hillside, dug
constructed around a fairly deep central shaft, which may be as into the earth through strata of hard rock that forms the roof.
much as 10 metres deep. These dwellings have fewer advantages than those in Matmata,
The rooms are dug out around this courtyard, sometimes on two though in relative terms they are more efficient, bearing in mind
levels, and organized in complex apartments made up of bedrooms, the impossibility of digging vertically due to the presence of rocky
storage space, stables, etc. ground.
Entry to this central courtyard is via a sloping tunnel that emerges to Cave dwellings illustrate the role of the thermal inertia of the
the exterior some tens of metres away. Some are equipped with a ground in establishing interior ambiances and prove to be the
water deposit, dug beneath the courtyard, to collect rainwater. dwelling best suited to hot, relatively dry climates with a large
The aridity of the climate makes the construction of underground annual temperature range.

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Traditional architecture and climate in Tunisia

1 For these cave dwellers, calculations show that the phase shift of In thermal terms, the courtyard is like a cooling shaft, since the
the annual thermal wave was in the region of six months. cool air cannot escape and cools the rooms that open onto it. The
However, whichever form of cave architecture we are dealing facings of the courtyard absorb the hot air from the interior spaces
with, various other factors and elements intervene in the creation and the walls that receive the sun, then emit it and cool down.
of bioclimatic architecture. Different possibilities were adopted by This coolness is then transmitted to the interior of the spaces. The
our ancestors with a view to obtaining maximum comfort and courtyard is, then, a regulating element that benefits the entire
responding to the demands of the occupants of spaces in hot dwelling.
regions, in order to produce a comfortable form of architecture. Finally, we can say that our ancestors had to take into account a
By way of example, the vernacular architecture of Djerba is based variety of factors and elements to achieve a form of architecture
on isolated dwellings with a central courtyard and thick walls, set that responded to their need for climatic comfort, including:
amid vegetation. This construction is called el menzel. Great use is
made of vaulted and domed roofs. The traditional Djerba house is The form of the roofs
characterized by the presence of one or more rooms raised above In summer, the sun shines mainly on the roof. The east and west
the other spaces, situated at the corners of the dwelling. This walls receive half the radiation of the roof. This is why the form of
room, or ghorfa, has a small opening near the top of the space the roofs is important to comfort inside the dwelling.
that allows natural ventilation. Due to their form, vaults and domes are less exposed to the suns
In the case of the vernacular architecture of Tozeur, palm groves rays and the wind. The use of this type of roof therefore helps to
provide a filter to the hot air and the suns rays. The building is reduce the impact of the suns rays at roof level and then in the
situated on the north side of the palm grove, protected from the interior space itself.
sand-bearing south winds. The characteristic faades of this
region of Tunisia are built of solid brick in such a way as to create The openings
projections that offer a variety of shaded areas. The minimization of openings to the exterior is one point of
The exterior spaces of the old towns are also treated with a view consideration. Some faades have no more than an entrance door
to obtaining a degree of climatic comfort. The sabat was created with an opening above it (air vent).
for this purpose, forming shaded areas and reducing the incidence This design and organization of the openings ensures good
of solar radiation on the house faades. ventilation, giving the home interior comfort at all times. The high
This concern is also found inside the house, where the solution of position of openings facilitates the exit of hot air. As a result, cool
building around a courtyard means that there is always shade, air comes in through the doors and out through openings high up,
with a minimum of solar radiation on the various faades of the generating a natural ventilation system.
construction in the course of the day.

Matmata, Tunisia Matmata, Tunisia

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Building materials Stone: for the construction of walls and vaults 1


Gypsum: used as a binding agent
Lime: generally used for renderings.

These three principal materials in traditional construction offer


efficient resistance to heat conduction, allowing the creation of a
cool interior.

The mass of the envelope


In traditional construction, the thickness of the walls varies
between 50 and 70 cm, and may be as much as a metre, ensuring
good insulation and slow heat transmission.
Furthermore, the compactness of the volumes helped to limit the
effects of heat; building a dwelling (and other constructions)
against its neighbours provides extra protection from the heat by
minimizing exposed surfaces.

Colour
The use of light-coloured cladding for the roof, floor and walls
ensures minimum absorption of the suns rays. Whitewashing or
painting them a light colour (particularly white) helps insulation by
reflecting solar radiation.

Kairouan, Tunisia

Tunis, Tunisia

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A tool to develop the use of solar cole des Mines de Paris, France

energy in Mediterranean basin:


1 the European Solar Radiation Atlas
(ESRA).

This atlas offers a unique instrument dedicated to the knowledge irradiation values (going from daily to hourly values, conversion
and exploitation of the solar resources in the Mediterranean basin. from horizontal to titled surfaces), spectral irradiance, illuminance,
It is a powerful tool for architects, engineers, meteorologists, daily mean profiles of temperature and other statistical quantities
agronomists, local authorities, tourism professionals, as well as (central moments, extremes, probability, cumulative probability
researchers and students. It covers the period 1981-1990. and utilizability curves). Graphics can be displayed in 2 or 3
It offers fundamental knowledge on the solar radiation available dimensions. Some applications studies on solar engineering can
at ground level, which is of primary importance for both the life be performed too.
and the climate (including the ocean) since it is the primary source This Atlas has been realised on behalf of the European
of energy on Earth by far. The Atlas co-ordinate by K. Scharmer Commission, by a team led by the company GET (Jlich,
and J. Greif, published by Les Presses de l'Ecole des Mines as The Germany), and comprising the Deutsche Wetterdienst (Hamburg,
European Solar Radiation Atlas - vol. 1: Fundamental and maps, Germany), Armines / Ecoles des Mines de Paris et de Nantes
describes the course of the Sun across the sky as it varieties (France), Instituto Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia Industrial
throughout the year and with the geographical location. The (Lisbon, Portugal), the Technical University of Lyngby (Denmark),
interactions of the solar radiation with the atmosphere and its the World Radiation Data Centre (Saint-Petersburg, Russia), and
components (haze, turbidity, clouds, etc.), and the separation of Institut Royal de Mtorologie (Brussels, Belgium), John Page
the radiation into the direct and diffuse parts are discussed. The (Sheffield, United Kingdom) and Robert Dogniaux (Brussels,
importance of the solar radiation in various domains is presented, Belgium) acting as advisors.
with an emphasis on solar engineering, where solar energy is used
to provide electricity in photovoltaics systems, to supply hot water
or heat houses.
Ground radiation measurement techniques and instruments are
described. Satellite images are also used. They are combined with
ground measurements to provide a synoptic view of the
distribution of the solar radiation over Europe. The structure of the
database and its main applications are described.
Here, we present 4 of the 26 coloured maps (ten years average
1981-90) that describe the solar radiation and its direct and
diffuse parts. They also detail the changes with time.
The value of the atlas can be usefully extended by using it in
conjunction with the complementary volume and CD-ROM called
The European Solar Radiation Atlas - vol. 2: database and
exploitation software, also published by Les Presses de l'Ecole des
Mines. The database offers spatial (every 10 km approximately)
and temporal knowledge for different time scales (from
climatological means - more than 700 stations - to hourly values -
7 stations -) on the solar resources: irradiation (global and its
components), sunshine duration, as well as air temperatures,
precipitation, water vapour pressure, air pressure in a number of
stations. The software uses the database in either a "map" or a
"station" mode at user choice. Once a station been selected, the
program looks for all the data available for this station. The
software includes algorithms covering the following fields: solar
geometry, optical properties of the atmosphere, estimation of
hourly slope irradiation under cloudless skies, estimation of solar

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A tool to develop the use of solar energy in Mediterranean basin:
the European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA

Global irradiation on horizontal plane. Monthly mean of daily sums. Tens years
average. March.

Global irradiation on horizontal plane. Monthly mean of daily sums. Tens years
average. June.

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A tool to develop the use of solar energy in Mediterranean basin:
the European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA

Global irradiation on horizontal plane. Monthly mean of daily sums. Tens years
average. September.

Global irradiation on horizontal plane. Monthly mean of daily sums. Tens years
average. December.

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Steps for an engineering Yaacov Schaffer


Civil Engineer, M.Sc. Ua.
(and non-structural) survey Israel Antiquities Authority, Israel
in pre-diagnosis phase

The pre-diagnosis phase of an engineering survey for an existing


traditional building is probably the most crucial point in the whole
frame of the rehabilitation of old buildings. It is crucial because the
first judgment of the building can affect the next steps, as the
following states:

Rehabilitation versus demolition.


Liberal approach of rehabilitation versus a conservative
approach
The first diagnosis of physical condition of the materials and
elements of the building
The first possible physical-structural solutions for the building

This pre-diagnosis stage should be carried out together with the


first programs for the rehabilitation of the building and before any Jaffa (Isral)
other step is implemented. In order to be able to do such a pre-
diagnosis survey in a simple manner, rather than with a large
team, there are two possibilities: an architect surveyor or an
engineer surveyor. In the first option (an architect, a surveyor, a The pre-diagnosis engineering survey is a three phases survey:
technical architect, etc., depending on the country's educational The structural engineering condition and the physical
systems), he/she has to have wide knowledge on ancient engineering condition of materials and elements, and the
technology, on the deterioration of historic materials and potential solution in the frame of engineering physical condition.
elements, a deep knowledge in conservation (practical skills and The steps and stages in the life of the building and its
philosophy) and a long experience. He/she is still missing the ability correlated conservation values.
to appraise the structural behavior and the condition of the old The future use of the building.
building, and a structure engineer will have to be added latter on
for the structural topic. Only if this wide approach is done, the pre-diagnosis engineering
In the second option (civil building engineer, technical engineer, survey prepares the project for the next stage of a complete
surveyor, etc.), he still has to have a wide knowledge in historical documentation, survey and design.
technology, deterioration of historic materials and elements, a Our goal is to rehabilitate the historic traditional buildings in the
deep knowledge in conservation (practical skills and philosophy) right, quick and economic ways. We have to take into consideration
and, unlike the first option he/she has to have good experience in that these buildings are still a large part of the building-stock in
the structural behavior of old buildings. It is not necessary for the some countries, while only a small part of the building-stock in
pre-diagnosis stage to have a special structural engineer. others. Also, relatively modern buildings in one country can be
However, the structural engineer has to have good qualified considered as traditional historic buildings in another country, and
experience in historic building systems and, more important, to we will have to approach the same topics in the same right
limit himself to structural engineering topics. This, he should not rehabilitation approach. With this statement, having a large stock of
relate to the appraisal of the physical conditions of materials, problematic buildings, we have to create a strong and deeply rooted
elements and conservation, conservation philosophy and profession to deal with these traditional buildings.
conservation solutions, all topics that are not related to his skills! So, this pre-diagnosis engineering survey will have to include
We remind again and again that a good engineering pre-diagnosis within a limited time table and a limited survey-report, the whole
survey primarily relies on the objectivity of the surveyor. For this situation of the building and especially what has to be excluded
reason, it is recommended that the pre-diagnosis survey will be from it. Six topics should be included in the pre-diagnosis
done by one professional and the future planning by another one! engineering report:

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Steps for an engineering (and non-structural) survey in pre-diagnosis phase

The main typical historic building technology. A good or fair condition of materials and elements could be
The main historic and existing structural engineering systems of conditioned and affected by an engineering solution, bringing
the building. a series of acts that could jeopardize the architecture and the
2 The structural engineering condition of the main building and conservation value of the building, or influence negatively on
its secondary additions. the economic part of the rehabilitation.
The engineering condition of materials and elements which will A good or fair condition of architecture elements might be
affect in a positive or negative way the overall engineering affected by a structural engineering solution, bringing together
survey in the pre-diagnosis phase. a negative influence on the architecture and the conservation
The general physical condition of architectural elements that value of the building itself or on the economic part of the
might be that will be affected negatively by potential structural rehabilitation.
engineering solutions. The pre-diagnosis report is especially meant for the clients that are
The main possible directions of structural engineering not generally professionals in the field of engineering conservation
solutions. and rehabilitation. For this reason, it has to be short, clear to the
clients & non-professional staff, as well as professional and useful
Some questions have to be asked and answered. Why shall one to the professional building staff. An example for any topic dealt
also deal in this pre-diagnosis engineering survey with the ancient with, has to be added in the form of photographs in the written
technology, material conditions and architectural elements report.
condition? There are three reasons for that: Having all these stages and approaches in mind, the first question
will be: is there such a professional person who has all the qualities
Not only is the ancient technology of the main structure described before? How many of these professionals are in each
responsible for the existing structural condition, but it also country/region/place? Can there be a separation between the pre-
conditions the possible solutions from the structural, diagnosis engineering survey phase and the latter phase of
economical and conservation points of view. documentation, survey and design planning? Should they be

Akko (Isral) Akko (Isral)

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Steps for an engineering (and non-structural) survey in pre-diagnosis phase

implemented by different professionals? Examples of pre-diagnosis engineering surveys:


We believe that professionals coming from the field of architecture
or engineering, with a good background in the history of 1. The interior and exterior of a wooden building were covered
architecture, building technology and engineering, good with plaster. The main floors of the ground floors have a 2
specializations in cultural heritage and rehabilitation of historic distortion, not usual to concrete floors. The back walls have
buildings and a large experience in the field of survey and rotten because of the pipes leaking from the kitchens and
documentation, are able to conduce the pre-diagnosis utilities, located in the back of the building. The first general
engineering survey. More specializations in regional historic impression was very bad. Three separate engineers were
building technologies will really create the "professional surveyors brought for the pre-diagnosis engineering survey. All three
of traditional buildings". Then, the addition of a structural wrote reports that the building was in an irreversible bad
engineering or other profession to the pre-diagnosis team will be engineering condition and that it had to be demolished.
decided, only when necessary. However, because of its peculiarity and a preservation
The separation between the pre-diagnosis surveyor and the approach, it was insisted that a conservation-engineer knowing
planner should also be emphasized. First, it is true that an these kind of technologies will inspect the building. After
architect or an engineer who surveys or documents the building convincing the municipality engineer and the owner, a pre-
will collect a large knowledge for planning and designing in the diagnosis engineering survey was conduced together with the
latter stages. But, from our experience all over the world, we conservation-engineer, which reported that the building was in
know that the possibility of being objective in the survey, when very good condition, except for the back wall. The results after
knowing that it will apply on the design and planning is very low. the survey, planning, documentation and implementation of
Todays planning works are based on percentage rates and the rehabilitation were very positive, shorter in time and more
therefore they are conditioned by the previous surveys. Second, economical in terms of budget, even when compared with the
qualities required from surveyors and documentation persons are last pre-diagnosis survey!
different from qualities of people in planning and design. So, lets
get the best from each professional. 2. Adobe buildings in a neighborhood planned for rehabilitation
The last but not least topic is the frame of the engineering survey and revitalization faced a first quick survey (the pre-diagnosis
in its pre-diagnosis phase. Beginning with the main building engineering survey) by a team of engineers and architects. They
technology and continuing with the structural engineering immediately pointed out the nice drawings on the gypsum
condition, the next stage will be the physical condition of plaster of the interior walls and the majolica inside and
materials and elements. The last chapter will be a quick report on outside the buildings. As for the engineering side, they
the architectural features. Then, the summary of the report will recognized the possibility of water penetration from the street
have to include three parts: floors and other sources. Their recommendations were to

The first part of the summary will address the overall report of
the physical and structural condition of the building today.
The second part will present the professional engineering and
structural opinions on the needs for the rehabilitation, for both
the old and new uses.
The third part will point-out the indirect influences of the
different potential engineering solutions on the architecture,
economic and conservation values of the building.

To conclude, the pre-diagnosis engineering survey has a crucial


influence on the future of the specific historic building and has to
be done in a highly professional way. Being limited in time and
results, a good pre-diagnosis engineering survey can however
save a lot of energy, time and money. A bad pre-diagnosis
engineering survey will influence all stages of the documentation,
planning, implementation and life of the rehabilitated building.

Wood building with a 1870' addition of a hip roof.

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Steps for an engineering (and non-structural) survey in pre-diagnosis phase

immediately stop the penetration of water by filling the


foundation with waterproof mortar and covering them with
waterproof renders and plasters. After this stage, they
2 recommended a large documentation and a survey, followed
by a design for the rehabilitation. It was implemented on 200
buildings and after 6 months, all the interior plasters and
paintings disintegrated, the adobe brick walls had large
problems and all the residents had to be evacuated from the
neighborhood. What had happened? The team of
professionals doing the pre-diagnosis engineering survey had
no idea about adobe buildings and their diagnosis was
completely wrong. The foundation had to remain without
mortar as a dry wall, this creating a system for evaporating the
water before it reached the walls. By closing them, they created
Outside, elements giving the impression of a very bad physical condition.
a capillarity rise of the water till the mid-height of the walls,
destroying both the interior architectural features and the
adobe structures. The conclusion is to avoid completely to do a
pre-diagnosis engineering survey without knowing the
structural historical system and the existing technology.

Inside, elements giving the impression of a very bad physical condition.

Inside, during the rehabilitation stage, showing a good physical condition.

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Support material for the preliminary Ramon Graus


architect
diagnosis stage Lecturer in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Building Construction of Barcelona
(Technical University of Catalonia), Spain

Preliminary diagnosis is the stage of compilation of all the basic


information required to enable the client to make a decision about
the possible rehabilitation of a building. All too often, this stage is
avoided or glossed over, yet it is vital for realistic decision-making
in the rehabilitation process.
Given the variety of types of data to be collected, this brief
introduction is followed by a series of model forms for the process
of preliminary diagnosis that may serve as guidance to the
architect/engineer. The principal data is obtained by consulting the
local Council (urban planning information, protection of
architectural heritage, Council grants for the rehabilitation of
private dwellings, etc.), conducting an inspection of the entire
building (construction system, state of conservation, imminence of
intervention, etc.), surveying the property market (market price of
similar properties in the area, construction costs, rehabilitation
costs, etc.), gaining an understanding of the socio-economic
conditions of the buildings inhabitants (one-family ownership, a
non-resident owner with tenants, possibility of vacating the
building during rehabilitation work, etc.) and, finally, a series of
Basic diagnosis kit (the diagnosticians bag) for measuring, comparing and noting
interviews with the client to fine-tune the commission. down information during the visit.
There are three principal moments in the process of preliminary
diagnosis.
intressants ;

2. Visiting the building


1. Before visiting the building
The architect/engineer who carries out the inspection visit must
In order to make the most of the time spent on the visit, it is have a well-trained and practised eye, and be patient (not be
advisable to prepare it carefully in advance, arranging the day and tempted to jump to conclusions about the cause of problems),
time of the visit with a single person from the building who will be curious (not simply suppose things that it has not been possible to
responsible for providing access to all parts of it. At this point, the establish) and imaginative (measuring, checking situations in the
important questions to ask are: course of the visit during which tests may be carried out).
The site visit will be conducted according to an order and
Do I have the permission of all the owners and tenants to visit organization that prevents any elements or determinant problems
their dwelling or premises? being overlooked. For example, the route followed by the
Who will attend me in each case? Who has the key? inspection will start on the outside of the building, offering a clear
Are there plans of the building? view of the lesions and symptoms that will be explored in greater
Does the building have unlit areas (basements, roof spaces, detail during the full visit, at the same time allowing us to form an
etc.) needing special lighting, a torch, etc.? overall idea of the building. Once inside, it is advisable to follow
Are all the spaces easy to access or will I need a stepladder, the elements of vertical communication up to the roof, as they are
ropes, etc.? ideal points from which to observe the buildings basic structure
and drainage system, locate possible structural movements or
leaks, and complete our knowledge by means of initial sketches.
Once a clear idea has been formed of the whole and the buildings

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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage

main features, it is time to move onto a more detailed For greater ease of use of this list, the toolslike the contents of
examination, with a strictly organized visit to form a balanced the doctors bag used in the examination of a personhave been
initial assessment of all components and prevent attention grouped into five sections.
2 centring on specific aspects.
During this preliminary diagnosis stage, the form, precision and Collecting and representing the information
quantity of information to be collected are, of course, different to
those of the subsequent stage of multidisciplinary studies. This Drawing board, paper, pencil, rubber, pens, etc.
initial moment is characterized by a search for fundamentally Inspection sheets for the systematic collection of information
qualitative values. Plans or diagrams on which to record interesting aspects
Digital camera
The diagnosticians bag Camera with different lenses to take quality photos of general
views or details and inaccessible places
Below, though in no way pretending to be exhaustive, is a list of Pocket tape recorder
tools that may be useful when carrying out a technical inspection
of a building and which are increasingly joining the contents of For geometric measurements
what I refer to as the diagnosticians bag. This is not a
comprehensive list of the tools needed for any type of inspection; 5-m flexible tape measure
it is merely a few suggestions with a view to preparing the 25-50 m measuring tape
inspection, which must be assessed according to the objectives Sonic measure and laser distance meter, to take measurements
set, the type of building to be studied, its constructional in inaccessible places
characteristics and the lesions that have been detected. Telescopic tape measure for measuring faades
Tachaeometer
Automatic level
Manual level
Flexible tube water level
Steel ball
Picks and ropes
Bevel protractor
Slide gauge
Weavers glass
Plumb line
Compass

For greater ease of observation

Protected light bulb and electrical cable


Torch
Magnifying glass
Binoculars
Flash
Lightweight ladder
Pulley
Adhesive paste or tape

For taking samples

Hammer, chisel and screwdriver


Plastic bags and boxes to store samples in (e.g. slide boxes)
Consult municipal regulations for information about urban planning and possible
listing of the building. Adhesive labels to mark samples
Permanent marker pens

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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage

Checking and detecting lesions

Knife
Punch 2
Metal detector
Damp detector
Concrete pH test kit
Reagents to check the existence and type of salts

The examination visit must envisage possible dangers arising from


the state of the structure or the installations, health and hygiene
conditions, abandonment, etc., and this calls for specific
protection that is not listed here, but may range from boots to
protect against nails and insecticides to kill bedbugs to a whole
range of equipment, depending on the circumstances (overalls, Use systematized sheets for greater ease of data collection during the inspection.

cap, helmet, goggles, safety harness, mask, tool jacket, gloves,


etc.).

3. Back in the office

All the information compiled during this phase will serve to help
the client make a decision. This phase is therefore usually
completed by a written preliminary diagnosis report that clearly
and succinctly suggests a course of intervention to the client (from
inaction or a campaign of studies preparatory to rehabilitation
work to immediate vacation of the building due to the risk of
accident).

The additional equipment needed to reach all parts of the building.

Optical measurement of cracks

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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage

Model preliminary diagnosis sheet


INFORMATION ABOUT THE BUILDING

Owner

Contact data:
2 Address:

District / Town:

Number of basement floors: Number of floors: GF+

Privately owned Privately owned


Number of shops: Number of dwellings:
Rented Rented

Age in years: Built depth: m

Built surface area: m2 Surface area of courtyards and gardens: m2

MUNICIPAL URBAN PLANNING INFORMATION

Urban planning classification Designation of public property,


(permitted uses): censuses, mortgages:
Heritage listing: Building levels: built m2 / m2 land

Permitted number of floors: GF+ Permitted building depth: m

SITE CHARACTERISTICS

Area (urban/rural): Distance to urban centre: km

Street width: m Pavement width: m

Height of adjacent building on left: GF+ Height of adjacent building on right: GF+

UTILITIES

Drinking water: Electricity:

Sewerage: Telephone:

SKETCH OF THE BUILDING

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Test to evaluate the buidings state of conservation


Elements Description Condition Urgency Recommended action
STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)
Walls and/or columns
Floors
Stairways 2
Roof structure

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)


Roof cladding
Eaves
Chimneys

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material onto street)
Claddings and renderings
Balconies
Door and window frames
Railings, grilles

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)


Water
Drainage
Electricity
Gas

HABITABILITY (Ensure salubrious conditions of the dwelling)


Ventilation of rooms
Damp in the interior
Position and ventilation of WC
Fire safety
Dangerous materials

HERITAGE ASSESSMENT (Find out the buildings historical and artistic values)
Spatial structure
Ornamentation
Singular elements
Historical value

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (Calculate the cost of the intervention)


Market value without maximum building levels [VWMB]:
Upper-level market value at maximum building levels [MBV]:
Replacement value + land: Superficial rehabilitation of existing m2 [SRV]:
Comprehensive rehabilitation of existing m2 [CRV]:
Rehabilitation with maximum m2 building levels [RMB]:
New construction [VNC]:
OBSERVATIONS

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONDITION URGENCY SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name:

1- Good condition A- Immediate intervention


2- Lack of maintenance B- Intervention within 2 years
3- Poor condition C- Intervention within 5 years
Conducted in on 20
The information included in this document is valid for the following 6 months as of the above date.

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Economic study [preliminary diagnosis]


CURRENT STATE OF BUILDING

Owner

Contact data:

2 Address:

District / Town:

Number of basement floors: Number of floors: GF+

Privately owned Privately owned


Number of shops: Number of dwellings:
Rented Rented

Age in years: Plot width: m

Surface area of site [SS]: m2 Built depth: m

Built surface area [BS]: m2 Surface area of courtyards and gardens: m2

MUNICIPAL URBAN PLANNING INFORMATION

Urban planning classification Designation of public property,


(permitted uses): censuses, mortgages:
Heritage listing: Building levels [BL]: built m2 / m2 land

Permitted number of floors: GF+ Permitted building depth: m

SITE CHARACTERISTICS

Area (urban/rural): Distance to urban centre: km

Market study (sales price of 6 buildings of similar characteristics)

Built m2 [CTC] Sales price [CSP] Built m2 [CTC] Sales price [CSP]

Control 1 m2 __ Control 4 m2 __

Control 2 m2 __ Control 5 m2 __

Control 3 m2 __ Control 6 m2 __

Average sales price of similar


Percentage of repercussion of area
buildings in the area [ASP]=( (CSC / __ /m2
land price [LP]:
CTC) / i) :

Direct costs of construction in the area

Price of new construction in the area


__ /m2 Price of demolition [PD]: __ /m2
[NCP]:

Price of superficial rehabilitation Price of comprehensive rehabilitation


__ /m2 __ /m2
[SRP]: [CRP]:

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT

Maximum surface area to be built Planning impact


[MSB]=(SS x BL) [IP]=(MSB / BS)

Cost of superficial rehabilitation work Cost of comprehensive rehabilitation


[CRW]=1.18 x (BS x SRP) work [CRW]=1.18 x (BS x CRP)

Cost of rehabilitation work with


Cost of new building work
maximum m2 building levels
[CNBW]=1.18 x ((BS x PD) + (MSB x
[CRMB] = 1.18 x (CCRW+ (MSB-BS) x
NCP))
1.5 x NCP)
Market value Value of replacement + land value:

[SRV]=[CSRW+LP*ASP*BS]
[VWMB]=[1.1 x ASP x BS]
[CRV]=[CCRW+LP*ASP*BS]

[RMB]=[CRMB+LP*ASP*MSB]
[MBV]=[1.1 x ASP x MSB]
[VNC]= [CNBW+LP*ASP*MSB]

The information included in this document is valid for the following 6 months as of the above date.

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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage

Model preliminary diagnosis sheet (example)


INFORMATION ABOUT THE BUILDING

Propritaire : Pedro Jimnez Solera

Renseignements de contact : 8660660505

Adresse : Calle de Entresols, 22 2

Quartier / Ville : Matar

Number of basement floors: -- Number of floors: GF+ 1

1 Privately owned 1 Privately owned


Number of shops: Number of dwellings:
-- Rented -- Rented

Age in years: Over 100 Built depth: 15 m

Built surface area: 150 m2 Surface area of courtyards and gardens: 80 m2

MUNICIPAL URBAN PLANNING INFORMATION

Urban planning classification Designation of public property,


Residential, old town None
(permitted uses): censuses, mortgages:
Heritage listing: None Building levels: 1.10 built m2 / m2 land

Permitted number of floors: GF+ 2 Permitted building level: 14 m

SITE CHARACTERISTICS

Area (urban/rural): Urban Distance to urban centre: -- km

Street width: 7 m Pavement width: 1 m

Height of adjacent building on left: GF+ 1 Height of adjacent building on right: GF+ 3

UTILITIES

Drinking water: YES Electricity: YES

Sewerage: YES Telephone: YES

SKETCH OF THE BUILDING

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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage

Test to evaluate the buidings state of conservation


Elements Description Condition Urgency Recommended action

STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)

Renew exterior rendering to ensure


Walls and/or columns Masonry 1 --
ongoing protection
2
Floors Timber beams 2 C Ask for a structural diagnosis

Stairways Timber beams 2 C Ask for a structural diagnosis

Shore up damaged parts and get a


Roof structure Timber truss 3 A
structural diagnosis

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

Change broken tiles after shoring


Roof cladding Roofing tiles (channel and imbrex) 2 A
up the roof

Shore up eaves and get a structural


Eaves Timber 3 A
diagnosis

Chimneys Brick -- --

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

First solve structure and roof


Claddings and renderings Lime rendering 2 B
problems then renew rendering

Balconies -- -- -- --

Door and window frames Timber 2 B General repainting

Railings, grilles Wrought iron 2 B General repainting

Gallery with arches Brick 1 -- --

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)

Water Copper tubes (recently replaced) 1 -- --

Drainage Cement asbestos tubes 2 B Install new downpipes

2 circuits, 4.4 kw of power


Electricity 1 -- --
(recently renewed)

Gas Gaz butane (rnove rcemment) 1 -- --

HABITABILITY (Ensure salubrious conditions of the dwelling)

Plan intervention to create windows


Ventilation of rooms 2 bedrooms are not ventilated 3 C
in the mid-term

Generalized damp in walls and floor Ask for a diagnosis to find out the
Damp in the interior 3 A
at ground level cause of damp

First solve the structural problems


Position and ventilation of WC Next to stairwell, no ventilation 3 B
then find a new position for it

First solve the structural problems


Fire safety Irregular risers in stairs 1 --
then renew stairway

Get a specialized company to


Dangerous materials Cement asbestos tubes (asbestos) 2 B
replace them

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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage

HERITAGE ASSESSMENT (Find out the buildings historical and artistic values)

Narrow bay on medieval plot,


Spatial structure medieval aproach and hallway 1 -- Conserve approaches
conserved
2
Ornamentation Lintel over front door 1 -- --

Timber eaves with carved Reconcile structural reinforcement


Singular elements 3 A
decoration and conservation of decoration

Situated in one of the districts


Historical value 2 C Conserve faade
historical streets, well conserved

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (Calculate the cost of the intervention)

Market value without maximum building levels [VWMB]: 504,485

Upper-level market value with maximum building levels [MBV]: 573,430

Replacement value + land: Superficial rehabilitation of existing m2 [SRV]: 358,442

Comprehensive rehabilitation of existing m2 [CRV]: 429,242

Rehabilitation with maximum m2 building levels [RMB]: 539,117

New construction [VNC]: 537,878

OBSERVATIONS

The building is an excellent example of the traditional architecture of the old town. It was originally a solid building for a humble family that has been
extended various times over the years. Probably only the ground floor conserves medieval elements.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In the last 10 years, the building has undergone a major process of degradation. The absence of maintenance has led to rainwater leaking into the
interior, causing the deterioration of the timber structure of the roof and upper floor.
At the same time, the building is situated in one of the districts oldest streets and forms part of a whole that is of modest construction but with a high
historical value.
Recommendations:
- Shore up the damaged structure under the direction of an architect/engineer
- Ask for a complete diagnostic study of the building (structural analysis, damp study, historical study)
- Consider a rehabilitation project, since an initial cost study does not suggest the advisability of demolition and the building has historical value in the
street where it is situated.

CONDITION URGENCY SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name :

1- Good condition A- Immediate intervention


2- Lack of maintenance B- Intervention within 2 years
3- Poor condition C- Intervention within 5 years

Conducted in Matar on 20 January 20 0 6 Julin Almagro Prez, architect

The information included in this document is valid for the following 6 months as of the above date.

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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage

Economic study [preliminary diagnosis] (example)


CURRENT STATE OF THE BUILDING

Owner Pedro Jimnez Solera

Contact data: 8660660505


2 Address: Calle de Entresols, 22

District / Town: Matar

Number of basement floors: -- Number of floors: GF+ 1

1 Privately owned 1 Privately owned


Number of shops: Number of dwellings:
-- Rented -- Rented

Age in years: Over 100 Plot width: 5 m

Surface area of site [SS]: 155 m2 Built depth: 15 m

Built surface area [BS]: 150 m2 Surface area of courtyards and gardens: 80 m2

MUNICIPAL URBAN PLANNING INFORMATION

Urban planning classification Designation of public property,


Residential, old town None
(permitted uses): censuses, mortgages:
Heritage listing: None Building levels [BL]: 1.10 built m2 / m2 land

Permitted number of floors: GF+ 2 Permitted building level: 14 m

SITE CHARACTERISTICS

Area (urban/rural): Urban Distance to urban centre: -- km

Market study (sales price of 6 buildings of similar characteristics)

Built m2 [CTC] Sale price [CSP] Built m2 [CTC] Sale price [CSP]

Control 1 140 m2 450,000 Control 4 200 m2 500,000

Control 2 135 m2 440,000 Control 5 125 m2 410,000

Control 3 160 m2 470,000 Control 6 130 m2 410,000

Average sales price of similar


Percentage of repercussion of area
buildings in the area [ASP]= ( (CSP / 3,057 /m2 0.55
land price [LP]:
CTC) / i) :

Direct costs of construction in the area

Price of new construction in the area


1,200 /m2 Price of demolition 55 /m2
[NCP]:

Price of superficial rehabilitation Price of comprehensive rehabilitation


600 /m2 1,000 /m2
[SRP]: [CRP]:

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT

Maximum surface area to be built Impact of planning


171 m2 1.14
[MSB]=(SS x BL) [IP]=(MSB / BS)

Cost of comprehensive rehabilitation


Cost of superficial rehabilitation work
106,200 work 177,000
[CSRW]=1.18 x (BS x SRP)
[CCRW]=1.18 x (BS x CRP)

Cost of rehabilitation work with Cost of new building work


maximum m2 building levels [CRMB] 252,402 [CNBW]=1.18 x ((BS x PD) + (MSB x 251,163
=1.18 x (CCRW+ (MSB-BS) x 1,5 x NCP) NCP))

Market value Replacement value + land value:

[SRV]=[CSRW+LP*ASP*BS] 358,442
[VWMB]=[1.1 x ASP x BS] 504,485
[CRV]=[CCRW+LP*ASP*BS] 429,242

[RMB]=[CRMB+LP*ASP*MSB] 539,117
[MBV]=[1.1 x ASP x MSB] 573,430
[VNC]= [CNBW+LP*ASP*MSB] 537,878

The information included in this document is valid for the following 6 months as of the above date.

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Starting with a precise preliminary diagnosis I. Knowledge

The preliminary diagnosis Yiola Kourou


Architect
The Cyprus experience Department of Town Planning and Housing, Cyprus

The restoration and rehabilitation of Cyprus traditional buildings,


is driven mainly by the initiative of the buildings owners. Once the
decision to proceed with a general preservation of the building is
taken, a certified designer (Architects and Civil Engineers) is
appointed. The designer is then informed about their desired
outcome, either for rehabilitating the building for residential use,
or for financial exploitation.
In the urban historical centers, the main use of the traditional
buildings is residential; the commercial use is usually restricted to
the central commercial streets. On the contrary, in the villages, due
to the accumulating decrease of the population caused by the lack
of job opportunities, the required use is mainly commercial (agro
tourism) combined with secondary residential use (holiday
houses).
After the appointment of the designers, the first on-site visit takes Lefkara (Cyprus)
place for the visual inspection of the building. The poor condition
of large number of traditional buildings appears to be an damages, cracks, deterioration etc, must be documented. This is a
overwhelming factor. Many of these buildings have been very important part of the work, since it will assist the architect
abandoned and special attention must be exercised for their and/or engineer to understand the behavior of the structural
restoration. Quite often they require special supports prior to system and trace the probable causes that originally produced the
intervention or else a step by step execution of the restoration damages.
works. The evaluation of the architectural and historical character of the
During the above visit, a preliminary study of the following building, as well as its position in the historical centre is very
elements takes place: important. This must also be documented in order to be taken into
account when acquiring Listing/Ancient Monument status.
a. The construction materials (stone walls, adobe walls, Moreover, the architect proceeds to an on-site investigation
lightweight walls etc), their condition and any interventions interviewing neighbors and senior citizens of the area, in order to
pointing out mechanical and stability safety problems, collect data for the original character of the building, for any
moisture problems etc. that need to be addressed immediately interventions, or for any other relative information.
(i.e. support of the building). The next step is to establish a contact to the corresponding
b. The buildings construction (i.e. the frame, the interlocking and competent authorities for the designation of the buildings legal
connection of the elements and their contribution to the overall status and the urban planning obligations and restrictions through
stability of the building); this could be very helpful when deciding the Local Plans and the Policy Statement for the Countryside,
the removal of some sections of the internal walls in order to whereas, in the cases of highly acclaimed settlements such as the
achieve better functionality of the building according to the Lefkara settlement, there are guidelines for the protection of the
owners wishes, provided that the authentic character of the character of the historical centers with the preservation of the
building is not negatively affected. morphology and typology of original buildings (traditional types of
c. The existing functionality of the building (i.e. how the rooms walls, types of openings, inclinations and types of roofs, use of
connect to the street or to the internal yard) in order to be regional traditional materials, correct interventions in external and
taken into account in the planning phase for the new use of internal additions/extensions to the building etc.). In the case of
the building. Listed Building/Ancient Monument, additional restrictions apply
because the building must comply with the principles of
A complete documentation with the use of sketches and Preservation:
photographs should take place. All problems identified such as a. The conservation of a building means also the conservation of

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I. Knowledge Starting with a precise preliminary diagnosis
The preliminary diagnosis. The Cyprus experience

all its elements (original traditional materials, architectural d. All uses allowed by the Planning Zones can be applied to Listed
details, decorative/painting elements etc.) as well as the Buildings/Ancient Monuments under the condition that the
conservation of its environment and its scale. This excludes any special character of the buildings (typology and morphology)
modification leading to the change of volumes, typology, is respected.
2
materials and colors.
b. The new extensions/additions must respect all parts of the In the cases of designated buildings or other structures, the
building, its traditional framework and the connection of the Cyprus Government has developed and established a generous
environment; in parallel, they must differentiated from the package of incentives.
original parts of the building and be reversible as possible, As an example, the package of incentives currently available for
allowing the recall of the pre-interventions status of the listed buildings includes direct cash grants for up to 50% of the
building (principle of reversibility). approved restoration cost for listed buildings located within rural
c. To use, in general, traditional materials and construction settlements or in the countryside and 40% for urban listed
methods; only in cases that these cannot be applied, modern buildings (with a maximum amount of grant C40.000,00 in both
methods with proven efficiency (empirically and scientifically) cases), transfer of Residual Building Coefficient (only for urban
and compatibility with the traditional materials can be used listed buildings), Donated Building Coefficient so that the
instead. owner may sell extra square meters to increase the amount of the
grant up to 50% in cases when it is less, tax exemptions (
including exemptions of restoration costs and rents obtained from
a listed building from income tax, exemption of property tax and
refund of property transfer fees).
The package of incentives currently available for ancient
monuments includes direct cash grants for up to 50% for the
first C60.000,00 of the restoration cost, 30% for the next
C40.000,00 and 10% for the rest of the restoration cost for
buildings of residential use and direct cash grants for up to 30%
for the first C60.000,00 of the restoration cost, 20% for the next
C40.000,00 and 10% for the rest of the restoration cost for
buildings of commercial/tourist use (with a maximum amount of
grant C50.000,00 in both cases) and tax exemptions.
With the collection and study of the above elements, the
designers brief the owner of the building of their preliminary
findings, views and proposals for the restoration/rehabilitation
Wall built of light materials (ntolmas timber structure with infilling of plaster, plan to be followed (requirement of supports, proposed use,
reeds and stone), Nicosia application for listing of their property as historic/ancient
monument), before the kick off of the main study of the building.

Traditional structural floor, Lefkara

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The programme of studies Fernando Vegas


Doctor of Architecture
Lecturer in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Architecture of Valencia (Technical
University of Valencia), Spain

Camilla Mileto
Doctor of Architecture
Lecturer in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Architecture of Valencia (Technical
University of Valencia), Spain
3

This is the starting point: a traditional construction needs fitting


out, repairing or restoring. This construction may be a
traditional dwelling (private or collective, isolated or clustered),
premises linked to the pre-industrial economy (a windmill, tile
works, press, olive-oil mill, stables), a modest religious
construction (chapel, small sanctuary) or a functional structure
associated with farming, stock-keeping or hunting (terrace,
wall, cobbles, canal, waterwheel, dike). There are two
possibilities: either the vernacular techniques that produced
these constructions are still alive in the place or they now form
part of the past and the place no longer conserves the
knowledge of the master builders from days gone by.
In the first case, supposing the techniques are still truly alive in
the area, the fitting out, repair or restoration can be easily
undertaken employing the same construction systems used to A historical study can be based on historical photographs that reveal unknown
build the traditional architecture. The second case requires a information about the building. Church-cum-fortress in Castielfabib (Valencia)

detailed study of the existing construction to discover these


construction techniques and carry out the best possible
intervention.
In both cases, prior to any study and by way of a general
recommendation, the scrupulous conservation of pre-existing
elements is urged as opposed to the oft-considered alternative preliminary study can be limited to a detailed inspection in order
of demolition and complete rebuilding, even when vernacular to interpret the point of departure, before intervention, with the
construction techniques are still active. In these cases, it is often help of the experience of similar cases. If means are available, then
discovered after demolition that reconstruction is not so easy the preliminary study can be as detailed as you like, as there are
after all, or that the necessary processes are not actually known, no bounds to knowledge, even in the case of simple traditional
despite having thought the contrary. Furthermore, the presence constructions.
of pre-existing elements is always an open book that provides As we will see further on, an exhaustive preliminary study does not
reference to the knowledge required to draft and construct a guarantee correct restoration, which ultimately depends on the
project. attitude or criteria of the designer or actor. It is also true that fuller
knowledge of the built reality often allows a more sensitive
approach to restoration, as sensibility increases with greater
The preliminary study contact with the building.
Ultimately, however, the strict conservation of traditional
Before the restoration project is carried out, a preliminary study of architecture depends not on the profusion of multidisciplinary
the building is necessary to acquaint us with the architecture in studieswhich can often not be undertaken due to their
question and allow us to produce a project in keeping with its proportional cost in relation to the interventionbut on the
reality and its real needs. If few means are available, the criteria, respect and sensibility displayed by the actor or actors in

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The programme of studies

the intervention. For this reason, it is advisable that universities


and research centres undertake multidisciplinary studies to give
various ideas about the traditional architecture of each place or
types of vernacular techniques, facilitating the work of the
architects and owners who, due to lack of training, knowledge or
means, cannot undertake a complete study of these buildings.
A comprehensive programme of preparatory studies for a
3 restoration project might include the following: historical study,
metric and descriptive plan, photographic plan, plan of
construction and materials, stratigraphic study, study of
pathologies, study of fissures and deformation, functional study
and other, more specific complementary studies. It is up to each
actor to decide which studies are necessary in each case,
according to the needs and means available.

Historical study
However difficult it may initially seem, it is important never to leave
out a historical study, albeit simple, of the traditional building
requiring rehabilitation or, in its stead, of the surroundings, area,
village or town in which it is located. This historical study may be a
simple recompilation of old photos of the building, the
documentation of oral sources gathered with due precaution as
regards possible partiality or subjectivity, the study of buildings of
similar morphology, the consultation of previous cases of restoration,
and so on.

Metric and descriptive plan


This is the most exact graphic reproduction of the built reality. It
must faithfully reflect the object represented, since it will provide
the basis for the rest of the preliminary studies and the project
itself. Discontinuities, irregularities and deformations must be
precisely drawn, with no attempt to simplify or impose a
geometric order, as they usually conceal clues to understanding
the buildings growth, historical evolution and pathologies.
There are many ways of measuring and describing buildings, from
manual means, using a tape measure and triangulation, to recent
3D scanning systems, to the laser distance metre, the theodolite
and photogrammetry. The most natural in the case of traditional
architecture is the use of manual means, which, if carried out
efficiently in these simple constructions, does not compare
unfavourably in precision with more technological means.
It is necessary to draw out as many floor plans as there are levels
in the building and as many cross- and longitudinal sections as
there are different situations in the layout. The projection of the
interior elevations in these sections will subsequent help to locate
the project in the interior of each room.
When drawing up these plans, it is advisable not to take any
relation in a vertical direction as read, as walls often decrease in
The metric and descriptive plan may be accompanied by the interior elevations of
height or slope away from the vertical. For this reason, it is a good the building reflecting the expressivity of the material. Old waggoners inn in
idea to fix at least three external or internal points of connection Torrebaja (Valencia))

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The programme of studies

between the various floors to facilitate the subsequent location of the mortars, the interior plasters, the exterior renderings, the
the floors with reference to them. timber used for the beams, joists, door and window frames, the
Similarly, it is important not to take as read the existence of partition walls, the uprights, the glass, types of floors, roofs, tiles,
horizontal planes, as both ground and upper floors often have flooring, and so on. And not only the materials, but also the way
deliberate slopes, pathological inclines or structural deflection that they are grouped and combined to form the constructional details
may be very useful to understanding the building and drawing up of the building that have two aspects to be considered: function
the restoration project. and mutual physical compatibility.
The mapping of arches, vaults and domes has to faithfully What is the objective of this task? The precise identification of the 3
reproduce their trajectory in space, producing at least one section various construction materials and techniques used in the building
for each curve, and a series of sections in the case of a longer firstly facilitates the drafting of the stratigraphic study but
vault. These curves in section, compared to the theoretical line of secondly, and most importantly, it represents a step further in
pressure, allow us to analyse the state of health of the knowledge of the built object, allowing us to choose and design
construction element. the best processes of consolidation, treatment and repair of the
individual elements that form part of the whole.
Photographic plan By way of example, a wall of bonded masonry or plaster made
This is basically for the buildings external and internal faades. It with earth or lime mortar are different things, and each element
involves producing a map with the help of photographs requires different attention. Various types of timber behave
superimposed with data (photomaps) and put together like a differently in the event of damp and the attacks of wood-boring
puzzle. This requires the use of a computer, as it involves taking insects and fungi. Precise knowledge of a constructional section
digital photographs (or photos that are then scanned), rectifying can provide explanations for a buildings pathologies, and this is
them using one of the many computer programs currently on the just one example.
market, manipulating them and printing them to a certain scale.
A photographic plan of a buildings faades or a photomap is far
more powerful in terms of expression and communication than
the information offered by a metric and descriptive plan. A
photomap represents the object with its exact measurements, but
it also provides information about the colour, material, texture,
state of conservation, etc. A scale photomap offers the same
information as the metric and descriptive plan, plus a great deal of
added data that the drawing is unable to reflect, to the extent that
it can replace the first mapping.
In fact, if you have a photographic map, you can produce the
metric and descriptive plan by tracing the information provided by
the photomap in line form. This might initially seem a pointless
task. However, the manual exercise of reproducing the lines
provided by the photograph reveals to the hand things that go
unnoticed to the eye.
However, it is not important if the means to draw up a
photographic map are not available. Simple photographic
documentation to accompany the metric and descriptive plan
allows the same type of real approach to the architectural object
and provides the same amount of information as a photomap,
with the difference that the measurements can only be obtained
from the metric and descriptive plan.

Plan of construction and materials


This plan is drafted on the physical support of the metric and
descriptive plan or the photographic map. Its purpose is to identify Photomaps are a very useful technique. In addition to measurements, they also
record colour, texture, degradation, etc. Old waggoners inn in Torrebaja (Valencia)
and name all the types of materials used: the types of masonry
and their respective bonding, the bricks, the rammed-earth walls,

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The programme of studies

The plan of construction and materials provides a detailed description of the


structural functioning of both the parts of the building and the whole. Traditional
house in Sesga (Valencia)

have refined your knowledge of the various changes of stonework


Stratigraphic study that appear in the building, which, on occasion, correspond to the
This is a study of the evolution of growth, and the extensions and different phases of construction. Likewise, irregularities and
modifications made to the building. It does not require written discontinuities found in the walls during the drafting of the floor
historical documentation or information that can be found in plan will be possible points of information for the stratigraphic
libraries or archives. If such documentation does exist, it should study.
not be disregarded, but this very rarely is the case with traditional It is also interesting to cross-reference the information obtained
architecture. from the stratigraphic study with the building pathologies, as the
buildings healed-over wounds, listed within its overall chronology,
The stratigraphic study is written directly by reading the signs contribute information about the active or inactive presence of the
contained in the built fabric. The objective of the stratigraphic factor causing the pathologies. For example, a small crack in a
study is to produce a chronology that tells of the phases in the life plastered wall may correspond to a large crack that has been
of a building, with all the cases of extension, transformation and repeatedly repaired during the life of the building and successively
demolition, etc. covered up by multiple layers of plasters of differing ages.
This reading calls for some practice and the adoption of a code
that allows us to record on the plans the information about the Study of material pathologies
structure as we obtain it. In this case, the photographic map or The detection, identification and study of the buildings
simple photographs without scale are preferable to the metric and pathologies are the necessary preliminary to drawing up a
descriptive plan, due to the importance of the added restoration project that will ensure the buildings return to overall
documentation that the photograph provides. health. Pathologies are normally manifested in the surface of built
If you have drawn up a plan of construction and materials, you will elements, though there are also cases, such as a possible termite
be better placed to draft the stratigraphic study, since you will attack, when the affected materialin this case timberdoes not

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The stratigraphic study reveals data not recorded in any written documents but
present in the stonework. Traditional house in Sesga (Valencia)

present any signs on its surface, and it will be necessary to look for phenomena may be superficial or deep-seated erosion, air
other signs of its existence. pockets, disintegration, flaking, pockmarking, spalling,
Before starting, it is important to distinguish between two types of subflorescence, etc. Of the materials of animal origin occasionally
phenomena: alterations and degradations. Alterations are used in construction, such as leather, bone (horn), animal fibres
modifications in the material that do not necessarily involve a (wool) or the various additives used to make mortar in different
worsening of its characteristics from the viewpoint of parts of the world (eggs, glues, fibres, hair, honey, etc.), it is animal
conservation. Degradations, conversely, are transformations in the fibres that are most subject to attack by moth and similar insects.
material that do represent a worsening that endangers its integrity In plant materials such as timber, reed, wicker or straw, the
and permanency. phenomena of degradation may be the various types of biological
Alterations do not compromise the existence of the building and attack by fungi or wood-boring insects (anobids, curculionids,
are therefore not the object of concern or interventionon the termites, etc.).
contrary, they mark the effects of the passing of time on the
building and, within reason, form the patina that allows the Study of fissures and deformations
observer to identify the value of its age. Degradation, conversely, The overall symptomatology of the cracks and deformations in the
should receive attention, as ignoring it could compromise the traditional construction as a whole provides valuable data about
existence of the building in the short, medium or long term, the buildings structural pathologies. Often, the simple
depending on the gravity of the case. observation of an isolated crack, without the context of fissuring
It is important to reflect on the plans all the observations made and deformation of the whole building, may be deceptive.
about the stonework with regard to the phenomena of Likewise, sometimes the confluence of various phenomena can
degradation present in the surfaces of the materials. In mineral cloud a hasty initial examination lacking in thorough analysis.
materials, such as masonry, rammed earth, mortar or plaster, these The record of fissuring should be made on the metric and

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The recording of pathologies on the metric plan is another step towards the
restoration project. Old waggoners inn in Torrebaja (Valencia)

descriptive plan or the photographic map. It is advisable to create Functional study


a legend of signs to easily distinguish and identify the type of Before going on to draft a restoration project, it is advisable to
lesion documented. A superficial crack in plaster is not the same carry out a study of the historical function of the building and its
as one that goes through to the buildings walls. It is also compatibility with the future function assigned to it. This prior
important to carefully observe each lesion and identify its analysis may detect possible incongruence in the concept or
direction, rotation and which way it is moving. In order to do so, distributive violence that is inadvertently being caused to the
observe the two sides of the crack and find out whether they are building in time to correct the course of a functional programme
in the same plane or displaced, whether they are parallel or meet, or a preliminary project that does not adequately address pre-
if they run right through the wall or open in just one face, and so existing elements of the traditional building and the necessary
on with each lesion. prevalence of its constitution and character in the restoration
The study of deformations will be included in a carefully project.
conducted metric and descriptive plan. Here, the combination of
data about these deformations and the study of cracks reflected Complementary studies
in the plans will produce a diagnosis of the structural movements There is a whole range of more specific complementary studies
being undergone by the stonework. Comparing and contrasting that are normally reserved for interventions on a larger scale with
this data with the information obtained by the stratigraphic study bigger budgets, as in the case of public monuments. Some of
may in some cases prove the present inactivity of an old lesion or, them are listed below in the event of a specific case of restoration
conversely, its continuing activity. requiring them and the existence of sufficient technical and
economic means to carry them out:

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The functional study of the buildings past will help to provide a reasoned function A detailed study of cracking and deformation of a building helps to explain the
for its future after restoration. Traditional house in Sesga (Valencia) historical evolution of its afflictions and the reasons for them. Apartment building
in Plaza del Pilar, Valencia

Archaeology: excavation of the subsoil of the building or its


environs to discover traces of its past or investigate the
foundations
Soil mechanics: reading of the subsoil from the surface using
magnetic, electrical and ultrasound surveying systems
Chemical and petrographic characterization: analysis of
samples of stone, mortar or plaster to find out their nature and
material composition
Dendrochronology: determining the age of the timber used in
a construction by observing the growth rings
Biological studies: research into insect plagues, the presence of
higher and lower vegetation, and how they affect the materials
used in the building
Climatological studies: analysis of the effects of rain, hail, wind,
solarization, freezing and thawing cycles, and annual droughts
on the buildings state of conservation
Seismic vulnerability: the weak points of a building in the event
of telluric movement in the place

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Historical studies and archaeological Abdellatif Marou


NSAP diploma (Institut National des Sciences
interventions: de lArchologie et du Patrimoine, Rabat)
Tools for the knowledge Assistant conservator of historical monuments and sites,
Inspection des Monuments et Sites Historiques de Marrakech
of Traditional Mediterranean (Restoration), Morocco
Architecture
Jordi Ortega
Art historian, Barcelona, Spain
3
Montserrat Villaverde
Lecturer in History of Architecture at the Escola dArquitectura
La Salle, Barcelona

Some considerations Today, traditional architecture in the Mediterraneanor should


The interest in traditional architecture, whether from the we use Mediterranean as an adjective?is an economic value on
viewpoint of architecture, construction, anthropology or history, is the rise and this circumstance, about which there is nothing
relatively recent; the first attempts to form a systematic body of gratuitous, involves different types of intervention. How many
knowledge about this type of construction are barely 100 years people fail to recognise their village, street or neighbourhood after
old. Even more recent is the possibility of applying historical processes of regeneration that reduce experience and lived
knowledge. The historical interpretation has been applied basically events to caricature, and historical value to values that have
to sumptuary buildings and, as a result, palaces, cathedrals and nothing to do with its development in an attempt to fix supposed
mosques fill volume upon volume. The primary object of its historical stage sets on our retinas?
discourse is formal analysis and symbolic interpretation, and it Historical studies do not seek to legislate intervention in traditional
centres its reflection on the past. In this way, history is understood heritage; that is not their purpose. Their purpose is to contribute
as the narrative of events that have taken place rather than a as much information as possible about the object of study, to be
method for finding out about reality. It puts history on an equal a factor contributing to its understanding and knowledge, at all
footing with age, and age, in itself, is not a criterion of valuation, times considering the nature of this architecture, seen in its
in this case. permanent mutability. In this era of globalization, or cancelling out

The interest in traditional architecture is relatively recent. For centuries, studies have Historical studies must treat each building as a unique, unrepeatable work.
been based on monumental architecture. Tomb of the Kings of Judah. 1842. Negative C-46374. 1925 IAAH-AM.
Private collection.

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Historical studies and archaeological interventions:
Tools for the knowledge of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

of the specific in all fields, historical studies have to reinforce Egypte2, the encyclopaedic rigour of which includes the
differences rather than similarities, and treat each building as a description and analysis of an entire territory and society with a
unique, unrepeatable unit. This understanding will facilitate centuries-old culture. This masterwork includes splendid
rehabilitation in keeping with the evolution of the building. descriptions of the traditional crafts. Along the same lines, also the
product of enlightened mentality, were the first, mainly descriptive
studies of rural areas, such as the work of Gaspar Melchor de
3
On the symbolic interpretations of traditional Jovellanos3 in Spain, and of construction, such as the work of
Mediterranean architecture Antoine Desgodets4 about building tradition in Paris.
The symbolic interpretations to have recreated traditional Although it was the Romantic artists who introduced popular
architecture in the Mediterranean over the last three centuries themes into their highbrow works, the resulting creations were
have been innumerable and of differing natures. From idealized, always idealized. References to local custom were incorporated
picturesque, exotic, typical approaches to more creative, into all artistic genres, from painting to short stories, including
pedagogical readings, these interpretations convey different music. Recognising the influences of exoticism in the seguidillas in
values of an architecture that has, as yet, been unable to cast off Bizets Carmen or visualizing the popular Sicilian ambiences in the
stereotypes. tarantellas of Mascagnis Cavalleria Rusticana are just a small
We find the first interpretations in the accounts of pilgrimages. example of how themes traditionally remote from everyday life
The descriptions in the Rihlas1 centre mainly on the citys more progressively incorporate popular elements.
monumental buildings, like on the Grand Tour, quests for
knowledge undertaken by an enlightened mentality, which Stage sets of traditional architecture
offered descriptions of monumental Greco-Roman architecture. In The first sets of traditional architectures, Mediterranean or
both cases, though the nature of the journey was very different, otherwise, can be traced back to the national and international
the offerings of knowledge about traditional architecture were exhibitions. As a result of progress and innovations, some
always incidental. Yet it was this same enlightened mentality that exhibitions reproduced architectures that symbolized the
generated the first works of detailed analysis and description of unification of territories. A recently unified Italy organized the
some areas. An emblematic work is Yves Laissuss Les savants en Italian General Exhibition in Turin in 1884, with the construction

Ethnographical and anthropological studies are a basic and necessary tool for The light and colour of Mediterranean cities are the most important values in the
understanding traditional architecture as a whole. Spain, 1940. artistic production of the first half of the 20th century. Istanbul.

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Historical studies and archaeological interventions:
Tools for the knowledge of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

of a Borgo Medioevale that still exists today. Geneva hosted the In these circumstances, it is difficult to separate reality from fiction.
Swiss National exhibition in 1896, triumphing with the New symbolic interpretations, developed in accordance with the
construction of the Village Suisse, reproducing the countrys main needs of the tourist boom as of the mid-20th century, have turned
traditional architectures. This was the precedent for the Pueblo old towns and rural areas into veritable theme parks, where the
Espaol built in Barcelona for the 1929 World Fair, one of the most important value is not just unbridled speculation on the
biggest draws of the entire event, which can still be visited today. territory and short-term profits on investment, but creating a
3
As in the case of the Village Suisse, the Pueblo Espaol went standardized product that has almost all the characteristics of the
further than the reproduction of architecture to create an typical villages of international exhibitions. Revitalizing the
ahistorical public space that denies any possibility of future, territory should not mean rejecting this architecture. Nor should it
change or mutability. It is an island in time, a perfect set design, oblige us to create landscapes that never existed, overlooking their
set outside time. Its streets have provided sets for all manner of past and creating frozen images of indeterminate date.
recreations of the past. Last year, the most spectacular scenes of
the film Perfume were filmed in its Plaza Mayor. It is both Traditional architecture and historical studies
interesting and surprising to see how Jean-Baptiste Grenouille As outlined in the considerations above, no type of architecture is
drives the whole town mad in the main square of Grasse, while in immutable, particularly if the architecture in question is traditional.
the distance we spy the Mudejar tower of Utebo in the Pueblo Mutability and changes in configuration or appearance are implicit
Espaol. in traditional architecture, with remodelling or additions of new
In any case, it is quite natural that scenery should be used as such. structural and ornamental elements. We are accustomed to a
What is more striking is the use and manipulation of certain perception of architecture as something practically permanent and
natural settings, considered heritage for their value as traditional definitive, with almost imperceptible changes that are
complexes, as film sets. At Benhaddou, in Morocco, still has a incorporated into our perception and rapidly fade from our
great doorway built in 1962 to film Lawrence of Arabia. This memory. On these premisses, it is difficult to understand
doorway is nearly as real/unreal as the sets built in 1937 in the traditional architecture as mutable, fluctuating and elastic.
Hollywood studies for the film Algiers, during which Pp le Moko Any element in any building, from its foundations to the smallest
is chased by the police through the narrow streets of the Casbah. of decorations, is always the result of a precise happening in

Coinciding with their success at the 1929 World Fair, the journal La Ilustracin Today, the Mediterranean house has become a typical standardized retail product at
Iberoamericana offered its readers this cut-out model of the church of Alcaiz and newsstands.
the bell tower of Utebo.

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Historical studies and archaeological interventions:
Tools for the knowledge of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

space, and also in time, and events related by links of causality, Approaching a methodology
simultaneity or coincidence are what we might call a process.
From a historical point of view, architecture is a process, in that The need to know the context
time is vital to its configuration. A building has to be analysed The analysis of the context involves as precise as possible a
from a chronological and, therefore, historical viewpoint. In very determination of the action, the agents taking part and the target
few cases does a chronological process achieve such a tangible of intervention. There is no reason why each event should have a
3
and obvious physical concretion as in architecture and heritage. It single agent, and an action may be carried out or taken on by
is its most basic, elementary meaning because it provides us with various, each with its own specific contextual circumstances.
intrinsic knowledge of the singularity and essence of each house. It is contextualization that gives significance to the event and
Each process is unique and unrepeatable, as are the results. No knowledge of it, because it explains and gives specific meaning to
two buildings are the same, just as no two sequences are the its constructional form. The elements of context affecting a given
same. action vary a great deal, ranging from maintenance to the repair
Sequential development in traditional architecture is one of its or reconstruction of damage caused by war, natural disaster, etc.,
fundamental characteristics. Irrespective of geographical situation, to other more subjective but equally relevant criteria such as need,
traditional architecture has always taken a long time to develop ostentation, etc. To this end, two types of context can be
and its manifestations share an ongoing dynamic of adaptation distinguished: endocontext and metacontext.
and modification. It is the essentially utilitarian function of this The endocontext is the conditions imposed most directly on the
type of buildings and their long chronological development that agents and, therefore, on their actions. It directly affects each one
explains how a single building may include structural and of the agents and is, in short, what most directly defines the
decorative elements from different periods that may be conserved motives of their actions: physical spaces, social condition and the
according to the criteria selected at different times as priority or immediate circumstances. The metacontext affects various agents
pertinent. This architecture takes the form of the permanent at once and there is no direct control over it: regulations, customs,
juxtaposition and manipulationaddition or subtractionof the technical systems, symbolic values, etc.
existing elements. It therefore requires a dynamic, evolving Knowledge of the city and the territory, their legislative and legal
approach that is never static. framework, and their cultural tradition will tell us why two houses
are alike and inform us as to their similarities. Knowing who lives
in the house, the activities that took place in it, the family
members and their social representativeness will tell us why each
house is different. In short, the endocontext explains why two
houses are different and the metacontext explains why they are
alike.
The historical study has to prioritize the contextualization of each
event in the houses constructional sequence, because without
knowledge of the context there is unlikely to be any knowledge of
the action beyond the merely anecdotal. It is important to know
who the agents were, what the house was used for, where it was,
and how it was built and designed. This involves answering the
basic questions what, when, how and why, which will underpin
our knowledge. Contextualization prevents oversimplification and
reductionism and allows us to identify and give value to
singularities and discrepancies, and this is why the historical
approach incorporates and interrelates evidence of all kinds and is,
in itself, plural and integrative.

The building as a document


The building represents the action we have to analyse and,
therefore, the most important and decisive tangible evidence.
Each house contains within its structures and ornamentation a
Analysing the metacontext tells us why two buildings are alike and why urban
centres are similar in structure.
register of the actions that have gone to make it up. The building,
then, represents the sequence of events that generated it, making

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I. Knowledge Overall knowledge of the building
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Tools for the knowledge of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

it one of the most valuable documents for knowledge of its


evolution. As documentary evidence of a historical and
constructional process, all the elements that go to make up a
building, be they structural or decorative, are forms that have an
intrinsic meaning: types of walls, systems of flooring, etc. The
textures and the materials reveal not only how the house was
3
made but also when it was built, as these techniques, despite
existing for a thousand years, have been modified. The
characteristics of the mortar, the stereotomy of the stone, the
structure, type and dimensions of the adobe, the formal
characteristics of the decoration on the outside, are all
fundamental to knowledge of the building. This is why the
building represents a document: the document is everything that
manifests what has happened. Destroying a building is like
Knowledge of the endocontext helps us to understand the building as a whole and
destroying a unique manuscript, and as such implies ignorance as
why two buildings from the same period in the same street may be different.
well as forgetting

The building as action: documentary sources


The agents actions never take place in isolation and always
involve interaction with other agents in the general context of
which they form part. This circumstance suggests the possibility of
these actions having been included in another type of graphic and
written documentthe more classical type known as
documentary sources for historical knowledge.
There is a whole range of useful documents of this kind
depending on the geographical place, the moment in time and
the cultural context. They represent a solid base of direct or
indirect knowledge for understanding the actions, identifying the
agents or determining some of the variables that may affect the
endocontext or the metacontext.
The graphic sources, such as planimetric diagrams, maps,
photographs, drawings, etc. carried out at different moments in
the buildings life provide a means for the precise interpretation of The building is a document in itself and must therefore be analysed as such.

the construction process. Written sources provide an excellent


basis for a more concise interpretation of the processes of
transformation: contract of sale, title deeds (malkia), wills and
habous titles, post-mortem inventories (trika), administrative
authorizations, land registry and travellers accounts are all vital to
discovering the events and the overall sequence.
Attempts have been made to distinguish the validity of types of
source, differentiating between structural evidence and graphic or
written documentation, and seeking to establish the pre-
eminence of one or the other, or accord greater validity to graphic
than to written documents. This is a sterile debate based on false
premisses: structures and documents are evidence of an event,
and are different in methodology and content just as a
photograph and a contract drawn up by a lawyer are, but they are
essentially identical in their function of contributing relevant
information about the construction process of a building. They All the elements of a building, including its ornamentation, have an intrinsic
function dialectically and reciprocally. Structures provide guidance significance and require close study.

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Historical studies and archaeological interventions:
Tools for the knowledge of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

A single building may contain decorations from different epochs, and they must all
be studied and valued equally.

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for documentary research, and documentary research determines


the dating of structures. Together they give the building as a
whole meaning and content. Research and the interpretation of
documents, of all types, are always integrative.

Graphic documentation is an important source of information. Jujol holdings.


AHCOAC

The documents generated by the actions of the agents have always been Exceptionally, artistic work produced to commemorate the construction of a house
considered the classical documentary source for historical knowledge. can provide valuable information. Transcription: In 1631 Al-Haj Muhammad, son
of the late Haj Jalim, son of the late Al-Haj Tamoun, constructed this house. It is
situated near the mosque of Ibn Toloum. The house was finally transferred to a lady
from the island of Crete, and this house shall therefore be called Bayt al-Kritiliyya.

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Historical studies and archaeological interventions:
Tools for the knowledge of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

The building as a place of experience: oral sources


In many traditional societies in the Mediterranean, the spoken
word is a value associated with tradition, where knowledge is
handed down orally from parents to children, from master to
apprentice, etc. The same norms governing some communities are
handed down from generation to generation, without the
3
mediation of any written document, and it is also some of these
societies that retain rituals associated with the occupation of
space and with construction. Rituals of the occupation of space
involving animal sacrifice have continued to be carried out in some
places until the present day.
The assessment of oral sources has traditionally been the domain
of ethnography and is vital in geographical and cultural contexts
where, due to different circumstances, there has never been a
tradition of generating textual documentation. Oral sources, in
any case, are highly subjective and have to be submitted to a
rigorous process of comparison and contrast and a critical analysis
to ensure their validity, essentially no different to the process
applied to other documentary evidence. Any historian knows that
the only hierarchy of source is availability, significance and
eloquence for each historical event, and that types of sources
require a sense of criticism and self-criticism to interpret the
precise content.

Summing up
The novelty of an approach of these characteristics to traditional
Mediterranean architecture means that it lacks, to some extent,
the necessary tools for correct historical interpretation. It requires
a typological systematization of the construction techniques
The spoken word is a value associated with tradition which allows knowledge to be
historically used in each place and time, the application of
passed down through the generations and transactions to take place without the
techniques of archaeology of the subsoil and vertical archaeology mediation of written documentation, with houses being sold and works being
in the analysis of structures and walls, listing and inventory of the contracted orally.

more relevant graphic and textual documentary sources, and


ethnographic studies of the perception and memory of buildings
and the construction process, as well as generalizing this type of
historical interpretation to existing buildings before carrying out
the rehabilitation project. It is also necessary to establish general
schemes to facilitate the concretion of building techniques and
historical and cultural contexts.
To summarize, the historical study gives content and precise value
to each building, based on a study of facts and contexts, arranged
into a sequence, which explain the evolutionary specificity and
constructional configuration. It is neither a story nor nostalgia,
because it sees historical or traditional architecture not as a fossil
of the past but as something that forms part of the structures and
landscapes of our present. It is not intrinsically about the past,
because the past is merely its means, not its end, and it therefore
analyses part of reality from the chronological perspective that
brings together the contributions of agents, factors and specific, Rituals are carried out to cover the occupation of space and its preservation, using
complex contexts. It does not seek, essentially, to establish what a all kinds of amulets to ward off bad luck.

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I. Knowledge Overall knowledge of the building
Historical studies and archaeological interventions:
Tools for the knowledge of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture

house used to be like, but to explain, on the basis of periods of


time, precisely why it is as it is. The analysis of a building involves
1 It is interesting to consult the prologue by CHARLES-DOMINIQUE to Voyageurs
knowledge of its structures from the viewpoint of architectural
arabes. Ibn Fadlan, Ibn Jubayr, Ibn Battuta et un auteur anonyme. Lonrai:
description, but also of when, how and why they are as they are. Gallimard, 1995.
It contributes knowledge of the structure and its evolution, and 2 LAISSUS, Yves (ed.): Les savants en Egypte. Musum National dHistoire Naturelle.
has to be a useful tool for the subsequent rehabilitation work. NATHAN, Paris, 1998.
3 3 His extensive body of work includes Las Cartas del viaje de Asturias o Cartas a
Ponz (1782-1792), in which he explains with absolute precision the social and
economic situation of this region.
4 Les loix des btimens suivant la coutume de Paris : traitant de ce qui concerne les
servitudes relles, les rapports des jurs experts, les rparations locatives,
douairires, usufruitires, bnficiales. Manuscript dated 1787. BNF.

It is vital to know about the evolution of buildings throughout their history before
undertaking a rehabilitation project. Traditional architecture has for centuries
maintained its process of gradual growth by means of successive interventions.
Knowledge of them is the basis for respectful intervention. The Torre del Fang:
growth and transformations over seven centuries. Photographs: 1 (1890); 2 (1920),
3 and 4 (2006).

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Tool 3
Overall knowledge of the building I. Knowledge

Archaeology as a tool for finding Evi Fiouri


Archaeologist
out about the building Department of Antiquities of Cyprus

3
Before drafting the rehabilitation project for a building, it is
necessary to have comprehensive knowledge of its history and
elements in order to form a complete picture: its successive
phases, evolution in time, the changes undergone and the causes
for them. Only after discovering these things is it possible to
decide how to proceed in the rehabilitation process: which
elements to keep, restore or highlight, and which to demolish.
In this way, it is possible share with others the sometimes thrilling
history hidden in the walls and the subsoil of the building. In order
to make the building speak, we first have to get to know it.
There are various ways of achieving this, all based on research,
with recourse to other disciplines beyond the specific field of the
architect: history and archaeology.
Archaeology is a science that detects, examines and analyses
material evidence. Removing the earth to reach human vestiges, The remains of a medieval convent uncovered by a recent excavation beside an
studying and documenting their successive phases, reading the early 20th-century building in the old town of Nicosia

history of humankind amid the interposed, interwoven traces of


people and their works is the task of archaeology. Its revealing role
imposes two successive stages: inspection of the surface and in- be removed immediately to enable a clearer view: rubbish, wild
depth research. It too has recourse to other exact sciences: vegetation, earth piled up or dumped on the floors of courtyards
chemistry, anthropology and botany. The archaeological method and gardens. It is impossible to conduct a detailed inspection of a
follows the method of the exact sciences. It is, then, based on the building if the ground is concealed by earth and the walls are half
meticulous observation and analysis of the object with a view to hidden by plants.
reaching the cause of its origin.
This is why archaeology can also be applied to building II. Observing the masonry. The wall as a document: the wall is
rehabilitation, since this too is a case that requires observation and often a palimpsest on which we can read the history of the
analysis as a preliminary to knowledge. Like archaeological sites, a building and its evolution in time. In order to do this, we have to
building is a silent witness to itself, that knows how to keep attentively examine several elements: materials, construction
secrets hidden in its walls: its built elements, materials and even its techniques, the bonding of the walls and all construction elements
subsoil all bear witness to its history. It is, then, necessary to present, whether visible or hidden (windows, doors, decorations,
examine these elements well, one by one, and, if necessary, to etc.).
remove some of them to reach others that they may, in turn, Observing the construction materials. There may be different
conceal. If classical archaeology proceeds downwards, the materials in the same wall corresponding to different phases.
archaeology involved in interpreting a building proceeds upwards. Careful examination will inform us whether these materials were
The application of the archaeological method to find out about a used for repairs, to enlarge a space or to divide it into smaller
building is relatively straightforward; it involves proceeding by rooms. Knowledge of the most used materials in a given period
stages that may anticipate or follow the graphic plan and may will help us to date the phases. These modifications are visible in
even continue during the initial stages of work. In this case, it is bare masonry, but interiors are usually concealed by renderings
necessary to complete the graphic documentation and consider that hide the proof of the different stages. In Cyprus, renderings
changes to the initial programme if previously unknown elements are usually spoiled by damp and have to be replaced. During the
revealed during the archaeological examination so require. task of removing them, it is possible to see all manner of
modifications to the masonry, such as bricked up openings or the
I. Inspecting the site. Cleaning. First, it is necessary to examine creation of smaller spaces. If the renderings are in good condition,
the building, inside and outside, and distinguish the elements to they should not be removed. Careful observation can detect the

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I. Knowledge Overall knowledge of the building
Archaeology as a tool for finding out about the building

outlines of arches and bricked-up openings beneath the Detecting the renderings. Sometimes the walls give the impression
rendering, which need only be removed from this specific place in of never having been rendered, though this is not always the case.
order to show the opening and rehabilitate it. In important or A careful examination of the masonry may reveal traces of
delicate cases, thermography, endoscopy or other non-destructive rendering in a corner, at the top of the wall, protected by the
tests may be applied. projection of the roof or remaining in the gaps between the
It is difficult to date masonry in itself, because Cypriot masons stones. Sometimes it is enough to observe the technique used to
3
have used more or less the same construction techniques for build the wall in order to deduce that it was originally rendered:
centuries. This calls for an examination of the mortar used as stone masonry built to be rendered (with plaster, for example) is
bonding. The components of the mortar may help to date the not very neatly constructed because it is not meant to be visible
masonry approximately. If it is not possible to identify the mortar and is made irregular to allow the rendering to take more easily. It
by organoleptic means, it can be sent to a laboratory for testing. is also necessary to observe the general style of the building and
All of this information must be documented to complete the plan
and obtain the clearest possible image of the phases of evolution
and their associated modifications.
Observing construction techniques. Walls built using a single
material, such as stone, are not homogeneous to the eye. This
irregularity is due to different construction techniques. A wall may
include a different section representing a later phase, such as an
upward extension to replace a flat roof with a ridge roof. Some
construction techniques can be dated to a precise period and this
is of great assistance in understanding the phases of the building.
Walls on the lower levels may often be more modern than those
higher up due to changes made at any point in the building; as far
as walls are concerned, there is no vertical stratigraphy.
Observing the renderings. The renderings of a building do not
necessarily belong to the same period. Further, the renderings and
their application technique may vary according to the use of the
rooms, a factor that must always be taken into consideration.
Knowledge of the period when a given rendering material was Excavation on the site of a large 18th-century townhouse in Nicosia revealed two
introduced into the country therefore helps to date the building or superposed floors dating from different periods (18th and 19th centuries)
its historical phases. In Cyprus, there are four easily identifiable
types of renderings used for dwellings: earth, earth mixed with
chopped straw, lime and plaster, the most recent. There is also
whitewash, either on its own or mixed with a colorant, such as
indigo. The walls of rural houses may present successive coats of
rendering; they may be of the same type or different, such as an
earth and straw rendering beneath plaster, a material that was
considered to be noble and rarely used before the early 20th
century.
An observation of renderings should not be limited to material
alone. The frequency of application is another factor. An
apparently uniform rendering may actually comprise several
successive coats, as in the case of the whitewash that the
occupants applied to the walls every year before Easter.
The technique used to apply the rendering must also be taken into
account. In urban homes, plaster is applied using screeds to obtain
completely even surfaces, whereas in rural houses, the rendering
is applied freely, following the irregularities of the wall. The The wall of a medieval manor near Nicosia presents the original masonry of dressed
stone reddened by a 15th-century fire recorded by chroniclers of the time and the
architect has to recognise this difference in renderings and apply rubble and adobe construction of the Ottoman period
them accordingly.

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Overall knowledge of the building I. Knowledge
Archaeology as a tool for finding out about the building

individual architectural elements (frames of dressed or carved Examining the joints of the walls. In Cyprus, most of the houses
stone around door and window openings, projecting timber built using traditional architecture grew with the family and its
frames) to understand whether now bare walls have always been needs, occupations and economic possibilities. The original cell is
so or whether their covering was later destroyed or removed. The very often the makrinari or a dichoro, a single room of varying
case of Lefkara, a village where elements of urban architecture size, to which others were gradually added, first on the ground
were introduced by people who made their wealth from selling floor and then the first. This procedure can be seen at the point
3
embroidery, is characteristic. The fashion of bare stone led to the where the walls meet, showing the original wall against which
general removal of renderings from houses that had hitherto another was later built. In this case, the walls are not joined
stood out for their plastered and painted faades, a sign of wealth together, and this can be seen if the walls are not rendered. This
at the start of the century. lack of ties often leads to the walls separating.

III. Investigating the floors. Very often, the floor that is


immediately visible in a building is in fact neither the first nor the
only floor. Fashions, improvements in the owners economic
situation and the changing uses of rooms throughout a buildings
life are reasons for changes in the floor. It is, then, necessary to
remove the most recent concrete, timber or tiled floor to find the
local marble or pebble paving, or even the simple beaten-earth
floor that was there when the building was constructed. These
earlier floors have often been destroyed. We have to proceed with
caution when removing the more recent floors in order not to
destroy the sometimes barely perceptible evidence of earlier
layers. Little may remain of an old floor but a few fragments of
marble and their plaster beddings. For an architect who is familiar
with the technique used to lay this kind of floor, these scanty
vestiges are enough to understand and rehabilitate the type of
original floor.
Each layer corresponds to a phase in the buildings evolution; each
The walls of this rural dwelling comprise successive layers of different coloured lime must be graphically documented to reflect which level is to be
wash conserved and, if possible, show the previous layers in evocative
fashion. Not all the layers can be used, but neither should they be
destroyed. The oldest levels must be preserved, once duly
documented. The result is a complete plan that tells us graphically
about the history of the building.
On sites with a long history of human habitation, it is even useful
to carry out investigative sections in order to detect floors that are
older than the existing construction, and document them
graphically and photographically.
Likewise, in a courtyard we have to look for the paving, the well
and the drainage system by means of a carefully conducted
cleaning process, a kind of mini-excavation after prior inspection.
Investigating thresholds and foundations. Often it is not possible
to see the original floor level. In this case, the search will start at
the door to find the threshold, the point where the interior floor
comes to an end. Sections can also be made along the walls to
examine their foundations, which sometimes turn out to be the
walls of older constructions.
The arched opening of this watermill in the mountainous region of Troodos was Excavations. Most excavations of the basements of traditional
built using dressed stone that suggests a meticulously sculpted decor belonging to
a far more important building, probably the entrance to a church
architecture buildings are the result of chance findings of
archaeological remains when digging to install waste pipes or to

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I. Knowledge Overall knowledge of the building
Archaeology as a tool for finding out about the building

reinforce the foundations. On those sites where human presence


dates back millennia, these finds can be frequent. There are
houses where ancient tombs or the remains of walls dating from
much earlier periods have been discovered in the basement.
Nicosia, the capital of Cyprus, is a characteristic example.
Inhabited for thousands of years, the present-day city stands on
3
successive layers of habitation, dating back to the Chalcolithic
age. In particular, the walled old town of Nicosia, capital of Cyprus
since the Byzantine epoch, an opulent town in the Middle Ages,
conceals beneath its modern surface countless vestiges of its
Palaeo-Christian and medieval past. The Department of
Antiquities has declared the entire city sector that stands within
the Venetian walls an Ancient Monument. Since then, all
construction work has been monitored to prevent the destruction
of archaeological remains. According to the new law, a special
permit from the Department of Antiquities is needed for any new
construction operation or work in existing buildings that requires
excavation. In the case of new constructions, the Department
undertakes partial excavations on the site or is present at the
excavation of the foundations and stops them if archaeological
remains are uncovered. In this way, important remains have been
discovered in several places, and systematic excavations
conducted. Important archaeological remains are conserved. This
may be something of a constraint on development, but now
Nicosia, as the capital Lefkosia has been called since Frankish
times, has started to gain a better knowledge of its past.

In the same house in Lefkara, the difference in renders between rooms suggests
different phases in the history of the building: the whitewashed, uneven earth
rendering pre-dates the 20th century, whereas the gypsum plastering with its
perfectly smooth, even surface could easily date from the early 20th century.

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Tool 3
Overall knowledge of the building I. Knowledge

Applying the archaeological method Yasmine MAKARON BOU ASSAF


Architect and archaeologist
to Lebanese architecture Expert consultant to the ICCROM for the ATHAR project,
Lebanon

3
Intimately linked with its historical origins in the context of
memory stretching back thousands of years, traditional
architecture in Lebanon is characterized by its close integration
with the territory and its adaptation to local resources. Typically
Mediterranean in its materials, forms and colours, the Lebanese
vernacular habitat dots landscapes as varied as the coast, the
plains amid mountain chains and even the high inland plateaus.
Whether rural or urban, these traditional houses are a melting pot
of the collective memory and serve to anchor nostalgias and
identities.
Poorly treated, destroyed and often abandoned, it is with great
difficulty that the traditional house has survived the vicissitudes of
the times and changes in lifestyles. In those cases when it is not
completely transformed or recovered, it is the object of many
interventions in which in-depth knowledge of their construction is Preliminary visual plan (Debban house, Salhiyeh)
often lacking.
Recent rehabilitation projects in the Lebanon are however starting
to apply similar methods to that of the archaeology of the according to the laws of gravity. This method is not limited to the
building. This relatively recent branch of archaeological science is diachronic aspect of the succession of layers, seeking above all to
generally applied to listed historical monuments with a view to integrate the ethnographic aspect of occupation. Unlike an
developing an upward reading of chronological indices, archaeological excavation, the sequences are read in elevation, by
fundamental elements in a stratigraphic analysis. The building construction or intervention phase, rather than by the
studied is, then, analysed as an element of material culture in its accumulation of strata.
own right. The historical study has recourse to various registers in order to
Traditional architecture essentially belongs to a pre-industrial interpret these transformations and restore the configuration of
world. Its evolution with society and the numerous modifications the different stages in the life of the building:
it undergoes to adapt to the needs and the new means available
to each age make it an excellent support that bears the traces of Morphology
these transformations. Architectural typology
The aim of this analysis is mainly to implement a relative Construction materials
chronology of the architectural object and its life in a historical Built structures
context. A concern for comparative typology completes this Coatings and renderings used
approach, along with potential research into the techniques
implemented in the building. This methodological interpretation
of the built work contributes to a better rehabilitation project.
The so-called archaeological approach is essentially based on the
collection of data that serves as a support to develop analyses on
the following themes:
- The evolution of the building as recorded in documentary
sources
- The evolution of the building in terms of its physical
interpretation by means of stratigraphic analysis.
The stratigraphic process refers by definition to a study of
chronologically sealed layers, from the lowest to the highest, Sampling the construction materials (Debban palace, Saida)

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I. Knowledge Overall knowledge of the building
Applying the archaeological method to Lebanese architecture

Map of disorders (Debban palace, Saida)

The information needed to carry out these analyses will be connections that are not visible to the naked eye. Surveys are vital
obtained by various means: to an understanding of built work and are used very discerningly
due to their destructive approach. The material (constructional or
Document collection, directly or indirectly related to the object domestic) collected by these surveys contributes to an
of study: administrative, cadastral, property and photographic understanding of the problem raised.
documents, newspaper articles, publications and correspondence Samples are used to carry out visual or laboratory analyses (fig.
06) of the materials or supports with a view to defining their
Oral sources, drawing on the occupants memories components and proportions. The analysis of samples backs up
Written sources (administrative documents, correspondence, visual observations by providing precise, tangible support.
publications, etc.) The information gathered about construction techniques used in
Iconographic sources (drawings, paintings, photos, etc.) the traditional building can be compared with other, similar
studies in the framework of a multidisciplinary approach.
A preliminary plan provides the basis for reconnaissance at the This approach, often regarded as long and tedious, has the
global scale of the building: based on a visual examination, it must advantage of providing exhaustive information about a form of
quickly be transcribed in a summary graphic form (sketch) and architecture mistakenly classified as primitive. Generally applied
photographs. exclusively to monumental and historical constructions, the
A detailed, targeted plan enables more in-depth research and archaeological method helps to promote the vernacular building
delimitation of the buildings specificities: it will be primarily to the status of architecture that is worthy of interest. The
graphic and metric as the basis for all the necessary supports information gathered in this way serves as the basis for a varied
(plans, sections and elevations). This graphic support at scale database, a comprehensive form of documentation of this
serves to record all the visual observations made in every nook and disappearing architecture.
cranny, completed by photographs. These observations must
however be methodical and differentiate the themes in question
(materials, claddings, pigments, disorders, etc.).
It is in this approach, particularly in the elevations, that the
interpretation and collection of data coincide most with the
stratigraphic method. The vertical dimension of the construction
phases will be worked on the basis of detailed sections and
elevations.
Surveys, judiciously located on the basis of the definition of a
specific problem will reveal intermediate supports and potential

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Overall knowledge of the building I. Knowledge

A comprehensive understanding Jos Luis GONZLEZ MORENO-NAVARRO


Doctor of Architecture
of the building Professor of the Department of Architectural Technology I,
School of Architecture of Barcelona (Technical University of
Catalonia), Spain

3
Some preliminary issues about the method existing building, and the method should be the same, though
adapted to the case: the scientific method. There is no need to shy
The aim of this text is to assist anyone who has to rehabilitate away from this term, because the scientific method is no different
traditional Mediterranean architecture in the essential process of to the rational attitude of everyday life or other fields of human
knowledge and understanding that must precede any decisions as knowledge. Historians, detectives and even plumbersall human
to intervention. beings, in factuse the same basic means as physicists or
A simple way of establishing the concept of knowledge is to biochemists when trying to solve a problem or answer a question.
define it as the capacity to answer different questions: What is it?
What is it like? What is it made of? They all share the aim of
describing the object in question, both the obvious and, The reason why
particularly, the not so apparent. If we answer some of these
questions, we have established what we know. It is a question of following the five basic phases of the scientific
However, it is very probable that we do not understand it. At least, method:
we can say that understanding does not derive directly from
knowledge in itself. In order to understand, we have to be able to Tabling the problem or question requiring an answer
answer a different key question: Why? The reason for all the Formulating a hypothesis that temporarily provides the solution
above: why is it like it is, why is it made of what it is made of, and or answer
so on. Organizing proof or observations to verify it
If we take action on heritage that is distinguished as the Developing the proof or observations, and
consequence of an intense historical evolution, the aim of Checking the applicability of the supposition embodied in the
knowledge has to be broadened to what it was like or how it hypothesis.
evolved from a given state to its present state. As regards the
why, we have to establish why it was initially like it was, why it In order to be efficient in our work, it is very important for the
has evolved in a way that has made it like it is, etc. initial hypothesis to be as close as possible to the reality we are
We have to be aware that this is an activity in which neither aiming to discover. This will depend largely on our prior
architects nor engineers are trained, for a very simple reason. Our knowledge of possible answers to the questions. The general lack
training is technicalour aims mainly involve designing artefacts of knowledge of historical construction is undoubtedly a great
according to a process in which the artefact comes first in our hindrance to this process.
minds and, then, by means of the protocols of industrial or This text aims to facilitate this process of interrogation and the
constructional production, we make it reality. search for answers, especially with regard to historical
When we are faced with an existing building, the situation is very construction, bringing to bear a series of basic whats and
different. We are facing an artefact that already exists and that is whys with a high degree of certainty. In each case, more
not in our minds. Knowledge and understanding of it necessarily questions must be added and more answers found by formulating
require a different method to the one applied in the design of explanatory hypotheses which, on many occasions, it may be
artefacts. impossible to compare and contrast.
Furthermore, if a historical building is constructed using means In general, things produced by technical activity are the result of a
and mentalities that are practically unknown to us, the difficulty fundamental fact: the object in question has to have a value in the
increases by several degrees. environment in which it is produced and this value, when
In this situation, the method should be similar to that of disciplines speaking of buildings, is its utility or, more generally, its purpose.
in which the principal objective is to know and understand One way to find answers to the question why is to pinpoint the
something external to ourselves, like the scientific disciplines that purpose that brought the object into being and the means that
seek to understand our environment. Biologists, astronomers and made it possible. As in many other areas, it is a problem of ends
geologists do not design the objects of their study; they try to and means.
understand them. This is what we should do when faced with an However, if a rigorous study of any kind of object is difficult, one

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about something as complex as traditional Mediterranean space that is different to the natural space, in most cases by using
architecture may seem insurmountable. vertical elements that support other elements added to them at a
An overview of this enormous diversity (which can be found in the slope, horizontally or in the form of an arch.
splendid book Traditional Mediterranean Architecture) suggests These elongated vertical, horizontal or arched forms have to be
that there are features common to all cases, allowing us to find a constructible and only exist in the imagination of the builder if
common explanation (even if it is masked by the features deriving they have been built beforethat is, they are not imagined forms
3
from this enormous diversity). of which there is no experience.
In this article, I set out to find the common elements shared by all However, any act of construction, as we all know from a very
cases and the variables in diversity. young age, comes up against a major difficulty: gravity. If the
To begin, we could say that the essential purpose of buildings is elements are not judiciously positioned, they will fall down, so this
not the only common denominator; there are also facts that affect constructible form has to be stable from the very start. This
every site, such as something as obvious as the action of gravity, essential issue marks the existence of all masonry buildings though
which is perpendicular to the plane of the sitei.e. vertical. it does not explain them entirely, which leads us to the following
As regards diversity, this emerges both from the means and from variables.
the end as the result of the variations encountered in different Behind any popular building there is a scarcity of resources
places, not just from the viewpoint of climate, an important factor requiring the builder to apply his ingenuity to production
in diversity, but also with regard to the resources available and the efficiency; any solution has to be applied with the maximum of
cultures that harness them, which also change with time. benefits and the minimum physical effort not only for the builder
In order to address all of these points, I will follow the method we but also for the population in general as regards the extraction
use when teaching at the Barcelona School of Architecture. and stockpiling of materials. Almost all traditional Mediterranean
houses are built of materials available near the building site and
based on constructible forms that are stable from the very start.
Points in common Nonetheless, time passes, it is windy, it rains, is hot or cold, and
what initially solved a series of problems loses its initial form or
The end result of any building is always the consequence of a some of its materials and begins to deteriorate. To prevent this
synergetic sum of decisions made about various constructional happening, the builder tries to find out what has failed and comes
elements that respond simultaneously to different ends. It is the up with a new way of making the construction longer lasting. He
consequence of a more or less conscious, reflective process of also identifies the periodical care it requires. This is the principle of
synthesis of various factors. It is a process that does not respond long-term integrity.
to a single pattern and which is, therefore, different in each case The result of applying this principle is a well built, lasting space,
and every place. but this is still insufficient, because it also has to provide the
A study of the building requires these ends and means to be occupants with a comfortable habitat.
broken down into parts to be analysed in isolation. The success of The basic reason for building a dwelling is in fact to adapt the
the operation depends largely on the extent to which this environment. Throughout history, peoples have sought to
breakdown is representative of reality. improve external environmental conditions: to protect themselves
According to the above-mentioned teaching method, any element from the rain and damp ground; from excessive heat or cold; from
in a building is, largely, the consequence of the need for: too bright a light, etc. If we follow the methods required by these
points, we will have an adapted, efficiently produced space that
A space delimited by a built material form that is stable from lasts a long time.
the very start But nor is that enough; the dwelling also has to produce a
A production method that is as efficient as possible pleasing visual landscape, of which we are proud and that serves
A construction that is as long lasting as possible with the aid of to say who we are. The textures, colours, patterns and forms we
suitable maintenance see, apart from solving practical problems, have to be in keeping
Improvement of the natural environment with our visual and symbolic culture. This is what we call aesthetic
Satisfaction, on the part of the forms and materials, of the convenience. If we manage to achieve all of these ends, we have
desire for beauty that all peoples, however simple, owe to their produced architecture, and it is quite safe to say that any artefact
human condition. belonging to the field defined as traditional Mediterranean
architecture can be explained by these five ends.
Let us take each of these principles separately. To focus on the most usual case, settled construction (leaving
The analysis of any construction shows that the aim is to create a nomadic constructions for another moment), the exterior is always

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separated from the interior space by a series of elements that we Mediterranean basin. The point is to address the consequences of
might call the envelope. It comprises vertical elements, faades diversity, which are the means to meeting those ends which also
built almost always with walls and elements that close the top of respond to a series of ends specified by the placethat is, the
the construction, which we will refer to as horizontal, though its elements used to construct the building. As the first step on this
lines may not strictly that: flat or sloping roofs and, in quite a few path, I will examine the most representative element of the
cases, domes. envelope: the wall.
3
The envelope is the essential element that provides the solution to
almost all requirementsspace, environment and aesthetic The wall
convenienceand is subject to the main agents of deterioration. The wall responds to various practical requirements such as the
It will provide the focus for a study of diversity. need for stability from the very start, maximum duration and
separation of the exterior from the interior. It also has to be seen
as a fundamental element in the symbolic, aesthetic support of
The diverse the building.
In form, it is a parallelepiped with its long sides (length) and short
Having defined the common elements, it is necessary to establish sides (depth) perpendicular to each other and parallel to the
criteria for addressing diversity. There is no point here in producing ground; the third dimension, height, is situated vertically. This
a list of the existing places, climates and material resources in the form is the result of its role in shaping the space and, at the same
time, as we all learned when we were very small, it is also the best
way to build a stable vertical element that stands up to the
immediate action on it of gravity.
The long dimension is defined by the buildings floor plan; the
intermediate dimension, or height, is defined by the height of the
space we hope to achieve, and the third dimension, the depth,
which is key to structural behaviour, is conditioned by the
demands of stability and the material or construction procedure
used to build it.
Diversity is the consequence of finding the different responses that
a wall can provide to the ends listed above: stability from the very
start in order to create the space, adaptation to the place from the
viewpoint of available materials and techniques (rammed earth,
brick, stone, etc.).
A common factor in all walls is the fact that they are the result of
the means available near the place as regards materials and
efficient means with regard to the techniques of execution.
But there would be no point in a wall unless, while separating us
from the exterior, it allowed us to communicate with it by means
of something as obvious as the openings that enable us to enter
and exit, see out and in, and renew the air that we breathe. There
is no point in talking of walls without openings or in considering
that openings weaken the wall. There are no walls without
openings; the openings are the wall and the wall is the openings.
The key element in the opening is the upper element that
transfers the weight of the wall above onto the two sides of the
opening or the jambs. This is usually a lintel, generally made of
timber, or a segmental arch built using the same material as the
rest of the wall.
Nor must we forget the vertical elements that delimit porches or
semi-exterior spaces: columns or props. Their dimensions depend
on the horizontal elements used to organize the porch, be they
straight-lined or arched.

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At the same time, all together, blind wall and openings, it has to Horizontal elements
be long-lasting and the answer is obviously very different if there The major difficulty in constructing a building arises when it comes
are suitable stones on site to make ashlars that can be left visible to the elements that subdivide the space horizontally or close it at
or if there is only earth to make a rammed-earth wall. One of the the top. While the vertical wall works in favour of gravity, the
most frequent causes of degradation is water, either from above horizontal elements by definition defy gravity. A wall rarely falls
in the form of rain or from below by capillary action. (due perhaps to seismic movement), but a poorly supported
3
If a homogeneous material such as rammed earth is used, the horizontal element will invariably fall, or, if excessively
whole thickness is built of the same material. If it is built of small compromised, it will buckle and break, something that rarely
elements, such as brick or rough stone, depending on the relation occurs in a wall.
between the size of each unit and the total thickness, two or three This difficulty, given the diversity of histories, environments and
withes will be needed. In either case, these two or three withes techniques, has generated a rich catalogue of solutions based on
must be perfectly connected, otherwise they may act two key elements: timber materials, which due to their genetic
independently, generating a high risk of sagging. origin are resistant to bending, and the inventiveness of the
If the material is vulnerable, it has to be protected by an outer human constructor when timber is scarce: the arch, the vault and
facing to limit deterioration due to contact with the elements. This the dome.
facing also has to meet the needs of beauty and identity. Of all of these elements, the one with a special role in the exterior
It is important to remember that the wall in question has stood image of the building is the one that closes the top. The roof may
there for a long time since its construction; the wall, and any be sloping, vaulted or domed. It is normally a key element in the
element in the building, is an extraordinarily valuable document aesthetic and symbolic expression of the whole.
for revealing its own history. Changes, additions, degradation and In most cases, the vertical subdivision of the interior space
repairs all go to constitute a document that can help us towards generated by the walls and the upper facing or roof comprises
the key factor that is an understanding of its history. plant materials, generally tree trunks, which are characteristically
However, the elements in which we find greatest diversity are resistant to traction and compression, and, as a result, bending.
those that subdivide the space horizontally. The applications in the face of the two demands on these
elementsstrength and resistance to bendingdepend on the

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form (the span covered and the edge or vertical dimension) and There is an important tradition in much of the Mediterranean
the material, resistance to traction and rigidness. basin of building a kind of vault that is known by different names
In general, long rectilinear elements that can bridge a total span according to the place. In the ma de pla, in foglio or even
are costly, so, to reduce the number needed, they are combined Saracen vault, the bricks were laid parallel to the intrados. It
with smaller elements that bridge the span between two main became widespread due to the presence of Catalan builders
rectilinear elements. The unit they produce together is the floor. throughout Spain, France and the Americas, and is therefore also
3
The elements that bridge the span in the roof element are known as the Catalan vault, volta a la catalana or vote catalane.
normally sloping beams which do not form a triangular It requires as least two layers of bricks, the first being bonded with
framework structure due to the difficulty of tying the different plaster, as this removes the basic need to construct any kind of
elements. In general, we find a main beam on which a short prop centring, which is not needed in the Catalan vault.
supports two sloping beams, each bridging half the span and
generating the slopes of the roof.
In places where the atmosphere is drier there are flat roofs which,
in static terms, are the same as the floors, though subjected to
greater loads due to the material that has to be added to them in
the form of not totally impermeable layers in order to make the
whole impermeable.
Nonetheless, the elements to have represented the greatest
invention on the part of their buildersand the greatest
admiration and number of unanswered questions today, in view of
their disappearance from academic teachingare those that
describe a curve: arches, vaults and domes.
Arches can generally be built in one of three ways: with dressed
stone voussoirs; with rougher pieces of stone, or with bricks laid
to follow the radius of the arch circumference, bonded with
mortar. The mortar bond in the two latter cases provides the
different thicknesses in the intrados and extrados to achieve the
curve.
To understand an arch, it is necessary to consider two key points:

Its construction requires a provisional auxiliary element, the


centring, the characteristics of which will depend on the type
of masonry and the specific techniques of each place;
In all cases, the arch generates forces of thrust and drift that
tend to open up towards the abutment or spring.

In order to be completely stable from the very start, the arch


requires the abutments or springs to hold their shape, so they
have to be a certain width. Historically, builders developed simple
rules that relate the span of the arch with the width of the
abutment.
If it is an arcade in which the arches rest symmetrically on the
impost of a pillar, the thrusts cancel each other out and only
generate a vertical weight, unlike the case of the arches at the two
edges, which require a broader prop.
Like arches, vaults may be built of perfectly dressed voussoirs,
though this is rare due to the difficulty of the task; stone masonry
using relatively flat units, similar to bricks, and different
thicknesses of mortar to produce the curvature, or orders of
bricks.

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It is also vital to understand the relation between the different


elements. In the case of walls, for example, the fact that one is
joined to another by means of a well connected angle allows it
to be much more slender than a freestanding wall, as well as
being far more stable in the event of horizontal thrust. Therefore
a key issue in the behaviour of buildings with walls is the need
3
to create bracing walls, forming angles or T-joints. Ultimately,
stability can only be understood as that of all the walls together.
This takes us to the final variable to be taken into account as
regards long-term duration. In areas where there is no seismic
activity, the only factors that can reduce the buildings stability
Many techniques have been developed to reduce to a minimum over the years, as explained above, are an increase in load, a
the need for provisional support for the vault. In those cases reduction in thickness or material degradation.
where the bricks are laid on edge, work begins at the corners, etc. In places where seismic activity is noticeable, however, it must be
All of this can be analysed by observing the bonding of the taken into account. It is therefore vital to understand the overall
intrados. behaviour of all elements.
In all cases, they generate forces of thrust or drift on their A freestanding wall that receives a seismic movement
supports, which therefore have to be thicker than the walls that perpendicular to its face will easily fall. If that same wall has a
only support floors. further two built perpendicular to it, forming a U-shape, it will
As in the case of the arch, it is important to be familiar with the remain perfectly stable throughout even pronounced seismic
rule followed by builders since time immemorial, by accumulation activity.
of empirical knowledge, relating the form of the vault, the span it If seismic activity is very pronounced, the builders experience will
covers and the corresponding thickness of the wall that provides prompt them to add more effective elements, such as iron bars to
its stability. For example, a rule applied to the construction of
barrel vaults in the 17th century in Spain advised that the
thickness of the wall should be a third of its span. It is reasonable
to suppose that all traditional builders have similar rules that have
been handed down from master to apprentice, knowledge of
which is vital in each case.
All of the above considerations can be applied to domes, with the
addition of a further, very important one. When working with
circular or nearly circular floor plans, it is possible to establish a
system that balances out thrusting by using a tension ring that
reduces these thrusts to zero. In consequence, the dome only
transfers vertical loads, with a very noticeable reduction in the
thickness of the walls.

The building
Finally, we come to the building as a whole. The construction of
the building requires the builder to understand the relation
between all of the elements. The same understanding is
necessary for the agent intending to rehabilitate the building.
The building is generated by the interrelation of space and the
elements that delimit it. The dimensions of the space are
conditioned by the possibilities of these elements. If no large
trees are available, it will be difficult to build large separations
between the walls. If there are no trees at all, it will have to be
built using vaults that require thicker walls, etc. Though space is
defined by the initial end of housing a function, it is limited or
favoured by material and technical resources.

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join facing walls. In other places, the strategy applied combines


masonry with timber elements, producing very different behaviour
to that of the solid wall.
It is important in this overview not to forget that almost everything
we see in the building is the consequence of the vast
transformations that have taken place in general in the last
3
century, particularly the implementation of installations.
Most buildings are the consequence of variations and the addition
of accessories produced in the 20th century in response to the
need or desire to increase environmental and hygienic comfort
and also, it must be said, as the result of mistakes caused by
ignoring the history of buildings when renovating or adapting
them to the times.
One very forceful consequence of the 20th century was the
implementation of installations, totally absent when most
traditional buildings were constructed. The interrelation between
their associated tubes and the historical support calls for a specific
study, as an understanding of it is vital to the rehabilitation project.
However, it must be based on the realization that we cannot
refuse the contributions of the 20th and 21st centuries to the
comfort and safety of the users of traditional architecture which
has to continue to exist for centuries to come.

The urban phenomenon


This final stage in our examination of buildings moves beyond our
scope and marks an end to this text: the grouping of buildings to
form a village, town or citythe urban phenomenon. If we hope
to understand the building, some of our questions must address
the interrelations between all buildings or, conversely, the effect
on buildings of the city or the urban fabric.

In short, if we can reach an understanding of how they have


come into being, and answer present-day questions, as well
as those that are the product of the history and
particularities of the place, the techniques, the resources,
the culture and the people who live there, and, at the same
time, of the whole, then we can say that we have a
comprehensive understanding of the building.

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Architectural analysis of buildings. Eliana Georgiou,


Architect
Typologies in Cyprus Technical Assistant in the Department of Antiquities,
Cyprus

3
Restoring a traditional building is to know the local architecture
and the traditional way of life. Only this way can one understand
the typology, morphology and the building materials of the local
dwelling.
The simple life of the people connected with earth and nature is
reflected on the simplicity of the traditional Cypriot house. The
minimal needs of the family do not force the mason to look for
complicated forms of houses. All that it needs is a shelter space
under which the Cypriot family joins all their activities. The form
of the house simply follows the construction without being
influenced by the interior.
An important factor in the formation of the traditional settlements
in Cyprus was the variation in the landscape. On the plain areas
the settlements consisted of a series of closely packed houses with
1
flat roofs. A high wall surrounded each house thus leading to the
formation of a yard. On the mountains, the houses were built
attached to each other continuously and packed, exploiting as
much space as possible, having tiled roof. 1), and sometimes less in the side of the road. Rectangular or
The variety of Cyprus topography allowed the anonymous mason square small openings (arseres) were made for ventilation.
to provide splendid examples of housing complexes, avoiding The most popular simple traditional house is the platimetopo
monotony even when the facades are plane and simple. Important makrinari (fig-4). It consists of a rectangular covered space. As the
factors in the shaping of the house are the local materials and the various functions of the people increased and life became more
experiences and skills of the mason. Local masons built houses complicated, bigger space was needed: The makrinari-dichoro was
without any architectural plans and with materials available from then created (fig-5). This was accomplished by joining two makrinari,
the surrounding area. The houses were constructed mainly from using an arch. The new space allowed more comfort, movement and
adobe and stone. The openings (doors and windows) are few (fig- organization. At the same time, illiakos appeared (fig-6).

2 3

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Illiakos (fig-10) is a covered space formed in front of the house,


which extends onto the full length of the south side of the
dichoro. All the household activities are transferred in the illiakos.
This is achieved, because the climate of Cyprus allows for it. The
4 illiakos was an essential component of the house. The space was
used for work, recreation and congregation- a direct connection
3
with nature.
The various spaces of the house were not built at the same time,
but added according to the needs, the social and financial status
of the owner.
5 As the linear extensions, there were also extensions in the shape
of L or U (fig-7) or in the upper floor because of the lack of
space in small plots.
The yard, surrounded by a wall, is the heart of the Cypriot
traditional house. It plays a vital role in the daily life of the
inhabitants, with all the activities taking place there (fig-9).
6
In the cities, the house is the evolution of the rural traditional
house, but more complex. The makrinari remains the basic space.
The houses were built attached to each other in continuous and
packed strips, lengthily positioned alongside the road. The
orientation is according to the road.
The illiakosportio is still the axis of the house. It is the main
entrance to the house, opening with an arch to the backyard.
Sometimes, it is closed to give more inner space. In each side of it,
symmetrically, two makrinaria are located. A second illiakos is
made alongside the inner length of the house, supported by
arches, in which stands the staircase for the upper floor (fig-2, fig-
3). This inner illiakos is repeated at the upper floor level. On the
upper floor, above the road and the main entrance, the kioski (fig-
11) (in later times becomes a balcony) is an extension and
7
connection with the outer world.
The main entrance is built with great care; it is the element that

10

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gives the character to the urban house. Sometimes, above the


door, a carved stone with figures is put. The small windows are
replaced by bigger ones with stone frames, and having outer and
inner shutters.
The yard in the urban house is smaller and looses its role as a place
of work becoming a garden with trees.
3
Also it is important for someone to consider the internal
decoration and furnishing of the traditional Cypriot house. We
can see excellent pieces of folklore art, such as gypsum or wooden
shelves, traditional weaving machines, wardrobes and cupboards
as well as richly engraved chests (fig-17).

11

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Thermal comfort in existing homes Maria Lpez Daz,


Architect
Agence Nationale de lHabitat (ANAH),
France

3
Introduction

The purpose of buildings is to provide islands of comfort. They


represent the protection that humankind seeks.
They constitute barriers to rain, snow and wind; protection from
the cold and, sometimes, subtle filters of light, noise and heat.
This search for comfort is not new. Socrates taught the art of
constructing a pleasant house according to orientation,
sunlighting, the time of year and the configuration of the faade.
However, demands have changed, becoming more stringent (I
cannot say they have evolved), leaving to one side an integral
conception of the building, seeking comfort to the detriment of
natural resources.
Small thick leaves present a small surface area to the cold and the air.
Today, a sustainable conception of building or renovation has to
centre on passive means and efficient installations if it is to achieve
its aim of producing comfortable housing using positive energy
(which produces more energy than it consumes).
In this respect, we can learn from our forebears, who used
different techniques according to the climate: humidification,
ventilation, insulation, etc. We can even learn from plants.

Learn comfort from plants?

Plants obtain the comfort they need by means of suitable


conception, form and position.
Example: The high plateau starts at 3200 m and continues to a
height of over 4600 m; it extends as far as Colombia and even
Peru. Silvery pigmentation reflects solar radiation.

Plants share similar characteristics of adaptation that allow them


to live in this region with an extreme climate.
Slow-growth plants can absorb the heat from the ground during
the day
Silvery pigmentation to reflect solar radiation, which is enormous
at this altitude
Small hairs on the leaves help to conserve heat and moisture by
creating a barrier between the surface of the plant and the air.
Small thick leaves present the smallest surface area to the cold and
to the air in order to conserve heat and moisture, and also to the
sun, in an almost vertical position.

Hairs to conserve moisture content.

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Thermal confort in existing homes

Traditional architecture and comfort

Traditional architecture takes into account the microclimate in


order to achieve hygrothermal comfort for humans and for the
building.
Microclimate should determine the choice of site of the building,
3
either to make the most of existing conditions or to evaluate the
possibilities of correcting unfavourable conditions: by means of
the actual construction, vegetation, surfaces of water, choice of
materials, shape, size and arrangement of openings, etc.
In this way, an improved microclimate is created in relation to the
regional climate.
But what exactly is comfort? Comfort for people at the scale of
the town?; at the scale of buildings, their homes? The comfort of
the building? Is comfort today the same as it was yesterday? And
what about tomorrow?
If we consult the dictionary, we find notion of material
wellbeinga difficult definition to relate to our sensations of
cold or heat
If we go back to Old French to find the meaning, comfort means
assistance.

It was called well being in the late Middle Ages, ease or


convenience just before the French Revolution. Comfort, in the
sense that we now understand it, appeared in France in the
industrial age, with a peculiarly British m, due to the
reimportation of this originally French word (Jean Pierre
Goubert, Du luxe au comfort).
City comfort levels? With greater mineralization and the corresponding increase in
thermal inertia, cities experience the heat island effect.
In architecture, the term becomes more complex. Material
comfort seems easier to express in relation to having access to a
bathroom or toilet; the definition becomes more complicated
when we speak of thermal comfortor hygrothermal comfort
when our sensations are in direct relation to the two inseparable
parameters
We refer to the comfort of people, but also the comfort of the
building. It is interesting to note that human comfort has points in
common with the comfort of a building.
For example, too high a level of humidity disrupts our balanced
transpiration and can restrict breathing, but it can also be the
cause of rot in some woods, of the growth of rot fungi, faster
corrosion of metal elements, surface condensation on walls
(particularly if poorly insulated) and heat bridges, and many other
things besides.
The internal temperature of our bodies is approximately 37C. The
built spaces that surround us are generally less hot. Hygrothermal
comfort can be achieved provided our bodies lose heat at a
Green spaces on roof tops: landscaped roofs play an important role in comfort in
suitable speed: if they lose heat too fast, we feel a sensation of cities, contributing to water evaporation, dust retention, thermal and acoustic
cold, too slowly and we feel a sensation of heat. comfort, and air quality.

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Thermal confort in existing homes

Can the same parameters be applied to comfort in the past, The answer may be to change our behaviour, using new
comfort today, comfort when on holiday and comfort at home? technologies and salvaging our forebears knowledge of building
Humankind has always aspired to comfort, but the concept of in harmony with the climate, using suitable materials and systems.
comfort has changed throughout history, according to cultural
models, technological progress, and even with circumstances.
When we are on holiday, in the mountains, for example, away Hygrothermal comfort for people
3
from it all, an ideal situation sought just for a few days, our
appreciation of comfort is quite different to what we want at We seek comfort: not too cold, not too hot, no annoying
home in the city. That cold, damp, draughty hut actually seems draughts.
comfortable. However, its temperature and humidity content are In the same space, one person may feel comfortable while another
far from our usual comfort parameters. feels uncomfortable.
Not so long ago, in our grandmothers day, when we were cold in The appreciation of comfort depends on the individual, though by
the house we would put on a thicker sweater, or even two. playing with essential parameters such as temperature, air
Today, even when the temperature drops, we walk around the movement and moisture levels, it is possible to obtain a balance
house in T-shirts, and even the buses are heated! that suits most people.
The last century was characterized by uncontrolled exploitation of
our planets resources. Today, an awareness of dwindling resources Hygrothermal and respiratory comfort depend on various factors,
presents us with the dilemma of how to maintain our comfort in including:
a world without petrol, while conserving the ozone layer. The individual:
His or her metabolism,
The clothes he or she is wearing,
What he or she is doing.
Temperature and humidity
The mean radiant temperature of a given wall or room
The temperature of objects in contact with our bodies
The movement of the air on and around our skin

The human body seeks balance; it exchanges heat with the


atmosphere by means of various transfer mechanisms:
conduction, radiation, convection and evaporation. These
exchanges take place by means of the respiratory tract and the
skin.

Reminder:
Radiation
The emission of infrared rays. As a result of this thermal energy,
any object that is hotter than the surrounding bodies gives off
heat to them. Thermal exchange takes place between the skin
and the solid elements in the environment.
Conduction
Unlike radiation, conduction requires direct contact between
the objects. It is the transfer of heat between objects that are
directly in contact with each other.
Convection
Exchange between the body and a moving fluid, almost always
air or water. The importance of convection can be considerably
modified by exterior conditions.

Vegetation naturally reduces the heating of an opaque wall: pergola and lattice
walls. Hence the interest of using deciduous plants to warm walls in winter and The interaction between the objective data of the environment
protect them in the summer. and the perception of human beings is a complex process.

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Variables associated with people The bioclimatic diagrams indicate the comfort variables as regards
humidity and temperature.
How we dress. By adapting our clothing to the demands of What interests us is the relation or balance between temperature
comfort, we can adapt quickly to climatic variables not only and moisture, as shown in the diagram below:
outside the building but also inside. The values of thermal If the hygrometry of the air is high in relation to the air
insulation of clothes are measured in clo, the clothing insulation temperature, the evaporation of sweat is slowed, preventing the
3
unit that gives a person at rest a skin temperature of 33C in body from adapting to the climate, and prompting us to speak of
radiant temperatures of 21 C. discomfort.
1 clo is equivalent to 0.16m2C/W of thermal resistance.

With its irrational use of energy, humankind, particularly in


developed countries and most particularly in large cities, has
forgotten the role of clothing in thermal comfort and energy
saving, and, therefore, the protection of the environment. Today,
when we are cold, we turn up the heating and when we are
suddenly too hot, instead of turning down the heating we open
the window. In the dog days of summer, we forget to close the
shutters (if we are lucky enough to have conserved them) and
open the windows instead of closing them when the air
temperature is higher outside the building than inside it.
Our behaviour is vital to obtaining comfort at the lowest cost to
the environment.
Our grandparents had recourse to some great cutting-edge
technology with aesthetic variations, in the size and colours of
their choice, representing a low initial outlay, within reach of all
budgets, requiring low maintenance, and the lowest return rate: a) comfort zone in winter
the sweater! A light, short-sleeved sweater, 0.17 clo, a thick, long- b) comfort zone in summer
c) cross ventilation
sleeved pullover, 0.37 clo! d) thermal inertia and selective ventilation
e) evaporative cooling
f) humidification
Metabolic energy (Watt/m2 of body surface) and work: the g) passive solar systems
production of metabolic energy depends mainly on type of activity
and position. The sensation of comfort varies according to our Zone where the combination of temperatures and humidities offers a sensation
bodys heat production and heat loss through the surface of our of comfort. Diseo bioambiental y arquitectura solar Martin Evans, Silvia de Schiller.
Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseo y Urbanismo, Universidad de Buenos Aires
body.

Levels of activity, work: according to ones level of activity, the


body has different needs and reactions. A person at rest, sleeping Thermal comfort in summer. The challenge is to produce comfort
for example: 41 W/m?. A person walking up a steep slope or without recourse to air-conditioning.
stairs, 260 w/m2. Means of heat penetration: part of the solar radiation enters a
dwelling through the windows directly into the buildings interior
The bodys capacity to adapt to different climatic conditions: (direct contribution) and another part is absorbed by the walls and
principally in relation to heat: transpiration, increase of blood roofing or roof structures that then convey it to the rooms in the
circulation on the outer layers of the body in order to increase heat house (indirect contribution).
loss, change in breathing. There are different ways of controlling the penetration of heat:

Comfort: difficult balance between temperature and moisture: Controlling direct and indirect solar contribution to the exterior
The balance between air temperature (dry-bulb temperature) and
the relative humidity of the air (quantity of water vapour The first step towards obtaining thermal comfort in dwellings
contained in the air), always measured inside the building, are vital draws on common sense and consists of controlling exterior solar
data for measuring hygrothermal comfort. contribution.

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Comfort in winter.

What are the issues?


Decrease heating needs by ensuring biological comfort, taking advantage of the climate

3
What strategies? (e.g. capturing, storing, releasing)
Controlling incidence of sunlight, drawing it into the building in winter. The simplest form of heating is the most direct: a south-facing window may be an
efficient way of capturing sunlight.

Storing the energy that comes into the building (by means of the thermal inertia of the walls and floors, which can store this energy and return it to us)

Avoiding the impact of the wind on the building and outdoor living spaces

What is our perception near a cold wall? The temperature we actually feel is the mean of the air and
Avoiding the cold wall effect the radiant temperature (mean radiant temperature). When the difference in temperature between
the different walls is too large (hot walls/cold walls), we feel a sensation of discomfort.

The hierarchical system of spaces ensures the transition between inside and outside: in-between spaces, which are apparently no longer in vogue, play an
important thermal role. This buffer space helps to prevent the energy loss caused every time the door opens and creates a space of thermal transition
between indoor and outdoor temperatures, providing a comfortable adaptation.

Collector walls: they capture solar energy, store it in their mass and pass it on in the form of heat to
the interior after several hours, thanks to their thermal inertia (Trait darchitecture et durbanisme
bioclimatique). This is the case of the Trombe wall (whose performance is conditioned by climatic
factors and the orientation and inclination of the wall) or air collectors (walls or window).

Some ways of capturing solar energy are:


The risk of overheating during the day in
Greenhouses and verandas are buffer spaces summer
that help to capture solar radiation, which is
transformed into heat by the greenhouse
effect. Issues requiring further attention are: The risk of night-time cooling in winter.

The inertia of the ground can be used to stabilise the indoor atmosphere, thereby obtaining comfort. The ground has thermal insulation capacities that are
much used in vernacular architecture. The ground can even be used, thanks to its inertia, to preheat the air in winter (the temperature of the ground
being higher than that of the air) and to cool it in summer (the ground temperature in summer being lower than that of the air). These systems allow us
to obtain thermal comfort at the lowest cost to the environment.

The movement of air is directly related to comfort. This includes two possible speeds: the very low speed corresponding to natural convection, i.e. without
ventilation, and the maximum admissible speed of a (hot) air current obtained by means of ventilation. The result is two curves that represent the outer
limits of comfort with and without ventilation.

Low-emissivity triple glazing: 0.7 W/(m2K)


Glazing: there are various factors involved in
the choice of glazing. Is its purpose to collect
or conserve energy, or to manage the hot or
cold wall effect? How much natural light Rare gas: 1.1 W/(m2K)
does the choice collect? The choice of
glazing is complex and calls for particular
reflection according to the needs of thermal,
energy and lighting comfort, as well as of the Double glazing with reinforced thermal insulation: 1.8 W/(m2K)
activity accommodated by each space.
For example, suitable thermal insulation helps
to decrease loss and create comfort.
Classic double glazing: 3,3 W/(m2K)

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Above we explained how solar thermal radiation basically Curtains and films applied to the glazing
comprises direct or indirect solar contribution in the form of
radiation, which conditions our sensation of comfort far more A comparison of the efficacy of solar protection in the summer
than the intrinsic temperature of the air. shows, for example, that exterior protections are in general
Solar contribution essentially comprises the solar radiation that appreciably more efficient than on the interior; those integrated
finds the surface of buildings. between layers of glazing are of intermediate effectiveness. A white
3
The radiation acts on the envelope of buildings, walls and roofs, Venetian blind on the interior, fully let down, will reduce the radiation
and on other materials such as the floors or pavements that through the glazing by 44%, whereas on the outside it will be 85%
absorb the radiation and re-emit it. effective.
The energy (manifested in the form of heat) is stored in the walls, Most exterior protections at an opening will allow just 5 to 15% of
enters the building, travels through the floor structures and other the energy reaching it to enter the premises (CEBTP Caractrisation
associated construction elements. , p. 57).
This radiation is the source of discomfort. Another notion to remember is the influence of the colour: a white
There is direct solar contribution through openings and windows, cloth interior blind, fully let down, will lessen the radiation
and indirect solar contribution through exterior walls and the transmitted by 60% as compared to a scant 20% for the same blind
associated construction elements through which they penetrate. in a dark colour, in the same conditions (Victor Olgyay, Arquitectura
Direct solar contribution constitutes a large heat load against y Clima).
which solar protection is effective. These protections may be adjustable and even motorized to adapt to
Indirect solar contribution is principally due to the insufficient or the intensity of radiation.
poorly designed thermal inertia and/or insulation of the dwellings According to the materials and systems used, they may be more or
envelope (walls, roofs). less difficult to maintain. It is important to bear in mind that
Furthermore, the untimely entry of overheated air, not cleanliness will affect their performance.
indispensable to good ventilation, is also an aggravating factor. Some protective elements
The role of closing and protective elements as regards thermal
comfort and energy saving. Blinds: blinds are most effective if they are opaque and placed
Closing and protecting elements ensure: on the exterior. In these circumstances, they can massively (34-
59%) reduce solar contribution, thereby helping to improve
Direct mechanical protection by means of an obstacle comfort by lowering solar radiation and the surface
(intrusion, fire, bad weather, wind) temperature of glazing.
Protection of the building (heat, cold, corrosion) Special glazings: glazings whose characteristics give them
A source of comfort (thermal, visual, acoustic) specific properties. These characteristics depend principally on
Filtering of natural light. the thickness of the air cavity, the composition of the gas
present between the two lights, and the nature of the frame
They also serve to characterize and give architectural value to elements.
faades. As regards solar radiation, closing and protective Sunshade and projecting roof: architectural elements that
elements act thanks to the application of two essential principles: project to provide increased shade and absorb excess solar heat
in the summer, allowing the sun to shine in during winter
Insulation (a heat or light screen to radiation) without concealing the field of vision from the window.
Reflection (partial return, reflected from their outer face, of Louvred blinds: exterior adaptable frames made up of
radiation) openwork panels that can be folded back.
Curtains: their efficiency can be considerably increased by
Depending on the nature of the closing and protecting elements, backing them with reflective aluminium fabric, placed as near
it may or may not be possible to combine the presence of each of the glazing as possible.
these two types on the same glazed opening. Shutters: adjustable panels to close openings.
The different types of closing and protective elements can be Roller blinds: horizontal elements such as rigid slats that roll up
grouped as follows: horizontally and block out the sun.
Vegetation: preferably deciduous trees and vegetations that
Closing elements: shutters, blinds allow sun to shine in during the winter (seasonal shading).
Protection: essentially blinds, subdivided into exterior, interior Deciduous trees protect the faade in the summer and allow
and incorporated into the glazing energy gain in winter. Vegetation oxygenates and cools the air

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by evapotranspiration and filters suspended dust particles.


Trees thereby reduce the effective exposure to the sun by 20-
40%. Vegetation can provide a screen against wind or guide it
according to our needs.
Sunshades and porch roofs are solar protections that can shield
exposed walls and openings. Among other things, they provide
3
protection from direct solar radiation.

The internal contribution made by domestic equipment may be


quite considerable and cause discomfort.
Another internal contribution to be taken into consideration is the
product of the calorific contribution of the occupants in the event
of over-occupation.

The importance of colours


The colour of walls has a big influence on the temperature of their
surface. The lighter and more reflective they are, the more they
reject solar energy.
Thermal protection of roofing. Whether the roof is horizontal or
sloping, and comprises tiles, metal elements or other materials, it
is the component that receives most insolation and contributes
most to thermal exchange. Judicious thermal insulation is
therefore vital for both comfort and energy saving. Insulation by
means of a sufficiently thick layer is an important contribution to
comfort in both summer and winter, not to mention the
corresponding improvement in acoustic comfort.
The role of inertia. The inertia of a building measures its capacity
to store heat and slow its loss. It thereby helps to attenuate the
effect of overheating due to solar contribution. Its contribution is,
Solar protection: reduces overheating due to solar radiation, and increases the
then, vital for faades that face the sun, depending on the climate insulating capacity of windows.
and place, and is especially important in climates with large
diurnal temperature differences. Massive walls and heavy roofs
mitigate the effect of these large differences.
Comfort and over-occupation. The heat produced by the
metabolism is by no means secondary, and it accumulates. Further,
the air pollution of rooms inhabited by many people obviously
varies according to the number of individuals.
Occupants give off heat and moisture. A seated person gives off
in the region of 100 watts at an ambient temperature of 25C.
One way of limiting internal thermal contribution is to avoid over-
occupation.
Use natural lighting and limited, well-chosen artificial lighting: for
reasons of economy and thermal and visual comfort, it is desirable
to use natural lighting in the daytime, which does not mean
letting solar radiation directly inside. In the evening and at night,
when natural lighting is insufficient, it is a good idea to use low-
consumption light bulbs. Halogen lights increase room Vegetation oxygenates and cools the air by evapotranspiration. It also filters
temperature considerably. suspended dust particles. By means of evapotranspiration, vegetation contributes
moisture to the air and the evaporation mechanism consumes energy, producing a
Limit the use of exothermic household appliances. Electrical drop in summer temperatures.
domestic appliances also give off heat. It is worth knowing the

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consumption of each apparatus, which is listed in the that is naturally maintained at a lower temperature than that of
manufacturers notices. the exterior atmosphere, as it is sunk deep in the subsoil. This
system also serves to preheat the air in the winter, as its
passage through the conduit raises the temperature of the air
Natural cooling systems taken in. Performance is largely dependant on installation
conditions: the nature of the earth, the diameter, nature and
3
Ventilation. Natural cooling by means of ventilation is feasible length of the conduit, the rate of air flow, topography and
and worthwhile when it is cooler outside than it is inside. In thermal insulation of the parts of the conduit above ground,
general, at night the exterior air temperature is lower than etc.
inside dwellings (except during the hottest period), and
ventilation should take place at the coolest hours of the night
(between midnight and six a.m.). This night-time cooling effect
can be increased by opening windows in opposite faades,
where possible. In dwellings built on two levels, the effect is 1 Contact : Maria.Lopez-Diaz@anah.gouv.fr
even more marked if the open windows are in opposite faades
on two different levels (chimney effect).

Evaporative cooling. The use of expanses of water creates


microclimates and lessens diurnal temperature variations.
Different aspersion systems also cool ambient air. Misting
procedures may also be used. With high temperatures and low
relative humidity, water evaporation will bring down the
temperature by increasing humidity. The fountains in Arabic
courtyards are one example.
The thermal inertia of the ground: the earth heat exchanger.
This system can only be used in buildings surrounded by
sufficient land with available subsoil. It requires modest
investment and a level of technical knowledge that places it
within the reach of numerous professionals. Continuing
performance and comfort are dependant on regular
maintenance. Initially, the system consists in introducing
exterior air to renew the air inside the house through a conduit

Surfaces of water help to create comfortable microclimates (Spain).

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Acoustic comfort in existing homes Christian Thiriot


Technical Directorate of the Agence Nationale de lHabitat
(ANAH), France

3
Noise is way ahead at the top of the list of nuisances bemoaned
by the French1, being all the more unbearable when it affects
them in their own homes. We therefore have to consider the
physical reality of noise and its effects, which depends largely
on its source, type, time of emission, emergence and
repetitiveness, etc.
For example, a dripping tap can ruin a nights sleep, though the
noise represents just a few millionths of the sound energy of a
vehicle in the distance that does not bother anyone.

The air space between the two boards acts as a buffer


The production of noise

Noise is a vibratory phenomenon that is propagated in the


surrounding air, either directly or indirectly.
If the sound source is propagated directly in the air, for example The transmission of noise
by means of a loudspeaker, we speak of airborne noise; according
to whether the source of this airborne noise is inside or outside Whatever the type of noise (airborne, impact, equipment), it
the home, we refer to interior or exterior airborne noise. travels between its source and the point of reception along
If the air is caused to vibrate by coming into contact with an complex, often multiple paths, preferring those that present the
element that receives an impact, such as a hammer blow against least resistance, which are called sound bridges. Thus an exterior
a wall, it is impact noise. airborne noise will pass easily through an open window, and an
If the air is caused to vibrate due to the functioning of equipment, impact noise or an equipment noise will be easily transmitted by a
such as a washing machine, it is equipment noise. It is further partition or piping.
possible to distinguish between equipment noise outside the The limitation of the discomfort due to noise involves first limiting
home (lifts) and the noises of indoor equipment. it at source and second introducing appropriate obstacles
Noise may of course respond to several headings: a lift produces between the source and the reception point, bearing in mind that
airborne noises by means of its motor, impact noises by means of the paths taken may be multiple and difficult to locatethere is
its doors and equipment noise caused by the movement of its no point closing one window if another is left open.
cabin. Depending on where one happens to be, one of these Furthermore, it is important not to underestimate the masking
noises could appear to be predominant. effect of continuous noise such as the outdoor traffic. In this case,
the installation of soundproof windows may lead to the
appearance of interior noise, such as equipment noise that was
The perception of noise hitherto masked but is now more noticeable!
The phenomenon of reverberation also has to be taken into
The subjective part in the perception of noise is frequently more account: it generally affects sufficiently large rooms with walls that
important than the noise level as measured by a sound-level metre; are rigid or tiled, for example. Normal furnishing will attenuate
for example, the noise of a water heater switching on may reassure this phenomenon but it may be necessary to implement
an owner-occupier, whereas it could irritate a tenant. Likewise, complementary measures in the form of acoustic treatment.
tiredness or stress, or the kind of relation one has with ones Reverberation often affects communal areas such as corridors and
neighbour also affects ones perception of the noises he makes. foyers, producing an uncomfortable noise environment.

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I. Airborne noise
a. Exterior airborne noise
Apart from the preferred process of reducing the nuisance at To counter exterior airborne noise, rehabilitation work has to focus
source, which is not always practicable, the main obstacle to principally on the weak points, specifically doors and windows, air
exterior and interior airborne sounds are horizontal and vertical inlets, rolling shutters and roof structures.
facings, walls and partitions. These walls are all the more effective It is necessary to ensure that these interventions do not compromise
3
against airborne noises as they are not generally susceptible to ventilation systems; the interior comfort of the dwelling could
vibration, and heavy walls in particular are highly efficient in acoustic otherwise be affected and the built fabric will suffer.
terms. Of course, a heavy wall with windows in a poor state of
repair is less of an obstacle to airborne noise, since it is the weakest Doors and windows
part, the window, that governs the overall effectiveness. The principal aim is to suppress any direct entrance of air and,
There are, however, also light walls, partitions comprising two with it, all means of transmission of exterior noise. A careful
gypsum plasterboards joined together by a metal frame, that also examination of the situation by a professional, known as an
have excellent soundproofing qualities; the air trapped between the acoustic diagnosis, should produce the best solution for the
two elements then acts as a buffer and attenuates airborne noise. budget available.
Their level of efficiency can be further improved by filling the space
between the plasterboard with special fibrous materials, generally Conservation of the opening leaves, fitted with acoustic
mineral wool. glazing. In this case, it is important to ensure that the fixed
It is also possible to increase the number of gypsum wallboards, this frame and the opening leaves can bear the additional weight
being a particularly appropriate solution for the rehabilitation of old of the glazing, which is considerable.
dwellings, as the resulting partition is lightweight and represents a Replacement of existing doors and windows by new airtight
minor added load on the buildings structure, at the same time elements fitted with acoustic glazing. If the fixed frame is in a
offering comparable efficiency to heavy walls. These solutions, good state of repair, it may be conserved.
however, can only be employed for interior partitions. Construction of a double window. When correctly carried out,

The use of absorbent material attenuates noise Construction of a double window. The passage of air transmits exterior noise
transmission

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this solution is highly effective and also conserves the exterior denser materials and blocking up all direct entry of exterior air. If
appearance of the faade, an important factor when dealing possible, the inside of the box can also be lined with insulation
with valuable heritage. materials such as mineral wool or absorbent foam (see above).
If replacement is chosen, the element should be substituted by
NOTE: Double-glazing for insulation generally makes little difference window blocks with built-in rolling shutters, which are good
to soundproofing, especially if the two lights are the same thickness acoustic performers.
3
and quite close together. It is advisable to choose specific windows
(with opening leaves and fixed frames) and glazing whose acoustic Roofs
properties are specified on the product. Roofs are particularly sensitive to exterior noise, especially aircraft
It is also advisable to ensure that the ventilation systems generally noise, which is particularly annoying after building a loft
associated with windows do not counteract their acoustic conversion. An initial solution is to have thermal-acoustic
performance. insulation fitted. If this proves to be insufficient, it will then be
necessary to have recourse to more extreme solutions, such as
Air intakes separating the roof from the rest of the buildings structure.
There are specific air intakes, referred to as acoustic, with facings
that are lined with absorbent materials. These cut out exterior b. Interior airborne noise
noise and allow correct airing of the dwelling. Interior airborne noise calls for interventions to structural
If the replacement doors and windows are not fitted with built-in floors, separation walls or landing doors and partitions.
air intakes, it is advisable to restore ventilation, possibly by
effecting openings in the masonry. Structural floors (and ceilings)
Structural floors (and ceilings) may be acoustic weak points as a
Rolling shutter boxes result of the pipes that run through them. This may be due to gaps
These boxes often constitute an acoustic weak point in the faade. that let sound through, in which case elastic sleeves or
The situation can be improved by replacing the existing boxes by soundproofing materials should be fitted, or to excessively rigid

Acoustic weak points. Common walls in dwellings. A light wall does little to reduce the noise
perceived behind

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connections of pipes to structural floors, in which case the a metal frame. The same solution can be applied if the
elements should be separated, for example using vibration transmission of noise between dwellings is caused by structural
cushioning to prevent the vibrations of the pipes being weakness of the common wall.
transmitted to the structural floor or ceiling.
The direct passage of noise through the facing is counteracted by Landing doors and partitions
packing the gaps with soundproofing material. Landing doors with acoustic weaknesses should be replaced by
3
If the noise is transmitted directly by the structural floor of the officially approved doors.
dwelling upstairs it may be necessary to consider the construction Partition walls between a dwelling and a landing can be addressed
of a double ceiling according to the same principle used in the in the same way as partitions separating dwellings (see above).
case of common walls. It is vital to carry out a diagnosis of
secondary transmission, particularly by vertical partitions, since
this may be the primary cause, making the construction of a II. Impact noise and equipment noise
double ceiling both expensive and ineffective.
Furthermore, the routes taken by sound in old buildings can be The lighter a wall is, the more transmission of noise will be
complex and require professional analysis. facilitated by direct contact between the facings of a dwelling and
the parts subject to impact or vibration.
Common walls Various resources are available to resolve this problem, including
Thermal insulation materials placed on the interior of dwelling anti-vibration supports, cladding laid over underlay, floating floors,
walls are often so rigid that they reduce the acoustic performance suspended ceilings, etc.
of the facings between homes. It is advisable to replace them with It is important to remember that pipes can carry impact noises a
suppler thermo-acoustic materials, which are attached by bonding long way.
or inserted between the wall and a gypsum wallboard attached to Likewise, the slightest error in the fitting of soundproofing

An incorrectly built floating floor is ineffective Structural transmission of the noise.


and may even aggravate sound transmission

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mechanisms can ruin the entire noise attenuation system. In water pressure is not excessive. Likewise, an extractor outlet
particular, any point of direct contact of a floating floor with its will hiss if the airflow is not balanced.
support will render this major investment ineffective.
Passive equipment such as pipes must in all cases be attached to
Impact noise heavy walls by non-vibrating clips.
The structural floor Intrinsically noisy equipment such as an extract ventilation motor
3
The principle of intervention consists in preventing the element can be effectively suspended and enclosed in casing lined with
from vibrating when subjected to stress due to the impact of absorbent materials.
an object. One solution is to cover the floor of the dwelling
where the noise is created by a form of cladding that will Reverberation
absorb impact (carpet, plastic flooring with resilient underlay, Acoustic correction consists in general of cladding walls with
etc.) or to introduce a resilient layer between the support of the absorbent coverings; in this case, the characteristics of the facing
structural floor and the floor cladding that is sensitive to impact with regard to airborne noise are not modified.
noise, such as a tiled floor or rigid parquet.
Another, fairly extreme solution would be to build a floating
floor, which should be entrusted to an experienced professional
to ensure its proper construction.
1 See the technical leaflets published by the ANAH, particularly Bruit et confort
Intervention on the structure acoustique and Bruit.
If it is not possible to intervene in the dwelling where the noise 2 The idea of the illustrations are provided by the CSTB on behalf of the ANAH.
is produced, it will be necessary to introduce barriers to prevent
their transmission. This requires a diagnosis carried out by
specialists, requiring the intervention of an acoustician.

Equipment noise
Intervention on equipment
In France, most electrical domestic appliances, boilers and
plumbing fixtures have an NF mark that specifies their acoustic
performance; nevertheless, their application will be dependent
on external factors that have to be taken into account and
corrected as applicable. A quality tap will only be silent if the

Noise perceived behind a heavy wall is The use of absorbent material improves the
considerably reduced sound comfort of the room but does not
decrease the transmission of the noise to the
room next door

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Making the graphic survey of the building I. Knowledge

Preliminary reflections Santiago Canosa Reboredo,


Architect
on the graphic survey Lecturer in the Department of Architectural Representation
of vernacular heritage and Visual Analysis II and Director of the Architecture Heritage
Workshop, School of Building Construction of Barcelona
(Technical University of Catalonia), Spain

It is difficult to argue the issue without referring to the Charter on has shown that many surveys, sometimes conducted by great
the Built Vernacular Heritage, ratified in Mexico in October 1999, architects, are very poor in content, serving as mere reminders of
and above all to its familiar introduction, which clearly defines the parts of the building.) 4
concept of vernacular heritage and warns us of its fragility. Finally, I grant myself the utopia of not having a time limit to carry
This is why, when asked to write this article, I could not pass up out the graphic survey, a premiss that is very rarely found.
the opportunity to make my own contribution to the huge effort I will now go on to analyse the stages in the working process.
that must be made if its continuity and protection are to be
guaranteed. I should also point out, evident as it may seem, that
although rural heritage has its own characteristics, the Defining the task
methodology and techniques used in its graphic survey differ very
little from those used to survey the other buildings that make up It is very important to maintain close contact with the institution
built heritage. Perhaps the biggest difference lies in its irregularity, or person who requests the graphic survey with a view to clearly
requiring greater precision in data collection. defining their purpose and discovering the use to which the data
Having said that, I thought it interesting to base this section on we supply is to be put. The survey will be approached differently
graphic surveying, listing the various phases in the order I believe according to its purpose: restoration, rehabilitation, consolidation,
they should be carried out. A detailed description of this process collapse, documentation, etc. Since the content of the work is
will serve to establish principles that will guarantee successful basically the same, we have to complement it in different ways,
results of the graphic survey. using different systems of representation, varying scales or
I would also like to establish some preliminary conditions. studying different types of detail. The directionality of the survey
Our work forms part of a complete architectural survey, involving is important. Who is the work for, and in what form do they wish
various specialists. The correct coordination of them is vital to the to receive it? Should the presentation be varied depending on
results. whether it is for an architect, an archaeologist or an engineer?
The graphic survey has been requested by a third party, who could
be the director of a master plan, with a view to future intervention
in the building being surveyed. In other words, the work we carry Reconnaissance
out is not for us. (Before beginning work on a building, it is
necessary to consult any graphic surveys that have already been I start out from the premiss that the time and money I invest
carried out, as they contain valuable information that serves both during the preliminary information-gathering process will always
as a starting point and to compare and contrast results. Experience be profitable and save work later on. I therefore suggest:

An alignment system situates the detail of the various rooms in a distribution and
therefore correctly defines the thickness of the enclosing walls.

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Preliminary reflections on the graphic survey of vernacular heritage

4
A closed station system will correctly produce the environment of the building to be
mapped.

Consulting bibliographical sources, the archives of municipal,


civil and religious institutions in the area of the building,
checking iconography, and contacting people who are now
related with the building or have been in the past. Experience
shows that vernacular architecture, perhaps because it is
created by its users, creates important bonds. These bonds last
for generations, and the users tend to keep the few documents
generated by the different stages of construction, as well as
maintaining an equally important oral tradition. The Catalan
masia or farmhouse is proof of this; a high percentage of
masies continue to be inhabited by the same families that built
them.
Keeping in contact throughout this phase with the other
professionals involved in the architectural survey. Together, the
various professional will situate the building in its historical
context, which will help them to identify the needs and
concerns of the users, their socio-cultural background and the
stages of construction, and correctly interpret the buildings
specific elements. The applied arts will help us to correctly date
each intervention and other similar appreciations will help us
towards a fuller understanding of the building. By applying simple topography programmes to a collection of points taken beneath
a vault, we can define its horizontal sections and therefore, its regularity.

Direct reconnaissance of the building: finding our bearings,


situating ourselves, recognising the phases of its construction on
site, familiarising ourselves with the layout and which rooms have
direct access from the room in which we are standing. This is
when you should take your first notes and start a large collection
of photographs. It is advisable to spread this process over several
days, particularly if the building to be studied is a complex one,
and periods of reflection between visits will always bear fruit.
I have always thought that the process of conducting a graphic
survey is the opposite of the process carried out by the architect
or master builder when building it: he devised a way of creating
spaces that would meet certain needs, and, on the basis of some
initial sketches, gave form to his work on paper and then built it.
Data collection using a non-prism total station will help us to situate the basic lines
We, on the other hand, start with the built work, draw sketches of our building in space.

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to produce plans of the initial project, and, if we continue, we may drawing program, and sectioning and projecting it onto as many
come to intuit the original idea that led the master builder to plans as necessary. Further, it is obvious that data collection for the
define the spaces and volumes and their interrelation, the original two processes will be different. The photograph is the ideal
idea that generated the project, or the phase of the project we are support for data collection when using a non-prism total station,
analysing. If so, we will certainly realize the greatness of the mind particularly these days, with the immediacy of digital photography.
that conceived it. Unfortunately, this does not always happen, but In its absence, we would have to produce multiple free-hand
if we reach this degree of knowledge, it is the ideal place to start perspectives that would allow us to identify points in space. I do
conducting our survey. not, however, mean that we should give up classic data
During the reconnaissance process we will decide what collection using dihedral or axonometric systems, which is still vital 4
projections are needed to satisfactorily define the geometry of the and in most cases would complement the data obtained using
building, the systems of representation and appropriate scales to other systems.
use, and the order in which to carry them out. I particularly stress It is important to use the appropriate method of measurement
the concept of order, because many mistakes can be avoided (itinerary, base alignment, polygonal, radiation, etc.) for each type
and, with them, the journeys to correct themif we are sure of of construction or combine several of them, in this case with
having the correct information that could have been provided by particular emphasis on the way in which the various methods are
a projection that we have deferred. related. Evidently, the ideal method is the one that guarantees the
least accumulation of errors.
In the interiors of buildings with few divisions, it is generally
Field and desk work advisable to use a network of stations to provide data about both
the floor plan and sections and elevations. Conversely, when the
Each projection you decide to carry out requires a twofold process: interior distribution is important, the base alignment system tends
data collection in the field and subsequent application at scale. to work best. However, I do not aim to dictate a working system;
I have to stress the fact that new technologies applied to these each case has to be weighed up individually, and the construction
processes make them increasingly interdependent. As of the first itself question will govern the appropriate work system.
sketch, it is necessary to start thinking about the right way to The irregularity of vernacular architectures is real, not merely
obtain a correct interpretation. To give just two examples, the apparent. Though the aim may have been to obtain parallel lines
attempt to represent at scale the multiple projections generated and symmetry, the lack of perpendicularity in the various rooms is
by a groin vault, starting out with the traditional dihedral system characteristic and the varying thicknesses of the walls, both in the
sketch, will be considerably more complicated than reconstructing floor plan and in section, is considerable, and verticality is relative.
the same vault in three dimensions, using a good computer-aided This all depends on the construction phase, the system of support
used for the ceilings on the different floors and the skill of the
workers, normally the occupants of the house, in most cases
directed by an expert. All of these factors require horizontal
working plans in order to guarantee the correctness of our work,
relating the different floors by means of non-bearing elements
(stairwells, courtyards, faades) and never on the basis of
supposed verticals that rarely exist.
It is often necessary to use different systems to measure the
interior and exterior of a building, or its different floors. In these
cases, particular attention should be paid to the correct relation of
the two systems. Each method must be based on its own system
of dimensioning (partial, point of origin, polar, etc.), thereby
guaranteeing the least accumulation of error.
An issue that has always caused some uneasiness on my part is the
dichotomy between the precision of the latest measuring
apparatus and the irregularity of the buildings that make up our
Photographic back-up is vital when taking points using a non-prism total station.
The camera should be placed in the same position where the station will vernacular architecture and built heritage. Just how precise do we
subsequently be set up. If the points are surveyed vertically, as in series 3-6 and 82- have to be? Do we have the right to simplify the data obtained?
86, we can determine the verticality of the edges during the data collection
process. An arch can never be defined solely by surveying three points.
Should this produce two different surveys? I leave the question
open to the floor.

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Preliminary reflections on the graphic survey of vernacular heritage

the TPA on the Catalan masia, based mainly in the areas around Collsacabra and
Above, I mention the interrelation between field and desk work. It
the Montseny, two regions that are very close, separated only by the river Ter
is important for the two to coincide in time, as this will assist us in basin, with very similar orography but quite distinct evolution of their masies and
the task. It is not a good idea to let field data build up, unless it is in both cases, unfortunately, with discouraging results.
The masies in Collsacabra tend to be large, the casa pairal or family seat, some
unavoidable, putting off later desk work. It is easy to forget details
the product of endless extensions, others reminiscent of the regions old noble
that may be determinant in the process. Writing up the days families. The orography of the area meant that they mainly concerned themselves
material makes us reflect on the efficiency of the data collection with stock-keeping, with small tracts of land devoted to agriculture.
process and introduce possible improvements. The support
represented by completed projections for the collection of new
4 data is important, as it allows us to check our figures on site.
It is important to remember, as I mentioned early, that our graphic
survey is just one part, though important, of the architectural
survey that will be used by the other professionals involved, as
material to support their interventions. Archaeologists, geologists,
art historians, property cataloguers, etc., will need a graphic
survey to contextualize their contributions. Before the start of
work, a series of agreements should be made as regards unity of
language in order to facilitate greater ease of comprehension of
the overall architecture survey.
By way of conclusion, I would like to say that this article is to a
large extent the product of study and the reflections generated by
many mistakes made in the course of what is now a good number
of years devoted to architectural survey, but most of all to the
shared experience with my colleagues and research students in the
Taller de Patrimoni Arquitectnic2 (TPA, Architecture Heritage
Workshop) at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia.

1 The built vernacular heritage occupies a central place in the affection and pride
of all peoples. It has been accepted as a characteristic and attractive product of
society. It appears informal, but nevertheless orderly. It is utilitarian and at the
same time possesses interest and beauty. It is a focus of contemporary life and at
the same time a record of the history of society. Although it is the work of man it
is also the creation of time. It would be unworthy of the heritage of man if care
were not taken to conserve these traditional harmonies which constitute the core
of man's own existence.
The built vernacular heritage is important; it is the fundamental expression of the
culture of a community, of its relationship with its territory and, at the same time,
the expression of the world's cultural diversity.
Vernacular building is the traditional and natural way by which communities
house themselves. It is a continuing process including necessary changes and
continuous adaptation as a response to social and environmental constraints. The
survival of this tradition is threatened worldwide by the forces of economic,
cultural and architectural homogenisation. How these forces can be met is a
fundamental problem that must be addressed by communities and also by
governments, planners, architects, conservationists and by a multidisciplinary
group of specialists.
Due to the homogenization of culture and of global socio-economic
transformation, vernacular structures all around the world are extremely
vulnerable, facing serious problems of obsolescence, internal equilibrium and
integration.
It is necessary, therefore, in addition to the Venice Charter, to establish principles
for the care and protection of our built vernacular heritage.
2 My principal experience of recovering rural heritage is the work we carry out in

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Tool 4
Making the graphic survey of the building I. Knowledge

Pointers for drawing Michel Daoud


Architect
up a good survey Lebanon

Introduction

An important preliminary to any restoration or consolidation work 4


is the drawing up of a current condition of premises report. The
purpose of this report is to provide the necessary support and
database for subsequent historical and technical studies involved
in an architectural analysis of the building. It may be represented
graphically, photographically and/or descriptively. tat actuel (faade Maison Baroud, Tyr, Liban)
In historical architecture, the concept of mapping is no longer
limited to simply taking exact measurements of what exists. It now
includes important scientific and historical aspects when recording
the specific characteristics belonging to each architectural Facilitate its interpretation and understand its dimensions and
typology. proportions
Establish its coordinates, position in space and relation with its
surroundings
Graphic mapping Detect structural anomalies: fissuring, differential settlement,
sliding, etc.
This involves representing an architectural construction on a Identity the construction materials and decorative elements
support such as paper in order to: Produce precise documentation of the current state of the
building

Graphic survey (floor plan of Baroud House, Tyr)

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Pointers for drawing up a good survey

Surveying methods scale to facilitate comprehension of the drawing, as well as


descriptive indications, and the comments and remarks made on
There are generally considered to be three methods of graphic site, known as the site notes.
mapping: manual, instrumental or topographic, and To conduct this surveying phase you need a brief case equipped
photogrammetric. with drawing paper, pencil, rubber, etc.
The document produced by this phase must be carefully conserved
Manual mapping consists in taking direct measurements for consultation during future graphic reproduction or to respond
using the classic measuring instruments: surveyors chain, to new requirements.
4 spirit level, marker posts, plumb line, compass, etc.
Topographical mapping consists in using optical measuring The second phase is the production of a scale line drawing. North,
instruments: theodolite, tachometer, goniometer, etc. the scale, the location, the date of the survey, and the name of the
Photogrammetric mapping consists in using photography author must be indicated on the drawing board.
and computer programs to conduct the survey. This phase may be carried out directly on a paper support or using
information technology.
The graphic survey involves two essential phases: one is manual
(site sketch and notes) and the other is the line drawing. The topographic survey is considered a complement to verify the
The first consists of producing a drawing of all the floor plans, manual survey. In some cases, it is vital in order to survey points
sections and elevations of the construction onto which all the that are inaccessible. It is above all a precision survey in the case
dimensions and measurements will be transferred using a suitable of integration of the construction into the urban network.

Interpreting the built work (faade of Baroud House, Tyr)

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Pointers for drawing up a good survey

Photogrammetric survey Stratigraphy


In the event of inaccessible points or when measuring equipment
is not available, photogrammetry is a quick and simple way of The survey allows us to determine the stratigraphy of a
surveying a building. It simply involves taking two photos of a construction. In fact, it should facilitate the interpretation and
single object using a special photographic apparatus and understanding of the different phases of construction and the
developing them using special software to establish the transformations a building has undergone, allowing us to
perspective and reproduce the photo-elevation in two understand the work and perceive all of its historical and technical
dimensions values.
When interpreting the building, the person carrying out the survey 4
Photographic documentation will be able to identify the phases of construction by interpreting
the list of dimensions, volumes and materials used, and by means
As a supplement to the graphic survey, photographic of the different construction techniques.
documentation illustrates the condition of premises report at the
time of the survey. It is vital for knowing the volume of the Typological studies
building plus details, colours and the materials used.
Much information about the state of a building can be recorded A comprehensive survey should compare the buildings different
on paper using photography, whereas the plans and elevations of typologies. The proportions and dimensions of architectural
the graphic survey are merely geometric and scientific drawings elements, and the forms and spaces allow us to identify the
that conceal a great deal of knowledge. typology and dating of each part of the building.

Colour study (interior renderings of Mamelouk House, Tyr)

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Pointers for drawing up a good survey

As well as being a simple measuring operation, the graphic survey materials, construction and structural systems, etc.
of the condition of premises report also constitutes a database Architectural analysis may also provide information about the
that can be used to determine the historical and cultural values of function and the activities that took place in the building.
the monument. This analysis enables us to identify and understand the specific
characteristics of the work of architecture: a report on the
Colour studies dimensions, modules, architectural typology and spatial values.
We can as a result tell the original parts from later
The survey includes a colour catalogue: the stone, renderings, transformations.
4 timber and paint used in the building. This survey must identify
the different colours of the various layers of paint or whitewash Conclusion
and their type: oil- or lime based, etc.
Files comprising the location, drawing and colour will serve as Above I highlighted the importance of the survey to the current
documentation for comparative studies of colours or for future condition of premises report, which is an absolutely vital
analysis or research. preliminary to restoration work or historical research.
A detailed survey must be completed by a written description and
Architectural analysis of the building a photographic and petrographic catalogue in order to present all
aspects of construction. Information gaps in the survey may hinder
The scientific survey of a work of architecture represents a whole the historical or archaeological hypotheses proposed for
series of lines of investigation: knowledge of techniques used, interpretation.

Analysis of modules (faade of Baroud House, Tyr)

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Graphic Survey. Eleni Pissaridou,


PhD in architecture
The Cypriot experience Department of Antiquities,
Cyprus

The rehabilitation of a traditional building presents several


challenges to the architect/engineer assigned to the project.
Through the project, the architect/engineer is called to 4
understand the many aspects of the building, its traditional
architecture and, while preserving and respecting the
architectural heritage, enable its transition to future generations
in a time-sustaining condition.

One of the critical elements of the study is to enable the


restoration of the traditional building with minimum
intervention to its architecture, building methodology and
materials, while making it a comfortable dwelling, addressing
the needs of modern-day inhabitants.

Measuring dimensions requires accuracy and at least two persons


After the assignment of the rehabilitation of building to the
architect/engineer, s/he will need to pay a visit to the site, during
which, s/he will make the initial assessment of size, spaces and
condition. There are examples where the building is unstable
and needs immediate basic support or needs site cleaning and Detailed plans are generated in order to depict unique elements,
careful removal of debris so that the architect/engineer can work e.g. a door detail, a window, a decorated ceiling, wooden
in and around the building for the graphic survey. Site cleaning construction.
should be done very carefully, while looking for evidence of
building components and material that can be used for its The graphic survey is complemented with notes on the plans,
restoration. explaining details not depicted in the plans (e.g. layers of plaster
or colors) or memory sustaining elements, as well as good
There are several methodologies or practices of graphic surveys, photographic documentation.
such as the photogrammetric survey, the digital scanner survey
and the traditional graphic survey. The latter is largely manual in The final result, a complete, accurate and detailed survey helps
nature, using tools such as tape measure, level, plumb line, not only the overall study and analysis of the building, but will
altometer, etc. Whatever method is chosen, the end result also help in the formulation of the right proposal to address the
should be a series of accurate plans (plan views, side views, problematic areas, such as restoration of damages, re-plastering
sections and architectural and construction details). and repositioning of architectural elements. Lastly, the graphic
survey helps in making correct changes or additions, within the
The traditional graphic survey methodology starts with the initial spirit of preserving the architectural heritage, as well as meeting
sketches, which must be clear and proportional. contemporary functional needs.

This is followed by measurements for which at least two persons


are required (horizontal, vertical and diagonal).

During the graphic survey, the architect studies and generates


deep understanding of the building, its architectural structure,
details and characteristics, materials, construction techniques,
prior interventions, and possible problems (lesions, variations,
humidity, etc.).

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Graphic Survey. The Cypriot experience

Initial Sketch with accurate dimensions

Initial Sketch and details with useful notes

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Graphic Survey. The Cypriot experience

Plan view of ground floor Faade of the building

Plan view of first floor South Elevation

Sections North Elevation

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Stratigraphic analysis of architecture Camilla Mileto,


Doctor of Architecture
and its application to traditional Lecturer in the Department of History and Theory
architecture of Architecture, School of Architecture of Valencia
(Technical University of Valencia), Spain

Stratigraphic analysis of architecture

4 Stratigraphic analysis applied to architecture, tracing the material


marks engraved in the masonry, allows us to document and study
the different construction periods in the history of the building.
The construction process, with its different actions of
construction, demolition and transformation, leaves a series of
traces recognisable to an eye that is trained to identify and
understand them. While a stratigraphic study of architecture
allows us to identity the different construction phases, it also
favours the knowledge and recognition of the construction
materials and techniques used in the architecture.
Stratigraphic analysis came into being as a way of excavating and
studying the archaeological site and it has been applied to the
study of historical architecture for the last 20 years or so. Its use in Architectural stratification: series of strata and interfaces
the world of archaeology is based on the concept of stratification,
which came into being in the field of geology as the superposition
of strata in a natural terrain (geological stratification). The large-
scale research such as that of Harris (1979) and Carandini (1981)
defined and codified the stratigraphic study of archaeological
stratification, understood as the superposition of anthropogenic
strata on an archaeological site. architecture from the point of view of its evolution and
In the late 1980s, architects who were working on architectural modification.
restoration (particularly Doglioni and Parenti) and archaeologists Architectural stratification represents the construction phases and
concerned with architecture (Brogiolo, Francovich, etc.) realized periods of use of a building throughout its history. The
the potential of this type of study for the documentation and construction phases are characterized by positive actions of
interpretation of historical architecture undergoing restoration. In construction, negative actions of demolition and transforming
most cases, historical architecture is characterized by its actions that modify what exists. The periods of use interposed
complexity due to the number of different interventions it has between the successive construction phases are characterized by
undergone in its lifetime. The mutability of historical architecture anthropic wear as a result of use of the building and natural
allows us to establish a parallel between archaeological and deterioration caused by atmospheric agents.
architectural stratification, in which each stratum can be identified Architectural stratification is manifested in a series of stratathat
with a different action of construction, demolition and is, the remains of the different actions that have taken place in the
transformation. course of the buildings history and negative interfaces, which are
the prints of demolitions. In the case of architecture, the stratum
may be a foundation, a wall, a floor slab, a roof, a rendering, etc.
Method and application Every time part of a building is constructed, it represents a stratum
with its defining characteristics: a body of stratum (its mass) and
The application of stratigraphic analysis to architecture has the surfaces that delimit it. In the case of architecture, the surfaces
recourse to a series of fundamental concepts of stratigraphic often constitute the only visible part of the stratum (the two faces
archaeology, adapting them to the study of architectural of a wall, the surface of a rendering, etc.), which is therefore the
constructions. However, the complexity of architecture and its only part that can be documented and studied. Further, the
peculiarity call for particular attention to construction techniques surfaces often conserve important data about the decoration or
and processes as basic elements in understanding and interpreting finish of the architecture, or its use.

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Making the graphic survey of the building I. Knowledge
Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture

The first important difference between archaeological and


architectural stratification is the order of deposition of the strata:
in the case of an archaeological site, the strata are deposited
according to the laws of gravity, starting with the oldest, so that
the upper stratum is more recent than the most underlying. In the
case of architectural stratification, conversely, the strata are
layered in all directions, creating greater difficulty of interpretation
of the order of deposition.
There is a second basic difference between application of the 4
method in the fields of archaeology and architecture.
Archaeological investigation involves the progressive elimination
(excavation) of the strata present on the site, since each stratum is
superposed horizontally on the older one below, concealing it
completely. In the case of architecture, the stratigraphic method
Stratigraphic units in the bridge at La Pobleta de San Miguel (Villafranca del Cid,
investigates the strata deposited from ground level upwardsthat Castelln). Each stratigraphic unit can be distinguished by the construction
is, the building that is still standing. In this case, elimination of the technique used
strata is generally not envisaged, since each stratum is part of the
existing building and constitutes part of it (its structures, finishes,
spaces, etc.).
The stratigraphic unit is the general term covering the strata and
the negative interfaces. In the case of architecture, the
stratigraphic construction unit can be defined as a homogeneous
area, carried out according to a single constructional decision to
build, demolish or transform. The stratigraphic units can be
distinguished by construction materials and techniques, colour,
composition, finish, surface cutting or carving, etc.
The stratigraphic unit is delimited by a perimeter that separates it
from the next units. It is in this perimeter that we can identify the
relations existing between the various adjacent stratigraphic units.
Stratigraphic relations can be recognised in the type of relation
between two units that meet.
Stratigraphic relations can be contemporary (two units The stratigraphic relation of bonding (the dry stone wall is bonded to the top part,
constructed or carried out as part of the same construction built at the same time)

process) or before/after (two units constructed or carried out in


two different successive construction phases). Contemporary
relations comprise bonding, in the case of two units built together
(for example two connecting walls) and same as in the case of two
units that were built at the same time but are not in physical
contact (for example, a series of windows, all the same, inserted
at the same time in a pre-existing wall). The before/after relations
comprise built against, where the unit that is placed comes after
the unit it is placed against (for example, a wall built against
another comes after the first); covering/covered by, where the unit
that covers comes after the one that is covered (for example,
plastering on a wall comes after the wall); cutting/cut by, where
the unit that is cut comes before the unit or interface that cuts it
(for example, the action of demolition comes after the wall that is
demolished); filling in/filled in by, where the unit that fills in comes
after the unit that is filled in (for example, the bricking up of a The stratigraphic relation of placed against (the wall on the right is placed against the
window comes after the actual window). wall on the left)

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture

Once the stratigraphic relations between the different units are


identified, it is possible to establish the stratigraphic sequence in
which the units are ordered from the oldest to the most recent.
The tool used to order the stratigraphic sequence is the Harris
matrix, invented by North American archaeologist Edward C.
Harris, which methodically orders all the units. In the case of a
stratigraphic study of architecture, this can easily reach several
thousand.
4 The stratigraphic study always provides a relative chronology in
which the units are ordered in a relationship of before and after.
In this way, the stratigraphic study of architecture provides a
sequence of units ordered from the oldest to the most recent. This
sequence of units can be periodizeddivided into the different
periods that correspond, in the case of architecture, to the
different construction periods in the buildings history. This
periodization is based on the possibility of logically ordering the
different interventions in a sequence: for example, for obvious
reasons the construction of a floor slab and its subsequent
demolition belong to two different, successive construction
periods and, therefore, the stratigraphic units related to these
interventions can be placed in the corresponding periods.
The stratigraphic sequence does not provide an absolute
chronologythat is, a chronology based on specific historical
events. To be able to associate a specific date with the
construction periods identified by periodizing the sequence calls
The stratigraphic relation cutting/cut by (the wall is cut into in order to insert the
for information gathered from other sources or other methods of
pipe)
investigation: documentary historical studies, chronotypology,
mensiochronology, archaeometric dating techniques, etc.

The stratigraphic relation of covering/covered by (the plastering covers the wall) The stratigraphic relation filling in/filled in by (the arch is filled in with bricks)

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Tool 4
Making the graphic survey of the building I. Knowledge
Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture

later, superposed tracing. Thanks to these two properties, in most


Stratigraphic study of architecture and construction cases it is possible to distinguish the part of the wall that was built
techniques first (the mortar in the wall constructed afterwards adapts to the
shape of the pre-existing wall), demolitions and reconstructions
The success of a stratigraphic study of architecture is closely linked and the insertion of later elements can be identified, etc.
to knowledge of the construction materials and techniques. The More complex is the interpretation of the construction phases
construction process involves the formation of a series of marks using dry materials (timber, reeds, straw, dry stone, etc.) that do
caused by the different actions carried out, and it is necessary to not require the use of mortar and are based on juxtaposition or
have in-depth knowledge of the forms of construction, or the interconnection of parts. In these cases, the absence of mortar 4
stratification, to be able to correctly identify the different as a sealant (adapting to the pre-existing element) means that the
construction phases. The construction materials and techniques parts can be moved or replaced without leaving a clear trace of
are related specifically according to the construction process and any such movement. We often find houses in which a timber
the working tools used, which leave marks that can be interpreted element, such as a joist or the roof sheathing, has been replaced
on the basis of prior knowledge. without leaving a trace on the adjoining elements that have been
Architectural masonries have different potentials for forming easily dismounted and put back in the same position.
stratigraphic traces according to the type of material used. Mortar, Identification of the replacement then calls for other forms of
plaster, rammed earth, masonry of brick, rubblework or ashlars, observation, such as not just stratigraphic but also
tiled floors, and all construction techniques that use wet materials chronotypological methods, associated with the type of material,
(materials that acquire their strength when they set), create a surface treatment, cutting or carving of the element, its form, etc.
compact continuous stratum. When this stratum breaks, it In most cases, the stratigraphic relations of dry materials can be
generates a scar that is difficult to conceal, as in the case of a seal. established thanks to the point of contact with a wet material: the
Furthermore, wet materials are placed against pre-existing insertion or demolition of a floor or roof can in most cases be seen
elements, adapting to their form like a traced copy, so it is always in the point of contact with the masonry (formation of the
possible to distinguish between the pre-existing element and the weephole at the same time as or after the wall), the insertion or
transformation of a door or window frame can also be detected
by observing the masonry in which it is set, etc.
Mortar and other wet materials therefore play a vital role in the
correct interpretation of architectural stratification. The
elimination, replacement or manipulation of mortar in its different
forms (bonds, plaster, whitewash, regulating courses, rammed
earth, etc.) at least partially distorts the possibility of correctly
interpreting architectural stratification. For example, complete
pointing of masonry represents the elimination of the stratigraphic
relations between the bricks or stones that make it up, whereas
masonry can be conserved by means of selective pointing carried
out only where necessary, without eliminating the existing bond.
This observation suggests reflection on the relation between the
stratigraphic study of architecture and the architectural restoration
project.

Stratigraphic study and restoration project

Firstly, a stratigraphic study is of obvious interest in relation to the


information it can bring to bear on the building in question. A
careful stratigraphic study of a building can reveal a great deal of
data about its material history which is generally far broader, more
detailed and accurate than its documentary history. In-depth
knowledge of the material history of the building can also
establish important relations with other areas of the preliminary
Construction of the stratigraphic diagram or Matrix Harris (drawing taken from E. C.
Harris, 1991) study, such as the study of material and structural pathologies, the

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture

study of fissures and load analysis. In many cases, the structural the key points and traces in the building to be protected and
pathologies or problems are determined by the very history of the conserved by restoration, and the design of the restoration project
building, the use to which it has been put or changing loads as an addition to the construction history of the existing structure.
throughout the life of the structure. Architectural stratigraphy Restoration of this form can now be seen as a series of actions
therefore provides a series of data that can be used in the overall that add history to the building without eliminating or hiding the
study of the building. history of previous stages. The difference in this case lies only in
the way in which a single action is carried out: completely pointing
Architectural stratigraphy also plays an important role in the masonry represents the loss of stratigraphic data, whereas
4 development of the restoration project. Stratigraphy shows the selective pointing, applied only to the gaps, will conserve the
forms of stratification of the materials and presents the traces left historical material and meet the objectives of decoration, material
on them by historical interventions. The restoration project, conservation and structural efficiency.
seeking to conserve the materiality of the historical architecture, The practice of stratigraphy will develop in the project architect an
can employ the stratigraphic forms to superpose itself on pre- increasingly sensitive approach that examines the forms of
existing elements and become one stratum more in the buildings construction, the building materials and techniques, and the
complex existence without erasing the traces of the preceding traces left by tools and instruments. This sensitive approach to
phases. material history appreciates differences, the multiplicity of
Knowledge of the stratigraphic forms enables the identification of construction solutions, the complexity of history, the passage of

Hypothetical plan of the construction periods of the bridge at La Pobleta de San


Miguel (Villafranca del Cid, Castelln)

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Making the graphic survey of the building I. Knowledge
Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture

time that ages materials. The restoration project benefits from this
sensibility, which can conserve the matter of architecture in order
to guarantee history, a guardian of memory and a witness of
passing time.

Application to traditional architecture

The above reflections are perfectly applicable to traditional 4


architecture, where the material history is no less important or
interesting than in monumental buildings. Furthermore, in the
case of traditional and vernacular buildings, the material study is
normally the only way of discovering the buildings history, which
is only rarely present in written accounts. In traditional The mortar clearly indicates the insertion of the window into a pre-existing wall
architecture, it is difficult to produce an absolute chronology of
the buildings construction phases, though it is possible to identify
the phases of its material history and different periods of use. The
years of occupation of the traditional building can in many cases
be counted in the periodic layers of whitewash stratified in its
walls.
There are other particularities to be taken into account when
conducting a stratigraphic study of vernacular architecture. Firstly,
traditional architecture has a tendency to continue its techniques
and forms of construction due to the specific relation between
traditional architecture and the materials of the place, the
landscape and climate, and local culture. This continuity hinders
the identification of different construction phases, which are often
characterized by the use of the same materials and techniques for
long periods of history. In these cases, where bonding, stones,
finishes, etc., tend to be homogeneous and continuous, the
observation of mortars and stratigraphic relations can help to
distinguish different construction periods. This involves a visual The mortar shows that the wall on the left is built against the wall on the right
inspection and calibration in accordance with existing parameters.
Appropriate parameters also have to be found in the case of dry
materials, very widespread in traditional architecture (dry stone,
timber, straw, etc.), in order to identify differences and the form of
architectural stratification. The architecture stratigraphy method is
sufficiently flexible, or should be, to adapt to different situations
that may arise depending on the type of materials or techniques
used.
Secondly, in traditional architecture there is a widespread practice
of continuing maintenance, in some cases involving the
replacement of entire parts, such as roofs of plant matter (timber,
straw, etc.). This practice makes it difficult to exactly identify the
number of times the element has been replaced. In these cases, it
may be advisable to accept periodic replacement as a historical
fact rather than trying to decide how many times it has occurred.
The stratigraphic study of vernacular architecture can contribute a
series of highly interesting data for knowledge and assessment. A
Restoration of a floor with the application of criteria to simultaneously differentiate
detailed knowledge of construction techniques, history, forms of and integrate the original features

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture

use and wear will further knowledge of its existence and,


therefore, its protection and conservation. The stratigraphic study
applied to traditional architecture, at first sight exaggeratedly
complex and costly, can be carried out correctly and rigorously
with little effort, provided the architect, archaeologist or technical
architect has specific training and a skilled eye in the careful
observation of the materiality of architecture. In these cases, it is a
question of creating in the observer a stratigraphic mentality that
4 can pinpoint the keys to the buildings history and conduct the
project with a view to conserving the material witnesses of
traditional culture.

Timber element salvaged from panelling, with two types of groove into which the
complementary pieces are fitted

Panels of polychrome coffering with two coats of paint and the traces of its new
and different position

Continuity in construction techniques

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Tool 4
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The colour study, Ramon Graus


Architect
the first step in rehabilitating Professor in the Department of History and Theory of
a faade Architecture, School of Building Construction of Barcelona
(Technical University of Catalonia),
Spain

Cristina Thi
Fine Arts graduate
Restorer with the specialist company CHROMA (Barcelona),
Spain

The tourist guides might insist in showing us a traditional lime (they need to be resistant to light, air and pollution). Only
Mediterranean architecture that is pure white, but we must not let inorganic pigments (minerals) can tolerate damp and high
them delude us tooit is also other colours. It may well be temperatures. The tradition range includes, for example, blue (the
Andalusia white (Spain) because a Spanish king of old ordered copper sulphate used traditionally to whiten the wash), as well as
that it should be so for reasons of hygiene; a house in the Saint Johns white (calcium carbonate), black, ochre, green
Maghreb may have white-framed doors because its owner has earth and others.
returned from hajj, but the architecture of the Mediterranean is The colour of the faades can be determined by the characteristics
bluish in Chaouen (Morocco), bright greens, blues and reds in of the construction material (colour of the rammed earth, of
Burano (Italy), earth-toned in Siwa (Egypt), yellow in Tuscany stoneware, of brick) or by a layer of a coloured coat or rendering
(Italy)... (the colour of a paint, such as fresco techniques using lime, casein
It is also true that it cannot be simple any colour, because not all or mezzo secco, or the colour of stucco). We might go as far as to
pigments stand up to the elements. Furthermore, the pigments say that there is always colour in architecture.
used have a very small range that can resist the caustic action of Colour distinguishes traditional architecture with the changes in

Girona (Spain), Agios Artemios (Greece), Cagliari (Italy), Vic (Spain), Lefkara (Cyprus),
Kairouan (Tunisia).

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

hue of its walls, but it also draws on frescos that imitate marble
cladding, highlight openings or in some cases emphasize orders or
imitate cultivated architectures (trompe l'il), and distinguishes a
house from its neighbours or causes it to merge with them,
depending on the context.
The logic of colour in traditional architecture does not exactly obey
our scale of present-day values, based on readings of Ruskin and
Viollet-le-duc, in which beauty in architecture is the synonym of
4 truth and sincerity. In pre-industrial society, it was usual to coat or
render a wall in order to protect it and give it distinctionwhat
Professor Paolo Marconi has referred to as the sacrifice layers, a
layer that protects a wall of brick, stone or rammed earth that is
replaced with no concern for architectural sincerity when it begins
to deteriorate. It is also a coloured layer that often imitates other
materials, such as when stones are painted "stone colour", a brick
wall is stuccoed imitation brickwork, marble-effect stucco, etc.
When rehabilitating a building, a colour study should be
conducted by as broad-based a multidisciplinary team as possible
(architects, historians, conservators-restorers, geologists, chemists,
photographers, etc.). The study has to obey a given methodology
in keeping with the heritage values of the work and the economic
possibilities of the intervention.

1. A historical study provides the information needed to


understand the characteristics and peculiarities of each
construction (see the section on historical studies in this
publication).
2. A scientific examination precisely determines the
Original 18th-century elevation for the building permit. Barcelona, Spain.
constituent materials of the works and the technique
used, diagnoses alterations and their causes, and selects
the most suitable conservation methods, whether
preventive or restorative, and the ideal products to be
implemented. It will begin with a visual or organoleptic
examination (materials, techniques, measurements,
appearance, possible interventions, additions, alterations)
of the building.
3. Take photographs once the scaffolding is in place.
Photography is very important in documenting works.1
4. Conduct an architectural study of the work: take
measurements, draw elevations and sections to obtain
the necessary graphic backup to represent the
pathologies and the condition of the surface layers (see
section on geometric survey in this publication).
5. Have a team of conservators-restorers carry out cleaning
tests to find out what is hidden beneath the surface
layers of pollution and identify the materials and
techniques used and their state of conservation. This
process requires mechanical methods (scalpels and
brushes) and chemical methods (solvents and dressings).
Oblique lighting for a photographic scan of faades with a relief finish.
6. Take samples and conduct microchemical analyses to

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Making the graphic survey of the building I. Knowledge
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

identify pigments (basically studied using the drop and techniques used, since an organoleptic study is not always
method since the early 19th century) and chemical enough to reach entirely reliable conclusions.
analyses to determine the nature, composition and It is vital to consider the exterior rendering of the building, which
qualities of a given substance. gives it presence and character. Among many other questions, the
7. Establish rigorous criteria (guidelines for action) of colour study of a faade seeks to answer the following: what
observation with a view to safeguarding the integrity of colour is the present-day faade? How are the colours combined?
buildings cultural values. Without a theoretical basis and Might there at some point have been others? Is the colour of the
knowledge of the work, in the form of material and faade in keeping with its architectural style? Might it present
images, any intervention, despite using the most partial or complete repainting of the elements in the faade? 4
advanced techniques and products, may be open to
error. Naming the colour
The answer to the first question has to be the name of a colour
To help define the colour of a faade we need to conduct a red, for example. However, we are all aware that there are
cleaning test. Once the test has been carried out, we can see the different kinds of red. We could be more specific and call it
colour beneath the dirt, identify the pigment in question and the cadmium red, in reference to a specific oxide, but it could still be
ageing it may have undergone due to the effects of pollution, more or less watered down.
damp and the passing of time, and deduce the original colour. This is why a method is needed to establish a colour reference.
Using this method, the analysis mentioned above and the Munsell Here, we will refer to one that is not too sophisticated, as it does
method (see below), it is possible to determine with a fair degree not require specific monument restoration tests such as those that
of precision the original colour or colours of the faade when the use colorimeters or laboratory analysis to identify the colour. We
building was constructed. propose a visual analysis by comparison with a Munsell Atlas. The
We have to take into account all of these factors when drawing Munsell System2 is based on identifying a colour on the basis of
up the colour report, because it also helps to identify the materials the visual perception of small differences visible to the human eye

Detail of the elements in the original faade.

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

from a colour wheel featuring equivalent colorimetric intervals. 2.5YR 6/8 (Hue Value/Chroma).
The Munsell system specifies colours based on three attributes: There are in fact two Munsell colour charts: the Munsell Soil
Colour Chart, used to compare matt hues, and the Munsell Book
Hue: attribute of perception that makes us see an object as of Colour Glossy Finish Collection which serves to compare
green, red, etc. glossier hues.
Lightness or value: attribute of perception that sees an object
as lighter or darker. Combinations of colour
Chroma: attribute of perception according to which an object Generally, a faade is not painted a single colour. Various colours
4 has a certain degree of purity of colour with regard to its are used to highlight the elements in the faade. Therefore, the
degree of lightness. colours are combined in the faade according to a given logic that
To determine the colour of a faade, the correct procedure is to has to be studied.
isolate the colour to be studied on the wall with a neutral grey An initial list of elements to be identified in a faade might be:
surface (such as those used in photography) to prevent
interference caused by surrounding colours, and compare it to the It is also important to remember that some faades may include
chart to find the nearest colour. In this way we would call our red fresco or sgraffiti, or ornamentation that has to be documented

Background

Reliefs

Cornices

Faade Fascias

Pilasters

Bases

Eaves

Frames

Jambs

Sills
Munsell Soil Colour Chart.
Arcades

Openings Mouldings

Capitals

Railings

Balconies

Balcony soffits

Frames

Windows

Balconies
Joinery
Galleries

Doors

Blinds

Railings

Metal fittings Grilles


Colour combinations (background, border, openings) from the colour plan for the
Locks and fittings
Eixample district in Barcelona, Spain.

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Tool 4
Making the graphic survey of the building I. Knowledge
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

(traced and studied iconographically) for subsequent recuperation compared at those points where it has been maintained with
as appropriate. The colour may also be provided by the use of tiles, fewest changes, for example, just beneath the balconies, inside
terracotta and stucco or stone bas-relief, which also have to be jambs and lintels, underneath cornices, etc.
studied. We are also aware that due to the lack of resistance of the paint
In order to reach reliable conclusions as to the type of colour used itself, the building will have been repainted. The most easily
for each element, knowledge is required of the different artistic accessible part, for example the ground floors, will probably have
periods and the combination of colours most used in each. been repainted most times.
If the different layers of paint can be removed with a scalpel, they
A history of layers of colour should all be documented, in order to understand the reason for 4
However, colour on faades also ages and, depending on the each colour in each period, not just the first coat. If the building
pigment used, it may have been faded by the sun, washed out by has a combination of colours, an attempt should be made to
rain or darkened or toned (not necessarily darker) by urban relate each colour to those of the same period.
pollution. For example, with pollution, white lead turns black. In By exfoliating the painted surface, we will discover the colour the
order to identify the original colour of the faade, it has to be faade was originally painted, but it is also necessary to decide

Stratigraphic approach. Cleaning layer of the faade.

Colour test. Tracing of graphic motifs for templates.

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

whether the colour to be restored is the original or, conversely


(with the knowledge of the different layers of paint provided by
exfoliation), another of far higher quality than the original. A
thorough study of the buildings different layers of colour will help
us to decide which layer to safeguard or restore, according to the
style of the building. Finally, we also have to bear in mind that we
cannot remove from the colour the effects of ageing or toning
it may have undergone due to pollution and damp or the passing
4 of time.
The objective of restoring a faade should not always be to leave
the faade as it was initially. In the project phase, we have to
decide whether to recover its original appearance or revitalize the
moment of its highest quality. It is important to stress that leaving
on view the evolution and changes that have occurred to the
faade can give the restored building greater value and
authenticity, at the same time providing living information of the
historical and artistic developments of urbanism.

The influence of texture on colour


When sunlight strikes a coloured flat surface, some of the light is
absorbed and the rest is reflected. It is this reflected light that the
eye perceives as colour. However, a rough surface produces
shadows in the micropores of the surface and the light reflected is
less, so that the eye perceives a different colour.
Faade colour is therefore closely associated with the technique
The texture of the surface or the angle of the suns rays modify our perception of the used to apply it and its support. This is why, for example, the same
colour of a faade. Arbcies, Spain.
colour applied to smooth plastering will be apparently lighter than
on roughcasting.
It is essential for the colour study to document the technique used
and reflect deliberate (or other) changes in the roughness of the
wall (for example, the background may be rough while the fascias
and frames are plastered).
It may also be that the passage of time and the fading effect of
rainwater have made a surface both rough and uneven. We will
have to decide whether this trace of time should be erased or
maintained. We favour maintaining it in order to avoid false
historicism in the restoration.
Remember that traditional whitewash over lime fresco has a
characteristic glaze, a very particular transparency of the support
which no plastic paint is capable of reproducing, due to its
covering power.

Colour in context
The context of a faade is space and time. The time is historical
and artistic. The space is that of the street or the square in which
it stands and, at another scale, the district and the city in which
Chipped faade showing changes in colour of the building according to the tastes
of each epoch. Nicosia, Cyprus. the building is located.
For this reason, the study should also include information about
the colour of the neighbouring faades (background, fascias,
bases, frames) and those of the entire street or square (dominant

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Making the graphic survey of the building I. Knowledge
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

colours). The local council may also have produced a colour chart
for the town or city. In this case, it will be necessary to check
whether the colours found coincide with the municipal colour
chart and, if not, to find out why and to justify the need to adapt
to the official chart or consider the building as a well argued
exception.

State of conservation
Finally, the study has to reflect the state of conservation of the 4
finishing coat and the underlying support, with a view to
recommending conservation, consolidation and total or partial
renovation.
Below is a possible outline for characterizing the skin of the wall
and its lesions.

Material

lime stucco sgraffito polished fresco tempera

Lime stucco smooth rough


Sgraffito layers colours
Polished smooth marble effect sgraffito
Fresco prepared grounds in full al secco
Tempera with size with casein with egg latex
Cladding stone marble slate
Timber sheathing strips
Ceramics floor tile adobe stoneware tessera others:

Plaster mouldings reliefs sculpture


Paint traditional technique new materials
Colour correct dirty worn faded washe
Partial Dimensions

Surface Dimensions

Design Layout smooth marble effect strips panels scenes


Theme

Kick Strip stone timber mortar paint


Base stone timber mortar paint
Main Field

Cornice no cornice paint


Relation to Openings continous discontinous global

Complementary materials
Site

Map of Location

State of Conservation correct adherence regular/deficient poor/cracked broken edges

whole: intact fragmented


Physical Integrity
fragmented: complete incomplete.....% loss

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

Surface layers. Previous intervent


Support perforations removal
Surface layer number of layers colours
Type of intervention respectful free interpretation destructive
Materials used

Polychromy
Painting procedure fresco al secco oil/enamel tempera/encaustic
4
Pigments

Varnishes shellac wax glues oil


Paints polyurethane nitro synthetic acrylic

Timber
Colouration

Typology pine oak walnut cedar others


Technique stained enamel paint wax oil lime

Metal
Material iron bronze brass lead
Decoration incisions repouss painted
Profile smooth moulded others:
Construction wrought cast
State of conservation good average poor

Ceramics

terracotta faience glazed enameled stoneware


Type Techique
porcelain

Colour

On-site installation

Situation

State of conservation good average poor

Pathologies
Support microfissuring fissures cracks losses hollow
Concretions salts black scab calcareous
Biological attack fungus lichens / plants fauna excrements
Action humaine vandalism graffiti old recent
Polychrome layer pock marking dust
Surface layer fumes dust grease others:

rusted varnish darkened dripping paint splashes stains


Darkening repainting
repainting

Consistency dusty loss of colour detachment


Crazing premature Due to age
Chemical alterations of the pigment of the aglutinating agent oxides
Adherence / cohesion correct deficient cracked broken edges

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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

Graphic representation of a dirty faade surface. Barcelona, Spain.

Graphic representation of the lesions in the faades substratum. Barcelona, Spain.

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade

Colour for a faade proposed on the basis of a study.

This information should be recorded and then represented in an


elevation of the faade showing damage.
On the basis of all of this information, a diagnosis can be
determined and a solution chosen in keeping with the overall
intervention.

1 There are various useful photographic techniques for documenting and studying
the surfaces requiring treatment, such as macro for details; photography with
oblique lighting, which highlights irregularities or unevenness in the surface;
infrared photography (IR), which allows us to observe the underlying pattern in
some places and the thickness of repainting, and ultraviolet photography (UV) is
useful to a study of the surface and repainting, and recognising certain pigments.
Finally, X-rays (XR) serve to identify inorganic materials.
2 Albert Munsell (1858-1918), artist and art lecturer, devised a system (A notation
of colour, 1905, Atlas of Munsell Colour System, 1915) for reliably establishing
and naming colours.

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The applications of digital Joaqun Montn,


Technical architect
photography Lecturer in the Department of Architectural Technology II, School
of Building Construction of Barcelona (Technical University of
Catalonia), Spain

Since its invention, photography has been a very useful tool in the
world of architecture and particularly in the field that concerns us
here, that of rehabilitation. 4
In the past, architects used engravings and paintings to find
information about the original condition of a building or element
requiring restoration, but the photograph naturally took over,
generally offering a more faithful likeness than the interpretations
of painters and engravers.
We are witnessing an important and interesting moment in the
history of photography: the transition from traditional or
chemical to digital photography. What at first sight might seem
to be simply a change in support is in fact a revolution that is
affecting all activities related in any way with photography.
Proof of this change is the fact some major manufacturers have
stopped producing cameras for film except some top-range
professional models and simple pocket cameras. The same goes
for film and photographic paper manufacturers. The former have
drastically reduced the list of emulsions available, and traditional
paper manufacturers can be seen to shift their production towards
the photographic printer paper market.
It must be said that traditional photography can achieve practically
the same results as digitalthough the processes are more
complicated, requiring much more time and work, and practically
always much more expensive.
Photograph of the faade before rectification.

Photograph once rectified. Graphic mapping of the faade.

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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
The applications of digital photography

The advantages that digital photography represents for our work This type of database, or photo bank, has the advantage that the
include: images occupy hardly any physical space, particularly if we
Immediacy. We can see the result of each photograph and, if we compare them to filing cabinets full of photographs on paper.
are not satisfied, we can take another, changing the settings or They also have the great advantage of distance access and
the viewpoint, and thereby avoiding the need to return another consultation by means of a simple Internet connection. In
day. addition, should we need an image, we can download it as a
The increase in the number of options for developing digital file and process it as we wish.
photographs. They can be printed at home with a photographic It is also a useful tool for reproducing with maximum fidelity
4 quality printer or taken to a laboratory for enlargement. elements requiring subsequent work, such as a sgraffito, mosaic
Laboratories provide professional quality prints and we can even or fresco that needs restoring. In all of these cases, we are
send the files over the Internet, saving ourselves a journey. particularly interested in the colours of the reproduction. Digital
Probably the biggest advantage for many users is the possibility of photography adapts perfectly to these tasks provided the
editing the files using specific programs for different needs. We computer used complies with some basic requirements. As well as
can retouch our photographs, correct defects such as aberrations a photograph-editing program, we need a computer that provides
of the lens, compensate for slight errors of exposure, etc. the right conditions for working in colour. This requires a well-
Added to these advantages are the constant increase in the calibrated quality monitor and knowledge of the colour profiles of
capacity of memory sticks and a major fall in prices, allowing us to both the camera and the printer in order to work with real colours
take a large number of photographs with little affect on the price. and, ultimately, transfer them to paper. If we have the above
We can therefore individually photograph as many details or parts equipment and know how to use it, the result can be fully
of a building as we like, since quantity has ceased to be a problem, satisfactory. Otherwise, it is difficult to guarantee the precision of
either technically or economically. the colours. We have to take into account one of the limitations
To prevent so many images becoming a problem, it is necessary to of digital photography, the impossibility of reproducing on paper
use an image databank management program. Such a large some colours that are visible on the screen. However, this
number of photographs could otherwise become useless, making limitation is not exclusive to digital photography; it also happened
the collection of images ineffective. Not just any image viewer will when using the traditional method.
do; the program must have a good graphic interface and, most of Where digital photography has become an irreplaceable tool is in
all, an efficient database application that will assign each image as mapping the planes of building faades, for example when
many data fields as necessary and manage them effectively. cataloguing historic centres or buildings where it is difficult to take

Database for managing an image bank. Nikon PC camera with perspective correction lens.

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The applications of digital photography

sufficient measurements to draw them precisely. Photographic and, unfortunately, their manufacturers make them obsolete in
rectification is the system used. By taking a photograph and the space of two or three years. The new ones have more pixels,
establishing at least four non-aligned points marked out by two a faster processing speed and increasingly sophisticated programs.
real measurements, we can rectify the front plane at scale. Then, Digital cameras are, in general, very susceptible to falls and rough
using this photographic elevation, we can produce the plans of treatment, highly sensitive to atmospheric agents, humidity,
the faade, bearing in mind that we can take measurements from extreme temperatures and, above all, dust, which can cause
the photograph. The example shown in the illustration was serious problems. Traditional technical services no longer repair
produced by the Architecture Heritage Workshop of the EPSEB this kind of camera, which has to be taken to the brands official
using the Homograf program. Likewise, with the help of graphic service, which no longer carries out minor repairs. They normally 4
restitution programs we can generate perspectives of buildings replace the camera if it is under guarantee and, if not, the quote
from pairs of plans. for repair (a set price, whatever the problem) usually prompts the
Before digital tools were available, with traditional cameras it was owner to change cameras.
advisable to take the photograph with the optical axis of the We miss the hardy cameras that stood up to almost anything,
camera as perpendicular as possible to the plane of the faade even working without batteries, such as the Nikon FM or similar.
and correct the perspective in the enlarger or work with cameras
with bellows (Linhof, Sinar, etc.) or perspective correction lenses
(Nikon PC, Canon TS-E lenses, etc).
To prevent this seeming an apology for digital photography, below
are some of its drawbacks.
Although digital photography equipment is presented as being
cheap or at least affordable material and hailed as having
democratized photography in that it provides access to many
people who would not otherwise dare to try it, the cameras are,
in general, more expensive than the ones they replace. A good
traditional reflex camera normally lasted many years. Its
replacement, the digital reflex camera, tends to be more expensive

Sinar mobile back for architecture photography.

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Tool 5
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Structural damages in Traditional Csar Daz Gmez


Doctor of Architecture
Mediterranean Architecture Professor of the Department of Architectural Technology I,
School of Architecture of Barcelona (Technical University of
Catalonia), Spain

The behaviour and durability of the structural elements of those transmitted by the structural floors and roofs, and those
traditional housing are closely related to the materials used and generated by prevailing winds, directing them to the foundations,
the means of construction of the urban and rural surroundings in generally comprising rigid footing of a shallow depth and similar
which they are set. The departure point is, then, knowledge of in width or slightly wider than the wall. They are thick enough to
these materials and means of construction in order to start the provide a solid base, since they are used for constructions of two 5
process of diagnosing the alterations and damage of all kinds or three storeys at most, adopting geometrical arrangements in
presented by the buildings. It is also useful to have as much the form of closed volumes that brace each other to varying
information as possible about modifications and interventions of degrees, in accordance with the distance between them and the
all kinds to have affected the building over the years and even the rigidity of the wall-floor engagements. On the basis of these
different uses to which it has been put. principles, when one or more of these characteristics is insufficient
It is advisable to have a graphic or written representation of the or anomalous, lesions will appear in the form of cracks, fissures or
information compiled on plans, sections and elevations of the distortions whose formation, location and dynamic constitute the
buildings, with a view to relating the location of damage to the body of useful data for diagnosis.
position of the various structural elements and the main When referring to thick walls, we take for granted the fact that
construction, including partition walls. It is also recommendable to they are single-facing walls, solid throughout, but it is advisable to
take note of modifications over the years in distribution and remember when diagnosing these walls that they may not be
volumes in the form of extensions to the height or in the floor homogeneous in section, particularly in the case of masonry walls.
plan, as this will aid an overall, integrative understanding of the This is the case not only of Roman-style walls, with in-fill material
construction, which is of particular interest in the case of old or between two masonry facings, but also of many others built
historical buildings. apparently with a single facing, in which the plumb conformation
Bearing all this in mind, below is a diagnosis of the lesions most of faces with larger stones generates internal patches that are
frequently found in the various construction elements that more disintegrated and subject to distortion and, therefore, less
comprise the structural systems of these buildings, with particular resistant.
attention to those that directly support the dead or live loads It is also important to mention the fact that the types of fracture
represented by static, wind or earthquake loadthat is, the walls, in most thick old walls endorse a sufficient correlation with the
pillars and foundations, as regards the vertical elements, and the elastic model in many of the most common cases, though in
structural floors, vaults and domes as the most common covering others more detailed knowledge of the characteristics and the
elements. intervening actions is needed to conduct diagnosis.
In order to facilitate the description and analysis of the most usual
structural lesions, I distinguish between those present and visible
1. Structural damages in buildings with thick walls in the same plane as the faces of the walls and others that form
in central sections of the same walls or generate distortions
The vertical structure of the buildings in question is usually made transverse to its faces. Starting with this initial distinction, the list
up of walls built using local materials. With the single exception of continues with the different variations, listing the principal
walls built using plant matter or timber frames, the walls of these characteristics in each case.
buildings are thick, rarely slender, built of earth, brick or stone as
the basic material, using ancestral techniques involving moulding
(in the case of rammed-earth walls), earth- or lime mortar-based
agglomerating agents to bond the various pieces, though the
various units (in this case stones) may also simply be fitted
together to produce dry masonry. In mechanical terms, walls built
in this way are characterized by being self-supporting elements,
capable of absorbing the loads generated by their own weight,

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1.1/ Coplanar damages in the wall faces

The most specific characteristic is that the fact that the damage, in the form of cracks, fissures or crushing, shows in the superficial faces,
and usually runs right through the section of the element, thereby differing from most non-structural lesions.

1.1a/ Damages caused by excess compression in a large stretch of the wall

The position of the fissures or cracks coincides with the direction of the isostatic lines of compression corresponding to a vertical element
of a flexible, homogeneous and isotropic material, receiving the vertical load of its own weight and that of the structural floors, uniformly
distributed. The breakages form mainly in the parts bearing the greatest load, coinciding with the lower part of the wall and, as
applicable, in the solid areas of concentrated load between openings. This indicates higher levels than admissible of compression in the
5 fractured area, with very differing effects to the safety of the building, depending on the capacity to redistribute tensions in the area of
the wall or the wall system as a whole.
In irregular coursed masonry, it comes as no surprise that one of the first symptoms of fracture should be the crushing and disintegration
of the mortar in the horizontal bonds when the elasticity of the mortar is much lower than that of masonry or bricks, which tends to
occur in older walls. This phase is followed by the progressive vertical breakage of the masonry induced by the tensions of horizontal
traction in the contact between the mortar and the masonry, ultimately forming a collection of continuous vertical cracks. In random
rubble masonry, this process, if it does occur, is not so obvious, though the cracks tend to zigzag along the mortar bonds, following the
same pattern.
The difference in vertical load between the two stretches of the same wall is indicated by the fracture of vertical sections coinciding with
or close to the change of load, marking a vertical crack or succession of sloping cracks with a common vertical axis and a slope in the
direction of the tensions.

1 2 3 4

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1.1.b/ Damages caused by concentrated loads

The fissures slope away from the sides of the element generating this load, usually a beam or joist, or run vertically beneath it. As in the
previous case, the degree of gravity will depend on the possibility of redistributing the tensions of the element affected, which is high in
most cases though this is not the case of freestanding pillars, which generally require reinforcement.

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1.1.c/ Damages caused by insufficient rigidity in elements of union

The distortion of elements that, theoretically, taking as a reference the elastic model, are taken to be infinitely rigid, is the cause of the
formation of singular patterns of fracture, different to those produced in other situations. By way of example, the first diagram shows
the fissures induced by a distorted timber lintel, allowing the zonal decompression of the wall with the formation of fissures marking the
discharging arch and the effect of the concentrated load on the joist. The second shows the effects caused by the distortion of the
foundations beneath the concentrated load of the faade wall, generating in it fractures caused by shearing or flexion depending on the
size of the openings and the ductility of the materials in the wall..

1.1.d/ Damages caused by differences in load between bracing walls

A vertical fracture will frequently form in a corner formed by the bearing wall and the bracing wall. The loss of continuity in the wall
system represents a reduction in its rigidity, with effects that must be evaluated in accordance with the incidence of horizontal wind and
earthquake loads..

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1.1.e/ Damages caused by differences in rigidity between the component materials of mixed walls

In coplanar walls built of two types of masonry or materials with different degrees of rigidity, one of themthe most rigidforming
apparent pilasters and the other forming the wall proper, cracks may appear as a result of shearing generated in areas impeding the
distortion of the least rigid material or masonry. These breakages, generally in thick walls, do not have serious effects on their equilibrium,
and are typical of walls that combine brick masonry with rammed earth, or irregular- with irregular masonry.

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1.1.f/ Damages due to differential settlement of the foundations

Earth movements are one of the most frequent causes of fissuring and cracking of traditional walls. These movements may be produced
by multiple causes, some of which are intrinsic to the terrain (wetting of cohesive soils, unstable hillsides, etc.), and others related to the
characteristics of the buildings existing foundations or intervention in adjacent buildings. Generallythough not alwaysthe damage
is progressive, providing information about its evolution and the adoption of appropriate preventive measures.
The movements are shown in the form of the fissures illustrated in the figures below, according to the type of movement (descending
or slipping), part of the building affected (corner or centre) and certain of the buildings characteristics (blind wall or wall with openings).
As explained above, these outlines are based on the hypothesis that walls behave mechanically as elastic and rigid elements, with little
plastic distortion prior to the moment of fracture, as they are also homogeneous and isotropic. Obviously, the closer the walls
characteristics to this model, the more valid the references to the types of fracture suggested by the elastic model, though it is necessary
5 to bear in mind that the most probable points of fracture tend to coincide with the position of weak points in the absorption of the
traction tensions generated by the movement. This is logical if we consider the scant resistance to this type of load of the materials that
make up the walls in question here.

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1.1.g/ Damages caused by seismic movements

Traditional architecture constructions built using earth, stone or brick walls, particularly the first two, do not offer much resistance to
seismic movement, due to their scant resistance to traction and shearing and their limited ductility in response to the multidirectional
loads introduced by these movements. The visual symptom that most commonly identifies this lesion is the presence of cross-shaped
fissures in the stretches of wall between openings, indicating breakage caused by shearing of these stretches of wall as a result of being
shaken in two directions (right-left, horizontal-vertical), practically simultaneously, that characterizes seismic movement. Other visible
effects, such as fissures in sections with a change of inertia or due to thrusting caused by seismic activity are also frequent, as is the
formation of invisible damage in the inside of the walls (detachment, microfissuring, etc.) that reduce their bearing capacity. Evidently,
evaluation of the seriousness of the lesion will require a specific analysis of the damage to each building.

1.2/ Damages in the transverse plane to the wall face

This type of lesions is characterized by being invisible in the outer face of the wall or manifesting itself in the form of distortions
transversal to the outer face.

1.2.a/ Vertical breakage in interior sections of the wall

Excess compression in a thick wall can generate a vertical internal fracture which, following the isostatic line of compression that passes
through the point at which the materials breaking tension is reached, tends to gradually divide the wall into two halves, thereby making
it thinner and reducing its bearing capacity. This type of breakage affects many walls that do not have homogeneous interiors, with weak
internal sections as a result of the positioning of stone masonry or ceramic units according to the fixed references of the vertical planes

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of the faces. This is the most dangerous form of fracture of those listed here, since its presence and progression inside old walls cannot
generally be seen, hence the possibility of collapse without necessarily undergoing a perceptible phase of distortion. Its presence and
discovery, both in walls and in freestanding pillars, calls for the short-term adoption of measures to reinforce the damaged elements.

1.2.b/ Collapse and bulging of faades

These phenomena are generally the product of long processes of distortion caused by the prolonged effects of vertical or horizontal loads
on the walls materials, along with the effects of its rheology, leading to changes in its mechanical characteristics over time. Advanced
phases of distortion tend to call for props or other cautionary measures. Thrusting of the roof, torsion in the foundations or the effects
of damp and temperature are the most usual causes of collapse, whereas the rheological processes of slow distortion subject to loads
transmitted by the roof and the structural floors are the most common causes of bulging.
5

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1.2.c/ Thrust of the vaults

Vaulted elements generate thrusts at their meeting point with the perimetric walls, which have to be counterbalanced by the thickness
and mass of the latter, sometimes with the assistance of buttresses. Insufficient counterbalancing of thrusts will produce cracks and
distortion that may affect not only the walls but also the vault, which is decompressed as a consequence.

2. Structural lesions in the structural floors, vaults and domes of buildings with thick walls

The most usual covering element in Mediterranean construction is the structural floor, comprising timber joists and beam fill of very
varying materials: reeds, timber sheathing, ceramic tiles, small timbrel vaults or a binding agent and agglomerate, etc. Vaults and domes,
conversely, are less usual and more singular in their application, built using the same materials as the walls and construction techniques
specific to each place.

2.1/ Damages in structural floors of timber beams and joists

In timber beams and joists that form structural elements supporting the floor, there are three types of lesions with different
characteristics: distortion, biotic attacks and cracks, also called shakes in the case of timber.

2.1.a/ Distortions

It is usual in old buildings to find structural floors with a high degree of flexion due to the flowage experienced by the constituent timber
elements. Flowage, which is the quality of a material to progressively distort under the loads it bears, whether or not these loads increase,
is a typical phenomenon of timber when it works under flexion, and leads to a reduction in the bearing capacity of the element of which

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it forms part. This element should be evaluated in each case according to the mechanical characteristics of the type of timber, the load
borne by the floor structure and the existing deflection.

2.1.b/ The presence of cracks

Although cracks are usually the result not of the mechanical action to which the floor is subjected but of causes related to the drying
out of the timber or cycles of ambient humidity, it is always worth checking their origin and evaluating the repercussions on the inertia
of the elements affected. If they are caused by mechanical action, their presence may be a symptom of situations of breakage and
collapse.

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2.1.c/ Biotic attacks

The presence of rot produced by various types of fungi or wood-eating insects such as termite or woodworm leads to a reduction in the
working section which, as in the previous case, must be specifically evaluated in each building. Detection of the location and extent of
damage is, then, an absolutely necessary part of the information required to diagnose these elements.

2.2/ Damages in vaults and domes

The mechanical and structural behaviour of vaults is habitually recognised as the superposition of the curved directrix of the element with
the corresponding line of pressure. The greater the distance between this line and the position of the directrix, the greater the risk of
fissuring or crushing, as these points then coincide with the areas subject to the maximum tensions of traction and compression.
The types of fracture found in vaults differ substantially from those found in domes, since the latter are authentic spatial structures whose
interpretation necessarily requires a complex three-dimensional approach, which explains some of the classic models of breakage
presented. It is common in both elements for the origin of damage to lie in decompression as a result of movements of the walls, pillars
or pilasters that receive their thrust, whether due to the collapse of walls or sinking caused by differential settlement of the foundations.
Other possible direct causes of lesions are excess load or the weakness of built elements. The diagrams illustrate the most usual forms
of fracture.

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5
3. Particularities of the behaviour of structures with timber framework

The mechanical and structural behaviour of the framework walls of traditional construction differs substantially from that of the thick
walls referred to in previous sections. In this case, the principal resistant elements are the linear pieces of timber that make up the
framework, whereas the walls of rammed earth, adobe or brick fulfil the subsidiary role of preventing buckling, in any case absorbing a
random percentage of the forces of compression. These are, then, porticoed structures braced by solid stretches of wall. The floors usually
comprise timber beams and joists supported by the elements in the wall framework or interior pillars.
These are structures with complex behaviours, marked in many cases by the differences in stiffness between the component materials,
the relation between the thickness of the wall and the separation between props, and the arrangement of the framework elements,
which may be very varied, with a differing number of diagonal elements. In any case, an important aspect and one that is often decisive
in the durability of this type of walls is the progressive deterioration of the timber in the absence of maintenance, producing a gradual
loss of bearing capacity.

Bibliography
Various authors: Tratado de rehabilitacin. Patologa y tcnicas de intervencin. Elementos estructurales, Departamento de Construccin y Tecnologa Arquitectnica,
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Editorial Munilla-Lera, 1998, Madrid.
Various authors: Manual de diagnosi i intervenci en sistemes estructurals de parets de crrega, Collegi dAparelladors i Arquitectes Tcnics de Barcelona, 1995, Barcelona.
MASTRODICASA, S. Dissesti statici delle strutture edilizie, Hoepli Ed., 1978 (6th edition), Milan.
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Seismic risk in the traditional Giambattista De Tommasi


engineer
architecture Full professor in Building Refurbishment (Technical University
of Bari), Italy
Collaborators: research group work (Fabio Fatiguso, Mariella
De Fino and Albina Scioti)

The geomorphic and tectonic characteristics of the Mediterranean


basin cause high seismic risk in this area, since it is the western
part of the Alpine-Himalayan range, where a complex collision
system results from the interaction between the Euro-Asiatic plate
and the African, Arabian and Indian plates. As a result, the seismic
5 activity has been always dramatically present here, often with
disastrous effects (human lives as well as more or less important
damages to the architectural heritage), from the single
construction and the monumental building until the historical
centre and the whole environmental context (the natural and the
built environment). It has sometimes compromised the historical
testimony and the identity itself of a place.
Then, the Mediterranean traditional architecture results as
dramatically vulnerable, as it often undergoes important effects,
Engraving of a biblical memory earthquake: the buildings and the ground are upset
differently in relation with the structural and material according to ancient beliefs.
characteristics. So, a commonplace considers the masonries less
resistant to the seismic action than the modern reinforced
concrete structures. Indeed, the masonry, if it is well built and Building structural features and earthquakes in the history
maintained, is able to withstand also high intensity earthquakes,
as the monumental heritage has shown by facing hard proofs.
This is due to the materials, the techniques and the constant Historically, the earthquakes were interpreted through apocalyptic
maintenance, which ensured and still ensure the respect of the and imaginative suggestions that even considered the human
Rule of Art. Besides, more comprehensive and analytic studies understanding as inadequate, because of the lack of a basic
on the seismic damages (because of the actual improved scientific approach in the pre modern culture.
possibility to gather and manage information) have recently The missed theorization of the causes explains, on the one hand,
shown the natural capability to absorb vibrations in the the lack of established anti seismic structural solutions, and, on
masonry walls, floors and roofs, provided that they are well the other hand, the idea that any structure, even if solid, was not
realised, connected and maintained. Moreover, the restoration able to withstand the indomitable and threatening nature of the
and reinforcement of the masonry buildings, also with important earthquakes (often considered as a divine punishment).
cracks, allow their conservation, with just the partial loss of the Furthermore, the long term recurrence of the telluric phenomena
original geometry. Differently, the reinforced concrete buildings interfered with the strengthening of a consciousness related to the
have to be demolished if their geometry has changed, even if the seismic risk and the consequent possible cures. In fact, the
deformations are limited. destructive effects of an earthquake were progressively forgotten
As we are going to highlight later, the particular characteristics of after few generations. The mankind has protected itself from the
the earthquakes, such as the intensity and the intermittence, have constant effects of the natural environment with roofs, walls,
prevented from understanding in depth the problem and its floors and uncountable expedients, progressively improved.
causes. As a result, the structural techniques and features have Otherwise, it has not been able to provide good resistance of the
not been developed by the experience, as the traditional buildings to dynamic stresses. The historical memory of the
construction culture has been. destructive event persisted in the popular consciousness, but it
was burdened with superstitions and connections to supernatural
events.
Aristotle, one of the first philosophers of the sciences of earth,
wrote that so, neither the water nor the fire, but the vapour
would cause the earthquakes, when it flows inside what usually

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exhales outside1 and Seneca, in the sixth book of the Natural Mallet6, the seismograph by Mine, the scale by Mercalli to
Issues, titled On the movement of the Earth, correctly described measure the seismic intensity were significant phases that cleared
the effects, but he connected them to some water or air, whirling a way for the investigation during the XX century (since the
in underground caves and producing the seismic tremors. Also researches by Baratta and Wegner) that finally explained the
Plinio, in the Natural History talked about a wind into the earth to causes of the earthquakes and the countermeasures to take.
be exhaled through sewers and deep wells2. The explanations As regards the technical solutions, we just underline that, since
during the following centuries were not very different, but they the ancient times, especially after very dramatic earthquakes,
are difficult to report in detail. Anyway, they all were lacking of many technical and structural measures have been set. They were
any right intuition about the seismic phenomena. They sometimes all interesting and more or less effective, but they always had a
tried to explain all in terms of magic and/or witchcraft. rapid development and a rapid disappearance, as well.
Besides, significant developments to define the causes of the In Italy, in the IV century BC, in the Greek colonies of Metapontum
earthquakes did not happen, even when the processes producing and Paestum, the constructers founded the buildings in trenches 5
the collapse of the masonries were understood (we have that were dug inside the rock and filled with sand. In the northern
uncountable drafts, drawings and descriptions about that). Syria, in the second century BC, the earth masonries had a
Moreover, the early enthusiastic scientific discoveries, at the wooden framework. After the earthquake that destroyed Pompeii
beginning of the Enlightenment, created further confusion rather and partially Naples in 63 AD, an early anti seismic set of rules was
than solutions, as in case of electric phenomena: the imposed, known and transmitted until the Renaissance, which
enthusiasm for the electric phenomena leaded to think that any avoided constructing buildings higher than two floors. By the way,
inexplicable event was imputed to the fluid, or the electric vapour a technical and structural innovation did not correspond to the
according with the definition of that period, and the earthquakes normative development, except for the timber dwellings in
themselves were considered a consequence of the electricity3. Ercolano, whose structure was composed of a wooden framework
So, Valadier designed the anti seismic towers in Rimini in order to (opus graticium) with a filling of crushed stone, mud and cane
scatter the electricity of the earth in the atmosphere. frame.
However, in the 18th century, there was a qualitative leap, when However, after the dramatic earthquake that caused the
scientific experiences and observations4 leaded Bottari to destruction of a great part of Lisbon in 1755 and was perceived
understand the phenomenon, in its Three lessons on the throughout the Europe, the strong will was felt to apply suitable
earthquake published in Rome: the bowels of the earth are measures to reduce the destructive seismic effects (even if
soaked in many spots by sulphurous and bituminous breezes that misunderstanding the causes). For the reconstruction, some
are mixed with nitre or other substances, so that they catch fire, regulations were issued for the first time in the history. The height
spread in the caves where they are, break or try to break the of the buildings, the width of the streets and, most of all, some
opposite obstacles and cause the tremors of the earth5. In the structural rules for new buildings were imposed. Specifically, the
same century, the modern seismology was born: the studies by walls had to be composed of a wooden framework (later named

Effects of the dramatic earthquake, Friuli (Italy), 1976. Depiction of the earthquake in Rode, 1495. The higher circular towers of the town
wall are collapsed while the slower ones still with stand.

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as pombal cage from the marquis Pombal who designed the reinforced wall became very common, particularly after the
reconstruction) that was able to support floors and roof, in case of earthquake in Messina in 1908. There were many versions: some
earthquake. of them were licensed, from the simple reinforcement by steel tie
The pombal cage inside the walls was composed of a braced beams until modular systems, composed of hollow bricks with
frame with piles (prunos) and transoms (travessenhos). The different shapes and slot to be tied by zinced iron threads.
transoms were connected to the walls by a series of dadoes
(maos). The upper part of the dadoes were connected by beams Value of connections for seismic resistance
(frechais) each other and by architraves (vergas) and rafters
(pendurias). The elastic wooden structure ensured great resistance Evidently, in each Mediterranean region, the art of construction
to the building, also by means of the flexible connection dogs. has specialized in order to realize masonries as well as possible, by
The important technical solutions, previously highlighted, got to materials that were available in loco and economically sustainable.
5 more complex applications after the Calabrian-Messinese So, a good quality wall may have different material and structural
earthquake in 1783 with a particular kind of antiseismic building characteristics for different areas. By the way, the rules of
typology. The casa baraccata described by Vivenzio7 was construction are basically the same (dimension of elements, way
composed of load-bearing wooden framework with horizontal and quality of realization, texture of faces, quality and quantity of
and vertical beams on piles. A significant step is taken towards a mortars, connections and homogeneity).
good construction rule, supported by a better understanding of Particularly, the monolithic nature of cavity walls has to be
the telluric phenomena. In fact, the homogeneous and unitary achieved for the resistance to dynamic stresses. In fact, the single
behaviour of the building against the seismic actions begin being parts have to be connected each other to show a box
ensured by steel bars inside the walls, tie beams and buttresses to behaviour. This condition may avoid the vertical slides that usually
better connect the structures. The ringing of the buildings was lower the stabilization capability of the weight against the
even encouraged by the authorities. In Italy, in 1854, the Bourbon horizontal thrust.
government exempted the iron, employed for that purpose, from Beyond the connections into single building elements, good
taxation. In some Italian areas, safety room were used, as well as connections among different constructional elements has to be
rooms reinforced by soft iron blades that were placed between the globally ensured in the whole structure (wall-wall, wall-floor, wall-
wall and the plaster and shaped as St. Andrew cross. The roof), in order to reduce the deformations by the presence of

18th century engraving representing an earthquake caused by exhalations of Antiseismic towers designed by Valadier in Rimini.
underground vapours.

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Understanding structural damages I. Knowledge
Seismic risk in the traditional architecture

Pombal cage model.

effective constraints and, as well, to avoid the hammering due to


different structures that swing with proper period.
According to Rondelet the naturists have pointed out that in
nature the bodies of the living beings are arranged so that the
bones are never untied each other. In the same way, the
frameworks have to be connected with the other frameworks and
reinforced with nerves and ligaments; then, the series of
frameworks has to be able to withstand alone and perfectly closed
in its solidity, even if any other element fail8
These ligaments are aimed at providing the masonry, in case of The hut dwelling by Vivenzio.
seismic action, by box behaviour (using a modern definition)
that is the basic goal of any work to reinforce and/or improve the
seismic resistance. The box behaviour, also ensured by top
connections (stringcourses), may allow, on the one hand, the
different resistant elements to exchange horizontal seismic
stresses each other and, on the other hand, the building to
produce a global reaction, based on the collaboration and the of the metal tie-beams, within the good technique of
distribution of the induced stresses on all the different parts. construction, is referred to the capability to create or recreate a
In fact, the connections have to oppose the rotation of the walls solid connection between horizontal and vertical structures. These
(for instance, the building faces) and to transmit the action to the same purposes can be also achieved by the suitable arrangement
perpendicular walls so that they crack in their plane. and the correct structure of the floors. Particularly, the link
If these connections cannot be achieved only by the normal rules between walls and timber or iron floors has to be ensured, since
of good construction, the employment of metal tie-beams could the beams may act as both ties, by avoiding the walls to rotate
be very useful. Militia underlines that in ancient times, the walls towards the outside, and struts, by avoiding the walls to collapse
were well maintained by passing through with long wooden towards the inside. Furthermore, the floors have to be enough
beams that worked as chains along all the thickness of the rigid to distribute their weight on the walls uniformly and the
masonry so that the wall was reinforced itself and effectively seismic stresses proportionally to the rigidity of the resistant
connected with the other ones. The olive wood was used for this masonries. An effective connection between load bearing
purpose, as it cannot be damaged by the lime so that it is better elements and walls can achieve this result, rather than the simple
than the iron chains, now widely employed9 . The effectiveness support that causes the unthreading and hammering of the walls.

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I. Knowledge Understanding structural damages
Seismic risk in the traditional architecture

Shrive N.G., Sayed-Ahmed E.Y., Tileman D. (1997). Creep analysis of clay masonry
assemblages. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, n. 24, pp. 367-379.

Siviero, E., Barbieri, A., Foraboschi, P. (1997). Lettura strutturale delle costruzioni.
Citt Studi Edizioni.

1 ( cos adunque n lacqua, n il fuoco, ma il vapore sarebbe cagione dei


terremoti, quando accade che scorra al di dentro ci che esala al di fuori ).
2 (fogne e spessi pozzi).

3 A. Favaro, Intorno ai mezzi usati dagli antichi per attenuare le disastrose


Typical failure mechanisms of buildings in the historical centres (Giuffr, 1993). conseguenze dei terremoti, Tip. Grimaldo, Venezia 1874. ( lentusiasmo
destato dallaspetto dei fenomeni elettrici fece s che tutto ci di cui non si sapeva
5 dare una adeguata spiegazione, venisse attribuita al fluido, o come si diceva allora
al vapore elettrico, e quindi anche i terremoti venissero riguardati come un
fenomeno, la cui causa era da riconoscersi esclusivamente nellelettricit ).
4 Carried out by Leibnitz, Kepler and Newton.

5 ( le viscere della terra in molti punti inzuppate di aliti sulfurei e bituminosi i quali
mescolati col nitro o in altra guisa prendono fuoco e si dilatano in forma che non
References potendo capire, in quelle cavit dove si ritrovano, inchiusi a principio spezzino o
tentino di spezzare gli opposti ostacoli il che da cagione al tremore del terreno ).
Baratta, M. (1901). I terremoti d'Italia, 1901. Arnaldo Forni Editore. 6 Mallet, Il grande terremoto napoletano del 1857.

7 G. Vivenzio, Istoria e teoria de tremuoti, ed in particolare di quelli della Calabria

Batoli G., Blasi C (1997). Masonry structures, historical buildings and monuments, e di Messina del 1783, Napoli 1783.
Chapter 11 of Computer analysis and design of earthquake resistant structures A 8 J. Rondelet, Trait thorique et pratique de lart de btir, Paris 1802. (i naturisti
handbook (Advances in earthquake engineering, vol. 3), edited by D.E. Beskos & S.A. hanno notato che in natura i corpi degli esseri animati risultano strutturati in
Anagnostopoulos, p. 563-606, Computational Mechanics Publications. modo tale che le ossa non restino in nessun punto staccate tra loro. Allo stesso
Binda L., Gambarotta L., Lagomarsino S.,Modena C. (1999), "A multilevel approach modo le ossature saranno da riunire alle ossature, ad esse tutte da rafforzare nel
to the damage assessment and the seismic improvement of masonry buildings in modo pi opportuno con nervi e legamenti; sicch la successione delle ossature,
Italy", in Seismic Damage to Masonry Buildings (A. Bernardini Ed.), Proceeding of the collegate tra loro, risulti tale da resistere da sola, quandanche ogni altro elemento
International Workshop on "Measures of seismic damage to masonry buildings", venisse a mancare, perfettamente conchiusa nella solidit della sua
Monselice, Padova, Italy, June 25-26, 1998, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp.179-194. membranatura).
9 F. Milizia, Principi di architettura civile, Finale Ligure 1781, parte III, cap. I, pag.
Carocci C. (2001), Guidelines for the safety and preservation of historical centres in
seismic area, III International Seminar on Structural Analysis of Historical 102. (gli antichi per meglio mantenere i muri li attraversavano di tratto in tratto
Constructions, University of Minho, Guimares (Portugal), 7th - 9th November 2001, con lunghi travi di legno, che servivan da catene, le quali prendevano tutta la
pp. 145-165. grossezza del muro, che rimaneva perci fortificato in se stesso e meglio collegato
agli altri muri. Si adoperava a questo effetto legno di ulivo, che non viene come
De Tommasi G., Monaco P., Vitone C., (2003) A first approach to the load path gli altri danneggiato dalla calce, e sembra preferibile alla catene di ferro, di cui si
method on masonry structure behaviour in Brebbia, C.A. (Eds.), Structural Studies, fa ora tanto abuso).
Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture VIII - Wessex Institute of
Technology WIT Press, Southampton (UK) ISBN: 1.85312.968.2.

Giuffr A. (1993), Sicurezza e conservazione dei centri storici: Il caso Ortigia, Editrice
Laterza, Bari.

Giuffr A., Carocci C. (1996), Vulnerability and mitigation in historical centres in


seismic areas. Criteria for the formulation of a Practice Code, Proceedings of the 11th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Giuffr A., Carocci C. (1997), Codice di pratica: per la conservazione dei Sassi di
Matera, Matera, La Bautta.

Giuffr A., Carocci C. (1999), Codice di pratica per la sicurezza e la conservazione del
centro storico di Palermo - Laterza, Bari.

Grunthal G., Musson, R.M.W., Schwarz, J. & Stucchi, M. 1998. European


Macroseismic Scale 1998 (EMS-98). European Seismological Commission, Working
Group Macroseismic Scales, Luxembourg.

Karaesmen, E.,Unay, A.I., Erkay, C., Boyaci, N. (1992). Seismic behaviour of old
masonry structures. Proceedings of the tenth World Conference on earthquake
engineering. A.A. Balkema, vol. VIII: 4531-4536.

Masciari Genovese F. (1915), Trattato di costruzioni antisismiche, Milano.

Rondelet J. (1802) Trait thorique et pratique de lart de batir, Paris.

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Tool 5
Understanding structural damages I. Knowledge

The European-Mediterranean Mara-Jos Jimnez


Doctora investigadora
Seismic Hazard Map Institute of Earth Sciences Jaume Almera C.S.I.C., Barcelona,
Spain

Seismic hazard is defined as the probable level of ground hazard. Specifically, white to green correspond to low hazard (0-
shaking associated with the recurrence of earthquakes. The 8% g, where g equals the acceleration of gravity), yellow and
assessment of seismic hazard is the first step in the evaluation orange to moderate hazard (8-24% g); reds to high hazard (>
of seismic risk, obtained by combining the seismic hazard with 24% g).
local soil conditions and with vulnerability factors (type, value The unified ESC-SESAME seismic hazard model is the result of the
and age of buildings and infrastructures, population density, combined efforts of multidisciplinary research groups on 5
land use). Frequent, large earthquakes in remote areas result in seismotectonics, earthquake catalogues, and hazard assessment
high seismic hazard but pose no risk; on the contrary, moderate during more than ten years within the framework of cooperation
earthquakes in densely populated areas entail small hazard but projects, programmes, and initiatives at international level.
high risk. The map is one of the possible results that can be generated
Minimization of the loss of life, property damage, and social and through the homogeneous procedure for seismic hazard
economic disruption due to earthquakes depends on reliable assessment for the European Mediterranean region as developed
estimates of seismic hazard. National, state and local within two main project frameworks: International Correlation
governments, decision makers, engineers, planners, emergency Programme (UNESCO IGCP-382 SESAME Project) and the
response organizations, builders, universities, and the general European Seismological Commission (ESC).
public require seismic hazard estimates for land use planning, This unified ESC-SESAME seismic hazard model allows as well to
improved building design and construction (including adoption of map different ground motions (peak ground acceleration, PGA,
building codes), emergency response preparedness plans, and spectral acceleration, SA) corresponding to portions of the
economic forecasts, housing and employment decisions, and bandwidth of energy radiated from an earthquake and for
many more types of risk mitigation. different return periods and soil conditions.
The basic elements of modern probabilistic seismic hazard PGA as depicted in the map and 0.2 SA correspond to short
assessment can be grouped into four main categories: Earthquake period energy that will have the greatest effects on short period
Catalogue, Earthquake Source Model, Strong Seismic Ground structures (up to about seven storey buildings). Longer period SA
Motion, Seismic Hazard Assessment. maps (1.0 s, 2.0 s, etc.) would depict the level of shaking that will
Seismic hazard depicts the levels of chosen ground motions that have the greatest effect on longer period structures (10+ story
likely will, or will not, be exceeded in specified exposure times. buildings, bridges, etc.).
Hazard maps commonly specify a 10% chance of exceedance The unified ESC-SESAME model allows as well to generate maps
(90% chance of non-exceedance) of some ground motion for different return periods e.g. 72-year (50%/50 years) which is a
parameter for an exposure time of 50 years, corresponding to a non conservative estimate that is often used for the usable lifetime
return period of 475 years. of a building or the 4275-year return period (2%/50 years) which
The published European-Mediterranean Seismic Hazard Map is the recently established standard for building codes and which
depicts Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) with a 10% chance of includes very rare large earthquakes. The 475 return period
exceedance in 50 years for a firm soil condition. PGA, a short- (10%/50 years) values as depicted in the map reflect a standard
period ground motion parameter that is proportional to force, is degree of conservatism which includes large rare earthquakes and
the most commonly mapped ground motion parameter because it was employed almost universally for building codes in the last
current building codes that include seismic provisions specify the several decades.
horizontal force a building should be able to withstand during The ESC-SESAME seismic hazard model for Europe and the
an earthquake. Short-period ground motions affect structures Mediterranean constitutes a regional seismic hazard framework
with corresponding short-period resonance vibrations (e.g. one- for the region in terms of peak ground and spectral acceleration
to-three story buildings, the largest class of structures in the from which seismologists, geologists, earthquake engineers, and
world). architects can profit as a general guideline. Nevertheless, it should
The map colours chosen to delineate the hazard roughly be pointed out that the ground motion estimates in the European-
correspond to the actual level of the hazard; the cooler colours Mediterranean seismic hazard map provide a reasonable and
represent lower hazard while the warmer colours represent higher consistent overview of the seismic hazard at regional scale but

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I. Knowledge Understanding structural damages
The European-Mediterranean Seismic Hazard Map

they do not provide adequate details to serve as bases for design


values or for local mitigation strategies and decisions.
The map (http://wija.ija.csic.es/gt/earthquakes/) received the 2003
Award for Excellence in Cartography of the International
Cartographic Association (ICA), in the Scientific Map Section of
the International Map Exhibition at the 21st International
Cartographic Conference, held in Durban, South Africa, 10-16
August 2003.

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Tool 5
I. Knowledge Understanding structural damages

The seismic behaviour of traditional Pere Roca Fabregat


Doctor of Civil Engineering
constructions with masonry walls Professor of the Department of Construction Engineering
at the School of Civil Engineering of Barcelona
(Technical University of Catalonia),
Spain

Introduction

Buildings with bearing walls constitute a very substantial part of


architectural and cultural heritage. This not only includes buildings
listed as architectural heritage; complexes of buildings in old or
5 historical centres are likewise important for their contribution to
the cultural identity of a population or urban setting. Even if these
complexes are not explicitly characterized as architectural
heritage, they enrich our cultural legacy and its capacity to
contribute, like emblematic monuments, to generating an
important secondary economy associated with cultural tourism. In
addition, constructions built with bearing walls continue to be
used and form an integral part of the housing economy. The
implantation of criteria of sustainability (making rehabilitation
preferable to new construction since it represents far lower 1. Possible failure mechanisms in masonry buildings characterized by a) collapse of
consumption of non-renewable resources and produces less the faade, b) collapse of a corner, c) diagonal cracking of parapets, d) cracking of
vertical pillars, e) separation of the base of the walls (rocking motion) and f)
waste) has given way to an economic and social revalorization of separation or cracking at the point of union between buildings.
these constructions.
All Mediterranean countries are subject, to differing extents, to a
degree of seismic danger. It is therefore necessary to analyse the
capacity of masonry buildings to stand up to earthquake and, as
applicable, envisage possible strategies to improve their seismic bearing walls, or the fall of floor structures, may, as an immediate
response. In the case of heritage buildings, the principles of consequence, lead to the destabilization and collapse of other
architectural conservation prioritize forms of intervention that bearing or bracing walls. The failure of one or more bearing walls
respect the morphology and strength of the structure. The leads to the fall of floor structures, which may in turn cause the
possible restoration or rehabilitation of these buildings therefore destabilization of other walls previously supported by the floor
has to consider forms of intervention which, as far as possible, structure. The resulting structural system is delicate and becomes
reconcile improved behaviour with maintenance of the buildings vulnerable to extraordinary events such as fire, earthquake,
characteristic material and structural features. hurricane or explosions. In the case of deficient maintenance or
abandonment, the deterioration of the floor structures (due to rot,
in the case of timber beams, or corrosion, in metal girders) can
The seismic behaviour of buildings with masonry walls also cause their failure and, subsequently, the loss of bracing
action on the bearing and bracing walls.
A building with a structure of bearing walls constitutes a complex In the face of the horizontal action of earth tremor and wind, the
system whose stability in the face of vertical and horizontal actions walls may respond by developing shearing stress in their plane,
is the result of the collaboration of various construction elements provided they remain suitably braced by shear walls and floor
(bearing walls, bracing walls and structural floors). These elements structures. Resistance remains high even after cracking and
collaborate to redound to the overall stability, so the individual slipping along mortar bonds, thanks to their residual friction.
failure of one may well affect other elements, generating the In general, there is no anchorage or reinforcement to prevent the
collapse of part or all of the structure like a house of cards. The structural floor and walls separating or slipping; in practice, the
bearing walls are generally very slender or even (as in Barcelonas only mechanism preventing slipping is the friction that occurs on
Eixample) extremely so. In most cases, the walls are not self- the contact surface.
supporting and need the bracing action of shear walls and floor Even when the system of walls subject to planar shearing is
structures to stand up. The individual failure of one or more sufficient to resist earthquake, a deficient union between walls

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The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls

and floor structure can lead to premature collapse as a The seismic performance of traditional constructions
consequence of the destabilization of a wall perpendicular to the
plane of action of the horizontal forces. The fall of this wall will The above reasoning is based on a rational understanding of the
lead to the collapse of the floor structures and, as a result, the relation between the structures components and their joint
destabilization of the walls parallel to the forces, thereby leading response. However, these arguments ignore the reality of the real
to complete collapse. performance and the effective resistant possibilities demonstrated
A well braced union between perpendicular walls is vital in order by traditional constructions. The existence of a huge legacy in this
to guarantee the stability of the walls subject to planar shearing structural type, even in markedly seismic countries such as Italy or
stress during the earth tremor. However, this is a fragile union and Greece, logically suggests that even with the weak points
may break easily due to thermal effects, settlement, or during the identified in the above section, these buildings may present a
earth tremor. In some cases (as in many buildings in Barcelonas satisfactory response in the event of earth tremors. One aspect to
Eixample), the perpendicular walls are built without effective bear in mind is the adaptation that has taken place, in historical 5
bracing, simply being built against each other, which is not fully terms, between seismic demand and the capacity of local
effective in the face of an earthquake. structural types to cope with it. Various parameters such as, in
These considerations suggest that this type of building is a particular, the thickness of the walls, the height of buildings, the
particularly delicate system that is vulnerable to seismic action. structural organization of the complex or the various construction
Here, it is important to note that the seismic regulations of many details, have evolved to generate a response that is adapted to the
countries (in particular, the Spanish NCR02) introduce very seismicity of each geographical location.
restrictive conditions as regards the use of this structural typology A detailed systematic study of the response of traditional masonry
in places that are vulnerable to seismic movement (for example, structures in Italy, especially after the earthquake affecting Umbria
limiting the number of floors to four for basic seismic acceleration and Marche in 1997, has provided a rather more precise view of
of 0.08 g and to just two for seismic acceleration equal to or the real behaviour of these structures. This experience has shown
higher than 0.12 g), in addition to calling for more demanding that there is indeed a degree of adaptation between construction
construction details that are not characteristic in traditional technology and local seismic demand, with the resulting capacity
construction. of traditional constructions to face up to earth tremors of average

2. Possible breaking mechanisms in buildings that share a party wall (DAyala and
Speranza, 2002).

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The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls

or higher than average intensity without being destroyed. As


observed in Italy, after various earthquakes, traditionally
constructed buildings that suffered major damage or destruction
had deficiencies such as defects of construction prior to the earth
tremor, or were in a state of deterioration due to abandonment,
or had been subjected to inappropriate transformations. The
structures that survived the earthquake with very limited damage
were well built and had maintained their traditional construction
features. It might be concluded that a structure that is well built
3. (A) fundamental failure mode and (B) expectable mode in buildings with tied
faades (Carocci, 2001). and maintained according to traditional techniques and
procedures can stand up to earthquakes of average intensity.
5 Nonetheless, in some cases traditional local construction may
present seismic insufficiency or deficiencies. This particularly
occurs in areas that do not have a consolidated memory of seismic
activity, because earth tremors take place only very irregularly.
Even in these cases, some seismic improvement can be made by
introducing corrective measures which, though foreign to
traditional local practice, can be applied by means of good
practice in traditional or historical masonry construction.
In places that are only moderately seismic, or where the most
recent earth tremors took place at a remote time (and therefore
have not produced a memory and an impact on construction
techniques), buildings may present major limitations of resistance
as a result of a traditional or historical construction technique
which, despite its possible virtues, does not address the needs of
lateral resistance. This might be said to be the case of many
buildings in the Iberian Peninsula. In particular, various studies
carried out in relation to buildings with bearing walls in
Barcelonas Eixample have shown that they are highly vulnerable
4. Estimated seismic damage scenario for a block in the historic centre of Palermo constructions, even in the event of moderate earth tremors that
(Carocci, 2001).
are theoretically possible in Catalan territory (Barbat and Cardona,
2002, Bonett et al., 2003, Penna et al., 2004).

Resistance response and failure modes

To cite Carocci (2001), we can recognise in traditional structures


an implicit model that is the product of the experience in
construction of a certain period of time and local culture. The
traditional dwelling comprises a masonry structure organized in
superposed cells to form units of several apartments. The structure
is the result of the juxtaposition of simple construction elements;
the building (house) can be regarded as an assembly of structures
that are roughly superposed so that the walls constitute the
masonry cell and the horizontal elements provide the floor
structures and the roof.
This form of juxtaposition produces a lack of robust connection
between the parts, and the consequence of this defect is an
5. Analysis using the computational model of the seismic response of a building
with a party wall in the historic centre of Baixa Pombalina in Lisbon (Ramos and
overall fragility in the event of seismic action. The horizontal forces
Loureno, 2004). Estimation of maximum displacement. produced by seismic action push the walls that envelope the

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Understanding structural damages I. Knowledge
The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls

building outwards, orthogonal to their plane, and, above a certain widely applied to analyse masonry (or reinforced concrete)
value, cause them to reach breaking point (Giuffr 1995). structures is based on the hypothesis that floor structures
These constructions are, furthermore, characterized by their constitute very rigid planes perfectly connected to their vertical
capacity to adapt to modification. This capacity is the result of the counterparts (bearing walls or concrete screen walls). In masonry
modular nature of the component materials: all of them can be constructions, this hypothesis is only realistic when the floor
dismantled piece by piece, even the walls. In the maintenance of structure comprises a concrete slab or, if it is built of timber or
these buildings, the repair or replacement of deteriorated stones steel joists, it is topped by a sufficiently thick, reinforced layer of
or blocks is normal practice. concrete that is connected to the vertical elements. In general, this
This fundamental model may be subject to slight variations is not applicable to traditional or historical masonry buildings,
depending on the materials locally available, local cultural aspects whose floor structures are not sufficiently rigid and deformable in
or other factors. In urban construction, this model undergoes the plane, as well as simply resting on the walls.
slight transformations to adapt to the complexity of the urban A common approach in the past was to modify the structure of 5
fabric or the morphological characteristics of the land. Even so, the building (introducing ties and top layers of reinforced
the construction systems tend to reproduce recurrent outlines and concrete) in order to adapt the construction to the hypotheses of
behaviours. the calculation method. This represents a major transformation of
The failure mode most frequently observed in the analysis of the building and the inclusion of elements that are far more rigid
buildings affected by earth tremor in Italy is the collapse of the than the walls, which can have counterproductive effects in the
walls. This is the form that most markedly characterizes the event of earth tremors. Once again, the observation of the effects
vulnerability of this type of construction (figure 3a). This failure of earth tremors to have occurred in Italy in recent times shows that
mode has been traditionally prevented by improving the this type of intervention may even increase the buildings
connection of the faade to the rest of the structure by means of vulnerability to earth movements, due to the danger of the floor
ties. In this case, the stability of the faade in response to earth structures pushing out the walls and rendering them more unstable.
tremors involves the walls perpendicular to it, which resist seismic The visualization of failure modes actually observed suggests a
action by working efficiently in their plane. When these walls can different approach more in keeping with the nature of the
no longer resist the force, they develop diagonal fissures through construction and resistance of these buildings. The building can be
which the system formed by the faade and the upper triangle of analysed by the mathematical formulation of the possible
these walls separates from the rest of the structure (figure 3b). mechanisms of damage using the limit analysis technique and
Unlike the first failure mode, which always leads to collapse, this applying theorems of plasticity. Given the experience available (at
second form does not necessarily mean complete failure, though least in Italy), these methods can be gauged using a qualitative
it is normally accompanied by obvious damage. analysis based on the observation of the behaviour of a large
According to the material characteristics and layout of each building, number of buildings of similar characteristics (Binda et al., 1999,
and the characteristics of seismic action (direction of incidence), Binda et al. 2003). This method has been recently incorporated
other forms of breakage are possible. By way of example, figure 1 into the Italian OCPM seismic regulations (2005).
presents various mechanisms observed in buildings affected by The study of blocks formed by buildings or urban fabrics calls for
earthquakes in Italy (Binda et al., 1999, Binda et al., 2003). a more general approach, due to the greater complexity of the
In historical centres, masonry buildings tend to form complex problem. The observation of alterations or irregularities (such as
structural systems made up of various structurally connected empty spaces or changes of height) is essential in this case. In this
buildings. In these conditions, the analysis of an isolated building context, action takes the form of studying damage scenarios for
cannot be sufficiently representative, since it is necessary to earthquakes of a given magnitude and considering the
consider the system formed by the building in question and the characteristics of the typical buildings and possible variations or
adjacent constructions. This system allows us to envisage failure alterations in the fabric. The analysis can be based on a qualitative
modes such as those illustrated in figure 2 (Carocci, 2001). approach (figure 4) or a detailed calculation based, for example,
on modern techniques of computational calculation (figure 5).

Analysis techniques
Improving seismic behaviour
It is necessary to bear in mind that certain techniques
conventionally used to calculate bearing wall structures may not In practice, the complete adaptation of traditional structures to
be suitable in the case of historical or traditional buildings. In the standards of structural safety in the event of earth tremor
particular, the method of rigid planes, which is well known and required by regulations for new constructions of concrete and

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I. Knowledge Understanding structural damages
The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls

steel may lead to a transformation and a very substantial form of repairing deterioration and recovering original resistance,
disfiguration of the original structure. In the case of traditional or without having to implant reinforcements that have nothing to do
historical constructions, this transformation may be incompatible with traditional construction technology.
with the conservation of the buildings historical and cultural In some cases, an improvement in seismic resistance may be
values, and may produce a major loss in terms of cultural legacy. necessary due to the degree of deterioration of a building as a
This particularly occurs when the original structure is reinforced by result of lack of maintenance or deficiencies in the construction
means of elements of concrete, steel or other materials not used process or materials. The need for reinforcement may also be due
by traditional or historical construction techniques. On many to the fact that local construction tradition simply overlooks the
occasions, these reinforcements have been invasive and need for seismic resistance (as can be seen in various places in the
irreversible, causing irreparable damage and loss to the original Iberian Peninsula).
construction. Even in these cases, it is preferable to have recourse to solutions
5 Furthermore, and as already suggested, the study of the seismic that are compatible with traditional or historical construction and
behaviour of previously reinforced buildings in Italy after the that tend to preserve a degree of material and organizational
earthquakes in Umbria and Marche showed that reinforcements homogeneity. It is preferable for interventions to control or
imposed on the original structure have a counterproductive effect mitigate possible weak points in a building rather than effecting a
due to the mixed nature of the resulting complex. In particular, it far-reaching alteration in its construction and resistance.
has been observed that the replacement of traditional floor Intervention can be designed in accordance with traditional or
structures by concrete floor slabs and wall ties in masonry walls historical construction techniques in order to help limit the
can produce an inefficient form of reinforcement that may even deformations experienced during an earthquake or avoid
hasten the buildings collapse during an earthquake. excessive separation between the parts.
For all of these reasons, in recent decades there has been a major Anchoring faades or joining walls to floor structures or other
change of paradigm in ways of understanding the seismic walls using ties is a very efficient traditional solution for joining
improvement of traditional buildings. We currently understand elements without producing substantial changes in their rigidity
that structural restoration is based on knowledge of local (figure 6). In general, interventions should aim to improve the
construction techniques and recognition of their possible quality of the masonry walls and their connections (between the
deficiencies. Knowledge of local construction procedures is walls and to the floor structures), reduce thrusts, stabilize
fundamental and must guide the choice of interventions. In view vulnerable elements and reduce structural irregularities. The
of the fact that traditional buildings in many seismic regions opportunity of increasing the rigidity of floor structures to enable
present a degree of adaptation to local seismic demand, it is them to work as rigid diaphragms should be considered
generally preferable to base reinforcement on an analysis of the judiciously, since it calls in all cases for a clear understanding of the
construction features that characterize these constructions and possible effects on the building as a whole. Furthermore, the work
avoid conflicting solutions. Seismic improvement can take the must be carried out with great care.

Conclusions

The study of the effects of earth tremors on traditional


constructions with bearing walls, centring particularly on the case
of the earthquake that affected Umbria and Marche in Italy shows
that these buildings do to a degree combine construction
techniques and local seismic demand, enabling them to survive
earth tremors of average or average to high intensity without
being destroyed.
However, this capacity may be compromised if the building
presents original defects of construction or materials, or a state of
deterioration due to lack of maintenance. It is also necessary to
recognise that in some geographical regions (particularly in the
Iberian Peninsula), local construction culture does not address the
need for seismic resistance, due to a lack of historical memory as
6. Use of ties in a building in Bergamo, Italy. regards the possibility of earth tremors. In these cases, improved

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Tool 5
Understanding structural damages I. La connaissance
The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls

seismic resistance may be needed. Even if the building presents


deficiencies, it is essential to base improvements on a knowledge
of traditional or historical construction procedures, as it is
preferable for interventions to control or mitigate possible weak
points than effect far-reaching alterations to the nature of the
construction and its resistance, at the same time maintaining their
homogeneity and constructional uniformity.

References

NCSR-02. Norma de construccin sismorresistente: parte general y edificacin. 5


Ministerio de Fomento, Madrid, 2002.

Barbat, A. H., Cardona, O. D. (2002), Evaluacin de la vulnerabilidad y del riesgo


ssmico de edificios in Evaluacin y Rehabilitacin Estructural de Edificios. CIMNE,
Monograph no. 65, Barcelona, 325-340.

Binda, L., Gambarotta, L. Lagomarsino, S., Modena, C. (1999), A multilevel approach


to the damage assessment and the seismic improvement of masonry buildings in Italy.
Seismic Damage to Masonry Buildings, Monselice, Padua, 179-194.

Binda L., Anzani A., Baila A., Baronio G. (2003), A Multi-level Approach for Damage
Prevention in Seismic Areas. Application to Historic Centres of the Western Liguria,
Atti della 9NAMC (9th North American Masonry Conference), South California.

Bonett, R., Penna, A., Lagomarsino, S., Barbat, A., Pujades, L., Moreno, R. (2003),
Evaluacin de la vulnerabilidad ssmica de estructuras de mampostera no reforzada.
Aplicacin a un edificio de la zona de lEixample de Barcelona. Revista Internacional
de Ingeniera de Estructuras. Escuela Politcnica del Ejrcito, Ecuador, Vol. 8, no. 2,
91-120.

Carocci, C. F. (2001), Guidelines for the safety and preservation of historical centres
in seismic areas, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Historical
Structures, University of Minho, Guimaraes, 145-166.

DAyala, D., Speranza, E. (2002), An integrated procedure for the assessment of the
seismic vulnerability of historic buildings, 12th European Conference on Earthquake
Engineering. Article no. 561, London.

Giuffr, A. (1995), Vulnerability of historical cities in seismic areas and conservation


criteria, Terremoti e civilt abitabile. Annali di Geofsica, Bologna.

ORD. PCP, no. 3431: Norme tecniche per il progetto, la valutazione e ladeguamento
sismico degli edifici. Consiglio dei Ministri, Rome.

Penna, A., Cattari, S., Galasco A., Lagomarsino, S. (2004), Seismic assessment of
masonry structures by non-linear macro-element analysis, Structural Analysis of
Historical Constructions IV, Balkema, Leiden.

Ramos, F., Loureno, P. B. (2004), Modelling and vulnerability of historical city


centres in seismic areas: a case study in Lisbon, in Engineering Structures 26,
12951310

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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge

Identifying types of damp: Soledad Garca Morales


Doctor of Architecture
the causes and the lesions they Technical University of Madrid,
produce Spain

Introduction

Traditional Mediterranean buildings are not impermeable or


waterproof constructions. This basic affirmation serves as a frame
of reference in which to study the problems that water produces
when in contact with this type of buildings. In fact, foundations,
walls and roofs have been designed and produced over the
centuries so that their materials can absorb damp, which means
6
that they can also evaporate it. The balance between the two
flows (absorption and desorption), determined by climatic and
microclimatic conditions, has constituted the success of a given
typological construction solution.

What are the types of damp to which a building and its elements
are subjected? An initial classification divides the types according
to the source of the water: from the ground, rain or use. This
division can be further nuanced if the form of penetration is
introduced: with or without pressure, intermittent or constant,
etc. As we will see, this nuance is interesting because the criteria
of intervention will be clearly guided by the answers to these Ground strata (1. Phreatic; 2. Capillary; a. Absorption; b. Damp ground; c.
questions. Underground water; d. Impermeable ground)

1. Damp from the ground 2. Water content in soil

The most frequent types of ground damp are: The mathematical means of expressing the amount of water in soil
is its volumetric water content, representing the amount of water
Water from an aquifer per unit of dry bulk soil:
Water from the capillary fringe
Rainwater absorbed by the ground w = Mw / Ms (%)
Runoff water that may filter through the paving, giving rise to
false damp. Ce contenu est dfini en mesurant la perte deau que subit le sol
False water or perched tables This is defined by measuring the water loss undergone by soil that
is dried for 24 hours in a kiln at 105-110C (BS 1377). These
In order to provide a complete definition of the possible values usually oscillate at around 5% for gravel and sand, and
pathological states caused by these forms of damp it is first 50% for fine-grained cohesive soils (clays).
necessary to define the states of stressthat is, the factors Another way of estimating the degree of moisture is the degree of
considered to be water loads on the site. The most frequent saturation Sr: the percentage of voids in the soil full of water, as
are: opposed to the total porous volume. The degree of saturation is
not a term for comparing soils, but it does enable us to relate the
The amount of water contained by the soil moisture content with the form of penetration, because the
The pressure exerted by the water. degree of saturation increases with the greater pressure with
which water is introduced into the ground.
We will use both expressions to describe the states of stress.

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Tool 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

3. The pressure of water in the ground a surface aquifer. Functional or symbolical needs sometimes
imposed construction in these places, and damp was accepted as
The pressure of water in the ground is expressed by the term a permanent factor. A frequent response was to construct systems
pore pressure n, which is defined as an excess of pressure in to channel and drain these flows in order to reduce damage to a
the pore, greater than atmospheric pressure. minimum. Many years of tradition often managed to tame the
water using inventions that were masterly in their simplicity and
wisdom: galleries, wells, gutters, cisterns, dams, etc., which are
4. Stress caused by groundwater level just some of the exponents of centuries of a culture of water. Our
forebears were well aware that flowing water does little damage.
Soil below the groundwater level is saturated (saturated zone): its These systems only ceased to work when blockages, diversions or
degree of saturation Sr is 100%. Water in this stratum is under breakage put paid to the original solutions. When this happens,
pressure, and, in the event of coming into contact with an the proximity of groundwater level to the underground walls of
underground construction element, with give rise to intense stress foundations or basements can take various forms:
in which the appearance of lesions may be produced by water
6
dripping or gushing onto the wall facing. I. Pure phreatic stress
The strata in contact with the groundwater level become damp II. Pure capillarity stress
due to capillary action (wet strata). The degree of saturation here III. Stress caused by ground that is just damp
is close to 100% at the limit with the groundwater level, and
decreases with distance. The gradient depends on many factors I. Pure phreatic stress
(porosity, surface tension, etc.). Some land has a low capillary This is the result of burying the wall or foundations as far down as
level, with a shallow wet area (earth with a coarse grain and voids groundwater level. Since the flow is permanent and water
larger than 0.5 mm), whereas others, with finer pores, contain
water to a depth of several metres.
The depth of this area of partial saturation (capillary fringe)
constitutes the capillary level and can only be measured
approximately by means of empirical formulas according to
permeability K.
Above the capillary level there is a further layer of damp earth
containing not liquid water but water vapour that is diffused into
the atmosphere (evaporation zone). The damp gradient continues,
establishing decreasing degrees of saturation as it nears the
surface. There may also be discontinuous damp in the form of
traces of water at points of contact.
As regards the pressure of water in this type of stress, pressure is
said to exist when the earth is saturatedthat is, below
groundwater level.
Above groundwater level, the capillary fringe becomes damp by
suction (negative pressure) due to the surface attraction between
the soil and the water (interfacial tension).
The groundwater level as stress involves a presence of water under
pressure acting on a large area of the foundations or on the
underground parts of a building. As stress, it is not localized in
extension or occasional in duration. It does not appear only when
it rains, though a longer period of precipitation has the effect of
an increase in hydrologic flow.

Damp produced by the groundwater level generally appears at the


moment of excavation, when the saturated zone is reached and Conduits to channel water at groundwater level in a Spanish chapel
water starts to gush over the surface, overflowing ditches. This
type of lesion is frequent in buildings near watercourses or built on

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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

pressure is high, this is the most serious problem. The buried wall retained by capillarity, without pressure. Penetration takes place
and/or footing, as applicable, contain the following delimited due to mechanisms of capillarity from the ground to the wall. The
areas (distinguished by their water content): decrease in free surface energy in the system generated when
Areas of localized penetration of water under pressure: joints, water leaves the ground and spreads through the pores of the
fissures, empty spaces, etc. are the weak points as regards the foundation materials is the mechanism that triggers the very usual
passage of the water under pressure. Penetration therefore starts phenomenon of a damp basement or ground floor walls, even
here. when there is no adjacent trapped water or saturated ground.
Areas of saturated material: around the points of penetration, and
in areas closest to the water, material is saturated. This type of stress produces a damp gradient in foundations or
Areas of wet material: around the above. basement walls, footing, etc., characterized by lower water
Areas of damp material: surrounding the wet areas. Rather than content than in the case of water under pressure. The materials in
the characteristic stain, areas that are just damp sometimes only contact with the ground do not become saturated, so the
manifest a slight darkening, not always immediately visible. resulting distribution is less extensive and intense. Even if the wall
The gradient of water content produced by the groundwater level were sufficiently thick, the damp stain would not appear on the
6
is permanent, not coinciding with drainage, nearby rain, pipe visible face. This means that water moves due to capillarity and
damage, etc. The only variations are seasonal, producing turns into vapour inside the wall, and then continues its way due
oscillations in the height of the water level. to vapour diffusion.

II. Pure capillarity stress This form of stress is called pure capillarity because the water
In this case, the foundations or the wall are built not in the that penetrates has no positive pressure: the mechanism is one of
saturated zone, subject to pressure, but in the stratum suction. In order to stop penetration, it is merely necessary to
immediately above, which, as described, only contains water prevent contact between the ground and the facing, creating a

Stress caused by the capillary fringe in ashlar foundations (1. Wet area; 2. Damp The height reached by rising damp depends on various factors: (Pve. Exterior
area) evaporation (+ convection); Pvi. Interior evaporation (increase in relative humidity); 1.
Surface capillary zone; 2. Direction of flow; 3. Waterproofed area?; 4. The water
rises above the buildings base)

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Tool 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

ventilation cavity in which water can evaporate and be eliminated


before reaching the building.
The areas that will appear in the wall are:

Wet area
Damp area

The conditions will be the same as in the above cases.


The height reached by rising damp depends on various factors. In
theory, the stain stops when the amount of water absorbed by
the foundations is equal to the amount of water evaporated by
the wall. As a result, the greater the walls capacity for
evaporation, the lower the level reached. As the speed of
evaporation depends on the ambient relative humidity,
6
temperature, porosity and permeability of the materials, etc., it is
these parameters that define the stress. If the rate of evaporation
is high, water will not reach high levels. The lower the ambient
relative humidity on the outside, the smaller the extent of the wet
and the evaporation areas, supposing the permeability of the
material is constant. Conversely, if a wall base is waterproofed
using cladding that prevents evaporation, water tends to rise
above the waterproofed area, seeking a new evaporation surface
in order to return to equilibrium.
In a well-ventilated traditional wall, the stain will normally be no
larger than 30 or 40 cm. If it is higher, there is usually an additional
problem (normally hygroscopic contamination of materials)
masking capillary rise.
The parts of the building affected by rising damp will be not only
in the envelope (exterior wall); any element with foundations that
reach the capillary fringe will present associated lesions.
Water does not rise uniformly throughout the section of the wall.

Capillary rise Deterioration of renderings

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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

For example, in the case of a masonry wall with mortar, suction will caves, crypts, etc., are cool, damp places even if they do not
occur more easily through the mortar than through the masonry, or present damp patches.
even through the surface of contact between the stones and the The damp contents are lower than in the other cases, presenting
mortar, if they are poorly bonded. The lines or surfaces along which just one area:
water ascends most easily are those without mortar. It is therefore
frequent to find different heights of damp in the vertical joints created Area of damp material
between different non-interlocking fabrics, for example, between This area may not present the appearance of damp, just the
masonry walls and ashlar abutments if it is not a masonry arch deterioration of materials or claddings.

III. Stress caused by ground that is just damp


Having explained how water from the groundwater level rises by 5. Stresses due to rainwater directly absorbed by the
means of capillarity to a higher stratum (capillary level) and is ground
then dispersed in the form of vapour through dry strata, seeking
the open air (evaporation process), I will now describe how the The various forms of stress in this section can be divided into two
6
presence of damp ground or other sources of water vapour may groups:
affect the walls.
This is a frequent case, since all ground has a degree of damp, Stress caused by rainwater absorbed into permeable ground
due to: Stress caused by perched water tables.

The water that evaporates from a wet stratum towards the IV. Rainwater absorbed by the ground
atmosphere When the ground is permeable to rainwater, the upper strata
Percolated rainwater, which, when precipitation ceases, starts absorbs it and it seeps downwards (percolated water), according
to evaporate to the degree of permeability. In its course, water wets the
The remaining water in the ground, produced by leaks, ground, defining a gradient as it moves. Part of the water is
irrigations, etc. retained in the ground by capillarity, and part percolates towards
lower impermeable strata.
Water originally retained in the ground by capillarity can move In strata that are highly permeable, water is soaked up quickly. In
through it if there is a difference in vapour pressure between the clayey ground, filtration is slow and water covers large distances
ground and the air: water spreads in the form of vapour (the horizontally, due to the difficulty of penetrating into the ground.
ground evaporates). A wall or footing buried in the damp stratum For this reason, contact with the buried wall or foundations is
become at least evaporators of this damp. It is well known that greater in the case of impermeable ground.

Stress caused by ground that is just damp (1. Damp ground; 2. Evaporation; 3. Damp Rainwater absorbed by the ground (1. Rain; 2. Damp area; 3. Wet area; 4. Damp
materials) area)

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Tool 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

The water content of ground in its different layers is, then, A dangerous type of ground in this sense is one that has areas
variable, provided exchange with the atmosphere (rain and from which the fines have been washed out, making them very
evaporation) is not prevented by paving. permeable strata that act as natural drains in more impermeable
This form of stress may be likened to pure capillarity, as it produces ground. The phenomenon is known as internal erosion or piping,
the same areas in the wall: and is dangerous because these lines of main flow can conduct
large flows and pressures, washing out areas of ground and
Wet area subsequently generating settlement in buildings constructed on
Damp area them.
Pockets of water form in depressions in rather impermeable
The difference is that here, it is a phenomenon that coincides with ground. These pockets fill with rainwater and, depending on the
precipitation, generally fast to appear and gradually disappearing flow received, can attain high levels of hydrostatic load that are
with the evaporation of the ground. Further, stains are difficult to evacuate. If one of these underground pockets breaks,
concentrated more intensely, coinciding with the ground level of it can generate penetrations of major flows and pressures.
the paving or the zone where the water is retained. It is also relatively frequent in areas of historical construction to
6
V. Perched water tables find underground rainwater cisterns and remains of obsolete,
Sometimes the composition of strata in the ground does not allow semi-obstructed gutters. All of these elements are potentially
directly precipitated water to reach groundwater level. Water capable of acting as water pockets in the ground, in the event of
penetrates an initial permeable stratum, reaches an impermeable being reached by some kind of subterranean stream.
layer beneath and runs over its surface, constituting lines of flow In more recent construction, the weak point for pocketing tends
or troughs that are above the groundwater level. These are called to be trenches built around foundations and filled in once work is
perched water tables, rapidly-forming flows that follow lines of complete. As the in-filling is not usually as compact as the natural
least resistance in the ground (cracks in rocky ground, fracture ground, and since the waters natural movement is interrupted by
lines, sandy areas of clayey ground, cavities or drains, infill, etc.), the presence of basement walls, screens, etc., the trench is
without constituting a saturated stratum. Following these lines, potentially a pocket for runoff around the building. If to this we
large volumes of water can travel a long way in a short time, add the aggravating circumstance that this perimetric gutter is
producing localized stresses of water with variable flows and sometimes used, in small and freestanding buildings, to drain
pressures according to the type of precipitation causing them. water collected by the roof and, on occasion, to water flowerbeds,
A stratum with perched water tables has variable water contents: the result can be very negative.
larger at the runoff line, less in more remote areas. It can produce However perched water tables form, the areas they potentially
pockets with strong pressure, constituting a dangerous type of produce in the buried wall are:
stress, sometimes confused with the groundwater level.

Rainwater absorbed by the ground. The deterioration of mural painting has started A perched water table.
at the top, on the line coinciding with the ground on the other side of the wall

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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

Area of localized penetration with pressure saturation in the grounds pores is greater, and upper layers
A saturated zone, near the point where the water exerts the generally increase in dampness, becoming fairly stable.
greatest load If there are leaks or localized penetrations of water, the
A wet area difficulty of evaporation produces retention of the water
A damp area absorbed. Any defect in drainage, mains or sewerage leak
becomes a problem of damp unless the ground drains easily.
This could be confused with groundwater stress. The difference Paved ground can be considered a possible extreme case of a
lies in the fact that this case involves phenomena of time, perched water table, with surface flow. If surface drainage is
coinciding with rain, damage to cisterns during building work, not correctly addressed, paving could have a negative effect,
lack of adequate drainage and waterproofing in basements where transporting all runoff water to the buildings foot or forming
phreatic water was not apparent at the time of construction, etc. puddles, which penetrate faster than moving water.

For these reasons, paved ground (streets, squares, etc.) around


6. The particular case of paved ground impermeable buildings is considered a risk factor on two counts:
6
If the grounds exchange capacity with the atmosphere is limited On the surface, because rainwater flows like perched water
by paving, the damp content will be modified. tables
Under ground, since the difficulty of evaporation of any leak or
The groundwater level does not receive the input of nearby penetration will prolong water retention and increase the
rain, so its flow is fed by water precipitated at a distance. It is degree of saturation of the ground.
therefore logical to suppose seasonal variations.
Saturation of the capillary fringe and the evaporation zone This is a relatively frequent case in villages whose streets have
increases because evaporation is limited; the degree of vapour been paved recently. Paving interrupts the equilibrium established
between the buildings and their surroundings (according to which
both collaborated in the absorption and evaporation of
rainwater), giving rise to damp patches at the bases of buildings
that were not designed to resist the stress of large runoff.

7. Damp caused by hygroscopic condensation

This is an alteration of materials that modifies their behaviour with


regard to water (liquid or vapour), aggravating lesions caused by
damp and hindering their diagnosis. It is caused by the
contamination of materials by hygroscopic salts, water-soluble
chemical substances that are quick to absorb water, with which
they combine to form hydrated salts.
These salts dissolve in water from the ground, seepage, etc., and
penetrate into buildings. When the wall evaporates, the salts are
retained in the porous makeup of the materials and crystallize
there as they lose water. If they lose all their water, they form a
whitish power, or a crust or spongy growth, known as
efflorescence. When the ambient conditions of relative humidity
rise above a certain value (variable for each type of salt), the
deposit starts to adsorb1 vapour and the salt is hydrated. When
hydrated, some salts dissolve completely, and then the
construction element presents the appearance of being wet or
even saturated, giving the impression that liquid water is
Paved ground (1. Impermeable paving; 2. Rainwater is conveyed to the base of the
buildings; 3. Impermeable paving; 4. Elevation of evaporation area; 5. Penetration producing this stain, when in fact it is only due to the humidity in
through exterior paving) the air acting on abnormally hygroscopic materials. In this case,

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Tool 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

we speak of damp caused by hygroscopic condensation. They are aggressive because when they crystallize they exert
Normally, a building that presents this type of lesion has pressure on the pores that may cause materials to deteriorate,
undergone real damp of some kind (capillarity, rain, flooding, though they are in general less hygroscopic than nitrates and
etc.), which provided the vehicle conveying the salts to the wall. chlorides.
But this real damp may have disappeared, and the wall retains
only the deposited salts, which are reactivated not by the presence Disappearance of the stain when the render is chipped away or
of water in the ground, but by the increase in damp in the the contaminated materials eliminated is a characteristic symptom
atmosphere. The stain reappears in its original form, but is that damp is caused by hygroscopic condensation. (Figures show
deceptive. how the damp stain disappears from the area of the mortar
This is the cause of much of the damp in old or historical buildings. bonding being removed, because in this case the hygroscopic salts
It is a type of patch that will not away, resisting all traditional are near the surface, and the mortar beneath looks dry and sound.
removal attempts. Since the cause is the contamination of the In this wall, the salts also affect the brick, which should be
materials, until the hygroscopic salts are eliminated it will not replaced by new materials, not always an appropriate course of
disappear. action, as decided on this site.)
6
The salts may have different sources:
8. Damp caused by other sources of vapour
Nitrates: from organic matter, such as cemeteries, stables,
organic waste dumps, etc.; buildings that have been used to A mass of theoretically dry, underground air (cave, crypt, etc.) will
store foodstuffs or stable animals, etc. attract the water vapour in the ground surrounding it. If the
Chlorides: traditionally associated with seaside places, they may pressure of the vapour is high, the pocket of air may reach high
also be found in buildings that have been used to conserve values of vapour saturation (high relative humidity). If,
foodstuffs using salt. In some climates where snow or ice in the furthermore, there is some point of penetration of liquid water,
streets is eliminated using salt (sodium chloride) the outside the cave or crypt will be 100% saturated if the conditions are
walls tend to be contaminated. Finally, some chlorides are maintained for a sufficient length of time.
organic in origin. In the Mediterranean tradition, caves and crypts are ventilated,
Carbonates: associated with the dissolution of construction and our ancestors proved to be as knowledgeable about the
materials or minerals in the ground. They do not tend to be dissipation of vapour by convection as about the drainage and
hygroscopic like the above. conduction of liquid water.
Sulphates: from the ground or other construction materials. If these spaces, which were traditionally ventilated, are subdivided

Damp caused by hygroscopic condensation Damp caused by hygroscopic condensation

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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

Normally, the facings are designed so that the amount of water


absorbed can evaporate in the interval between precipitations. In
this way, even if the wall gets wet, provided it has time to
evaporate no major lesions are produced. The amount of water
absorbed even serves to cool the walls and roofs when it
evaporates, as explained above. The only precaution is that the
wall has to be thick enough to prevent the damp front from
reaching the inner facing.
Pathological situations start to occur when the bonding agents
deteriorate, not only absorbing water into the pores but also
allowing it to run along the joints between the materials, forming
a runoff surface that may be interior.
In each architectural typology, it is important to ensure that the
relation between runoff water/water absorbed is optimum for a
6
given climate. The different construction solutions represent
practical experience of permeability and capacity for evaporation
A mass of theoretically dry, underground air (cave, crypt, etc.) will attract the water of the available materials, and the quantities and thicknesses of
vapour in the ground surrounding it. bonding and rendering mortars.

10. Diagnosis

due to changes in use or given windows that are too airtight, Now we are familiar with the different types of damp that occur
condensation pathologies appear. Condensation is manifested by in traditional architecture, we can go on to establish a
the growth of biological colonies (bacteria and fungi) on facings methodology for inspection, diagnosis and intervention.
and on the coldest or least ventilated points of the wall, like the
corner. For this to occur, the relative humidity of the air beside this Inspection
facing must be 80%. Relevant symptoms are those that serve to classify the type of
lesion observed.
The most important symptoms are damp patches, with attention
9. Damp caused by rainwater seepage to and analysis of the following factors:

In the Mediterranean, where the climate is usually dry, traditional Position


buildings are not especially protected from rainwater. Normally, Size and shape of the stains
the materials are porous and permeable, even in some roof How they appear
solutions, which are designed so that low-level absorption of Coincidence in space or time
water into their mass contributes to cooling the air inside, thereby
improving comfort levels. Other symptoms may also be significant (colour, smell,
Rainwater mainly enters buildings by means of one of two efflorescence, deterioration of materials, etc.).
mechanisms: In addition to inspection, the following information about the
building is also relevant:
A mechanism of absorption and suction through the pores of
the materials Historical data
Seepage through joints. Graphic and photographic documentation, if it exists
Information about interventions or modifications: building work,
When rain falls on a flat roof or against a wall, part of the water repairs, changes of use, etc.
is absorbed by the materials and joints, and part runs off the Information about the environment: gradient, composition and
surfaces. The amount of water that drains off the building is in permeability of the ground.
inverse proportion to the amount that is absorbed by it. Information about nearby urban networks (past and present).

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Tool 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

All of this information, as explained above, serves to produce an


initial hypothesis as to the cause of the damp.
To corroborate whether this initial hypothesis is correct or
complete, we have various instrumental techniques to support
diagnosis. The simplest and cheapest is data collection using a
thermo-hygrometer. This instrument measures air temperature
and humidity, allowing us to locate focuses of evaporation in
walls, footing or roofs. It is interesting to conduct the inspection
with the aid of this apparatus, since stains do not always
correspond to true focuses of evaporation; in some cases, it is
hygroscopic condensation, in which case the materials condense
rather than evaporate water, which can be detected fairly easily
using this technique. The results of the study can be represented
on plans.
6
Rainwater absorbed by the wall
Complementary studies
After analysing the readings of the thermo-hygrometer, it may be
necessary to use another technique to check and locate the
focuses. In this case, the study required will depend on the
hypothesis or preliminary diagnosis:

A geotechnical study is useful for locating a focus of ground


damp when we suspect the presence of the groundwater level
or a capillary fringe.
Exploration of the buildings hygrothermal behaviour in greater
detail (ventilation, risk of condensation, drying rate in
correlation with the climate, etc.) requires a complete
hygrothermal study, with the installation of a thermo-
hygrometer to constantly record information (data logger)
programmed with a data collection protocol in keeping with
the type of study desired.
The water absorbed can evaporate in the interval between precipitations
Drilling tests with archaeological supervision serve to locate
specific focuses.

Damp caused by rainwater seepage

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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce

If you suspect that damp is due to damage to the sewerage


system or the presence of mains, they should be inspected
using appropriate techniques (inspection using TV cameras;
detection of sinks; detection of leaks in the water-supply
network, etc.)
To detect the role of the hygroscopic salts present in the
materials and their possible influence on the behaviour of
materials in relation to water, laboratory tests are needed. This
involves taking samples of the materials in question. There are
many possible tests, too numerous to go into here.
Finally, if the damp problem seems to be due to rainwater
seepage, on-site tests can be carried out to simulate it, using a
spray, water jet, or puddles of water on the element in
question.
6
In any case, these studies are only useful on the basis of a prior
hypothesis. They serve as verification in response to questions
tabled by the expert or researcher. Technique alone is not enough
to substitute the processes of inspection and study.

1 Adsorption is the mechanism by which gases adhere to the walls of pores or the
surface of the materials. In this case, the gas adsorbed is water vapour.

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Tool 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used

Degradation Maria Philokyprou


Architect and Ph.D. in Archaeology
of Building Materials Town Planning Officer, in the Section of Building Conservation in
(stone, earth, timber) the Department of Town Planning and Housing,
Cyprus

I. Introduction Formation, which is the second in preference material used as


Building materials of Cyprus ashlar, is a yellowish, porous material with biogenic constituents
and few igneous ones loosely adhering together. The choice of
Introduction Stone, earth and timber, always available in nature stone used was usually a function of the geology of the
and in the vicinity of the various settlements, have been the basic immediate environment of the settlements.
building materials for the construction of traditional buildings of
the 19th and 20th century. Mudbrick
In traditional architecture, extensive use of mudbricks was made,
6
Stone especially for the upper part of the walls. For mudbirck
Stone, either as rubble or in dressed form (called ashlar) has manufacture, locally available calcareous soils with relatively high
always been the most common material used for the clay content were used. The clay soil was mixed with the necessary
construction of walls and, to a lesser degree, floors. For rubble amount of water and puddled thoroughly so as to produce a
walls, the stones used were those available in the vicinity of the mixture plastic enough to be handled. When it was uniformly wet,
settlements and were usually sedimentary rocks (calcareous plant material such as straw, reeds and seaweed were added and
sandstone, limestone) as well as igneous rocks (diabase, left a few days to ferment, thus releasing natural vegetable glue
gabbros). In the villages of the plains where stones were rather that gave the final product consistency, flexibility and elasticity.
scarce, their use was usually limited to the construction of the
foundations and to the lower part of the walls. The stone wall Plasters and mortars
height differs from area to area. The ashlars, mainly used, were In traditional architecture, plasters of gypsum as well as of clay
sedimentary rocks of various formations (usually calcareous composition were employed. The use of lime was relatively
sandstone of Pachna, Athalassa Nicosia as well as Koronia limited. For mortar, mud was mainly used. Mud requires simple
Formation and chalk of Lefkara Formation). The calcareous technology compared with other plasters, as it can readily be
sandstone of Pachna formation was the main source of ashlar prepared from clay soil with the addition of water. The mud owes
and was suitable for building purposes. It is a hard stone and its adhesion properties to the clay minerals present in the soil. Very
constitutes small to medium particles. Its main components are often in wall mud mortar and plaster, tempering additives such as
biogenic (algae, protozoa, bivalves, foraminifera), some silicates straw were employed to prevent cracking through increased
(quartz, feldspars) and sometimes fragments of igneous rocks, coherence. A special category of plasters is that of the hydraulic
all well bound together with microcrystalline calcite, micrite or ones. These were mainly used in structures requiring hydraulic
sparite. The calcareous sandstone of Athalassa Nicosia properties (water mills etc).

Ashlar stone. Calcareous sandstone of Nicosia and Degradation of stone Degradation of stone
Pachna

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Outil 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)

Timber c. Mechanical causes (loading and stresses) which leads to the


The use of timber, especially pine and cypress was limited mainly excess of the maximum strength of the stone elements.
to the construction of roofs, storey floors, doors, windows and
auxiliary walls. It must be emphasize that in the Cyprus Traditional Architecture
the presence of dampness in the stone wall constitutes the main
II. Degradation of stone cause of most of the physical and chemical changes in the
structure of the stone elements (mainly in the sedimentary stones
The main problems encountered in the stone wall constructions which are the most porous materials and especially in buildings
are due to the degradation of the building material or the near the seaside). Water can enter the stone with the
construction as a whole. The degradation is mainly due to the condensation of vapour in the air and the penetration of the rain
decomposition of the stone itself, the damages at the corners and water if the material is porous2, as well as with the process of
often on the whole extent of its visible surface and the alteration capillarity (movement of water from the ground upwards and
in its compact appearance. Sometimes stone cracks appear in evaporation when it comes to a free surface).
places where metal elements are used for fastening timber frames
6
when such metal parts are corroded. In some cases stone cracks Capillary Rising
may be due to the overloading of the upper part of the stone lintel Water either in liquid form or vapour can enter all porous
of windows and doors. materials. The pores which have very small diameter act as
Other problems encountered in stone construction are declination capillary tubes and create absorption of the water. This happens
of a wall, its separation from the rest of the construction and its because there are forces of cohesion in the tubes between the
total collapse. Sometimes walls perpendicular to each other tend water and the tube walls which are greater than the forces
to separate and also the two faces of a wall may also separate. between the water particles themselves. Thus the water tends to
Finally, in stone constructions, cracks, degradation and falling off spread to a greater surface within the tube and seeps through its
of plasters and mortars may lead to the loosening and falling off tube wall overcoming the force of gravity.
of the building stones. The water creates erosion in the stone elements directly with the
washing of its soluble constituents (degradation of clay particles)
The main causes of degradation 1 and indirectly with the transfer of the soluble salts and their
(decomposition, erosion, cracking) of stone material itself are: crystallization.

a. Rising damp as well as dampness from the rain or other causes. a. Degradation of stone due to the presence of water and
Dampness usually appears in the lower part of the wall and to dampness
a lesser degree to higher parts (even in the highest parts of the
wall). The presence of water and dampness may affect to the Action of water on the clay constituents
clay constituents of a stone and also lead to salt crystallization. Most clays expand when absorbing water and change into fine
b. Chemical causes and influence of biological factors and powder when they dry. The clay deteriorates because of its
atmospheric pollution may cause alteration of the constituent expansion with the absorption of water. With the increase of
elements of the stone. the volume of the constituent elements of clay composition

Degradation of stone Degradation of stone and mudbrick Degradation of stone

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Outil 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)

mechanical forces are developed with the result that the stone of the stone. The phenomenon of degradation erosion due to
containing such elements is substantially deorganized. salt crystallization becomes much more drastic in the coastal
Salt crystallization regions of the island i.e. Larnaca.
Salt crystallization constitutes one of the most important causes
of erosion and degradation of stones and acts on all types of b. Degradation of the stone due to biological factors and
stone irrespective of their chemical composition. Main sources atmospheric pollution.
of the salts are the ground surface, the subsurface, the sea, the
atmospheric pollution of the rain water (since it increases the Biological factors
ground pollution) and the use of wrong building materials in The erosion due to biological factors include the chemical
contact with the stone (cement plasters and mortars). The main changes which are created by microorganisms (algae, fungi etc)
soluble salts are the chlorides, sulphides and sulphates3. as well as those due to insects, birds and the growth of roots
The salts enter the pores of the stone (or smaller cracks) during or plants which penetrate the joints or cracks, exerting
the absorption or capillary rising of the water which contains mechanical stresses. Dampness also leads to the development
salts. The water is absorbed directly from the rainfall or rises of microorganisms which create deterioration.
6
from the ground by capillary action. The capillary action is due Atmospheric pollution (sulpher and carbon oxides)
mainly to the longitudinal pores, perpendicular and through, The degradation of stone due to atmospheric pollution is not
with small diameter. When the water is saturated (because of as intense in Cyprus as are the factors mentioned above,
the fall in temperature or evaporation) the soluble salts because of the rather low atmospheric pollution of the island.
crystallize either within the stone pores or on its surface where The pollutants which create the deterioration of the stone
efflorescence is created. Sometimes the salt crystallization may elements are usually carbon dioxide and sulphur oxides. As
take place both on the surface and in the pores of the stone. already noted the sulphuric acid reacts quickly with the calcium
When the salts crystallize, their volume is increased4, the pores carbonate of the calcareous stones and dissolves it when the
are partly filled and great stress is created on the wall (of the stone elements are exposed to rain water. The atmospheric
pores) and the pores themselves with destructive carbon dioxide which has dissolved in rain water gradually
consequences. This leads to the degradation of the building dissolves the calcite creating soluble constituents and when the
stones. Crystallization can create mechanical tensions - solution dries, calcite or aragonite is recreated. The
thinning of the stone surface and separation of small parts atmospheric dioxide acts only on calcareous stones which are
from it, breaking up of the building material. exposed to rain water and the result is a very small reduction of
The above concentration of salts on the stone surfaces due to the their dimensions.
continuous movement of water towards the external surfaces of
the materials has as a result, apart from the deterioration of the c. Degradation of stone due to mechanical stresses
stone elements, the deterioration of the plasters and mortars Problems of stone due to the mechanical stresses caused by
(development of surface tensions, minor cracks, separation of expansion and contraction of the material are not intense in
plasters from the stone and gradual destruction). Cyprus due to the rather limited fluctuation in temperature.
The degree of the above phenomenon depends on the Sinking of the foundations, earthquakes and the wrong
percentage of water content in the pores and the permeability practices in building (without interconnecting of the two faces

Damages on stone due to air pollution Structural problems of stone walls Damages of stone walls due to vegetation

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Outil 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)

of a wall) may cause problems not only in the construction but constitute the main causes of deterioration of the constituent
also to the stone itself (cracking etc.) material and the organic additives. Disintegration of the
material of mudbick is the process when the soil forming the
mudbrick loses cohesion due to the existence of water and
III. Degradation of mudbrick moisture. The dampness and water fill the pores of the
mudbrick and the soil particles lose cohesion /connection
?he main damage of mudbricks is the degradation, disintegration between them and the mudbrick material is pulverized5.
and the deterioration of the material itself. This is very obvious at Additionally due to the presence of water the straw used in the
the base of a wall and to a lesser degree at the top or other parts mudbicks rots, swells, dries and is pulverized.
of the wall. Some other problems of the mudbrick walls are the The process leading to this damage is the penetration of water
mechanical ones such as cracking, the inclination (vertical or into the material. The dampness that enters the wall causes
horizontal), bulges and slumps, horizontal movements and evaporation or creation of salt crystals. The creation of these
bending of the walls. These can affect also the material itself. crystals causes loss of the cohesion forces, disintegrates the
The above mentioned damages depend on the quality of the material and increases the size of the pores, leading the mudbrick
6
mudbricks as well as the structure of the wall. The quality of the to pulverization. The dampness also causes serious problems to
mudbricks depends on the quality of soil used for their the plaster and also the mortar of a mudbrick wall.
production, the organic additive and generally the procedure in The dampness may enter the pores of the surface between the
their preparation (time left for the fermentation of soil, the mixing plaster and the wall. It penetrates directly into the connecting
of the ingredients together, the drying period etc) and also the surface or comes to the surface through the mass of a wall.
geo-technical characteristics of the final product. The quality of Dampness located in the area between plaster and mudbrick
the mudbricks depends also on the experience and training of the causes evaporation /condensation depending on the temperature
workmanship used. Damages on a mudbrick wall may be caused and humidity conditions of the surroundings. Dampness also
due to the structural system of the wall (insufficient connection brings soluble salts near the surface. When the humidity dries, salt
between the two parts of a wall, incorrect laying of the mudbricks residuals are formed. The creation of salts increases the size of
in alternating rows) and also due to the climate conditions of the pores (swelling) creating additional pressure in the pores that
area (presence of water and dampness). causes loss of the cohesion / connection forces and internal
cracking develops. The plaster is detached and collapses. After the
The main causes of degradation of mudbricks are collapse of the plaster the mudbricks themselves remain exposed
a. Water and dampness (leading to the disorganization of to humidity and water with the result that deterioration and
clay elements and the creation of salts). decomposition is speeded up.
b. Biological factors In addition, when a mudbrick wall looses its external plaster and
c. Mechanical stresses is left exposed, water may cause extra problems. Running water
forms small vertical channels on the wall increasing the surface
a. Water and dampness area exposed to damaging conditions.
Water and dampness (rising damp from the ground, rain water, The damages caused by water and moisture can be observed
bad workmanship and other problems in the structure more frequently at the base of a wall, when the stone base is very

Detachment and cracks of plaster Deterioration of mudbricks at the lower part of the walls Deterioration of mudbricks at the lower part of the walls

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Outil 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)

low. The procedure of the deterioration of the mudbrick continues movements develop under earthquake, or ground vibrations,
as long as dampness continues to exits. strong wing, due to soil or water pressures and because of
In the area where the stone base of a mudbrick wall is significantly excessive deformations of the floor or roof structure. Detachment
high, the water may penetrate the inside of a wall through cracks, cracks develop because of poor connection at corners. Cracking
caused by structural faults or external loading. In some cases may also occur from bending. Some of the causes are horizontal
cracks develop at the points where timber members and movements due to applied forces or displacements or
mudbricks meet, due to shrinkage forces or due to the rotting of deformations of the floors. Other structural problems of mudbrick
the timber members. In these cases the damaging process walls are bulges, slump or inclination of walls.
operates only a short period of time (rainy season) contrary to the
continuous damaging process of the lower part of the wall
especially in stone base walls. IV. Degradation of timber
Deterioration due to water can also observed at the top of the
wall as in this area the structures end and various jointing The main damages of timber structural members are the rotting,
materials meet (stone, mudbrick, timber, plaster). Cracks may cracking and loss of strength due to temperature and humidity
6
begin to develop in this area due to the different coefficient of variations, biological causes and also due to structural problems.
expansion of the various materials as well as due to wrong Additionally, insects, fungi and other biological processes may
practices and bad workmanship, as well as due to variation in create problems and degradation of timber members. The timber
temperature and humidity. The top of a wall is usually protected members rot usually in areas affected by water and especially in
by a projection of the roof. When this protection fails the water the parts embedded in the walls.
penetrates the structure through the cracks and the materials The biological causes of wood deterioration are dangerous as some
degrade following the same procedure described above. fungi and insects (which develop and thrive from wood) under
favorable conditions of humidity (over 20%) and temperature (20-
b. Biological Factors 300C) cause rotting of the wood. Longitudinal cracks that may be
present in wooden members in addition to the reduction of the
Sometimes birds dig inside the wall to create their nests, exposing strength of the members provide nests for insects.
the inside of the wall to erosion conditions. When the plaster Problems in wooden structures can also be created by the physical
collapses the holes of the small wooden pins (used for better shrinking of the wood during its drying period and the no-uniform
cohesion between plaster and mudbrick) provide areas for insects loss of humidity. The use of timber members which have not been
and birds to build their nests and also for vegetation to develop, properly dried under controlled conditions, or were cut from trees
causing internal cracking. during improper periods with the result that the natural juices
remain in the material, may have detrimental results.
c. Mechanical problems It is finally noted that most timber members do not have a
permanent shape even if they have been cut years ago. With the
Cracks appear when stress overcomes maximum strength. The change of moisture and temperature conditions, they expand or
causes of the cracks are the horizontal movement of the wall, the contract and sometimes bend. Under permanent loading
bending of the wall, and support displacements. Horizontal conditions they may also be deformed.

Degradation of timber Degradation of timber Deterioration of mudbricks at the upper part of the walls

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Outil 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)

In conclusion it can be mentioned that the main cause of


degradation of stone, mudbicks, plasters as well as timber in
traditional buildings in Cyprus is water and dampness (rising damp
as well as from rain water entering the structures due to structural
problems). The protection of the structures can be achieved only
by the protection of the structures from water and dampness.

Bibliography

IOANNIS, I. (2005), Erosion and Protection of Building Stone, Ornamental Stone from
Greece, Hellenic Marble Hellenic Marble Manufactures.

LAMBROPOULOU, B.N. (1993), Erosion and Conservation of Stone.

PAPADOURIS, GL. (1990), Building Materials in the Cyprus Traditional Architecture,


Archaeologia Cypria. 6
PAPADOURIS, GL. (1992), The use of Wood as Inherited in to Building Tradition since
Antiquity. Review of the Cyprus Society of Historical Studies.

PHILOKYPROU, M. (1999), Building Materials and Construction Methods Employed in


Prehistoric and Traditional Architecture in Cyprus, Ethnography of European
Traditional Cultures. Arts, Crafts, Techniques of Heritage.

Restoration and Maintenance of Traditional Settlements (2003), Cyprus Civil


Engineers and Architects Association.

1 The term degradation includes all the processes contributing to the alteration of
a stone element. These processes may be chemical, physician, mechanical or
biological in nature.
2 It is noted that the solid constituents of a porous material have numerous small
vacant spaces, the pores or capillary tubes, which may either be open or closed,
forming an internal network.
3 The sulpher oxides coming from the atmospheric pollution, the ground water and
the cement plasters, erode the calcareous stones creating gypsum which
contributes in a secondary way to the erosion of the stone.
4 The increase of the volume created due to the change of the salts from the
anhydrous to the hydrous form increases leading to erosion because of the fatigue
which is created by the alternating stress on the walls of the pores. The stress
within the stone may reach its breaking point.
5 The process of disorganization of the clay constituents of a material has been
described on the above chapter on stone.

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Tool 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used

Various types of scientific techniques Mustafa Al-Naddaf


Ph.D. in Geology
used to identify degradation Department of Conservation and Management of Cultural
mechanisms of stone Resources, Yarmouk University, Irbid-Jordan

Introduction

All materials have a stable state for the environment in which they
were formed. A significant change in the environmental
conditions, however, may force the material to transform into a
material with a new stable state (RAPP and HILL, 1998; MALAGA-
STARZEC et al., 2000).
Stone weathering- defined as the process of alteration of rocks as
6
a result of the adjustment of its internal constituents by the action
of physical, chemical and biological factors, to the prevailing
conditions of the atmosphere and in the environment (PELLIZZER
and SABATINI, 1976; AMOROSO and FASSINA, 1983; KARPUZ
and PASAMETHOUGLU, 1992)- is a natural phenomenon that has
occurred since the stone was formed and that will continue as
long as the stone exists (CHAROLA, 1988 and TURKINGTON, Umm Qeis (Jordan)
1996).
Monuments and sculptures made of stone have withstood the
attack of natural weathering agents for centuries. Yet, during the and Tronner, 1992; Nord and Ericsson, 1993). Different origins
last few decades, many of these monuments and sculptures, have been suggested for the patinas and crusts coating the
especially near the urban and industrial areas, have been observed surface of monuments, these include: treatment for aesthetic
to undergo accelerated decay (AMOROSO and FASSINA, 1983; and/or protective purposes, biologically induced deposits,
ASLAM, 1996; McALISTER, 1996). interaction with the atmospheric agents, such as SO2, leading to
sulphation and the formation of gypsum, and dry or wet
deposition of atmospheric particles ( Garcia-Vall?s et al., 1998).
Weathering Agents Formation of such a layer plays an important role in the variability
of the chemical composition of building stone. This phenomenon
The alteration of rocks in the lithosphere is produced by various is normally apparent in near-surface regions where fluids
continental (extrinsic) agents i.e. physical (also called mechanical ingress/egress, which can redistribute the compounds with high
disintegration), chemical or biological, as well as by their intrinsic solubility, and is at its most intense (Hayles and Bluck, 1995).
properties, like their mineralogy, texture and structure (DSSAT, The determination of the composition and origin of the deposits
1982; AMOROSO and FASSINA, 1983; BRADLLEY and found on the monuments will help to understand the mechanism
MIDDLETON, 1988; GAURI, 1992; LING et al., 1993a VINCENTE et of the formation of these deposits. This will enable us to adopt
al., 1993). Thus, stone decay in a monument is rarely a result of preventive conservation measures that may mitigate and retard
just one single factor (process); it is usually a combination of their formation and also guide us to the best interventive
different agents (SCHUMANN, 1998). conservation measures to remove these deposits without, or at
Different groups of deterioration forms, from which the formation least with minimal, negative impact on the stone itself (Riederer,
of deposits on stone surface is the most important, can be 1973).
detected on the monumental stones. Optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron
It is thought that the deterioration of building stone under the microscopy, infrared spectrophotometry, ionic chromatography,
effect of atmospheric conditions usually starts by graying of the and plasma and atomic absorption spectrometry tests all can be
stone, often followed by formation of crusts and further used in order to characterize mineralogically and chemically the
destruction by scaling, etc. (Hoke, 1978, and Al-Naddaf, 2002). fresh and weathered rock, as well as the stone pathologies in the
On many types of stone, a thin layer, 0.02-0.2 mm thick, hard, monuments.
black, generally without luster, may develop at the surface (Nord

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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Various types of scientific techniques used to identify degradation mechanisms
of stone

X- Ray Diffractomettry (XRD) inexpensive, making the technique potentially available to almost
any laboratory as a routine method of analysis. The cost of
The chemical and mineralogical characterization of ancient purchasing and maintaining a polarizing microscope is much less
building materials is a basic objective of any research involving than for other types of equipment used to study stone objects
these materials. Such characterization can contribute important such as a scanning electron microscope, electron beam
information about composition and alteration products, from microprobe, x-ray diffractometer, or elemental analysis
which conclusions can be drawn, allowing the estimation for the instrumentation (Reedy, 1994).
degree of the materials decay. Consequently, its causes can be
evaluated (PUERTAS et al., 1992). Scanning Electron Microscopy
In order to determine the mineralogical composition of the stone
samples as well as that of the weathering crust, the powder X- ray Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is widely used in the field of
diffraction method can effectively be applied. With this method; a material investigations. In this technique, a highly focused electron
mineral content higher than 1% can be detected (DO, 2000). For beam with a nanometer size is scanned over the target area.
some samples with a high clay content, the oriented X- ray Observation of the secondary electrons, generated by this beam,
6
diffraction method is used. offers morphological resolution in the nanometer range (ADLER,
Comparing the differences in the mineralogical composition of a 1982; VAN GRIEKEN, 1989; McALISTER, 1996).
fresh stone with that of the crust covering it can be used as The kind of insight which the scanning electron microscope
another way to determine the origin of this crust. provides is important in assessing the quality of the intergranular
cementation and the tendency of stone to hold onto imbibed
Petrography water and to adsorb material from that water. The greater these
latter factors are, the more susceptible the stone will be to
Thin-section analysis is a very efficient way to obtain crucial deterioration due to freeze-thaw, wet-dry cycling and salt
information about many inorganic materials. Geologists use thin- crystallization, and the more urgent for the stone to be protected
section petrography to describe and classify rocks, soils, and sand. (LEWIN et al., 1978).
Archaeologists and conservation scientists use it to study many The deterioration of the building stone as a result of the
inorganic materials used in the production of cultural objects. dissolution of the cementing material is one of the most important
Purposes of such analyses in cultural object studies include making
correct material identifications, grouping similar objects,
identifying the geological origin of the object or some of its
components, and studying manufacturing technology. For some
art materials, structural and mineralogical changes on weathered
surfaces in comparison to unaltered interior sections of a sample,
may provide information concerning the authenticity of a piece.
Thin sections have also been used to study the deterioration of
inorganic art and architectural materials, and to check the effects
of conservation treatments on those materials. (Reedy, 1994).
The most common question about weathering of natural stone
concerns the influence of pollutants; to answer this question it is
necessary to know as much as possible about the natural stone
itself. The laboratory investigations carried out by Holzwarth,
1996, and by Livingston, 1988, showed that physical properties
cannot give all of the information about the material without
knowledge of the special petrographic properties. In addition to
that, the petrographical and diagenetic properties can explain
many of the deviations in the physical properties of sub samples
taken from the same stone block, taking into consideration that
some of these properties can greatly affect the weatherability of
building stones.
One advantage of thin-section petrography is that the polarizing
microscope, needed to conduct such an investigation, is relatively Samad (Jordan)

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Tool 6
I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Various types of scientific techniques used to identify degradation mechanisms
of stone

decay mechanisms affecting these stones. Such a process can be paintings, glasses, and many other porous materials used in
detected by using of the scanning electron microscope, especially buildings and monuments. Thus, it is actually recognized to be
if coupled with X- Ray Fluorescence. one of the most frequent and effective weathering agents
In humid environments, biodeterioration can be a major factor (ARNOLD, 1976a, b; ARNOLD and ZEHNDER, 1989). Several types
causing the damage of stone, concrete, mortar, etc.; this type of of salt minerals can be detected on buildings. The most common
damage can be caused by such microorganisms as bacteria, fungi, salts occurring in building stones include sulphates, nitrates,
lichens and algae, and plants such as mosses. Whilst bacteria tend chlorides and carbonates of sodium, calcium, potassium and
to biodeteriorate by etching surfaces due to acid excretion, fungi magnesium.
have also been found to degrade stone, concrete and mortar by Ion chromatography is a form of liquid chromatography that uses
penetration of the surface itself. SEM is considered to be the most ion-exchange resins to separate atomic or molecular ions based on
important analytical technique by which such factors of their interaction with the resin. Its greatest utility is for analysis of
deterioration can be detected (Tapper, et. al. 1999). anions for which there are no other rapid analytical methods.
It can be said that Ion Chromatography is one of the most
important techniques which can be applied to determine the
6
X- ray fluorescence and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry concentration of Cl-, NO-3 and SO4-2 in stone samples.

The most visible products of the weathering of stone materials are


a consequence of fragmentation and disintegration of mineral References
components. Somewhat less obvious, but not less important, is
the dissolution of some minerals and subsequent formation of Garcia-Valls M., Vendrell-Saz M., Molera J. and Blzquez F. (1998): Interaction of
new compounds as a result of the action of chemical and rock and atmosphere: patinas on Mediterranean monuments. Env. Geol. 36: 137-

biological agents, processes which can lead to alteration of the 149. Springer-Verlag.

chemical properties of surfaces exposed to the environmental Hoke E. (1978): Investigation of weathering crust on Salzburg stone monuments.
effects (ADLER et al., 1982; McALISTER, 1996). Studies in conservation. 23: 118-126.
Consequently, determination of variations of the chemical Hughes M. J., Cowell M. R. and Craddock P. T. (1976): Atomic Absorption Techniques
composition of weathered surfaces in relation to their in Archaeology. Archaeometry. 18: 19-37. GB.
unweathered fresh zones is an important analytical method by
Riederer J. (1973): Die Erhaltung vo Kunstwerken aus Stein in Deutschland.
which the deterioration agents may be identified, while Maltitechnik-Restaurato.1: 73.
conservation strategies can be established accordingly.
Reedy, Ch.: Thin-Section Petrography in Studies of Cultural Materials. JAIC 1994,
For the investigation of elemental composition of inorganic
Volume 33, Number 2, Article 4 (pp. 115 to 129)
materials, either in fresh or weathered state, the instrumental
Tapper, R.; Smith, J.; Beech, I.: Modern Microscopy techniques for the Study of
methods of X- ray fluorescence analysis and Atomic Absorption
Mortar Biodeterioration, Poster presented at International conference on
Spectrometry are often applied with great success (MARINGER,
microbiology and conservation (ICMC 99) Of microbes and art: The role of microbial
1982). They can be used to determine the concentrations of the
communities in the degradation and protection of cultural heritage. Tribuna di
major oxides: Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P2O3, SO3, CaO, K2O,
Galileo, Museo della Specola, 16-19 June 1999, Florence, Italy, pp. 180-184.
TiO2, MnO and Fe2O3, as well as some trace elements: Zn, Rb, Cr,
Sr, Zr, Ba and Pb.
Comparison between the chemical composition of the weathering
crust with those of the internal fresh stone will enable us to
identify the origin of encrustation on the stone facades. Such
comparison can be statistically processed by using the enrichment
factor (Ef) concept (reference).

Ion Chromatography

When present in considerable quantities in the ground, soluble


salts can cause more damage to a monument than perhaps any
other natural deterioration factor (PLENDERLEITH, 1979).
Salt weathering affects rocks, building stones, mortar, bricks,

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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge

Agents in timber degradation Joaqun Montn


Technical Architect
Professor in the Department of Architectural Technology II,
School of Building Construction of Barcelona (Technical
University of Catalonia),
Spain

Professor in the Department of Architectural Technology II, School


of Building Construction of Barcelona (Technical University of
Catalonia), Spain
Given the right conditions, wood is a long-lasting material. The
same might be said of many other construction materials, though
others have yet to prove it. We find timber elements in a perfect
state of conservation in buildings that are centuries old. There are
many others that, as a result of deterioration or complete
6
destruction due to an inability to resist outer aggressions, have
been replaced or become the cause of the ruin of buildings.
Wood has many enemies (agents that degrade or destroy it) but
the choice of appropriate construction solutions can provide
protection. Suitable maintenance of wood that forms part of a
building can extend its useful life to the extent that, in present-day
terms of the duration of buildings, we might consider it eternal.
Abiotic degradation of wood.
The elements of which wood is made (cellulose, lignin and others)
attract various types of living beings from the plant and animal
kingdoms in search of food. greyish colour due to the greater presence of cellulose. If no action
Non-biotic destructive agents include atmospheric agents: solar is taken to protect it, the process continues, rain will then wash
radiation, rain and, due to its great potential for destruction, fire. away the cellulose, giving rise to the appearance of a characteristic
Each degradation agent produces a type of attack of an intensity relief on the surface, with wood in the spring, which is not so
that causes different effects, and they are not the same for all compact, being less affected than in the summer. If fungi spores
types of woods. are placed on the surface, they will cause superficial degradation,
producing a change in coloration to dark grey or black.
Nonetheless, the degradation produced by this kind of radiation is
Agents that degrade wood very slow and only works at very shallow depths.
Infrared radiation does not degrade wood directly. It heats the
As explained above, the agents in wood degradation tend to be surface, causing a decrease in humidity of the woods surface,
classified into two main groups: abiotic and biotic agents. which is usually accompanied by contraction. This heat increase
The abiotic agents include solar radiation, rain and various kinds does not affect the inside of the wood in the same way, so the
of damp, fire and, finally, chemical products. The living beings in temperature remains lower and does not produce a decrease in
question are, on the one hand, plants, such as fungi, and, on the humidity, and the wood therefore does not contract. The resulting
other, insects. tensions between the surface, which tends to contract as its dries,
and the inside, whose moisture content and therefore dimensions
remain the same, give rise to shakes on the surface, generally
Abiotic agents of degradation relatively minor.
The effects of solar radiation can be reduced by applying surface
Solar radiation protection. This may take the form of paint, varnish or stain, and
Of the broad spectrum that makes up solar radiation, it is the the best results are produced by high pigment content. These
fractions of ultraviolet and infrared radiation that most affect protective products are also degraded, losing their capacity to
wood, particularly the former. protect, and therefore have to be renewed when they cease to
Ultraviolet radiation principally affects the surface of the wood, carry out their task correctly.
generating a series of chemical alterations that particularly
degrade lignin, breaking it down and producing a characteristic

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Rain section (the thinner it is, the faster it burns), position (vertical
Rainwater produces increases in moisture in the outer layers of elements burn more easily) and moisture content (green wood
wood. This increase in moisture takes place very fast with no takes far longer to burn than dry wood).
corresponding variation in the inner layers. These differences in
moisture content between the different parts give rise to tensions
that are reflected in distortion and even the appearance of shakes. Biotic agents of degradation
Furthermore, as explained above, they facilitate the elimination of
the lignin and produce superficial alterations. Numerous living beings, called woodborers, feed on wood. These
Finally, as we will see below, most biotic attacks need a high are fungi and insects that degrade and even destroy wood by
moisture content to develop, and this may be provided by eating some of its components. In an attempt to simplify this
rainwater. section, they are grouped not just by origin but also by similarity
of the attacks or degradation they represent for wood.
Fire We will use the following scheme for greater clarity:
If one thing is obvious, it is that wood burns. Many other
6
construction materials do not, though this does not mean that
Mould
they do not lose some or all of their properties on contact with
fire. Chromogenic fungi Blue stain
Wood comprises primarily cellulose and lignin, whose basic
component is carbon. Fungi Brown rot
Although wood burns, a series of particularities should be
mentioned. Firstly, when it burns, it reduces in section and may be Rot fungi White rot
destroyed. This, however, is a slow process due above all to three
factors: moisture content, the carbonization of the surface and Soft rot

low heat conductivity.


Lyctidae
Moisture: As the wood is heated, it loses moisture, thereby
consuming a degree of calorific energy. Furthermore, as Larva cycle: Coleoptera Anobiidae

the moisture content falls, the woods mechanical Insects


Cerambycidae
resistance increases.

Social: Isoptera Termites


Carbonization of the surface: When no water remains, the
combustion mechanisms begin. This text is not the place to give
a detailed explanation but for our purposes suffice it to say that
surface carbonization is a slow process that slows the
penetration of heat into the interior, forming a heat barrier that
acts as insulation. This also hinders emission of the inflammable
gases generated inside the wood. Fungi

Heat conductivity: Wood has low heat conductivity, as a result Fungi are lower plants, with a very primitive cell organization
of which burning wood maintains relatively low interior (simple), made up of microscopic filaments called hyphae. They do
temperatures without losing its mechanical characteristics. not have stalks, roots or leaves, and do not produce chlorophyll,
At a given temperature, steel softens, behaving like a plastic which obliges them to feed on dead organic matter or on other
material and causing its structures to collapse. Concrete living beings as parasites, feeding on existing organic compounds.
undergoes a series of alterations that reduce its strength and are In order to develop on wood they need a high water content, at
closely related to the type of aggregate and cement used, which least 20%, and temperatures of between 20 and 25C for
can be aggravated by the sudden cooling caused by the water optimum growth.
used to extinguish a fire. Among those that live on wood are fungi that merely change the
Not all woods burn the same. Conifers tend to burn faster than woods colour (moulds, chromogenic fungi) and those that bring
broadleaved trees, mainly due to their resin content. Lightweight about a major change in physical and mechanical properties (rot
woods generally burn faster than heavy ones. Other factors are fungi).

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Agents in timber degradation

In both of these last two cases, the wood may remain unaltered
Mould to the eye until it reaches a very high level of degradation and
Mould feeds on the content of the surface cells of wood, as it is weakness, which makes these fungi very dangerous.
not capable of attacking either the cellulose or the lignin, and Soft rot (Ascomycetes)
therefore do not affect the woods mechanical properties. Produced by lower fungi, ascomycetes, whose hyphae develop
It can be detected when it forms spores, generally dark in colour, inside the cell wall, it feeds principally on the cellulose in the cell
on the surface of the wood or when it forms a kind of down. walls when moisture levels are high, leaving the wood with a soft
Normally it only forms on the surface and can be removed by consistency. It tends to be found in timber elements in contact
rubbing. with the ground.

Chromogenic fungi Insects


Like mould, these fungi barely degrade the cell walls. They feed on Insects that feed on wood, thereby degrading or destroying it, are
products that exist in the sapwood and do not generally affect the divided into two main groups: larva-cycle insects, mainly
heartwood. Coleoptera and social insects, Isoptera. They are some other
6
The most representative is the blue fungus which, unlike mould, insects, such as the wood wasp, carpenter bee and wood-boring
penetrates into the wood and cannot be easily eliminated. crustaceans, which have less of an effect.
Although it does not affect the woods mechanical properties, it
increases its hygroscopicity, encouraging the appearance of more Larva-cycle insects
destructive rots and also gives wood an appearance and a colour These are insects which, in the course of their lives, undergo
that makes it useless for joinery and decoration. metamorphoses, passing through the instars of egg, larva, pupa
It is very common for wood to be contaminated with its spores in and adult insect. During the larva instar, the insect lives inside the
sawmills, since tree trunks have a very high moisture content and wood, feeding on it. The larvae develop inside the wood, where
a great deal of sap. To prevent attacks, it is sufficient to briefly they continue to feed, creating a network of tunnels.
immerse the sawn wood in a tank of protective product. This The cycle begins when the adult insect lays the eggs in fissures
treatment involves just a small increase in the cost of the wood and cracks in the wood. Larvae hatch from these eggs and begin
and eliminates the problem. to feed on the woods constituent elements, thereby creating
tunnels. As the wood is hollowed out, it loses strength, the rate
Rot fungi varying according to the species in question.
These fungi produce enzymes by means of which they destroy the For greater simplicity, below they are classified according to three
woods cell walls, decreasing their mechanical resistance to zero in groups corresponding to the size of the larvae and the gravity of
some cases. They also alter the colour and decrease the woods the attack, from lesser to greater.
density. They are extremely dangerous in structural elements. The
conditions for their development vary from species to species, but Lyctidae (powder-post beetle)
they always need high moisture levels and a specific temperature. Lyctidae are fairly small insects. The larvae measure 4 or 5 mm at
By keeping the wood dry, practically all risk of rot is eliminated. most. They feed principally on the sapwood of broadleaf woods
There are many types of rot fungi. Here, briefly, they are grouped that meet certain conditions as regards the diameter of their
by the alterations they produce in wood, which can normally be vessels and the minimum starch content. Their life cycle is about
identified by the appearance and colour of the attacked wood. one year and may be shorter depending on conditions. They drill
tunnels parallel to the fibres, which fill with a very fine powder,
Brown rot (Basidiomycetes) and emerge to the exterior via small circular holes, of 1 to 2 mm.
The fungi that cause this attack feed basically on the cellulose, This group includes Lyctus brunneus Stephens and Lyctus linearis
leaving the brown-coloured lignin that falls into characteristic Goeze.
cubes. The loss of resistance can be complete, so that the wood
crumbles to the touch. Anobidae (woodborers)
This group is generally known as woodborers, the most
White rot (Basidiomycetes) representative being Anobium punctatum De Geer. It principally
The fungi that cause this attack feed basically on the lignin, attacks the sapwood of conifers and European broadleaf trees
leaving the white-coloured cellulose. The fibrous residue that and, if conditions are very favourable, they may also attack the
remains after the attack crumbles to the touch. This type of rot heartwood.
affects the woods of broadleaved trees more than conifers. The larvae grow as long as 5 mm. The life cycle of these insects

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Agents in timber degradation

Persistent attack by anobiidae Anobiidae larva (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, biologist)
6

may be three years or more, and this is therefore the time that Cerambycidae
may pass before discovering that the wood has been affected. The best known is Hylotrupes bajulus, commonly known as old-
Until after this period, the larvae do not emerge to the exterior to house borer. It attacks the sapwood of conifers. In optimum
complete their life cycle, when they transform into complete conditions, its life cycle may be longer than 10 years, which,
insects. The exit holes measure between 1.5 and 3 mm in together with the fact that it is much larger than all of the above,
diameter. The sawdust found in the tunnels they bore in wood is means that the damage produced when its presence is discovered
coarse and granulated. may be considerable. The larvae may grow to 22 mm in length
Also included in this group is Xestovium rufovillosum De Geer, and 6 mm in diameter, and create oval holes of as much as 7 mm
similar to the Anobium but with larger larvae, up to 11 mm. The in diameter when they emerge to the exterior. Their capacity to
circular exit holes may be as large as 4 mm. They attack the destroy wood is considerable, much greater than the previous two
sapwood of broad-leafed trees with high moisture content that cases, requiring similar treatment to eliminate them as termite
have previously been attacked by rot fungi. They produce sawdust attacks and some cases of rot.
in the form of disks, which is sandy to the touch.

Reticulitermes lucifugus, worker and soldier (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, Reticulitermes lucifugus, secondary reproducer (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina,
biologist) biologist)

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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Agents in timber degradation

Anobiidae adult (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, biologist) Cerambycidae larva (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, biologist)
6

Social insects. Isoptera (termites) They feed on the sapwood and heartwood of conifers and
The insects that produce most damage in wood, belonging to the broadleaved trees, provided they have a high moisture level. They
order of the Isoptera, are termites. bore tunnels in the direction of the fibres, always leaving
Termites live in highly organized and specialized colonies. There is untouched an outer layer to protect them from the light and the
a queen, whose function is to reproduce, workers, soldiers and loss of moisture from their environment. The tunnels fill with a
neotenic reproductives (if for some reasons this group loses residue of a characteristic earthy consistency.
contact with the nest, they may create a new one and become They are very difficult to locate because they leave no sign of their
reproducers). presence. If they are unable to continue their way inside walls or
Of the species that exist in our context, the most important is beams and have to emerge to the exterior, they build tunnels
Reticulitermes lucifugus Rossi. using organic waste and earth that allow them to continue on
Their main nest is situated underground, where they find the their way in the appropriate moisture conditions, protected from
temperature and moisture level they need, normally at some the light. These cordons are one of the few external signs giving
distance from the buildings attacked. clues as to their presence. They are highly destructive and both

Kalotermes flavicolis, worker (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, biologist) Kalotermes flavicolis, rsecondary reproducer (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina,
biologist)

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Agents in timber degradation

difficult and expensive to eliminate. In some places, they are so


abundant as to be considered almost a plague, and produce
serious damage that is very costly to repair.
Other species of termites in our field of activity are the
Cryptotermes brevis Walker and the Kalotermes flavicollis Fabre,
which are less numerous than the Reticulitermes.

Termite tunnel on a plastered wall

Termite attack behind a wood-fibre skirting board

Distribution of the different varieties of Reticulitermes in the north-western


Mediterranean

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II. Reflection
and the Project
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The criteria of intervention II. Reflection and the Project

Criteria of intervention Fernando Vegas


Doctor of Architecture
in traditional architecture. Professor in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Architecture of Valencia (Technical
University of Valencia),
Spain

Camilla Mileto
Doctor of Architecture
Professor in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Architecture of Valencia (Technical
University of Valencia),
Spain

What are criteria of intervention?

No study, however thorough and multidisciplinary it may be, and


no methodology of intervention, however serious and rigorous it
appears, can guarantee correct intervention in the process of
architectural rehabilitation, whether monumental or traditional 7
vernacular. Highly detailed preliminary studies of a building may
on occasion correspond to subsequent interventions that
completely ruin its essence or distort its character. Examples of this
well-intentioned but ultimately blameworthy attitude are very
frequent in the discipline of restoration.
This is the case because the restoration discipline is not a science.
The preliminary studies applied to the building are taken from the
more advanced branches of science, which every day draws a little
closer to in-depth knowledge of matter and its history. But this is
where science ends. From here on, the rehabilitation project
belongs to another disciplinary field that is unprotected by the
credibility and impartiality of science.
The rehabilitation project constitutes a leap in the dark between
this scientific knowledge and the effective recovery of the
building. Proof of the absence of scientific causality in the project
Sometimes nature appropriates vernacular architecture, making it part of the
is the fact that a single preliminary study, conducted with all the
environment. House in La Pobleta de San Miguel (Castelln, Spain).
rigour and means available to us, can illuminate a whole range of
projects of intervention related only by the fact that they address
the same building.
What chance, then, is there of developing a restoration project
that is respectful of the architectural object, if all the preliminary are the product not of his or her mental or emotional state, but of
studies and methodologies of intervention in the world cannot collective reflection that reaches beyond personal will. These
guarantee the correct course for the restoration project? This is criteria are not arbitrary, nor random, nor subject to whim,
where the notion of criteria of intervention comes in. The aim of circumstance or the free will of the architect.
these criteria is to precede the project and guide the planners Criteria of intervention do not constitute the project options; they
actions. They allow us to bridge this gap between knowledge and do not correspond to predetermined images or typologies and are
the physical recovery of the building with some guarantee of not techniques to be implemented in the intervention process.
success. They precede knowledge of the concrete case of the building to
Criteria precede the preliminary studies. The architect cannot carry be restored and are ultimately based on the specific circumstances
out a preliminary study or apply a given methodology as though of each case.
he or she were mechanically or half-heartedly following a cake There are parameters in the discipline of restoration that serve to
recipe. The architect will always undertake a given preliminary guide these criteria, such as the experiences of other buildings
study or follow a given methodology guided by these criteria; they with their successes and failures, historical debates, the theoretical

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Criteria of intervention in traditional architecture.

and practical reflections of the masters of the discipline... This traditional architecture as there are climatic, material and socio-
reflection on the need for criteria of intervention as an essential functional environments.
factor in the restoration process, over and above all kinds of The advent of industrialization completely changed the conditions
preliminary studies and the most rigorous and advanced of production of popular architecture, increasingly linked not to
methodologies, is applicable to both monumental and vernacular the raw material of the place, but to commercial construction
architecture. materials. In many corners of the globe, traditional architecture
Furthermore, in the rehabilitation of traditional architecture, has ceased to exist as an active phenomenon. In the rest of the
criteria of intervention become even more important since, on world, it survives in association with isolation and scarcity of
many occasions, the absence of the means to carry out preliminary means, but its abandonment is foreseeable in the short and mid-
studies or the geographical and cultural distance of the most term, and this is why we are now studying its conservation.
acute methodologies approved by the theorists of the discipline In general, given the difficulty today of reproducing the
prevent their literal application to the most habitual specific cases. spontaneity and naturalness of the builders of traditional
In this respect, clarity in criteria of intervention is more essential architecture, it should be conserved, since it is not in our power to
than an infrastructure of knowledge and a manual of phases of generate new examples. Traditional construction has in many
action. places peaked and can now only decrease.
Within the range of possible criteria for the restoration of this
7 disappearing architecture, once it has ceased on a large scale to
Criteria in traditional architecture be reproduced as a species, there are some simple parameters to
be taken into account to allow a generous extension of its useful
Traditional vernacular architecture is created in close association life, at the same time safeguarding its integrity.
with the landscape, the product of a sound combination of the
material available in this context according to the construction Materials
systems and artisan techniques created by its residents over the The materials of traditional architecture must be conserved as far
generations, responding to strict functionality. Similar as possible. They merit protection on two counts, since they reflect
environmental conditions generate traditional architecture two factors of traditional architecture: its composition or the mass
solutions with similar logics, but there are still as many families of that comprises it, and its character, expressed by its external

By simply cleaning a historical faade it is possible to conserve all the charm of its
materiality, texture and patina that would disappear completely if the render were
replaced. Old waggoners inn in Torrebaja (Valencia, Spain).

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Criteria of intervention in traditional architecture.

surface. Stone that is slightly worn or dotted with lichens, veiny- is a clear example. In general, it is the worst mixture that can be
surfaced wood, plaster and renders, woven cane, rammed-earth used to render the inside or outside of a wall, for two reasons: its
walls, etc., constitute the outer and inner envelope of the house, lack of breathability and its excessive rigidity in traditional walls,
and their transformation carries with it much of the character of whatever their material components, which can ultimately ruin
traditional architecture. them.
Traditional architecture is most likely to survive a process of In this respect, it is also possible to apply the general rule that the
rehabilitation if care and delicacy are applied when replacing renders applied to traditional walls (rammed earth, adobe, stone,
materials and concealing its surfaces. Obviously, rehabilitating a brick, timber structure...) must be less rigid than the material they
dwelling to contemporary standards has to strike a compromise are covering, as has traditionally been the case in vernacular
between the needs of habitability and conservation of the architecture. This guarantees the future integrity of the fabric, as
materials. the render will fall off before the wall beneath it collapses.
The materials were handmade by their constructors and, in the The materials used to rehabilitate traditional architecture must
absence of knowledge of vernacular techniques, they must be also be compatible with the health of its residents. The
conserved for their naturalness and spontaneity and as a record of sustainable, ecological nature of traditional architecture by
the construction tradition of the past. The existence of roofs made definition must not be compromised by the inclusion of new
of plant matter (straw, reeds, bark...) requires periodic materials that enter into conflict with the natural philosophy and
replacement due to the perishable nature of these materials, as wholesomeness of the existing materials. 7
has happened since remote times. In these cases, the inclusion of
extra waterproofing protection beneath the plant layer Structure
contributes to its maintenance and extends the period between Just as the materials are the flesh, the structure constitutes the
replacements. bones of the architecture. The framework of traditional
Another option in this case which, though not as recommendable architecture is the product of optimizing local resources, and it
is still acceptable, is to replace a roof made of plant matter with usually responds to the centuries-old characteristics derived from
another, more lasting type of traditional roof, generally made of its constituent material, the earth on which it stands and any
tiles. This type of transformation has always occurred in traditional meteors and earth movements there may have been.
architecture and has proliferated in recent times. Hybrid According to John Warren, there are three possible options when
vernacular architecture is always preferable to its complete rehabilitating the structure of traditional architecture: repair,
disappearance. reinforcement or replacement. The structural elements may be
The surfaces of traditional construction may be affected in a timber beams, joists or purlins, pillars, a fabric of masonry, adobe
variety of ways, including the addition of wall insulation, the or rammed earth. We will examine these three options, taking as
creation of chasing to house installations that is then plastered an example a timber beam.
over, changes in a buildings distribution and so on. These changes
may be necessary, but their indiscriminate, generalized acceptance
ultimately transforms the overall appearance of traditional
architecture. It is necessary to find a compromise between the
conservation of surfaces that give a construction its character and
the inclusion of new installations by seeking solutions that are as
respectful as possible of the materiality of traditional architecture.
The new materials to be introduced into rehabilitation must be
compatible with the existing construction, not only physically but
also in chemical and, most of all, conceptual terms. In this way, for
example, if waterproofing or an extra layer of insulation is added
beneath the protective plant, ceramic, clay or stone layer of a roof,
they must be breathable to prevent condensation inside and, as
applicable, to allow the evacuation of water vapour through
vents.
In the case of having to plaster the external or internal surfaces of
the house due to a pressing need that justifies the loss of quality
The character of the architecture is reflected by its external surface. It is therefore a
or vibration of these traditional surfaces, the mortar used should good idea to gauge the effects of intervention on it. Detail of a faade in La Pobla
not only be breathable, it also has to be flexible. Cement mortar de Benifass (Castelln, Spain).

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Repair consists in cutting out the rotten part of a wooden beam buildings original strength, whereas reinforcement increases it, for
and replacing it by a piece of new timber. The importance of the reasons of physical change, new legislation or a change in
concept of repairing the structure lies in the conservation not just function. In this case, the reinforcement should not be accorded
of its materiality but also of the original structural system, which protagonism over the original structure.
remains in use. In this case, the introduced material must blend Unlike repair and reinforcement, the replacement of a beam or
harmoniously with the pre-existing elements and be possible to another construction element, even if it is a copy of what was
tell apart, if necessary. there, does not conserve the materiality of the original. The lower
Reinforcing a weak beam consists in inserting elements of the proportion of elements replaced, the more delicate the
support, traditionally iron. This option is used when it is necessary treatment given to traditional architecture. In this case, efforts
to increase the loads architecture can bear. Repair maintains the should be made to conserve at least the structural principle of the
building, which is as important as its materiality.
In this respect, the requirements of present-day regulations with
regard to structures and earthquake resistance can be approached
in two diametrically opposite ways. If we ignore the existing
structure and entrust compliance with regulations to a reinforced
concrete structural floor, whether or not it acts compositely, we
7 are seriously distorting the traditional structural principle.
Traditional structures tend to be isostatic, so the introduction of a
hyperstatic material like reinforced concrete renders the whole
rigid, presenting a latent threat to the survival of the house due to

Replacement of a roof of plant material after an arson attack. La Genuina rural


construction in Pinedo (Valencia, Spain).

Although not recommendable, it is still preferable to replace a roof of plant By repairing beams using new made-to-measure parts, much of the buildings
material by another type of roof on the market rather than demolish the building. original materiality can be conserved. Church of La Pobla de Benifass (Castelln,
Ricart-Navarro rural construction in Pinedo (Valencia, Spain). Spain).

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its added weight, lack of flexibility and lack of seismic sheathing or to the plaster of the structural floors, which become
performance. food for insects, fungi or rot, as well as undermining their intrinsic
If we simply improve the strength of the existing structure with resistance.
appropriate metal or wooden reinforcements that act compositely
with it, we are maintaining the structural principle that Function
characterizes the original building, at the same time contributing The fundamental criterion that has always governed the discipline
to its ability to meet the required objectives. These dry-assembly of restoration is this: both traditional and monumental
reinforcements are also perfectly compatible with the existing architecture has to have a function in order to guarantee its
structure, unlike liquid reinforcements such as concrete, which continuing existence. It is therefore necessary to adapt the
produce irreparable damage to the timber of the beams, joists and building to contemporary living standards.
First, we have to present a reasoned exploration of the
compatibility of the old and the new functions and ensure that the
buildings surface area is not being used beyond its natural
capacity. In both cases, it is difficult to successfully undertake a
restoration project, even if we take all the precautions and apply
the sensibility described here.
If it is a housing project, the dwelling must meet the same 7
conditions of habitability as those required of a new dwelling. This
means soundproofing and insulation to regulatory levels,
ventilation and lighting with glazed windows if these do not
already exist, a completely waterproofed roof, and the existence
of a kitchen, bathroom and heating as applicable.
For all of these requirements, an agreement of commitment may
be necessary to allow a degree of flexibility of interpretation of
regulations, on the basis of the houses pre-existing conditions.
Making a window larger to achieve better ventilation and/or
lighting may ruin the exterior faade, and it is therefore necessary

A post-stressed reinforcement of a deflected timber beam can give it a new lease


of life and even make it stronger than it was when original built.

The Wine Museum in La Puebla de San Miguel (Valencia, Spain), installed in an old Dry consolidation of a timber and plaster structural floor prevents the irreparable
press in the town, has proved to be perfectly compatible with the previous damage caused by the compression layer on it. Building in Valencias seafront district
function. (Spain).

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to weigh up all the existing possibilities of distribution and the surroundings represents the will to preserve the natural
compliance with regulations before distorting the exterior faade landscape that produced the traditional architecture. Conservation
of a traditional building. of the environment is surely compatible with a reasoned use of the
The functional adaptation of a traditional dwelling to present-day natural means and resources that considers not only net economic
standards calls for particular attention to telecommunications, as profits but also economics in a wider sense, taking into account
the diffusion of electronic communications and the proliferation other factors such as culture, history, sustainability, ecology and
of the concept of teleworking require the incorporation of these identity.
new media into the restored building. Restoration of traditional architecture cannot be taken
It only makes sense to turn a traditional building into a museum independently of its surroundings and the landscape that
piece if the function for which it was created has ceased to exist. produced it. The painstaking preservation of an architectural
This option is possible and plausible if there is no other more active object apart from its historical and cultural context, due to
alternative. However, this treatment must not extend to the rest of excessive transformation of the latter, is always commendable yet
the traditional settlement. An entire village cannot be turned into insufficient from the viewpoint of the integrated conservation of
a museum; it would merely become a kind of artificial theme park traditional architecture.
or stage set, even if the constructions were real rather than the
plasterboard they tend to be in both cases. It is possible for some Implementation
7 traditional buildings to become museum pieces while the rest of The criteria of action in the field of restoration of traditional
the residential fabric maintains its usual function. architecture not only have to be present before work starts on the
preliminary study or when drafting the project, they also form an
Relation with the context integral part of the physical restoration work. The implementation
The restoration project must respect and conserve this relation, of all the studies and the ideas brought together in the project
which is biunivocal in the case of traditional architecture. The may justify all the hard work carried out in this process, but it
external image of traditional architecture is closely related to the could also very easily ruin it. For this reason, it is important not to
landscape that surrounds it, because its scale, materials, colours lower ones guard during on-site work.
and texture are taken directly from it. Traditional architecture There are three main fronts of attention for the architect during
requires the conservation of its surroundings to justify its the implementation of the project: the building, the workers and
constitution and presence, and the surroundings call for the the processes. The traditional building must remain at the
conservation of the only kind of architecture guaranteed to be forefront of attention throughout the restoration process, which
fully compatible with itthe traditional architecture to which it
gave birth.
The criterion that seeks to conserve a given image does not
respond to bucolic sentiment or nostalgia for the atmosphere of
traditional architecture, which seek to capture the world in a
primitive state at a given moment or time. The image of traditional
architecture and, by extension, of traditional settlements,
possesses a series of values relative to its dimension and human
scale, its integration into nature and its unconscious application
before the fact of the principles of ecological architecture, which
must be recognised and appreciated.
For this reason, the restoration of traditional architecture has to
respect the criterion of conservation of its usual image, which is
the product of centuries of optimum use of the construction
materials and techniques of the place. If it is necessary to
incorporate an annexe or new construction in a context of these
characteristics, strongly marked by traditional architecture, the
project should seek to integrate volumes, colour and texture in
such a way that the new building goes unnoticed in the
settlement as a whole.
There is little point restoring individual buildings if at the same time the
Likewise, rather than being a reactionary, utopian or romantic surroundings are irretrievably modified. A rare view of Ademuz (Spain), showing
attitude to the natural landscape, the criterion of conservation of the integration of its architecture into the mountainside.

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may produce data not sufficiently clarified by the preliminary their composition, application and use to traditional architecture.
study, issues not envisaged in the project, or corrections and Commercial and industrial solutions have to be digested in a
nuances to be considered on site. process in which the architects criterion has to assimilate,
Even the best project cannot foresee every incident that will improve, hybridize and transform them to ensure that their entry
emerge during restoration work, but the more work done on a into the fragile context and matter of traditional architecture is
project, the greater the guarantee of good results and the fewer silent, discreet and respectful of its delicate intangible character.
the problems. The main criterion when restoring traditional
architecture must then, be to carefully monitor the work after
comprehensive reflection on the project in order to respond to The project
unforeseen events on site.
The workers, as actors in the implementation of the restoration If it is not possible to carry out some or all of these studies due to
project, must share with the architect in the aims of the lack of available means, visual observation of the traditional
intervention, otherwise they may simply not become involved in building and mental application should be used to prevent the
producing the best possible outcome. It is important to invest the project taking the wrong course. For example, leaving to one side
necessary time in explaining details and reasons, and the overall the complementary studies that require specialized professionals,
aim pursued by restoration work. It may on occasion be necessary if scale plans of fissuring, mapping or pathologies are not
to explain the appropriateness of construction processes and undertaken, they can be observed, noted down or marked on 7
techniques that are not habitual for the workers but are necessary photographs and, above all, taken into account in the project. The
for the restoration of the building. It is therefore essential when unavailability of any particular type of means to carry out these
choosing workers to ensure that if they are not familiar with the studies in orderly, official, scrupulous fashion does not exempt the
processes to be used, they are at least open to new ideas and can architect from the necessary mental and methodological processes
adapt easily to the orders given by the architect. before undertaking the restoration project.
The construction processes are very important to the finished It is not common but it does occur that having carried out a
appearance of the restored work. Traditional architecture is comprehensive preliminary study of the building or drawn hasty
characterized by being the spontaneous, natural work of artisans, conclusions as to its structural behaviour, construction problems
rich in textures and human nuance. The indiscriminate, direct and various pathologies, the architect may feel qualified to perfect
application of industrial solutions can ruin this spontaneity. It is the buildings history, adding finishing touches or correcting
therefore important to rework all of these solutions and adapt supposed defects. To avoid this eventuality, the path to knowledge
represented by the preliminary study must be trodden with
humility, respect and caution, the same virtues that will later guide
the application of the project.
A project to restore a traditional building has to walk a fine line
between conserving as much of the fabric as possible and
adapting the building to todays standards of habitability. The
supposition of conserving the material building to uphold the
dignity of its structural and constructional function must also, as
far as possible, extend to the external and internal surfaces that
transmit all the character of the traditional building to the
observer and the inhabitant.

Types of projects
There are basically three types of rehabilitation project that
address a traditional building from the viewpoint of use: (1) those
that maintain the buildings original function; (2) those that
transform it for another active function, and (3) those that turn
the traditional construction into a museum piece. Even taking as
our departure point an appropriate balance between the surface
areas of the traditional building and a new programme that does
The criteria addressed in the project must be carried over to the site work, which is
the acid test of these initial ideas. Traditional house in Sesga (Valencia, Spain).
not speculate on an inappropriate use of it, each of these options
can avoid or generate a variety of conflicts.

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Projects that maintain the buildings original function have most redistribution or compensation of the existing steps. It may
chance of avoiding conflict. If rehabilitation involves a traditional be impossible to respect a traditional stairway in public
dwelling being used as a contemporary home or an old premises which calls for a new regulatory staircase, but the
waggoners inn as a rural hostelry, then essentially it should old stairs can at least be conserved alongside the new ones.
incorporate as discreetly as possible the characteristic installations Contrary to appearances, wood used for the horizontal
of present-day standards of living (electricity, plumbing, bathroom structures of traditional constructions is a splendid material
fittings, kitchen, heating, etc.) and, as far as possible, improve the in the event of fire, provided it is thick enough in section to
buildings waterproofing, soundproofing and insulation. allow the safe evacuation of the buildings occupants in a
Projects to completely transform the buildings original function given time, which constitutes the basis of all fire regulations.
have to beware of distorting the structure, distribution and In the event of it not having this section, it would be
philosophy of the traditional building. For example, the sufficient to supplement it to bring it up to regulatory fire
transformation of an oil press or an old distillery into apartments resistance levels.
may threaten the large interior spaces and the fenestration of The lack of lighting or ventilation of some spaces can be
these buildings due to the necessity of dividing them up. In this resolved by means of windows built into the slope of the
case, the effects of fitting installations, waterproofing and roof, large double doors with glazing, mechanical extractors,
insulation are simply incomparable with the damage caused by etc. The opening of an emergency doorway to the outside in
7 forcing the original conception of buildings designed for other the case of a public building can be resolved by modifying
purposes. the fittings or changing the position of the jamb. And so
Finally, projects that turn a traditional construction into a onthere are many possible alternatives that allow the
museum piece have the advantage of easily adapting their conservation of much of the material and spirit of a house.
layout and functional needs to pre-existing elements, without
having to force or distort them. For example, once the original Spatial distribution
function is past, the rehabilitation of a mill or press for The new project layout must above all address the existence of the
expository or ethnological purposes respects the buildings buildings previous distribution and seek to adapt as far as possible
structure and at least evokes the original. The problems in this to the logic of the original functioning to avoid distorting its
case may arise from regulations for the use of public spaces that structure.
do not bring a flexible attitude to the existing building and seek In some cases, preferably in the preliminary study phase, the
to rigorously apply all of their articles. buildings incompatibility with the planned function has to be
recognised, either due to lack of space or fenestration, or to the
Compliance with regulations inappropriate subdivision required by the use of its internal spaces.
One of the most difficult problems when adapting a Maintenance where possible of the existing layout is, in any case,
traditional building for contemporary use is compliance with a contribution to savings in the intervention, avoiding the
regulations governing habitability, accessibility, fire safety, superfluous demolition of walls, stairways and other elements,
and so on. In some countries, these regulations are very and their new construction in different positions. It also maintains
understanding, respectful and flexible in their approach to the character of the buildings inner spaces.
existing buildings, giving a degree of precedence to
historical issues above regulatory stipulations. Others impose Choice of materials
rigorous observance, whether the building in question is old The choice of new materials to be used in the restoration of the
or a new construction. traditional building must take a very careful approach to the
There is an answer to all the requirements of regulations, but colours and textures of the existing materials. Every restoration
the architect has to apply all of his or her efforts and project involves the incorporation of a percentage of new
imagination to finding the option that least affects the materials. If the aim of restoration is above all to recovery the
original structure of the building. If this is not sufficient, they building, this percentage should be discreet in its presence and as
must use their best powers of reasoning to convince the low as is compatible with real requirements.
authorities of the need to conserve certain of the buildings This compatibility can be achieved by means of a careful choice of
characteristics, or agree on a compromise of conservation materials (timber, aggregate, the impasto of ceramics, etc.) and
with slight transformations by way of compensation. the texture of their surfaces, as smooth finishes and mechanically
For example, a balcony railing that is too low can be produced materials in a traditional building do not sit easily beside
extended with a supplementary element. The accessibility of pre-existing elements. This calls for a process of reflection and
a residential stairway can be improved by rational choice that does not involve any extra cost.

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Installations also serve the purpose of increasing insulation, the creation of


The increasingly voluminous and invasive insertion of installations false floors, passing tubes and cables beneath shelves or kitchen
can produce a great impact on traditional construction if care is units, etc., helps to conceal the installations without affecting the
not taken to ensure discreet integration. The installations required buildings interior.
by electricity, plumbing, telecommunications, lighting, heating, In both cases, a healthy dose of effort, reflection and imagination
etc. have become the intestines of todays buildings, with a length in collaboration with specialized installers will produce the most
and a presence that requires a great deal of space. The first step suitable solutions to respect the character of the building, without
to take to ensure compatibility is to examine the various necessarily increasing the cost of restoration.
alternatives on offer in order to find the most suitable for the
conditions and the character of the existing building. The economics of the intervention
Subsequently there are two clear possibilities: leaving the Initial reflection and work on preliminary studies will avoid future
installations partially or totally on view or concealing them as far errors in the project and on site, the need to correct a chosen
as possible. In the first case, the choice of elegant solutions, course, and unnecessary rectifications, demolition and
quality materials, chromatic integration or location above the line reconstruction. Ultimately, this initial reasoned approach and the
of lighting make them more acceptable in the interior of the preliminary study help to make financial savings on the
traditional building. In the second case, building cavity walls that intervention. The restoration of monumental architecture and, to
7

Section of the project to restore an old waggoners inn in Torrebaja (Valencia,


Spain), which manages to conserves the buildings spontaneous vernacular charm
and introduce all the functions required by present-day catering

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a large extent, traditional architecture requires a concerted effort


of analysis and thought during the project in order to avoid
greater costs during on-site work.
The conservation of traditional architecture as conceived of in this
article may be branded as romantic, and there could be some
truth in this statement. But the conservation of traditional
architecture also has a decidedly economic side, as the
maintenance of the fabrics, structural floors, roof and other
elements revert to optimum use of inherited resources that are
simply conserved or reinforced, to the detriment of more
expensive solutions such as the blanket replacement of elements.
Alongside the economic aspect, there are others such as the
sustainability of this form of architecture by definition, its
ecological virtues and its commitment to bioconstruction, all
aspects being called for by many specialists and future
homeowners.
7

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Technical issues in housing Michel Polge


Chief architect and urbanist
rehabilitation Technical Director of the Agence Nationale de lHabitat
(ANAH), France

Rehabilitation is not simply remedying a state of dilapidation or


putting something in order, it also involves improvement.
Traditional construction presents various types of technical
problem.

Intrinsic pathologies:

Damp is a recurrent problem in rehabilitation: rising damp due


to capillarity. Damp is also associated with the classic
infiltrations via the buildings envelope, due to excessive
containment which may be linked to poorly designed insulation 7
or inappropriate maintenance practices (sluicing of houses). In
general, the porosity of old construction materials, combined
with the absence of waterproofing mechanisms between
construction elements, is a constant source of damp which is Beirut, Lebanon

aggravated by insufficient ventilation. The negative


consequences for the building are evident; the consequences
for inhabitants are no less real, beyond that of discomfort.
Deficiency in the materials: since traditional architecture is built
using local resources, mediocre quality will lead to greater beams, etc.) to make space in the attic, a structural ablation that
repair needs (stone pathologies, poorly fired bricks, etc.). suppresses the original triangulation.
Traditional attacks on timber: termites, fungal decay, capricorn
beetles, etc., before timber treatments were invented, knowing The installation of modern conveniences not originally catered
that these treatments also represent problems for the for: bathrooms, rational heating, energy, etc. Even in those
environment (this is why organochlorine treatments were countries where rehabilitation is already an old phenomenon, this
abandoned in France). is a priority for many existing dwellings.
The presence of lead paints represents a major risk of lead
poisoning, particularly for children, and calls for very specific Technical aspects linked to health issues. Some have already
working conditions. Lead pipes also contribute to the lead been listed above. Failings in indoor air quality still cause
poisoning problem. respiratory diseases, allergies, etc. Adaptation to an ageing
Other issues, such as radon gas emissions that are health population is a growing issue in housing, due to demographic
hazards for the occupants (radon is a natural carcinogenic evolution and the increase in life expectancy. This new factor
radioactive gas given off by volcanic rocks such as granite and introduces the issue of the reduced mobility of some occupants
basalt, which is a health danger for inhabitants if appropriate and, therefore, the question of accessibility to and inside
ventilation and insulation precautions are not taken). dwellings.

Pathologies due to inappropriate interventions, often linked Technical aspects linked to safety. Firstly, all the accidents that
to the use without suitable precautions of modern technical occur in domestic situations in the home, of which the general
materials or procedures in an existing construction, e.g. the public is far less aware than road accidents, because they are more
application of cement renderings to faades with untreated damp discreet: accidents caused by electricity networks and
caused by capillary action. Then there is asbestos, a natural dangerous gas, accidents caused by falls (children are frequent
product that has been shown to be a real health hazard. We could victims as a result of failure to envisage this risk and install guard-
also mention more classical interventions that disrupt structures: rails), etc., which produce in the order of 400 deaths a year in
the most usual is the suppression of elements of roof structure (tie France.

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As regards safety, fire is a large risk that is all too frequently seen
by the population as unavoidable. However, when carried out,
information and awareness campaigns about good practice do
limit risks, as does the installation of simple equipment
(autonomous smoke detectors), not to mention sprinklers, smoke
extraction hatches, etc.
This long inventory does not set out to be exhaustive. It might lead
the reader to think that existing housing is so pathogenic that
nothing can be done. Conversely, he might prefer misplaced
optimism and decide to take no action. The question, however, is
the obvious fact that as regards the technical field, the authorities
will to improve housing, even private dwellings, cannot be limited
to promoting repair work.

To conclude by outlining what I consider existing housing should


be in the near future, the objectives should be the following:
7
Healthy, adapted housing (with attention to issues of hygiene,
comfort and access)
Safe housing (with attention to questions of structural stability,
safety and prevention of the principal risks)
Housing that does not waste energy or resources (with
attention to running costs)
Housing that is designed to be sustainable (with attention to
the long life of the housing product)

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Choosing the project direction Jos Luis Gonzlez Moreno-Navarro


Doctor of Architecture
Professor of the Department of Architectural Technology I,
School of Architecture of Barcelona
(Technical University of Catalonia),
Spain

The rehabilitation project

The project is the result of the synergy of a series of decisions,


each taken independently of the rest to solve a partial problem.
However, since the building is unique, these partial solutions also
have to constitute a simultaneous solution to all the problems.
This is the greatness and the major difficulty of the architecture
project: it will only be suitable if it is the result of a process based
on the detailed analysis of problems and solutions that leads to a
single solution that solves all of them.
A project to transform existing architecture differs essentially from 7
an architecture project for a new construction. There are particular
differences in the case of a project for the rehabilitation of
traditional domestic architecture.
The first difference lies in the fact that, although the new
construction calls for an understanding of the place and its
context, intervention in something that already exists requires an
understanding of something infinitely more complex: a series of
construction elements that enclose and delimit spaces, which, in
turn, are the result of a complex historical evolution, frequently
difficult to learn (1), forming part of a sign of identity of a
community and a place.
This understanding means embracing intangible, symbolic aspects
that are difficult to apprehend other than by patiently listening to
the inhabitants of the place or to historical events that are there
but very difficult to see, discriminate and explain. It also involves
tangible facts such as walls (2), structural floors, vaults, joinery and
flooring, and in particular an understanding of how the 20th
century has transformed something that may have been constant
throughout previous centuries but has been forced to change
radically by the blaze of evolution of the last 100 years.
Traditional housing is the product of the optimization over the
centuries of a series of types associated with specific uses,
producing designs that are closely adapted to the place and the
lifestyle of its occupants. But with the arrival of the 20th century,
the conditions of use changed radically, leading to:

An increase in dead weight as the result of upward extensions


or additions to the top of a building that exert added loads on
the ground-floor walls (3)
An increase in the number of people using the building
The loss of the tradition of maintenance of elements that
provide protection from atmospheric agents, such as renders 1. The building before the intervention (a) was the product of a complex historical
that are vital to maintain the bearing capacities of walls and evolution (b).

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2. Testing the faade of the building to find out its physical make-up. 3. Metal sheet reinforcement of the arch supporting a stair vault.

rammed earth, which are very sensitive to contact with the A good procedure for carrying out a project is to initially follow a
elements (4). course that includes a study of the problem-solution relation from
the viewpoint of each principle independently. Once completed, it
We are, then, analysing buildings that, in the 19th century, to take will be necessary to evaluate possible compromises between
one example, might have been in a perfect state of conservation partial solutions in order to find those that can provide a
but which, by the end of the 20th century, had entered into a state reasonable response to the problems, even if each one individually
of degradation due not to poor original design but to powerful is not perfect. The repetition of the process will, finally, produce
changes in the conditions of use and maintenance. the definitive proposal.
Understanding this is a task on its own, and these articles provide
some guidelines to undertaking that task. However, it is obvious Space and structure
that until this understanding has been achieved, it would be The rehabilitation project has to be based on the fact that the
immoral to embark on a project of architectural intervention. space already exists. The starting point of any project for new
constructionhow to organize a given space according to the
programmeis provided. In this case, the task is another: it is
The path to be followed necessary first to understand the space, its reason for being and
the possibility of introducing changes into it by means of minor
Let us suppose that the architect or engineer has reached this modifications to existing elements.
understanding; this is a convenient moment to recall the principles It is very important to remember that the space exists thanks to
with which buildings have to comply. Any element is the a series of elements usually referred to as the structure, a word
consequence of the need for: that did not exist in construction terminology until the 20th
century. Any important change to the space will involve
A space delimited by a built material form that is stable from structural changes.
the first moment The key characteristic that differentiates these elements from
Improvement of the environment and safety of the occupants their present-day counterparts is the fact that both the elements
Satisfaction, on the part of the forms and materials, of the desire that provide stability and those that enclose space coincide, so
for beauty that all peoples, however simple, owe to their human that the structure is the outer facing or the latter is the structure.
condition When dealing with traditional buildings, to speak of structure
A construction that is as long lasting as possible with the aid of means almost entirely to speak of outer facings.
suitable maintenance This way of designing buildings is generally unknown to
A production method that is as efficient as possible construction professionals who have trained in the 21st century,
when the specialization of construction elements means that

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4. A rammed-earth wall that has lost its protective render due to lack of maintenance. 5. Test to analyse the ground beneath the foundation of the solid brick wall.

some provide stability and others provide protection from the land on which a building has stood for 200 or 300 years is not
exterior; it is therefore advisable to highlight this difference from sufficiently stable. The error may be not just the result of
the start. applying this disproportionate safety coefficient; it may also have
Furthermore, before making any decisions, it is essential to been carried out outside the building, on a different site to that
follow the process of knowledge and understanding outlined of the foundations (5).
above. The issues change if the regulations govern seismic actions. In
One of the fundamental aspects that the project needs to regions where long periods pass between serious earthquakes,
address is the need arising in association with many national their effects are not engraved on the collective memory, so
regulations to adapt the new building to technical codes, which builders do not include anti-seismic measures. New regulations
are always written for new constructions. This is one of the based on precise, hitherto unknown historical and geological
enormous difficulties that has to be addressed by the overall information, may provide clues as to the probability of a further
project, since, by definition, technical codes seek to improve the tremor to which the building is clearly vulnerable. This is, of
conditions of new buildings in comparison with the old, with the course, not a case of a pathology, but it is still advisable to make
almost certain result that old buildings do not comply with the the most of rehabilitation to introduce the necessary
new levels established. reinforcement.
The course taken has to analyse all the factors that affect the
stability of these structural elements, choosing the intervention Environment and outer facings
that manages at least to reduce the gap between the safety As regards the environment, the project requires a meticulous
factors established by the new code. evaluation of the performance of the envelope of the building in
The situation is different if the regulations refer only to dead or question in relation to the basic variables that determine the
even earthquake loads. In the first case, everything depends on environment: firstly, those derived from the natural climate of the
the safety level imposed by present-day regulations for new placethat is, rainwater or moisture from the site, heat and cold,
constructions, which can range between 2.5 and 3. If the result and natural lighting; and, secondly, those deriving from our own
of calculating the safety of an existing building is two, it might activity, noise and pollution.
lead us to conclude that it is not safe. However, there is no point The process has to consider three levels of study: the
subjecting it to a difficult, aggressive process of reinforcement, geographical, that of the buildings immediate context, and the
since a state of balance that has existed for decadessupposing building itself.
that no lesion has occurredis proof that is at least as scientific The most important transformation generated in the 20th century
as the application of regulations. came as a consequence of the increase in technology available in
One particular case is the consequence of carrying out all fields of convenience and comfort (6). While the envelope of
geotechnical studies. Such studies frequently report that the the building is an essential element in creating an interior

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6. Aluminium frames with thermal break and double-glazing to improve comfort 7. Structural floor of glue-laminated wood calculated to provide fire stability of 90
levels and save energy. minutes to guarantee safety while conserving the traditional image.

atmosphere that is favourable to life, our present-day civilization, satisfaction of the desire for beauty that all peoples, no matter
of which traditional architecture has to become a part, calls for far how simple, feel as part of their human condition.
superior environmental conditions, for which the only solution is All the variables at play here are perceptible mainly by the sense
to introduce installations of all types: water and electricity in of sight and must therefore be referred to the visual characteristics
almost all cases and heating in many. of the two constants in construction: form and material.
The study of energy saving (also a requisite on the part of the Form is defined by its outline and by the volumes that can be
public administration in the form of regulations that have only perceived in the third dimension perpendicular to the observer,
recently come into existence) is an important issue, as the subject to the conditioning of the lighting.
installations that control heating and cooling are the ones that Material is defined by the visual characteristics of its surface,
take up most space. Recent trends point to the incorporation of composed mainly of two variables: colour and texture. Further, as
cooling systems in hot places for the summer months. Likewise, a result of the complexity of any construction material, we have to
the need to save energy is generating new elements outside the add the pattern drawn by the lines that separate the different
building as well as in its interior. The obligation for buildings to colours and textures of the specific materials, and the inevitable
incorporate solar collection systems for domestic hot water is a marks of application or other actions.
recent one. It is a major challenge to see how this factorone The decisions taken on the basis of these considerations have to
which we cannot relinquishinfluences traditional architecture. be reconciled with all the previous decisions, taking care above all
Nor can we forget the occupants safety, a previously non-existent not to contradict the consolidated feelings of the users (8).
and now key aspect of which is everything to do with fire
protection (7) and the necessary adaptation of buildings. We also Maximum duration
have to control other lesser aspects such as user safety. The passing of time takes its toll on buildings. No matter what
preventive measures are taken, construction elements undergo
Aesthetic-symbolic values variations in the basic characteristics of their forms and materials,
Yet in isolation, none of the above is enough: all of these elements and, sooner or later, cease to match their initial performance.
together have to create a visual message of which we feel proud However, the effects can be foreseen and, to a large extent, reduced.
and that serves to say who we are. As well as resolving all the Each building is the product of its history, and this historical evolution
practical problems, they have to be in keeping with our visual and involves factors that give rise to alterations in its initial state that may
symbolic culture. In short, an integral part of the building is the become lesions or damage. As well as being vital to correct these

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9. Corrugated sheeting under the tiles guarantees waterproofing without changing


the outer appearance.

8. Traditional stuccoing of the buildings faade.

alterations, a study of the building serves to draw conclusions and materials, are compatible with the existing ones, which requires
apply them to the design of new elements, ensuring that these thorough verification. This will include consideration of the long-
factors of degradation are neutralized in the future. term repercussions in order to prevent undesirable secondary
Damages may affect structural systems, with the serious effects. In general, the choice between innovative and traditional
consequences this may involve, but they can also affect elements techniques has to be well justified, and it seems reasonable to give
whose role is to create a pleasant interior space for all the senses preference to those that are least invasive and most compatible
the finishes. with existing elements, always with reference to the requisites of
The project must explore the reasons for these damages and take an safety and durability (10).
integrative approach to solving them. In theory, this automatically rules out the techniques that became
Experience shows that the elements that suffer most from history habitual in the second half of the 20th century, which not only do
that is, the passing of timeare those that are exposed to the not comply with the above aims but have been shown to be
elements, in contact with exterior space, rain, extreme temperatures, pernicious only a short time after application.
groundwater, etc. In the absence of suitable maintenance, they will Any interventions that may be planned on the basis of these
inevitably deteriorate. criteria will of course require comprehensive knowledge of the
Nor must we forget that these exterior elements play a twofold role building in question, which will involve applying the criteria of
of protecting the structural elements, such as walls or roof and vault diagnosis outlined here and a thorough knowledge of todays
structures, and acting as a visual support for the proposed aesthetic, least aggressive techniques but also, most particularly, the
symbolic and identitary values of the building. traditional techniques that originally produced the building. This
It is, then, vital for the project to analyse the factors of degradation type of knowledge may be the hardest to acquire, as in many
with a view to controlling and correcting them, proposing solutions cases the techniques have been forgotten, as they are no longer
that may be more resistant, but most importantly preventing their used. This may be an insurmountable difficulty: the absence of
loss and ensuring that their associated aesthetic, symbolic and workers such as masons and plasterers with the expertise of their
identity-giving values are conserved (9). fathers and grandfathers.
All of these issues have to be raised at the project phase. If, for
Production techniques example, there is no chance of finding a mason who knows how
In order to achieve the aim of durability, it is vital to ensure that to build a brickwork vault, it will be necessary to find an
the characteristics of the materials used, particularly new alternative solution. In short, the project has to be in keeping with

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the technical possibilities of the place. This is true of new This is not a bad thing, unless the ideas that emerge prior to a full
constructions, and all the more so in the case of the rehabilitation understanding become so firmly rooted that they are maintained
of traditional architecture. despite contradicting the conclusions of the process of
comprehension. This is an easy trap to fall into. Prior ideas in
Some final considerations architecture are valid provided they are compared and contrasted
during the process of understanding the building; they will, in
Having completed this process, which gives us an understanding turn, be factors that serve to incentivize further research.
of both the object and the ultimate objective of intervention (to To conclude, the project must meet the objectives of adaptation to
produce an artefact situated in the 21st century which serves the space, adaptation to the environment and conservation of the
present-day inhabitants), the next step is the architecture project. integrity of the building, using the economic and technical
Obviously, the thought processes are not this clear-cut; the overall resources available, to produce a result that is satisfactory for the
process of understanding the project progressively gives rise to occupants and for the collective as a whole, satisfying the desire
ways of addressing it. for beauty and affirmation of their identity (11).

10. Reinforcement of a traditional vault built with two layers of thin brick ensures
the compatibility of materials.

11. Final state of the faade.

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The innovation value for quality in Fabio Fatiguso


PhD engineer
the traditional architecture Assistant professor in Building Refurbishment (Technical
rehabilitation University of Bari),
Italy
Collaborators: research group work (Giambattista De Tommasi,
Mariella De Fino and Albina Scioti)

Ensuring the continuity of life of the historical building heritage


through an appropriate use is the basic objective for a
conservation that can be considered, beyond the concept of
simple preservation, as a dynamic action of future construction, in
terms of integrated conservation1 within the social, economical
and cultural realities of the territory.
This issue is particularly important for the traditional architecture
of the Mediterranean area, as the attribution of new functions, or
even the simple preservation of the original ones, can involve the
alteration of the formal, technical, material and functional values.
Buildings designed for specific uses could not meet the changed 7
requirements, connected to the functional destinations which
standards have inevitably evolved over the time. Even the
apparently simple conservation of the residential destination, that
is predominant within the historical centres, may lead to these The Sassi of Matera
contradictions. In fact, the practice has demonstrated, on the one
hand, that the critical states for the functional efficiency are not
present only when the new destination involves structural,
functional and equipment transformations and, on the other
hand, that the continuity of the residential destination could allow
the conservation of the original features of the building, as this
destination is based on activities that change little and/or involve
a very flexible behaviour. Besides, the quality of the life at one time
required spaces and functions, absolutely unsuitable with the
quality now imposed by the modern needs.
Furthermore, the interventions of functional suitability of the
building heritage have often produced, especially within the
historical centres, an adaptation with forced alterations and
introductions of elements and characters, that have changed the
original typological and morphological aspects, with a dramatic
difference compared to the theoretical assumption.
The definition of theoretical, technical and technological tools is The wide hypogeum of the Sassi
an important challenge in order to deal correctly with the issues of
both the reuse and the continuity of use for the traditional
architecture. It should avoid the transfer of adapted methods or
the slavish application of functional and/or technological solutions Quality and rules within the rehabilitation of the traditional
that have been already experimented for new buildings. architecture
For this purpose, the innovation of approaches and technological Generally, within the countries of the Mediterranean area, the
solutions can be, far away from a claimed modernity in itself, an minimum level of quality for a building is defined, through a
essential instrument to face the difficult connection between the system of parameters/standards, by some dispositions that
conservation of the architectural and morphological values of the generally refer to new constructions, without any specific
ancient buildings with the modern life requirements and the attention to the existing, historical and more recent, building.
conformity with laws and standards in force, as well as with the Besides, for the traditional and historical architecture, the
demand of more and more specific and complex performance levels. common philosophy of the prescribing building regulations

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aims to quality control through the imposition of bonds and elementary houses in the ancient centre of Bodrum until the wide
limitations for the practical procedures, so that a good result, also hypogeum of the Sassi in Matera; extremely variable internal
in relation with the technical and formal issues, has not been heights can be surveyed from the small earth structures within
always achieved. the Algerian area until the tall ceilings in Rashied in Egypt, since
A general insufficiency of the dispositions has been demonstrated the low rural compact Portuguese constructions until the elevate
by different studies2, as the environmental qualities have been landings of several Italian and Provencal historical centres; very
determinate by generic advices and limitative impositions of low vault impost quotes feature the traditional spaces in Matmata
numerical parameters, sometimes even conflicting, without any and Medenine in Tunis and the terraced and tower houses in
attention to the peculiarity of the intervention or the territory, any many historical centres of the South Italy, as well as wooden floors
explanation of the reasons for the imposed limit and any (widely spread out in the Mediterranean area) that avoid a correct
alternative solutions to meet the required needs3. spatial articulation. Moreover, the vertical connections are
Clearly, the peculiarity of the Mediterranean traditional sometimes difficult to realise because the landing heights are too
architecture makes difficult, sometimes inappropriate, the high for comfortable staircases which would result too long. Also
translation of the building quality into objective parameters and the ventilation and lighting conditions are frequently inadequate
standards: the apodictic expectation to meet automatically the and do not correspond to the requirements, for the absence of
requirements through the observance of the dispositions is suitable windows, as in many countries of the East and South
7 absolutely inadequate. These models avoid the rehabilitation Mediterranean sea, where the reduction of the openings outside
intervention, in terms of both simple maintenance and was traditionally imposed by the protection from the weather
refurbishment, or make its result unconnected with the structural, conditions and the safety. Even when the windows are sufficiently
typological, functional and technological features of the artefacts. large, they dont often allow a good lighting because of the
Even if in relation to the different territorial contexts and, as a closeness with the facing buildings (lets think to the historical
consequence, to the specific spatial, material, technical and centres in Apulia Region). Another issue is connected with the
technological features, the morphology of the building fabric, the accessibility for people with disabilities, within the single building
typologies and the particular dimensions of the primary and the whole urban context. A survey referred to the historical
architectural units, both in plan and in facade, and the centres of some Italian communes with a prevalent traditional
constructive characteristics are an obstacle for the strict serial building of the Middle Age4 has shown that, with reference
observance of the contemporary quantitative and numerical to the dispositions in force, the 30% of rooms has not the
standards, imposed by the prescribing models. Indeed, irregular geometrical and dimensional characteristics to be considered as
spaces with over/under dimensioned surfaces are present from habitable, the 40% of spaces is not well ventilated and lighted,
the simple rural one-two rooms North Africa dwellings and the the 100% of houses has not an adequate staircase. Similar results

Traditional earth structures in Aurs (Algeria) Traditional architecture in Matmata (Tunis)

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could be probably achieved for other Mediterranean areas, traditional architectural spaces, where methodologies and
because of the homogeneity of the morphological features. procedures have been often referred to the peculiarity of the
territorial building context, by innovative practice instruments,
Innovative approaches for the recover of quality such as the Laboratories of Quarter5, the Refurbishment
To overcome the prescribing approach is a necessary aim to Handbooks and the Practice Codes6. For instance, the
achieve the quality, since a quality level, not meeting the modern Laboratories of Quarter were significant experiences aimed to find
requirements, for a part of the city with an important extension new ways for making easier all the choices concerning the
and an emblematic value is not acceptable, also considering all the physical, economic and social requalification of important parts of
social, economic and cultural implications. As a consequence, the city. All the experiences shared the institution of a centre
methods and procedures have to be defined for the refurbishment where all the decisions, concerning both the management and the
of the traditional historical building (particularly with residential technical-technological aspects, were taken by the participation of
destination) to respect the environmental and functional qualities citizens, administrations and firms. The Refurbishment Handbook
required by the contemporary life and the dispositions in force. are able to manage the urban and building quality with both
The objective may be the definition of performance values that the prescription and guide actions, in three way: a binding one, by
architecture has to show in order to meet specific requirements pointing out the materials and construction elements that cannot
and the assessment of technological and functional solutions be lost during the transformation works, even if they are hidden
aimed to their satisfaction. ante operam; a prescriptive one, by indicating the materials and 7
The performance guide model to guarantee the quality within the techniques that have to be used during the project, if there are not
building refurbishment process seems to be fitted, as it allows to contraindications; an indicative one, by illustrating through some
set quality standards that are comparable with those ones exemplifications the criteria and methods, that have to be
concerning new constructions and to preserve the historical, considered by the designers for the project.
architectural and morphological features of the existing building A recent research on this topic7 points out a particular
heritage. As a result, it prevents from applying prescribing bonds methodological approach, namely a prescription-performance
that are used to be disregarded, interpreted case by case or practice tool that allows, by means of more flexibility and less
derogated. impositions, to profit by the potentialities of the exiting traditional
Concerning this, over the last years, in Italy, several studies and building and so to recover the environmental and geometric-
researches have been developed to revise the management tools typological values for an integrated and comprehensive
for the transformations of territory and cities in terms of conservation of buildings. This model is composed of performance
performances. Important experiences in this field are just related specifications8, namely guide and check elements for the
to the conservation and requalification of historical centres and/or performance achievement. They are correlated with suitable

Traditional architecture in Mdenine (Tunis) Tower houses in Molfetta (Italy)

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solutions9, that are particular spatial and technological solutions historical, architectural and technical system of values.
not based on values describing some demand parameters, but Therefore, the technical quality of intervention, referred to both
meeting the requirements-goals consistent with the building. the functional aspects (from the environmental comfort to the
Afterwards, the performance approaches for the refurbishment of technological equipment) and the architectural-formal, material,
the traditional historical architecture offer sufficient discretion, in static-structural leads to a proper quality of all the involved
relation with the peculiar features of the buildings subjected to choices and the solutions the proposition of materials and
the reuse, and freedom about the valuable applications for the technologies featuring the existing building is obviously suitable
achievement of the expected quality result. They are based upon and to a relation quality the building may keep the formal,
a process at progressive stages, since the definition of a system technical and structural frame and so a substantial homogeneity.
of uses a set of the technical and technological choices coming This is valuable beyond any philosophical-cultural evaluation
from the demand scheme and the performance aims - and a about the efficacy of the chosen approach for the conservation of
system of values a set of the bonds to the transformation the historical-architectural system of values.
imposed by the architecture to preserve its own identity - until the The above mentioned issues, coming from the contemporary
definition of adequate criteria and methods, through a debate on the refurbishment of the historical architecture, explain
congruence control to ensure a contemporary building quality of the wide use of traditional techniques, in contrast with the
use and a conservation of the historical nature of the traditional employment of modern materials and technologies that have
7 building heritage. been widely and uncritically adopted, over the recent and remote
Afterwards, the operative ways to meet the pointed out past, without an adequate preliminary control in depth upon the
requirements, sometimes explained with suitable solutions, can be induced effects.
referred to both traditional methods and modern use of On the other hand, this evidence hasnt to obstruct the innovation
historical materials, techniques and structural elements as well as within the building refurbishment. A new balance between space,
to innovative technological approaches, through the integration preserved materials and new functional and technological
between construction tradition and innovation. The table 1 shows elements has to be achieved that is a preservation tool, rather than
a possible scheme of a performance approach for the a futile need of modernity, in order to link the tradition (when it
refurbishment of the historical traditional architecture. cannot meet specific requirements) and the contemporary world.
The main goal is not the transformation of the building, but the
The technological innovation for the quality connection between the performance requirements and the
In accordance with the experiences over the last decades, the conservation of its authenticity and original structural language,
employment of traditional methods and materials within the through the employment of evolved products and systems that are
refurbishment of the traditional architecture can be considered as able to face appropriately the lack of performance of buildings
appropriate on the whole, with a valuable congruence between that are realised with traditional techniques, but cannot be
the system of uses due to the requirement reference and the recovered with them. This approach may not concern a useless

Reinforcements of vaults by FRP

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Logic scheme of a possible performance approach for the refurbishment of the


historical traditional architecture.

and counterproductive rule, but a choice capability for those systems, with high technological content and morphological-
situations where the employment of modern materials and technological compatibility, that are able to perform good
technologies may be more suitable in order to respect the durability, mechanical resistance, aptitude to maintenance and to
comprehensive building characteristics: sometimes and for specific integrate with traditional materials, elements and techniques. It
problems, the historical architecture seems to accept better the also concerns the adaptation and improvement of the
insertion of light technologies, for instance the more advanced performance and quality characteristics related to the traditional
ones (aimed to integrate rather than to replace), rather than existing products, widely experimented within the building sector.
heavy interventions, traditionally applied to the building For instance, the Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) have been
practice over the last decades and connected to methods and employed to have the existing building comply with the new
techniques of substitution and reconstruction. safety standards and the unexpected stresses, as those ones
However, the innovation is not only be related to materials and produced by an earthquake, even if a great care is necessary,

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because the experimentations are very limited and the calculation


and analysis models are not completely set, especially for the
reinforcement of masonries, where the employment of composite
materials is quite recent. The FRP show many advantages. They
use small quantity of material, in terms of thickness and weight.
They are removable and easy to apply. They dont change the
original behaviour of the structures, as they work after the tensile
resistance of the element has been exceeded. Beyond the general
operative modalities, a wide range of applications can be foreseen
for the reinforcement of arches and vaults (in order to let these
structures withstand tensile strains as they are subjected to
combined compressive and bending stress) or for the bandaging
of masonries or single building elements (in order to avoid the
damage produced by lacking connections between walls). The
above mentioned issues underline that the FRP for the structural
reinforcement may be more effective and less intrusive for the
7 conservation of the material and architectural features than other
materials and technologies, apparently more connected with the
construction tradition.
The resolution of problems related to the indoor lighting when the
building arrangement obstructs the access of natural light is
another example where innovative approaches and procedures are
more effective than traditional methods within the conservation of
the historical architecture. In fact, the most traditional solution,
namely the transformation of the existing openings and/or the
realisation of new ones, is also the least suitable because of the
Scheme of lighting system based on the fibre optic technology
historical and architectural bonds. On the contrary, the
employment of light integration systems, for instance those ones
based on picking up and transferring the natural light flow, may
offer more interesting solutions: from the light chimneys,
traditional solutions that are architecturally congruent, until the
highly innovative light carriers10, that are able to pick up and
transport the solar light into the rooms with internally reflective
pipes. Fibber optic systems may also allow interesting innovative
solutions and future developments to carry the natural light into
the building11. The natural lighting system based on the fibre optic
technology is able to provide the environment with a kind of
lighting at the same spectrum of the natural light. The produced
lighting is directly dependent by the external one and its intensity
changes by changing the external one as well. So it follows the
natural cycle12.
With reference to the previous examples, a choice between
traditional methods and innovative solutions is still possible. On
the contrary, in case of technological equipment of the historical
architecture, in terms of fixtures and fittings not previously set, the
same possibility doesnt exist. So, within this field, the innovation
is related to more advanced systems and products able to face the
technological complexity to provide the building with adequate
safety and comfort standards, by means of the integration among
Solar collector panel the technological networks and the conservation of the

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and Adaptive Reuse Applications for Architects and Engineers, Wiley


architecture and material structure. In this case, the innovation
WATT, D. S., 1999, Building pathology: principles and practice, Blackwell Publishing.
may support the well known methodological approaches aimed to
minimize the disturb induced by the technological devices,
particularly within the diffuse historical architecture where the
attention to the original artefacts is lower than to the monumental
buildings. The diffusion of automation systems seems to offer 1 The integrated conservation can be defined as the result of the combined action
interesting perspectives. For instance, new transmission systems of between restoration techniques and research of appropriate functions (ICOMOS,
Amsterdam Declaration, 1975).
information, data and control can reduce the necessary
2 Montagna R., The effectiveness of building dispositions for the safeguard of
canalizations and the relative masonry works. The Bus systems are
formal quality for the built environment (in Italian Lefficacia della normativa
an example that accomplishes multiple tasks related to the energy edilizia ai fini della tutela della qualit formale del costruito), in Edilizia Popolare
management and control for contemporary residential and tertiary n.250 4-5/97, Rome; De Tommasi G., Fatiguso F., Napoli F., Fulfilment of building
functions. Instead of independent and diversified technological standards in the refurbishment of historical housing. General issues and conform
examples in Proceedings of 10th International Scientific Conference Integrated
devices, the new system uses a signal line (BUS), in order to Protection of the Built Heritage Tusnad 2001, Tusnad 6-12/05/2001,
exchange information and to supply the energy. This signal line is Transylvanian Monument Restorers Society.
composed of a cable which all the system devices are connected 3 For instance, in Italy a room is habitable if seven standards (Surface, Dimensional
to in parallel. The directed waves systems are also effective signal Ratio in Plan, Height, Volume, Internal Quote from the Street, Ventilation, and
transmission methods (transmission at high frequency by existing Lighting) are satisfied that have been exclusively expressed by absolute numerical
variables. 7
carriers belonging to the electric installation), as well as the
4 The survey has been carried on some communes in the province of Bari, in Apulia,
wireless systems (transmission by radio waves or infrared rays) that
where the basic building type is composed of elementary cells, arranged as
allow an intelligent management of the building and an tower houses, developed on different floors with separated accesses and
intercommunication network arrangement among several systems connected in two opposite series to shape double comb blocks.

without any sort of wiring13. 5 The Laboratories of Quarter of Otranto, Bari, Rome and Cosenza lasted from 1981
until 1995. The pilot experiences of the Laboratories of Historical centres were
equally interesting that were instituted by Sardinia Region in order to activate
management and preservation tools for all the several small traditional historical
settlements widespread over the territory.
References 6 Among the Refurbishment Handbook, the first is the Restoration Reference
Book in 1977 within the Laboratory of the Associazione Intercomunale
AA.VV., 2002, Costruire sostenibile lEuropa, ed. Alinea, Firenze Pescarese.; then, the Refurbishment Handbook of Rome in 1989, the
Refurbishment Handbook of Citt di Castello in 1992, the Refurbishment
AA.VV., 2001, Costruire sostenibile il Mediterraneo, ed. Alinea, Firenze
Handbook of Neapolitan construction traditional techniques in 1994, the
AA.VV., 1994, Abitazione, riuso e qualit della progettazione: studio di un caso. Refurbishment Handbook of Palermo in 1994; finally, the handbooks referred
Elementi per lanalisi esigenziale-prestazionale nel riuso conservativo edilizio, Ed. to Matera, Ortigia, Umbria and other ones. We highlight the Catalogue of
Edipuglia, Bari. Typologies and Architectural Elements of Umbria Region that with the Model
BLUM A., 2002, HQE2R Susteinable Renovation of Buildings for Susteinable of Building Regulation for Refurbishment constitutes the basic reference for the
Neighbourhood, SB02 Conference, 23-25 September 2002 urban and building requalification of historical areas in Umbria Region.
7 G. De Tommasi, Performance qualities for the refurbishment of the historical serial
CATERINA G., 1997, Gestire la qualit del recupero edilizio urbano, Ed. Maggioli,
Rimini. building. A methodological approach for a practice code (in Italian Qualit
prestazionali per il recupero delledilizia storica seriale. Un approccio
CROCI G., 1998, The conservation and structural restoration of architectural heritage, metodologico per un codice di pratica), Adda Editore, Bari, 2001
Computational Mechanics publications, copyr. Southampton
8 The performance specifications are the operative contents of the model and
DE MATTEIS L., 2003, Recupero edilizio e qualit del progetto, Primalpe, Cuneo. contain the basic concepts to meet the considered requirements. Their structure
DE TOMMASI G., 2001, Qualit prestazionali per il recupero delledilizia storica seriale. is composed of a description-performance proposition and a procedure scheme:
Un approccio metodologico per un codice di pratica, Adda editore, Bari the former expresses the performance quality goal, the lower limit values of
numerical parameters that involve the requirement meeting, the criteria to verify
FOSTER L., 1997, Acces to the Historic Environment, Donhead, Shaftesbury.
the performance quality when to respect the pointed out standards is impossible;
GERMAN M. L., 1995, La qualita del recupero edilizio, ed. Alinea, Firenze. the latter, arranged in a block diagram, allows, since the control of one or more
demand parameters, to check the possible achievement of the performance
HARRIS, S. Y., 2001, Building pathology: deterioration, diagnostics and intervention,
quality, by means of both the satisfaction of the pointed out prescription and
IMPERADORI M., 2001, Costruire sul costruito : tecnologie leggere nel recupero edilizio, alternative ways chosen by the designer.
Carocci Roma
9 A suitable solution is a solution not necessary copied by the proposed model, but
MECKLER, M., 1996, Improving indoor air quality through design, operation and that meets the basic features and give equivalent performance values, even if with
maintenance, Fairmont London Prentice-Hall Int., Lilburn, GA, some differences from the model.
MONTAGNA, R. (a cura di), 1999, Normative edilizie e forme del costruito, ed. CLUA, 10 Beyond commercial solutions (Solatube Systems), an interesting research, namely
Ancona. ARTHELIO (Intelligent and energy-optimized lighting system based on the
RABUN S. J., 2000, Structural Analysis of Historic Buildings: Restoration, Preservation, combination of daylight and the artificial light of sulphur lampos (JOR3-CT97-

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0177) Joule II_RES Non-Nuclear Energy Programme) focused upon an innovative


picking up, carriage and diffusion system of the natural light combined with the
artificial one. Mingozzi A., Bottiglioni S., Indoor Lighting with natural light carriers
(in Italian Illuminamento di ambienti interni mediante condotti di luce naturale), in
Lucchini A., The innovative roofs, (in Italian Le coperture innovative) ed. Il Sole 24
ore, Milano 2000; Bottiglioni S., Innovative systems for the natural light picking
up and carriage: the European Project Arthelio, in AA.VV., Sustainable
Construction the Europe, ed. Alinea, Firenze 2002.
11 The natural lighting system based on the fibre optics technology has been studied
and experimented within the projects SPECTRUM and The Sunflowers.
SPECTRUM Solar Power Exploitation by Collecting end Transportation by fibre
optic to Remote Utilisation Modules - Joule European Project (J0R3 CT97 0188
C) is a research programme by CEO in Florence; The Sunflowers is an Italian
programme by CEO. F. Francini and alii, Solar system for the exploitation of the
whole collected energy in Press on Optics and Laser in Engineering 39/2 233-246
(2003).
12 The light picked up from a manifold and carried by the fibre cab be spread over
the environment, for instance, by means of an artificial window (a translucent
glass diffuser surface located close to the real window as a natural enlargement)
or some terminal elements on the ceiling; both the systems can also be employed
in an additional way, in order to optimize the natural lighting of the space.
7 13 A real application of technological integration and automation principles has
been realized within the refurbishment of the abandoned village of Colletta di
Castelbianco (Italy), transformed by architect Giancarlo De Carlo into a
telematics town.

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Notes on the rehabilitation Carlo Atzeni


Civil Engineer
and reuse of traditional and historical Professor in the Department of Architecture
architectural heritage of the University of Cagliari,
Italy

Reuse in architecture is a historically widespread practice directed


at built objects which, despite no longer responding to the original
demands for which they were constructed, still allow (subject to
processes of modification) adaptation to new functions. In
general, the concept of reuse is associated with a long-term
interpretation of the architecture.
The life of a building tends to be marked by periodic episodes of
modification (simple repairs, extensions or partial demolitions,
changes of use, review of function, etc.) that reflect changes in
society and its demands. These modifications go to define the
historical course of buildings, but they can also be regarded as 7
critical moments that put the applicability of a fabric to the test
that is, they verify its capacity for adaptation and, implicitly, of
duration. The test of time will be too much for buildings with a
closed approach that does not respond to new expectationsthat
is, buildings that remain static or inert in the face of changes to
their conditions of use. Furthermore, there is no disputing the fact
that the older a building is, the more likely that its original
structure is no longer intact and that its initial function will give
way to others1, and this is valid for both anonymous, current
buildings and their historical and artistic counterparts. The latter,
with their indisputable historical and artistic value are Serrenti, rehabilitation and reuse of Corda House as an arts centre and municipal
library (project: Antonello Sanan and Alessio Bellu)
characterized by a meaning and recognizability associated with a
specific function in the collective memory (one example, though
not the only one, is the case of religious buildings).
By way of example, many Roman amphitheatres in Italy, Spain or
France were absorbed in the Middle Ages into the urban fabric of
walled towns and transformed into habitable organisms and
Michelangelo transformed the thermae of Diocletian in Rome into traditional architecture.
the basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli, not forgetting the endless Permanence and modification are, then, complementary rather
series of extensions to the Mosque in Cordoba, ending with the than opposing concepts. Modification inevitably follows
conversion of the Islamic mosque into a Catholic church by the construction and may in some cases involve traumatic
Spanish architect Hernn Ruiz the Elder in the early 16th century. consequences, but the identity of a work with personality and
These are just the best-known cases in the history of architecture. character will in the long term be reinforced rather than
The continuity between the sequence of changes and the original questioned.
act of construction or, to put it another way, the conservation of Consequently, the practice of transformation forms an integral
the buildings own identity, according to Moneo, is possible thanks part of the evolutionary process of all architecture and is possible
to the permanence of the disciplinary principles established by only by means of recognition and respect for the original nature
the architect at the moment of construction and is unaffected by of the fabric, because architecture that is clearly defined will
modifications to the actual building, provided these principles are always be open to new interventions that indefinitely extend the
sufficiently solid2 and valid. It is interesting to note that this life of a building3. Modification is, then, the most valid
consideration is still valid if we replace the word architect, instrument for ensuring its permanence.
historically representing the idea of highbrow architecture, with Nonetheless, reuse presupposes a cessation in the continuity of
the word builder, referring to built rather than designed historical- use of the building4, an interruption in the activities carried out,

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awaiting a possible new fate. Rather than a reductive paraphrase Magnano Lampugnani, could be defined as the model
interpretation as [...] a simple change of use5, reuse can be seen of maintenance and continuity, as opposed to a more ephemeral,
as the bridge that re-establishes continuity between the past and short-lived model such as the case of replacement9.
present of the existing building.
Conceptually, modification constitutes the essence of reuse, as Now, the rehabilitation project constitutes an act of foresight,
indeed it involves a transformation, a veritable metamorphosis of reading and interpreting the main characteristics of the existing to
the existing. The presence and absence of continuity do not simply plan its potential for reuse in the near future.
go together, they actual form an indivisible relation6. In the life The motivations behind rehabilitating buildings are, firstly, of an
of a building, its reuse coincides with a crisis of loss of the values economic nature, which might be summarized thus: [...] since it
that hitherto underpinned its meaning and existence. Reuse was not possible to construct new buildings, work was carried out
involves assigning the existing construction a new system of values on the existing structures10, though in keeping with Riegls
and meanings, different to what went before, which is why this is definition of the unintentional monument [...] we must not
not always possible7. Reuse must, then, be seen as a dynamic forget that history, for at least 50 years, has valued them as
instrument by means of which the pluralities of past and, most sources of material testimony, especially if they are many and
probably, future successive uses become stratified, intersect and widespread. Therefore, suppressing a building or a part of it
establish a rapport8, not simply as a change in function. amounts to erasing a page in the life of society that has been
7 The building boom that hit Italy in the late 1950s, along with the passed down by the material itself11. And this is even more valid
need for post-war reconstruction, population growth, the in the case of popular architecture; despite as a rule having no
industrial development of cities and the resulting phenomena of design documents, it recounts its history, from the twofold
migration to them, decreed the depreciation of existing built viewpoint of continuity and mutation, by means of the built work
heritage. The idea that had until then governed the ongoing logics itself. Indeed, [...] it is necessary to see spaces and their
of maintenance, repair and reuse of pre-modern architecture, was subsequent transformations as a precious, irreplaceable book
supplanted by the economic reasoning behind new constructions, which, by means of materials and the configuration given to them
mainly associated with industrialized technology and the mass by the people who lived there, tells of the change in use and social
production of construction materials and elements. At the time, it balance more effectively even than a drawing, and justifies the
was probably more convenient to build new constructions than to choice of continuing to inhabit these spaces and the decision to
conserve and reuse old buildings, due to the rapid disappearance conserve them12.
of the professionals who conserved the technological and building The historical period in which we live is going through a moment
expertise of traditional practice. of reflection on the choices made and possible new paths, and is
The passage from the second to the third millennium has seen characterized by an increasing exhaustion of resources. This
many changes in the conditions that most directly influence the
relation between space and society; this is a period in which
population growth is undergoing a reverse trend, with zero birth
rates. The buildings constructed in the last 40 years have aged
suddenly, unexpectedly and probably to a larger extent than
traditional constructions. Today, large and medium-sized city
centres are coming up against a sadly chronic lack of development
land and, as a result, the displacement of inhabitants towards the
centregiving rise to a new distribution from old towns to city
outskirtsseems irremediably blocked or, perhaps, about to be
reversed. In short, the phase of unbridled expansion that cities
experienced in the second half of the 20th century seems to be set
to undergo a radical inflection: the city, in a wealthy, ageing
society, seeks within itself newor old?places in which to live,
and quality in the installations far outweighs quantity.
All this, along with communities manifest need to discover and
re-appropriate their cultural roots, generates interest in the built
historical fabric.
From this viewpoint, the recovery-reuse binomial once again Gonnosn, rehabilitation and reuse of a traditional house as a House Museum
becomes the operative instrument of a cultural model which, to (project: Maurizio Manias and Franceschino Serra)

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requires us to place the issue of saving, in the broadest sense, at little more of our cities every day, the foremost parameter in the
the centre of debate and research, bearing in mind that [...] evaluation of a project has to be its ability to respect and use
producing to consume and then throw away means waste. And existing resources15.
waste is precisely what we cannot afford in a world affected by Modification as a result of reuse of existing buildings, and
mountains of waste products and worried about its limited particularly of the project in consolidated areas, though not
resources13. necessarily reuse in the strict sense, once again sets forth the
These are just some of the substantial reasons pushing us towards dualism between old and new, especially due to the technological
a definitive awareness that our existing built heritage is of great progress that is now radically changing the languages of
cultural value. It is, however, without the slightest doubt, an architecture.
economic resource, an important added value, which at present In these cases, the critical act of the project necessarily has
we are allowing to fall into disrepair and have to revalorize as soon dialectical contents: the new has to affirm its own project identity
as possible. without prejudice to the pre-existing. The project mandate is to
Conversely, the terms of the urgency of the reuse of a building can establish a nexus between old and new. The relation should not
be inverted, as Corboz provocatively posits, in which case [...] it be one of antagonism, because [...] the project is constructed
is necessary to declare the need to destroy rather than the need to with different parts, some that are by necessity new and others
conserve [...]14. that existed beforehand. Bringing the two together will not
The rehabilitation project, potentially part of the rich vein of the involve a unitary composition; it will be an attempt to achieve a 7
built project, has to address a plural system of links, since it level of quality analogous to what existed before16. That which
addresses a built organism that is there to be reused. On the one is already present will guide the course of modification when
hand, for the project, the building is a physical, material place in these levels are defined, to then extract the vital lymph. In other
terms of its architecture and construction and a virtual place by words, the designer has the difficult task of understanding the
virtue of its historical, evocative dimension. At the same time, the complexity of the old building and then defining the modifications
new use presents demands that are linked to the restructuring of accordingly.
the building. In his interesting essay Del contraste a la analoga, Ignasi de Sol-
A good rehabilitation project, then, has to be able to choose Morales further clarifies the connection between old and new in
suitable new functions for old buildings that are compatible with the recovery project, indicating that [...] a new architecture is
their original essence. The equation that simply balances the reuse physically close and relates visually and spatially to the existing,
of the old building with the new function is meaningless, as it but it also establishes a real interpretation of the historical
expresses something that is impossible. In the face of the material. This material, of which the architecture is comprised,
continual destruction of resources and memories that is erasing a becomes the object of a veritable interpretation that, explicitly or
implicitly, accompanies the new intervention in its overall
significance17.

Analogy and contrast or similarity and difference18, to use well-


known binomials, are ultimately the ciphers of the recovery project
in which tradition and innovation come together and are
stratified. The cognitive approachthe diagnosis project
referred to above is a vital preliminary instrument to undertaking
this comparison. It reduces the random component without
actually eliminating it19, and is unable to deterministically codify
the actions of the design phase. Since each case insists on its own
individual dignity and the very plurality of cases generates the
complexity of urban systems, this complexity cannot be extended
to methodological generalizations and simplifications derived
exclusively from typology. It must be said, however, that
typological taxonomy, if correctly usedand this will depend on
the choice of the parameters of evaluationcan be an important
instrument of support to the project in defining the criteria of
Albagiara, historical traditional house set in an urban revitalization programme, interpretation and comprehension of its own complexity.
before its rehabilitation We are aware of the difficulty today of referring to a theory of

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Notes on the rehabilitation and reuse of traditional and historical architectural
heritage

rehabilitation or of more general comparison between existing intervention is not contemporary24. This process preserves the
and new that is univocally accepted. It is, nonetheless, necessary recognizability of the intervention desired by the restorers, though
to assume that the contemporary project culture has for some with different budgets and purposes, and is, ultimately, one of the
time now addressed the existing in the joint form of conservation basic requirements for the success of the dialectic project
and modification, allowing the principles of the restoration referred to25.
discipline to coexist with the need for autonomy required by the
architecture project20. Without relinquishing the charm of The middle way between conservation and modification
ambiguity in the contrast between the old and the new, it is represents the leading thread of the rehabilitation project, which
possible to substitute for the habitual trio of restoration, reuse, has the mandate of establishing the degree of prevalence of either
conservation, a more up-to-date, judicious approach: restoration, approach. This serves to free up rehabilitation from historical
reuse, transformation21.
Homogenous methodological instruments are lacking, but it is still
possible to compare certain operative criteria.
One such is the principle of minimum intervention22, which
represents the principal link regulating the rehabilitation project
and reuse, with an approach inspired by cultural stances on the
7 conservation of the historical document. According to this
principle, pre-existing elements should only be modified if it is
necessary to the new function. From a technical and material
viewpoint, this means addressing problems of degradation by
means of the priority choice of conservation rather than gratuitous
substitution.

Another element in defence of the unique, unrepeatable nature of


each existing building, in its historical and material dimension, is
the principle of reversibility of interventions23.
According to this principle, the rehabilitation-reuse project must
not be regarded as definitive; it should, rather, adopt a stance that
leaves the way open to reflection on the choices made and enable
the removal of what has been added without denaturing or
irremediably damaging the original building. In this light, the issue
of compatibility acquires a decisive role. It must be approached at
two different scales. The first, as explained above, refers to the
bonds that the old building imposes on the choice of the new
function or, to invert the terms of the question, the degree of
modification that the change imposes on the existing building.
This ultimately means considering the level of analogy between
the demands manifested by the preceding and following
functions. The second is more directly associated with
implementation, but is nonetheless important. It concerns the
possibility of using present-day materials and techniques in the
historical fabric. The requirement of reversibility and the difficulty
of ensuring that techniques and materials from different time
periods coexist harmoniously go hand in hand and suggest the
advisability of systematizing in a building only lightweight and
removable elements, whose points of anchorage are independent
of the structure into which they are introduced [...]. It is not
advisable to try and conceal the means of adaptation; they
Albagiara, floor plan, sections and elevations of the project for rehabilitation and
introduce a refreshing tension, preferable by far to the habitual reuse of a historical traditional house as a rural culture documentation centre for
cunning which consists in trying to convince observers that the the region of La Marmilla (project: Carlo Atzeni, Maurizio Manias and Silvia Mocci)

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meaning of the historical architecture or the intentions of the new intervention.


disciplinary prejudices that do not admit of its propositive value
Ignasi de Sol-Morales, Dal contrasto allanalogia. Trasformazioni nella
and accept technology as one of its principal conceptual and concezione dellintervento architettonico, in Lotus International, no. 46, p. 37.
operative instruments. 8 In the buildings of the past that are subjected to constant variations of use, the
old and the new combine. Original, almost intact constructions, preserved for
reasons of economy or out of respect, are found set in more recent buildings;
exposed or concealed beneath its rendering; or perhaps just fragments show of
architectural forms modelled by the superposition of functions and meanings in
new uses. When the system of relations that generates the architectural form
1 Andr Corboz, Vecchi edifici per nuove funzioni, in Lotus International, no.13, breaks down, the latter, testifying to the autonomous, unpredictable nature of its
p. 76. lifetime, may conserve fragments of the original meaning or, rather, generate new
ones. Alberto Ferlenga, Separazioni, in Casabella, no. 717-718.
2 Rafael Moneo, La vita degli edifici e la moschea di Cordoba, in La solitudine
9 Insisting on the dimension of durability in the project means imposing a series of
degli edifici e altri scritti - Questioni intorno allarchitettura. Allemandi. Turin-
London, 1999, p. 132. conditions on its suppositions, methods and results. It means above all choosing
between two antithetical models of production: the replacement model and the
3 Rafael Moneo, Op. cit., p. 155.
maintenance model [...] Proposing a lasting project evidently means choosing the
4 [...] reuse [...] implicitly means the existence of interruption to continuityan latter [...]. Vittorio Magnago Lampugnani, Ricambio or manutenzione?, in
interruption in use. In fact, when an intervention of reuse takes place, it is the Lotus International, no. 46.
continuity of use that is lost, manifesting an irremediable interruption. If it were 10 Andr Corboz, Op. cit., p. 68.
to continue, there would be nothing to reuse, because reuse, in a context of
11 Alberto Grimoldi, Architettura come riparazione, Note sul restauro in
continuity, is, quite simply, use [...]. Marco Biraghi, La via del riuso, in
Casabella, no. 672, p. 15. architettura, in Lotus International, no. 46, p. 118. 7
5 Marco Biraghi, Op. cit., p. 15. 12 Alberto Grimoldi, Op. cit., p. 118.

6 Marco Biraghi, Op. cit., p. 15. 13 Vittorio Magnano Lampugnani, Op. cit.

7 The relation between new architecture and existing architecture is a 14 Andr Corboz, Op. cit., p. 72.

phenomenon that changes according to the cultural values attributed to the 15 Alberto Grimoldi, Op. cit., p. 118.

Albagiara, view of the project of rehabilitation and reuse of a historical traditional


house as a rural culture documentation centre for the region of La Marmilla
(project: Carlo Atzeni, Maurizio Manias and Silvia Mocci)

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16 Alberto Grimoldi, Op. cit., p.120.

17 Ignasi de Sol-Morales, Op. cit., p. 37.

18 Ignasi de Sol-Morales, Op. cit., p. 44. Somiglianza e differenza. La


trasformazione dei mulini di Murcia di Juan Navarro Baldeweg is the title of an
essay by Luca Ortelli published in Lotus International, no. 59.
19 In the opinion of Ignasi de Sol-Morales, instrumental knowledge of the object
does not remove the risk element from the project [], Op. cit., p. 42.
20 In Grimaldis opinion, the existing structure is the material that sustains the
project. He writes: Becoming aware of the need for replacement, on the basis of
the consistency of the construction materials, their ability to stand up to
atmospheric agents or bear a weight, signifies for the architect the possibility of
influencing social relations, of not being a mere designer of ideologies. This
matter, which proves the consistency and dimension of resources, becomes the
framework of reference, the established context in which the project finds a
space, in Op. cit., p. 118.
21 Marco Casamonti, Trasformazioni, Editorial of rea, no. 45, monograph on
Restauro, riuso, trasformazioni.
22 Andr Corboz, Op. cit., p. 72.

23 Andr Corboz, Op. cit., p. 72.


7
24 Andr Corboz, Op. cit., p. 76.

25 On this theme, the German architect expressed some interesting considerations in


reference to his work in an interview with Giovanni Leoni published in rea no.
45: I proceed according to successive strata, in an intervention that is
interpretative in nature. I try to insert my architecture by accepting the dimensions
and rules dictated by the original and creating the sensation of a reversible
intervention. But the changes modify the entire building. There are no formulas,
no science. Disregarding the languages used, what is important is that the
building can once again be a whole rather than a sum of parts [...] However, as I
do not proceed by formal imitation, I am necessarily dealing with a dialectic unity,
the product of the combined presence of different languages. Mine is an abstract,
not a figurative language; the recovery of an essence of tradition according to a
plane of abstraction.

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Rehabilitating and building using Bernard Maury


Doctor of Architecture
traditional materials. Institut franais d'archologie orientale du Caire,
The Egyptian experience Egypt

Principally in Cairo, but also in Syria and the Yemen, the Mission
franaise pour la Sauvegarde du Patrimoine architectural has often
been called upon to undertake major rehabilitation or restoration
work, in view of the very poor state of conservation of some
buildings: subsiding floors, collapsed walls and ceilings that were
propped up or had already fallen in made it impossible to use
premises. Added to this were varying degrees of modifications
that had occurred over the centuries.
Faced with this state of heritage, various questions arise: what
should be done? What should be kept? Which elements can be
suppressed? What kind of work should be undertaken? 7
The initial intervention to be undertaken when rehabilitating a
monument is archaeological: restoring the monument to its
original condition, or as near as possible, in architectural,
structural and decorative aspects. The second is to determine the
kind of work required to rehabilitate the monument in question.

I. Our protection policy

1. Respect for the place


Restoration work has always been guided by respect for premises North faade of the courtyard of Harawi house restored using old stone

and a constant attempt to return them to their original condition.


Once the archaeological study is complete, it is necessary to define
the nature of work and, in particular, the different types of
materials to be used. A list of those used in the construction of the 2. Finding old techniques and materials
building should be drawn up as part of the archaeological study. For restoration work to be entirely satisfactory, it is necessary to
It now remains to implement them. find the old techniques and, above all, the materials used to build
The wide range of different modern materials currently available the original construction, in an attempt to ensure homogeneity.
on the market may seem to have simplified the problem of Corresponding to each stage of work is a series of basic questions
restoration, and there is a strong temptation to use these materials about restoration, centring in three areas: the use of quality
without proper judgement to restore old buildings. materials, the competence of the workers and funding. In many
This situation calls for a very careful approach; we have seen the cases, however, it is unfortunately the third point, the financial
upheaval caused by the advent of cement, 150 years ago, and, as aspect, that conditions the first two.
a consequence, of concrete, with the resulting craze they
produced, and can appreciate the technical achievements they
have generated. II. The materials
But we have also witnessed the catastrophes it brought about in
old buildings everywhere: fissuring after repairing stone walls with 1. Stone
breeze blocks, salinization and shattering of stones after applying A technical study of various samples taken from the buildings in
cement mortar bonds, swelling of renders after applying a cement question showed that the original stone used in 17th- and 18th-
coating to a brick wall, and so on. Many people, from lack of century Cairo to construct buildings was a stone of excellent
knowledge, have turned to this rapid mixture, thinking that quality. Pinkish in colour, this limestone called gebel ahmar (red
cement was the miracle solution to building problems. stone) has an excellent compression coefficient and is damp

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resistant. However, the quarries had been unworked for a long 4. Mortars and coatings
time, probably because the seams had been exhausted. The examination of mortars showed that they were all lime-based.
In Egypt in the 1980s, the only stone used in restoration was a The same was true of the renderings which, in some cases,
poor quality white stone quarried in Hlouan, near Cairo. In both comprised a mixture of lime and gypsum, with up to 80%
aesthetic and technical terms, this stone was inadmissible. gypsum.
We insisted to those responsible that an identical or very similar However, the main problem with mortars and renderings was how
stone should be found to the one that was principally used in to combat the use of cement. The drawbacks of using a mortar of
construction in Cairo in the Ottoman period. It was in vain, this type when building a stone wall are well known.
however; the possibility of opening a new quarry was beyond our Unfortunately, this practice was still very widespread in the 1980s
means. in Egypt and other nearby countries, and it was difficult at the
But the idea lingered, and our insistence on using the stone called time to convince the artisan workers of the danger of using this
gebel ahmar in restoration work later bore fruit. Ten years later, kind of mortar. The result was that, due to the lack of demand,
when the Mission franaise undertook another case of restoration lime was practically non-existent on the Egyptian market.
in Cairo, the demand for gebel ahmar had grown to the extent
that new quarries had opened and were commercializing it.
The solution used in our first restoration job was, then, to buy
7 stone salvaged from non-listed 19th-century buildings that were
being demolished. This solution was, of course, cheaper
Dressed to the dimensions we required, this stone was the same
colour as ours and, most importantly, had the same mechanical
characteristics, allowing us to include it in old walls without
creating differential tension or shear stress in the event of
overload.

2. Brick
The problems with brick were slightly different, in that old bricks,
comprising a mixture of clay and poorly fired ash, were full of
mineral salts as a result of rising damp. This material was difficult
to salvage, as the texture of the brick had become friable, and it
was necessary to look for an alternative material.
We then looked at the possibility of using locally produced fired
bricks of similar dimensions and technical characteristics to the Use of new materials (metal girders) to reinforce old structures
ones we needed. Tests were carried out, with the conclusion that
this type of brick could, as in the case of the stone, be used to
repair old walls without creating differential tensions or shearing.
It was subsequently used throughout the site.

3. Wood
The problem of timber was also addressed with great care: a
general study showed that most of the buildings joinery had been
made using Douglas pine, called azzizi in Egypt. In the 1980s, this
type of timber, long imported from Turkey, came from northern
Europe. The quality, however, though similar, was not satisfactory.
As in the case of stone, we turned to beams salvaged from 19th-
century buildings that were being demolished. Once reworked,
these beams provided an excellent timber that was very healthy
and had over a century of seasoning. The joinery was restored
without problems, the old and the new timbers working together
in perfect harmony.
Detail of restoration of the meshrebeeyeh in Sennari house

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Our search in the capital produced quick lime that we had to fetch After carefully studying this case, the chosen solution was to
in bulk directly from the kiln. This was the solution we chose. introduce a metal structure into the thickness of the structural
Although lime-slaking is a long and difficult task, the resulting floor to relieve the old timber beams. This was possible thanks to
quality is excellent, producing remarkable results in both rebuilt the thick infilling between the joists and the flooring.
stone-wall structures and faade renderings. In another case, perhaps the solution of concrete reinforcement
When we worked on a second restoration project in Cairo, in would have been preferable
1995, lime had come into its own. Although several varieties were
not available, one type was commercialized in sacks, in powder
form. III. Important

5. New materials: steel, stainless steel, concrete, tar There is no such thing as a model solution in restoration; each case
The state of buildings, and particularly the new function of these must be considered and studied individually.
monuments, may call for the use of complementary materials Furthermore, new materials are only used to reinforce an element
with certain conditions! or structure. They work under cover and must not be noticeable
Let us take the example of a subsiding floor in a large mansion. It when work is completed. In this case, it is vital to dissociate the
comprises timber joists supporting a heavy limestone flooring. old and the new structure, to enable them to work separately
Now, the underside of this structural floor is decorated and must (problems of deflection, dilatation, etc.), the most important issue 7
be conserved. At the same time, the structures timber beams are being to ensure that the solution adopted is invisible.
too weak to take heavy loads, making it very difficult to reuse the
premises.
This calls for reinforcement of the structural floor without
touching its under surface. In this case, the use of complementary
materials is one solution, since despite having a smaller volume,
they have greater strength.

Repair to the brick jamb of a doorway in Sennari house

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The dilemma criteria: Irene Hadjisavva-Adam


Architect
The point of view of heritage value Department of Town Planning and Housing,
Cyprus

Buildings are the necessary background for peoples activities.


They were conceived in order to cover the needs of people, both
utilitarian but also aesthetic and symbolic. The typology and
morphology of a building reflects the wisdom, mentality, means
and way-of-life of generation of people, but also the historic
evolution of the settlement, its socio-economic possibilities, its
interconnections and relations with other locations, etc. Thus, the
heritage value that a historic building encompasses is not
restricted in the mere physical or even townscape characteristics
but also more profound values, identities and testimonies.
7
But besides the landmarks or the other monuments of the
extraordinary human inspiration such as palaces, cathedrals or
other religious buildings, castles, forts, or other public buildings,
there also lies the anonymous architecture that forms a significant
part of a settlements townscape, identity or its sense or spirit of
place.

The preservation of the traditional architecture is not as self-


evident as for an important monument. Its heritage value is not
judged by the community to be of a national significance. Thus, a
building of this quality cannot be restored per se, but needs to Nicosia (Cyprus)
continue to take part in the settlements active life. However, its
physical existence and material amelioration is important for
several reasons. These can be theoretical, symbolic and abstract
such as the historical testimony that they offer, but also pragmatic.
A well preserved architectural setting is a comparative advantage in front of a dilemma: to preserve the cultural heritage embodied
in a competitive globalized world. Likewise, a building with in the structure of the historic building at any cost, or to allow the
historic, architectural and other heritage values carries additional predominance of the new use? Is there equilibrium between the
assets in terms of space quality and added value for their heritage and the economic and utilitarian value? And where
contemporary use for both residential and commercial purposes. exactly does this line lie?

Contrary to the restoration of monuments, buildings of traditional There are no recipes or standard solutions. Each and every building
architecture need to have a continuous and sustainable use. Only has a different heritage value, problems and opportunities. Thus,
when in use they can be maintained and kept alive. But not all every individual building must be judged for itself. The same
uses are appropriate for all historic buildings. On the one hand the applies for a buildings setting. Heritage values differ from country
modern needs demands the addition of new technological, to country, but even from one street to the other in the same
sanitary or other installations and amenities, the re-arrangement neighborhood. Similarly, as judgment is a subjective process, the
of the interior or addition of space. On the other hand, modern evaluation criteria for the heritage value differ from an individual
materials and techniques make the restoration process easier and to an individual. The professional, sensitive to issues of
less expensive. But these alterations, necessary for the architecture or human history and geography, sees infinite
continuation of use or for a new use, once the original has seized information and value where the ordinary man might only see
to exist or cannot correspond to the modern demands, often stone and mortar. Similarly, public institutions (e.g. Heritage
undermine the heritage value of the building. This threat brings us bodies) attribute great heritage value where the owner only

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attributes holiday value. In other cases a Local Authority might


wish to deny the existence of the heritage value of a building in
order that this gives way to new highways or squares.

Even though the judgment of the heritage value of the traditional


architecture is subjective and varies according to education,
sensitivity or financial or other interests, the responsibility for its
preservation is an objective and a requirement for all societies. This
responsibility is materialized in the legislation of each country and
reflects not only the individual societys sensibilities but also its
obligations according to the international conventions that the
country has signed.

Concerning the restoration of traditional architecture, the public


sector has a mainly regulatory and less often a pro-active role. The
initiative for its rehabilitation usually lies in the private sector that
undertakes a considerable investment and needs to get more for 7
its money than the mere preservation of heritage value. In other
words, the objective of any private investment is profit whether
this is cash revenue, or the satisfaction of a housing need. In this
sense, the attributed heritage value is seen as an obstacle for an
increase in the short-term profit that the property has to offer. For
that reason heritage values cannot depend solely on individual
judgment. In Cyprus, as in many other countries, Public
Authorities regulate the rehabilitation process of traditional
buildings by including restrictions, design guidelines or other
obligations in the Planning Permits (or Consents) for buildings that
are characterized as listed or Ancient Monuments.

The objective of these regulations is namely to help in finding the


right balance between heritage values and utilitarian values for
each individual building according to its specific qualities. Design
guidelines are focused on the material expression of these values
and also to the authenticity of the building.

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II. Reflection and the Project The criteria of intervention

Systems and equipment installations Athina Papadopoulou


Architect
challenges Conservation Architect employed by UNDP-UNOPS
for the Nicosia Master Plan,
Cyprus

The patterns of contemporary living conditions have added an


additional parameter to the challenges presented to professionals
when restoring historic buildings: that of the introduction of
mechanical, electrical and equipment installations.

Mechanical and electrical installations pose certain technical


limitations regarding their installation both in new and in historic
buildings. In newly designed buildings however, it is often the case
that the building design is adjusted according to the systems
installation needs, whereas when designing interventions for
7 restoration the systems installation should largely be adjusted
according to the restoration priorities.
Technical limitations of mechanical and electrical installations may
include anything from the diameter, length and route of a pipe, to
the location of a noisy chiller in the exterior environment of a
historic building. Usually, the floors, walls and ceilings of a
building are the most vulnerable areas for interventions by system
installations. Horizontal and vertical proposed routes for these
installations may drastically affect the structural capacity of the
historic building, but also the character and use of a space.

Omeriye Ottoman Baths, walled city of Nicosia


Equipment installations for kitchens and W.C. can also
unnecessarily strain the structure, character, authenticity and use
of a traditional building. Firstly, the location of such uses is
preferable to be done in extensions to the historic building,
especially if the original building never accommodated such uses.
Secondly, it is preferable that furniture such as kitchen counters be
as detached from the building fabric as possible, or be
incorporated in mobile units.

Quite often, a lack of sensitivity on behalf of mechanical and


electrical engineering consultants is observed during restoration of
historical buildings. Therefore, the architect as coordinator must
assume the role of promoting multidisciplinary work in order to
safeguard the application of internationally accepted restoration
principles in favor of the historic structure. Creative solutions may
be reached through restrictions posed by the building itself,
technical, programmatic and financial limitations.

Shadow Theatre Museum, walled city of Nicosia

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In an attempt to approach this issue we propose the following as b. Chrysaliniotissa Kindergarten project, walled city of
general strategic criteria: Nicosia
The new WC and kitchen were located in the new extension to
1. Minimal intervention on the building fabric the listed building, in order to preserve the character and
2. Minimal intervention in the surroundings of the historic relationship of spaces in the historic building.
building
3. Reversibility of the installations c. Shadow Theatre Museum, walled city of Nicosia
4. No disruption of the structural capacity of the historic building Ducts and pipes are screened by perforated metal sheets and
5. Retain the character of interior and exterior spaces placed in an easily accessible location, without disrupting the wall
6. Easily identifiable elements but aesthetically non-intrusive of the traditional building.
7. Easily accessible installations to assure inspection and avoid
damages in the case of leakages (especially for plumbing and
sewage installations)
8. Respect for pre-existing systems which may have historic or
archaeological value
9. Compatible introduction of new uses in certain spaces of a
building 7

Some examples of restoration projects in Cyprus, which have


successfully integrated systems and equipment installations, can
be seen in the restoration of (a) the Omeriye Ottoman Baths, (b)
the Chrysaliniotissa Kindergarten project and (c) the Shadow
Theatre Museum:

a. Omeriye Ottoman Baths, walled city of Nicosia


The new water supply pipes in the hot chambers were installed
at a distance of about 5cm off the outer face of the walls at the
same height of the existing terracotta pipes. The original pipes
were kept inside the mass of the stone walls as a testimony of the
buildings history since their physical condition and contemporary
water supply needs did not make it possible for their reuse.

Chrysaliniotissa Kindergarten project, walled city of Nicosia

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Rehabilitation Csar Daz Gmez


Doctor of Architecture
of structural elements Professor of the Department of Architectural Technology I,
in Traditional Mediterranean School of Architecture of Barcelona (Technical University
of Catalonia),
Architecture Spain

1. General principles 3. The functional replacement of the element by a new element


that will provide the totality of the required bearing capacity,
The wide range of techniques for application in the structural without necessarily calling for the removal of the element in
rehabilitation of traditional Mediterranean architecture calls for question.
some general principles to guide the selection of interventions to Evidently, the choice of one of these approaches depends on the
be undertaken in each different situation. Before referring to each mechanical requirements and on the capacity of the element
of the various procedures and techniques available, I will outline undergoing intervention to meet them.
the key aspects of the intervention, irrespective of the specific d. Singular interventions in buildings with special value
objective or problem to be solved. heritage
a. Knowledge and adaptation to the technological context In buildings considered cultural heritage, it is important to bear in
of the place mind other specific aspects to ensure the preservation of their
Applying specific techniques using the resources available in the genuine qualities. This is why concepts such as the reversibility of
place, in as natural a way as possible, using the knowledge and the interventions undertaken, enabling the elimination of the
experience of the sectors workers, is the fundamental priority of effects of the intervention, may be considered a priority in the 8
the choice. Furthermore, in almost all cases it will represent a choice of technique. Or, in another, more essential area, the
financial saving on the intervention in comparison with other decision to restore what exists using the original techniques,
possible solutions and, probably, increased compatibility and provided the functional application of these techniques complies
adaptation to the characteristics of the original construction with the demands of the intervention, may need no further
techniques. argument.
b. Considering the repercussions of the intervention as a
whole
It is important to remember that interventions, no matter how 2. Interventions in walls and pillars
specific their objectives, may have a variety of complementary
effects, which should be considered in our choice. For example, The materials and masonry habitually used in the thick walls of
reinforcing an exterior wall by applying an extra thickness of traditional architecture, particularly those built of earth and
sprayed concrete may also provide waterproof cladding, and the stone, have in common a low level of resistance to the tensions
addition of a reinforced compression slab to a floor structure may of traction and shearing, and alterability in contact with water
also make it more soundproof. It is also necessary, however, to due to the high permeability of earth or of many of the mortars
consider the possible negative effects of the intervention, such as used.
modifying spaces by adding summers or pillars, or the future need According to these particularities, we can deduce some general
for specific maintenance operations for added elements. It is, guidelines for intervention in these elements, which, together
then, particularly advisable to consider all of these effects, with the above, condition the choice of repair or reinforcement
favourable and unfavourable. technique to be used in each case. Specifically, whatever
c. Clarity of the mechanical-structural approach technique is chosen, it is advisable to ensure an even distribution
When undertaking structural rehabilitation, it is advisable to of stresses in order to prevent, as far as possible, the additional
clearly specify the technical objective behind the proposed tensions of traction or shearing. It is also advisable not to increase
intervention. There are three possible approaches: compressive stress, given the difficulty of characterizing this form
1. Recovering the initial bearing capacity of the element in in most old walls by means of testing. And, finally, it may be useful
question. This is what is usually interpreted as repairing the to remember the possibility of absorbing stress by using the
damaged element. transversal plane of the wall as a resistant resource that can
2. Increasing the bearing capacity of the element in question, counteract thrusting.
usually interpreted as the reinforcement of the damaged Below is a commented list of the most habitual techniques of
element. intervention in these elements.

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a. Physical replacement of the damaged part


This consists of removing the material from the part of the element that is damaged, either by cracks, bulging or alteration, and
reconstructing it using the same material or others with similar characteristics of resistance and deformability. In walls or pillars of stone
or brick masonry, it is habitual to use the same materials in the replacement, and brick masonry tends to be used in adobe or rammed-
earth walls. In all events, the aim of the intervention is to restore the initial bearing capacity of the damaged element.
It is important to remember that this type of intervention requires the prior elimination of the cause of damage or verification that the
damage is now passive and has ceased to be a cause. During replacement work, particular attention is needed to contact between the
new and the pre-existing elements, in order to ensure the correct transmission of loads and similarity of mechanical behaviour.

b. Stitching cracks
The method consists in placing stronger, more rigid elements between the edges of the crack to act as sutures, such as metal bars, pieces
of brick masonry, etc. The aim is to restore lost continuity to the wall, so that tensions can be transmitted and once again distributed
homogeneously throughout the cracked area. To be effective, the crack must be passivethat is, the original cause of cracking must no
longer act on the area being repaired.

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c) Injections
This is another system of repairing passive fissures and cracks applicable to walls of brick or irregular coursed masonry that consists of
injecting a liquid to entirely fill the space between the edges of the opening. When it hardens and adheres to the material, this liquid
restores the continuity to the damaged element. The characteristics of the liquid, usually epoxide-based, and the pressure at which it is
introduced vary according to the materials in the wall and the size of the space to be filled. Superficial sealing prior to injecting the fissure
or crack must be able to stand the pressure of the liquid before it hardens.

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d) Repointing
This procedure involves restoring the initial strength of stone or brick masonry and consists in refilling mortar joints that have been
damaged by erosion or the effects of plant roots by introducing products of variable density or viscosity by means of gravity or infusion,
according to the technique employed.

e. Thickening using mortar or sprayed concrete


This process involves increasing the section of the damaged or undersized wall by applying layers of material (mortar or concrete) to its
facings over the incorporation of metal reinforcements joined through the wall. The reinforcement can be applied by placing formwork
parallel to the faces of the wall and discharging the concrete, by projecting the mixture against the walls once the reinforcement is in
place, or guniting. The procedure used is chosen according to the required thickness and the increase in resistance assigned to the
reinforcement. This very versatile solution can be adapted to complete wall structures, entire walls or specific stretches of a wall. This
makes it particularly appropriate for reinforcing buildings affected by seismic movements, since it increases the rigidity of the parts of the
building that require it or, as applicable, of the entire building.

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f. Ties
The purpose of ties in wall structures is usually to prevent their collapse or progressive deformation transversal to their plane by
implementing linear elements under traction called ties, generally made of steel cable and fixed to two parallel walls by special anchoring
elements to prevent separation and, consequently, the corresponding loss of resistant capacity. It is advisable to implement at least one
anchoring element that can be periodically tensed to compensate for possible extension of the tie material.

g. Abutments
The function of abutments is equivalent to that of ties, though they are practically obligatory if the building does not have sufficiently
rigid elements to absorb the specific tensions generated at the points at which ties are anchored. In these cases, the thrust of vaults,
arches or any other element that introduces stress at an angle to the walls, can be absorbed by abutments, thanks to their capacity to
transmit this action to the ground via their section. The design and dimensioning of a new abutment requires attention to the degree of
settlement needed for correct functioning.
.

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h. Strapping
The implementation of straps or hoops in buildings with closed wall structures or brick masonry or stone or brick pillars, encircling them
to make them more slender and increase their resistance, is a historically used resource that is found in many well-known old buildings,
such as the Coliseum in Rome or Italys medieval campaniles. Iron and steel are the materials traditionally used for these elements. Today,
strips of carbon fibre can provide the same function in some cases, though it is necessary to consider the effects of the adherent material
on the reinforced element.

i. Steel bar reinforcement


This is an integrated reinforcement system for stone or brick masonry walls that consists in inserting steel bars into the interior of the
wall, set in perforations of variable lengths that may be as long as several metres, thereby generating secondary bar structures inside the
walls and increasing overall strength or creating more rigid parts that can homogeneously distribute descending stress. The interface
between the steel bars and the material of the wall is filled in with an adherent compound, usually epoxy-based.

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3. Interventions in structural floors and roofs

Interventions in structural floors comprising timber beams and joists must be based on prior diagnosis of the causes of the dysfunctions,
be they the attack of biotic agents, natural shrinkage or deficiencies in the dimensioning of the floor structure in relation to the
mechanical stresses it receives. The choice of the intervention requires knowledge of future conditions of use and the need for
conservation not just of the elements treated but also of those that may be affected by the planned intervention, such as false ceilings
or floors with outstanding artisan or pictorial values.

Below is a list of the most usual forms and methods of intervention in these elements.

a. The functional replacement of beam and joist supports


Fungi and termite attacks are often concentrated in the supports of timber beams and joists, particularly when they coincide with exterior
walls, due to the special conditions of damp and darkness that converge in these points. These cases usually require the functional
replacement or reinforcement of the supports affected by the decomposition of the wood. The choice of one of the many existing
procedures must consider the degree of generalization of the problem to single joists or to a whole stretch of supports, the characteristics
of the wall on which they rest, the available techniques and the formal appearance of the chosen solution.

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b. Beam and joist reinforcements


This involves introducing new flexion elements that collaborate to absorb the stresses affecting the beam or joists that are insufficiently
dimensioned or when the effects of timber shrinkage have produced excessive deformation. The materials employed are usually timber
or steel bars, and they may be positioned at the side, above or below the element requiring reinforcement. They are positioned above if
it is necessary to conserve the appearance of the existing floor structure due to the presence of valuable paintings or false ceilings. They
are most usually positioned beneath when reinforcing joists in floor structures if it is possible to reduce the headspace of the rooms they
cover over. The side position is most commonly employed to reinforce timber beams that support entire stretches of floor structures of
joists, generally in the form of two elements joined by stud bolts through the beam in question. There are a variety of hypotheses for
dimensioning reinforcements depending on the possibility of collaboration between undersized or damaged elements and previous
deformations in order to bear the load jointly with the reinforcement.

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c. Struts
Struts are a simple, efficient solution for reducing tensions as a result of flexion introduced by overload and deformations derived from
timber shrinkage. They comprise timber or steel beams arranged crosswise to the one requiring reinforcement, dividing its span in two
or three. A solid support for the strut formed in this way is usually the determinant aspect in the choice of this solution, since it requires
bracing walls that are sufficiently resistant or, otherwise, specially built pillars with their corresponding foundations to correctly transmit
loads from the strut to the ground.

8
d. Addition of reinforced concrete slabs
The addition of reinforced concrete slabs connected to the timber joists in a structural floor is one of the most used solutions in building
rehabilitation today. Reinforcement takes the form of converting existing joists into mixed beams of timber and concrete, and the
possibility of coplanar distribution of tensions produced by flexion throughout the plane of the floor structure, increasing the overall
rigidness of the building when the new slab is joined to the thick walls around the perimeter, a measure that also improves seismic
resistance. At the same time, the addition of concrete improves the soundproofing of the floor structure. The most critical aspect is the
solution used to connect the new slab to the existing wall, since it is conditioned by the walls rigidness, cohesion and perforability, which
can be very variable and unpredictable.

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e. Specific interventions in roof frameworks and trusses


The fact that these elements are the most exposed to damp often points to the advisability of replacing them. They may however be
reinforced if their general condition, size or an interest in their functional maintenance make it advisable. Obviously, the functional
replacement of supports and their regularization, arranged as far as possible on a rigid main beam in order to distribute loads evenly to
the walls, is often necessary and recommendable. To reinforce principal rafters, ties and knee braces, it is becoming increasingly common,
if they are to be left visible, to use post-tensioned frameworks to compensate for traction or to generate a new distribution of stress.

f. Specific interventions in arches, vaults and domes


Some of the solutions listed for reinforcing floor structures are also applicable to arches, vaults and domes. Metal ties are typically used
to reinforce arches and vaults, positioned in the area of the extrados under traction. The resistant edge of arches can be increased by the
introduction of steel bars from the intrados. In some segmental vaults, steel or reinforced concrete ties absorb the thrust generated at
the base. Reinforced concrete slabs can serve to strengthen vaults and domes by connecting them on their extrados. Each individual case
requires consideration of the suitability of a given solution in relation to an alternative that preserves the original construction method,
with reversibility of the intervention as a vital requisite.

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4. Interventions in the foundations

The decision as to what type of intervention to undertake when a building is subject to problems deriving from site movement requires
knowledge of the type and characteristics of the foundations, monitoring of the activity and information about the geotechnical
characteristics to a sufficient depth on site. Only after compiling this data and effecting this analysis can a judicious decision be made.
In fact, one of the most important decisions to be taken in this initial phase is whether or not to undertake an intervention that modifies
the conditions of the original foundations or improves the terrain.
If the buildings foundations are of the most common superficial type, the usual system of underpinning is to implement rather wider
footing beneath the existing foundation. This must be calculated in each case, according to the characteristics of the terrain, the 8
foundations to be underpinned, the depth and breadth of the new footing, and the width of the excavations beneath the existing
foundations.
These days it is increasingly frequent to use a vertically sloping arrangement of micropiles, which compromise a larger volume of ground
to absorb the stress in the foundations, using them as a pile cap.
Less common are the systems based on increasing the width of the foundation base, due to the difficulty of absorbing the shearing stress
at the point of contact between the new and the old foundations. Likewise there is little recourse to the use of conventional piles, due
to the cumbersome apparatus they require, or the improvement of terrains by injecting chemical products, which are only suitable for
certain types of terrain that are sufficiently permeable.

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Bibliography MELE, M. Esempli di intervento per la riparazione e il rafforzamento di edifice di


abitazione. Prescrizioni per ledilizia nelle zone sismiche, presentation at the
ASS.I.R.CO Congress, 1980
Agence nationale pour lamlioration de lhabitat (A.N.A.H.). Les planchers anciens, MUNAF, P. Recupero dei solai in legno, Dario Flaccovio Ed., 1990, Palermo
ditions du Moniteur, 1979, Paris
PASTA, A. Restauro antisismico, Dario Flaccovio Ed., 1992, Palermo
BAGLIONI, A., GUARNERIO, G. La ristrutturazione edilizia, Hoepli Ed., 1980, Milan
ROCCHI, P. Progettare il consolidamento, Ed. Kappa, 1983, Rome
DI STEFANO, R., Il consolidamento strutturale nel restauro architettonico, Edizioni
Tratado de rehabilitacin, Tome 1: Patologa y tcnicas de intervencin. Elementos
Scientifiche Italiane, 1990
estructurales, Departamento de Construccin y Tecnologa Arquitectnica,
GALLONI, F., ED. Consolidamento e recupero dellarchitettura tradizionale: degli Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, ditions Munilla-lera, 1998, Madrid
intervente singoli agli intervente dinsieme urbano, ASS.I.R.CO IV Congresso
Nazionale, Ed. Kappa, 1992, Rome

Il restuaro delle costruzione in muratura. Problema metodologi ed tecnique di


consolidamento, Ed. Kappa, 1981, Rome

LPEZ COLLADO, G. Ruinas en construcciones antiguas, Ministerio de la Vivienda, 1976,


Madrid

Manual de diagnosi i intervenci en sistemas estructurals de parets de crrega,


Collegi dAparelladors i Arquitectes tcncics de Barcelona, 1995, Barcelona

MASTRODICASA, S. Dissesti statici delle strutture edilizie, Hoepli Ed., 1978 (6th edition),
Milan

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Reinforcement and treatment Wahid El-Barbary


Architect
of foundation. General Director in Sector Projects of the Supreme Council
Egyptian experiences of Antiquities,
Egypt

All the engineered structures on the earth, including earth fills,


dams (both earth and concrete dams), buildings, and bridges,
consist of two parts, the upper or superstructure, and the lower
or foundation.
The foundation definition is the interfacing element between the
superstructure and the underlying soil or rock.
Foundation engineering is the art and science of applying
engineering judgment and the principals of soil mechanics to
solve the interfacing problem. It is also concerned with solutions
to problems of retaining earth masses by several types of
structural elements such as retaining walls and sheet piles.
Foundation engineering is also the art and the science of using
engineering judgment and the principal of soil mechanics to
predict the response of the earth masses to change the 8
conditions of geometry and loads.
It should be noted that foundation engineering has been
defined as the art "art and science" of applying engineering
judgment and the principals of soil mechanics.

Soil conditions is one of the main causes of defects in masonry


structures is differential settlement due to changes in soil
properties with time due to rise in ground water level for
instance. It is also widely recognized that structural damage due Shallow foundations (footings or spread footings) like
to earthquake is very much influenced by soil conditions. In continuous foundation under the walls, the width of the
general, the amplitude and duration of shaking depend on the foundation is little bit larger than the wall, generally we use
depth and softness of the soil at the site. The engineer must stones and mortar for building foundations.
obtain sufficient information to evaluate the load-bearing Deep foundations (pile or caisson foundations) are used when
capacity and the dynamic amplification characteristic of the soil. the resistance (bearing capacity) of the soil is not enough to
For sites with high geological hazards, such as soils susceptible support the up structure. Many kinds of deep foundation exist
to large settlements, extra-sensitive soils, or soils with a high since the old ages using stones and mortars, woods piles
probability of liquefaction, a special geotechnical investigation is especially when the water table is very close to the surface. The
required. In certain circumstances, however, it may be bearing foundation, in this case, is the sum of the lateral
appropriate to carry out seismological and geotechnical bearing capacity and local bearing capacity.
investigations that go beyond the minimum requirement of a
building code. This may be the case, for instance, when ground Choosing a method to reinforce and treat a foundation of an old
motion amplifications due to site conditions or effects of and traditional depends on the knowledge of raisons of
ground-structure interaction are deemed to play an important degradation origins: settlement, increasing in load, modification
role in the behavior of the structure under investigation. in the structure geometry, earthquake, explosion, water table
Furthermore, geotechnical investigation may need to be changing or/and chemical actions. We consider that the
undertaken for exploratory or remedial measures. foundation treatment must follow the following
For the various types of foundations, we distinguish between recommendations:
many types of foundation used to support buildings: Realization of geotechnical studies for foundation soil,
inspection and diagnostic the foundations and known the stat
and actual situation. The choice method or reinforcing depends

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on the report of geotechnical experts and their not move laterally.


recommendations The action of enlarging the foundation is more effective when
The reinforcement of underground foundations doesnt need widening the raft beyond the external edge of the construction,
to conserve the Building like the upper part of structure. as the pressure bulb will also spread over a larger area of the
Many methods exist to reinforce the foundation: transferring loads to the deeper and more resistant strata of the
Reinforcing existing foundations. soil. Using underpinning can represent the only reliable solution
Using micro-piles. when it is not possible to stop the settlement in other way.
Strengthen soil using modern solutions. Underpinning ancient buildings must always be considered as a
last ditch solution. This solution, when adopted for shallow
foundations, can give problems during the boring phase, as
Reinforcing existing foundations softening of the soil can occur during the course of the works, as
some parts are underpinned whilst others are still on deformed soil.
One of the methods is to strengthen and buttress the existing
foundations by adding extra mass to the existing foundation,
attach the new mass to the old foundation by means of steel Using micro-piles to reinforce the foundations of historic
strain, anchor bolts and ties and to create a foundation system, monuments
such that the entire foundation does not move laterally. To
reinforce the foundation of an old wall, we start by determining When subsoil has an insufficient bearing capacity or/and the
the load of structure (stones, filling material...), and the bearing resistance soil is located at an important depth, we can use piles,
8 capacity of the foundation soil. If the results show that the micro piles or deep foundation to reinforce the stability. Different
dimension of the actual foundation is not enough to support the solution is using modem technique to reinforce old structures.
structures with realistic security function, we can increase the Micropiles are one of the largest growing segments in deep
foundation surface. The additional foundation must be connected foundations today. Also known as "Pin piles" or "Minipiles",
to the old part by using bars, cables etc. Micropiles are small diameter, high capacity pipe piles. They are
Before starting the reinforcement of the old foundation, a typically specified in short threaded lengths and installed through
complete system of reinforcement must be done to keep the various drilling techniques.
stability of the wall and the structure. The addition of grout and threaded bar reinforce the pile in lateral,
The concept of strengthening and buttress the existing foundation tensile, and compressive loading. Micro-piles can replace
can be adding extra mass when the problem of settlement does conventional piles under most circumstances, and are especially
not exist (hard rock). The mass can be built in the side of the economical where there are difficult ground conditions (caving,
existing foundation; the new masses is attached to the old ravelling or rocky ground conditions) or where there is limited or
foundation by using strain steel bolts, anchor bolts, and ties and difficult access or workspace, like inside buildings for earthquake
create a foundation system. Such that the entire foundation does upgrades. Micro-piles are installed much like tiebacks or soil nails,

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Reinforcement and treatment of foundation. Egyptian experiences

using rotary or percussion drilling rigs. Because of their smaller hollow grouting drill (Titan), percussion rod etc. Micro-piles are
size, a wide variety of drilling techniques can be employed more widely accepted within engineers and designers who are replacing
economically, which makes their use so attractive: flight auger, tri- traditional piles with micro-piles - to the benefit of the owners.
cone, percussion rod, down-the-hole-hammer, casing with auger,

Example: Under foundation soil injection in Monumental


building (Exemple du complexe Qalawoon)

Due to the raised level of under ground water, this water moves
continuously and carryout the soil particles, which made many
voids in the soil, this gives us inhomogeneous behavior of soil.
To have a consolidated soil with a good bearing capacity and a
homogeneous section we needed to fix up the sewerage system,
also fixing the under ground water level to stop water currents.
Then soil injection process takes place, first drilling in the soil to
the specified levels then inserting a valved pipe that the
cementation material will be injected through it with a pressure
will not exceed more than two bars.
The soil is injected with a beginning injection grout consists of
1:4:0.50 cement: water: bentonite. 8
After 24 hours of the primary injection we begin the final injection
with a higher cement ratio with additives which is comp last 431
to give a plasticized grout to be injected to the soil to give the
required soil core tests & the required soil bearing capacity.

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Technological and structural Ofer Cohen


Engineer
aspects in the conservation Israel Antiquities Authority,
of Old Akko Israel

Yael F. Naaman
Architect
Conservation Department of the Israel Antiquities Authority,
Israel

This essay deals with technological and structural aspects of the


conservation of building remains in Old Akko. The basic concept
is one of authentic conservation by means of preserving the
original materials and facades without disturbing the ongoing
everyday live in the city. The source for the information presented
below was derived from physical-engineering surveys that were
conducted in the city over the past decade.

Damage to Buildings and Material Decay


Damage is a condition in which the building has partly or
completely lost its load bearing capability and is liable to collapse
8 partially or entirely. The damage is usually marked by such causes
as cracks, collapse, crushing, crumbling and the breaking away of
and deformation of elements. Decay is the deterioration and
weathering of the material, a condition that usually leads to a
reduction in its resistance and increased brittleness and porosity.
The process whereby material is lost stems from physical and
chemical action and usually begins on the outside and works
inward.
The mechanisms of damage and decay are actuated by a number
of factors: the absence of proper maintenance, the lack of
The Old Akko (Israel)
scientific knowledge, the use of a construction beyond its life
expectancy, imperfections in the original design and the
introduction of new factors that were not foreseen. All of these
factors lead to a reduction in the structural strength, in other
words, the reduction in the load bearing capacity together with an
increase in the effects of the actions involved. Three factors are at building. Damage is caused due to an increase in the mechanical
work here: the kind of action, the quality of the materials and the action and reduction in the structural efficiency, whether from
type of structure. The action involved can be some sort of dynamic natural phenomena or as a result of an action caused by man.
or static mechanical action, and a physio-chemical action linked to When these occur without careful control they can negatively
the atmosphere and environment. The materials resistance is impact the building (Croci 1998: 41-46).
effected by the climate and weathering as a result of physio- Old Akko was built of kurkar masonry stones (walls and vaults)
chemical processes. The decay is connected with the natural held fast by lime based bonding materials and wood that was
environment such as humidity, rain, temperature fluctuation; and used in the roofing, window and door specifications. Other
factors such as traffic, pollution and the lack of maintenance also elements were also used such as hard limestone (for the cantilever
accelerate natural processes. Decay can be chemical, physical or steps, pavement in public spaces, window openings and
biological and is related to environmental factors, the decorated elements) and marble. In later periods materials such as
characteristics of the building materials and the specifications that terrazzo pavements and painted concrete, iron beams, Marseilles
protect the building (e.g.: roofs, drain pipes). The structural roof tiles and of course concrete were also utilized. In recent years
behavior depends mainly on the kind of materials used, the shape we have witnessed the use of a variety of modern materials,
and size of the structure, connecting specifications between the among them surfacings, plasterboard walls, aluminum and
elements and the environmental conditions that border on the ceramic.

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Technological and structural aspects in the conservation of Old Akko

The most common structural problems in the Old City are


concentrated in the buildings walls, vaults and ceilings. Each one
of these is characterized by problems that stem from the
construction technique, quality of the building materials, the
destructive factors of the building and the decay factors of the
material.

The Processes Characteristic of Building Disintegrating


Two factors are destroying the buildings in Akko: (1) the decay of
the material weathering as a result of natural processes; (2)
damage as a result of human intervention. The natural process of
material decay is influenced by an especially high level of humidity
and moisture, as well as salt crystallization, the properties of the
air, ground characteristics, water (precipitation and proximity to
the sea), temperature and mans intervention with improper
maintenance.
Damage caused by the direct intervention of man is
commonplace, for example: the renovation actions where
unsuitable materials were used; when part of the building is
dismantled in order to adapt the built space to the users needs or 8
for the purpose of clearing an area needed for new construction,
in order to create new access routes or improve existing ones;
dismantling part of a structure so it can be put to secondary use
elsewhere, or dismantling for the purpose of removing an
immediate danger.
A schema of the disintegration process of buildings includes
prolonged decay of ceiling joists on the upper story until they
collapse, an accelerated process of the walls falling apart on the
upper story and of the vault on the ground floor and the Structural problems

continued disintegration of the buildings outer walls.

1. In the wake of the collapse of a wooden ceiling on the upper


story the walls remain, standing tall and thin relative to the
surroundings. The danger in this situation is that the stability of
the walls will be undermined that will result in several stones
falling or the collapse of wall sections. The solution in this case
is to stabilize the remains by creating a flat element on
top of the walls and/or a support anchored to the vault.
2. Collapse of a wooden ceiling on the upper story and of the
vault on the ground floor and the partial disintegration of the
walls. In this instance remains are created that are tall relative
to the surroundings and the remains of the vaults are unstable.
The solution to this is to restore the spatial function to the
ground floor and/or support the remains to the ground or an
adjacent structure.
3. Collapse of a wooden ceiling on the upper floor and the vault
on the ground floor and the disintegration of the buildings
outer walls. In this situation a protruding stump remains that is
not stabilized by the vault. The solution requires stabilization of
the vault stump or the controlled removal of dangerous parts. Wall damages

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The described disintegration schema is also valid in three story stones is 5-10 millimeters. In general we can say that this type wall
buildings in which there are two wooden ceilings borne atop a is of average quality.
vaulted story. Type 4. Irregular construction utilizing quarried stone. The size
The most significant and common factor in the disintegration and shape of the stone varies and the courses are not of uniform
processes in the city is the inclination of the walls, in other words length. The width of the joints is not uniform and the vertical
their becoming out-of-plumb. It can be said that all of the joints frequently extend through more than one course. The
instances of building disintegration in Akko stem from a lack of quality of the wall is poor. Walls such as these mainly occur as
proper maintenance or as a result of physical damage. These repairs or retaining walls.
factors cause a chain reaction of prolonged damage and decay
and constant deterioration in the physical condition of the Most of the walls structural problems involve: a lack of stones in
building. the walls outer surface, structural faults in the outer surface,
cracks, faults in the plane of the wall that are mainly characterized
Double-faced Walls by horizontal shifts, voids in the core of the wall or bonding
Most of the walls on the ground floor in Akko are built of two material that is missing from the core of the wall. These problems
rows of stones with a debesh fill in between. The construction was are caused due to the use of inferior quality materials, the tops of
carried out in horizontal rows: first one course of stone of the the walls that have not been sealed, percolating water, the
outer faces of the wall was laid and the space between them was crumbling of bonding materials, mechanical damage, as well as
filled with debesh and afterwards the second row of stones was wear and erosion of the core of the walls leading to the formation
laid in the same manner and so one, one course of stone atop of voids inside them. Frequently wear occurs when the bonding
8 another. The walls outer faces were built of dressed kurkar materials gradually crumble and are washed away through cracks
masonry stones but the repairs that were made were done with and joints that were emptied by this process. In addition to these
stones that were not dressed. The core of the wall consists of small one must add the absence of ongoing maintenance which
stones and bonding material. In the construction of the city accelerates the natural weathering processes.
extensive use was made of two kinds of bonding material, one
based on lime and the on soil. Lack of Stones
Most of the walls are 80-120 centimeters wide. Their primary A number factors lead to an absence of stones from the outer
function is to bear the load from the vaulted story and to direct surface of a wall:
loads from the tall walls (one stone wide) of the upper stories. The
initial impression one gets from looking at the walls is that they 1. Direct mechanical damage to one or more stones leading to the
are homogenous. Nevertheless, when we observe the crumbling localized loss of stone. Such damage usually results in other
bonding material in areas where the wholeness of the wall was stones falling from the wall. One or several stones suffering
damaged or in instances of decay, a different picture is revealed: from intense wear will cause one or more stones to fall from
the walls building material and the construction mass are the course above it. This process will stop when the damaged
undergoing a process of disintegration. area is re-stabilized.
2. Poor construction quality of the wall. In this instance the inside
We can classify the walls in Akko into four types: surface that comes in contact between the different courses is
rather small, the depth of the stones is small and they are not
Type 1. Regular construction utilizing stones that have five sufficiently anchored to the wall. Because of this a minimal
dressed surfaces. The height of the stone and the course is c. 45 amount of pressure will lead to the detachment of the stones
centimeters; the stone is 50-100 centimeters long and the width and their falling.
of the joint between the stones ranges from 5-10 millimeters. In 3. Collapse of a section of the outer face of the wall as a result of
general we can say that the quality of this type wall is quite good. deformation caused by distention.
Type 2. Regular construction utilizing stones that have five 4. Removal of a wall or partition perpendicular to the wall will
dressed surfaces. The height of the stone and the course is 18-37 result in damage to the wholeness of the wall, to loss of stones
centimeters; the stone is 18-45 centimeters long and the width of and accelerated decay.
the joint between the stones is 5-10 millimeters. The quality of the
wall is usually good. The objective in treating missing stones is to restore the original
Type 3. Regular construction using roughly hewn stones. The loading bearing capacity of the wall, to integrate the outer surface
height of the stone and the course is 23-40 centimeters; the stone as an inseparable part of the wall and renew the original
is 18-60 centimeters long and the width of the joint between the constructive system.

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Restoring localized stability by completing the stonework Restoring extensive stability through the use of supports

Possible solutions in this case are: (1) restoring limited and relative Building Remains
stability to the region; (2) a more extensive restoration of stability The property that differentiates building remains from wall
through the use of supports. Stabilizing by completing the remains is the possibility to restore their spatial-structural
stonework is a preferred solution from all aspects of the buildings function. A number or combination of factors brings the
conservation. The installation of supports is suitable as an building to a state where it will be defined a remain, for
intermediate phase in the stabilization process or in cases in which example the collapse of a vaulted ceiling due to sundry
the deformation in the wall calls for it. reasons such as excess load; wall stability that is low relative
to the lateral pressure of the vaults; failed implementation;
Structural Deformation collapse of one of the load bearing walls; collapse of a
This condition is characterized by a section of the wall protruding wooden ceiling due to various reasons such as natural wear;
from the original line of the building. This phenomenon is a result moisture problems that lead to enrooting in the wood beams;
of a number of destructive mechanisms: excess load; wall deformation or an act by man such as the
Cracks and/or voids in the core of the wall creating an excess load opening of new access routes or the removal of a space for
on its outer surface, which leads to distention followed by the the sake of a new structure. In all of these cases accelerated
collapse of the same section of wall. wear of the ceiling and walls is apparent prior to the collapse.
Detachment of the outer surface of the wall from the core due to The objective in this situation is to stabilize the different
the absence of sufficient adhesion properties. structural elements and, to the extent possible, restore its
A process that accelerates the distention is the crumbling of the spatial function. In buildings that are only slightly damaged, it
bonding materials and its falling into the space between the core is preferable to restore the spatial function by means of
of the wall and the outer stone surface. In this situation the constructing a ceiling using traditional technology while at the
bonding material acts as an accelerator in the deformation same time replacing the missing stones. In reality, building
process. remains in an advanced state of destruction are currently not
The objective in this situation, like the previous one, is to restore undergoing conservation in Old Akko and they are either
the wall to its original loading bearing capacity, to reattach the being demolished intentionally or neglected.
outer surface of the wall and renew the original static system.
Possible solutions: fill the voids in the core of the wall (grouting) Wall Remains
and pointing up the joints, install anchors or dismantle the This element includes walls of various heights and widths,
affected wall section in order to rebuild it. suffering from different degrees of damage, without any

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Support on the ground floor from one side (detail separation layer) Support from an adjacent structure

possibility of restoring spatial function. A number of factors or a Tall Walls or Walls that Constitute an Immediate Danger
combination of them leads to this situation: Remains of these walls are tall (thin walls that are more than 1.5
A wall that was originally part of a building that was destroyed m higher than their surroundings) and constitute an imminent
and today nothing remains of the original spatial context. The danger and require temporary or permanent spatial support,
quality of the construction is a significant factor in the condition during the course of conservation and renovation work and/or
of the walls; when this is extremely poor we notice the accelerated after it. Conservation measures in these instances will include
decline in the constructional properties of the structural element preparation and stabilization of the wall in accordance with its
or of the entire building. A wall that was originally built as a single characteristics, filling cracks and voids in the stone, repair one or
element and part of it was destroyed by a natural process, such as more worn stones, pointing up joints and the installation of
stone or core erosion as a result of weather damage leading to the supports.
collapse of a section of the wall; the defective sealing of the top In tall walls the preparation measures will include the removal of
of the wall or the absence of sealing in this case intensifies the rate loose materials from the top of the wall, removal of loose and
of erosion and its toll. In addition to these we should add the weakened materials in the areas where plaster is missing on the
human factor which manifests itself through the creation of new inside of the wall and the removal of loose bonding material from
approaches or new construction. the joints on the outside part of the wall. Conservation measures
will include stabilizing and sealing the top of the wall, replacing
The objective in these instances is to stabilize the wall, remove any missing bonding material in the joints and replacing missing
immediate danger and ensure that the wall can carry the plaster while at the same time creating a straightened surface.
anticipated load.
In double-faced walls, the preparation will include the removal
Low Walls of loose stones, loose core materials and crumbling bonding
In this category we include walls that stand no higher than 1.5 m materials from the joints. The stabilizing measure for these walls
above their surroundings and which do not represent an will consist of replacing missing stones and back filling them with
immediate danger. For example, a 1 meter high wall located on bonding material, completing missing stone courses to the extent
the roof of a building may be considered dangerous because its required, pointing up joints and sealing the top of the wall.
height above the ground exceeds 1.5 m. However, wall remains In both instances conservation measures are required for
less than 2.5 m are considered stabile if the walls height does not weathered stones, filling voids and cracks in stone, and pointing
exceed five times its width when it is structurally complete. the joints as part of the measures for stabilizing the wall.

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Support on an upper story A section of vault remains prior to stabilization

Conclusion
Supporting Tall Walls The structural problems in Old Akko were surveyed many times
Supporting tall walls is considered a short-term measure until a as part of the ongoing measures conducted by the Antiquities
permanent solution is provided for stabilizing the wall. In any case Authority in city. Analyzing and understanding them has led us
the preferred objective is a spatial solution, in other words to conclude that in many instances the root of the problem lies
in inferior construction and the use of poor quality materials. The
completing the building. As a rule, the design of the supports will
most significant factor in the state of the physical preservation is
include a specification of a wooden layer that separates the new
the long-term absence of proper maintenance and the lack of
materials from the stone.
awareness. This fact has accelerated the action of the destructive
Possible solutions: mechanisms and the natural decay that is occurring in the city.
There are different ways to conserve the building elements in the
Vault Stumps city. Choosing a treatment is a stage in a methodical and
Sections of vaults and arches in different states of preservation are structured process that includes identifying the problem,
integrated in the citys building remains. The remains of the vault are understanding the historic and active factors at the site,
limited in size and the most common phenomenon is the survival of formulating a theoretical concept for treatment based on a
the vaults springing connected to the upright walls in the stable broad perspective of the aspects bound up in the conservation
part of the building. In most instances the vault remains constitute of a historic city, and planning and implementing conservation
an immediate danger owing to their height and location above a measures using the resources available to the property owner
and the conservator working on his behalf. On more than one
passage. The immediate danger is one of stones falling into the
occasion a conservator has found himself with his hands tied
space below them. The destructive mechanisms that lead to this
owing to budgetary constraints. The actions taken in the citys
condition are the collapse of the vault due to different reasons
residential buildings over the past decade were mostly
and/or intervention by man in order to open passages or remove a determined because of demolition orders issued for the removal
room for the sake of a new building. of a danger and not because of the residents pro-conservation
The objective in this case is to stabilize the remains and remove any attitude or an overall broad conservation concept adopted by the
imminent danger of stones and other parts of the vault from falling. city. We are hopeful that things will change in wake of the city
Sometimes it is sufficient to stabilize the core, but when the angle having been declared a world heritage site and the approval of a
between the top of the vaults upper stone and the vertical is less new local master plan.
than 30, the upper stone needs to be anchored to a stabilized core,
or conversely it should be removed out of safety considerations.

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After the treatment to stabilize the core and anchoring the top stone

8
References

BISCONTIN G. 1998, Compatible Materials for the Protection of European Cultural


Heritage Pact 55. Greece.

BREBBIA C. A. 1991, Structural Repair and Maintenance of Historical Buildings III.


Boston.

BREBBIA C. A. 1991, General Studies 1: Materials and Analysis. Boston.

BREBBIA C. A. 1991, Dynamics 2: Stabilization and Restoration. Boston.

COHEN O. 2000, General Structural Detailing for Characteristic Problems in Stone


Masonry in the Old City of Acre, thesis. Katholieke Universiteit. Leuvne

CROCI G. 1998, The Conservation and Structural Restoration of Architectural


Heritage. Great Britain.

FEILDEN B. M. 1982, Conservation of Historic Buildings. London.

GIUFFRE A. 1995, Statics and Dynamics of Historical Masonry Buildings. Rome.

HEYMAN J. 1998, Structural Analysis: A Historical Approach. Cambridge.

HEYMAN J. 1995, The Stone Skeleton. Cambridge.

ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY, Conservation Files Archive, Rockefeller Museum,


Jerusalem.

LOMBARDO S. 1997, Restauro Strutturale. Rome.

MASTRODICASA S. 1978, Dissesti Statici Delle Strutture Edilizie. Milano.

PICCIRILLI C. 1989, Consolidamento Critico. Rome.

ROCCHI P. 1998, Manuale del Consolidamento. Rome.

SHADMON A. 1972, Stone in Israel. Jerusalem.

TASSIOS T. P. 2000, Dimensioning of Interventions (Repairs/Strengthening) on Low-


Strength Masonry Buildings. Athens.

TOMAZEVIC M. 1991, The Strengthening of Stone Masonry Walls with Grouting.


Ljubljana.

TORRACA G. 1988, Porous Building Materials. ICCROM, Rome.

WEAVER M. E. 1993, Conserving Buildings. New York.

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Walls strengthen Wahid El-Barbary


Architect
and treatment: General Director in Sector Projects of the Supreme Council of
the Egyptian experiences Antiquities,
Egypt

Walls masonry in traditional architecture are generally composed


of natural stones or bricks usually connected with mortar.
More and more modern technologies have been applied recently
to preserve and restore old walls. A lot of institutions and working
groups are dealing with the development and application of new
technologies in strengthening the traditional buildings. Where
traditional techniques are proved inadequate, the consolidation of
the building can be achieved by the use of any modern technique
for conservation and construction, the efficiency of which has
been proved by scientific data and experience.
Evaluation of present building condition may be a part of routine
inspection and maintenance or could be initiated as a result of
unsatisfactory performance, signs of deterioration, or
identification of a need for upgrading. The evaluation procedure 8
consists of (Site investigation and data collection - Identification of
the structural and non-structural subsystems of the building - Field
testing, Laboratory testing - Analysis of the structure - Evaluation
of the seismic performance of the building subsystems - Follow-up
on-site inspection of accessible and critical subsystems -
Preparation and production of the final report).
The objective of this evaluation procedure is to understand the
composition, the condition and the integrity of the structure. For
cultural heritage structures, the gathering of information should The structure represents the conceptual part of the construction that
produce a brief history of the structure, detailing the period and on the one hand transforms the actions in stresses, on the other
phases of its construction, with dates and details of structural and hand provides the strength. The structural behavior depends mainly
non-structural changes/repairs that have occurred over its life. on the material characteristics, the dimensions, the connections
Damage means a situation in which the structure has reduced or between the different elements and the boundary conditions.
lost his bearing capacity till reaching, in the extreme conditions, The examination of the damage typologies is very important as the
failure and collapse. This situation is usually characterized by deformations, crack pattern etc. are strictly related to the structural
cracks, crushing, detachments, permanent deformations, out of behavior and the actions that caused this damage.
plumb. Deterioration or decay is a physiochemical alteration of the
material properties that usually induces a reduction of resistance, The visible damage signs, depending on the different types of
an increase of brittleness and porosity, loss of material, starting material and construction, can be assimilated to three categories:
usually from the external surface toward the interior.
Cracks in the materials that do not resist to tensile stresses: this
Origin of damages and deterioration can be related to one or sign is the more frequent in the masonries, that has a very low
more of the following factors: resistance to tension
Crushing of compressed elements: also this phenomenon
Risk coming from the original design of the building even if less frequent, but much more dangerous than the first
Building traditions and materials in the construction period oneis visible especially on the masonries. The crushing is
Use of a construction beyond its estimated average age characterized, depending on the kind of material, by swelling,
Errors and imperfections in the original design detachment of flakes, crumbling away... in the initial phase
Interventions of new environmental and social factors some micro cracks parallel to the direction of the stress appear.

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Permanent deformations: this phenomenon is especially related


with the effect of the bending induced by the eccentric loads
and horizontal thrusts (arches...); in addition, an important
component can be related to the foundations and soil
deformations. Into the thick masonries, some buckling
8 phenomena can appear due to the weakness of the
connections between the external curtains and the internal
nucleus. The critical situation can cause a sudden lateral
deflection that is particularly a dangerous phenomenon in the
slender elements.

The observation, the knowledge of the building history and the


interpretation of the structural calculations (referred to possible
actions and to the analysis of the consequent cracks pattern), as
well as the results of investigations and monitoring systems, give
the tools to understand and interpret at the best the phenomena.
However, as in medicine, a correct and complete diagnosis can
only be obtained if all this amount of information is combined
with the intuition, experience and individual capability.
The examination of some cases and examples will help to better
understand this process and to choose the suitable treatment
between using the traditional techniques for strengthening the
walls and reinstalling the deteriorated and collapsed parts; or
using new techniques for cracks treatment and walls
consolidation by injection of traditional materials inside the
elements that were weakened by the loss of binding materials; or
using tie road to connect between walls using anchors or other
materials...
Anyway, the decision depends on the analysis of the investigation
results which will help to understand and quantify the magnitude
and the cause of the problem, the related deficiencies and the
emergency of carrying out repair works. The type of remedial
work chosen will usually be affected by the unique conditions of
the particular building. Beyond ensuring essential structural
capacity and correction of other problems that impose an
immediate safety hazard, details of remedial measures are often

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significantly influenced by financial considerations. Generally, the


evaluation and assessment process will lead to one of the
following actions:

No repair: The safety and performance of the building is


adequate. With regular maintenance and perhaps cosmetic
improvement, its performance is expected to be satisfactory or
at least acceptable for a prescribed period of time.
Repair is required: Safety and serviceability problems are
sufficiently severe that repair or upgrading is required or can be
most effectively performed at this time.
Repair is not feasible: The costs of repair largely surpass the
benefits. Either demolition of the building is recommended, or,
if there are no life-safety issues, the structure is permitted to
remain in its degraded condition.

Example: Wall stitching using anchor system in monumental


building, (Qalawoon complex).
Due to the deep cracks in walls, and to avoid rebuilding
techniques to fix the problem, the solution comes in an anchorage 8
system.
Simply the system consists of a treated stainless steel bars, a sock
and grout.
First, we make a well-studied design to determine the walls, which
must be treated by anchor system due to its ethical & historical
value, studying the accessibility to stitch the cracked wall and the
anchor positions.
After finishing the design and calculation sheets, the stitching
project begins by drilling holes with the required diameters & the
specified length, then assemble the stainless steel bar into the
sock, then both of them are inserted in the wall.
After insertion, the anchor injection process takes place with a
pressure not exceeding more than two bars until the grout comes
out of the hole.
The idea of the sock is the behavior of the sock with grout; the
sock takes the shape of the inner section of the wall & behaves
with the wall as one piece.
That is for the longitudinal anchors then the consolidation anchors
takes place to stitch the two leafs of the wall.

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Tool 8.
II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures

Seismic improvement Giambattista De Tommasi


Engineer
and conservation Full professor in Building Refurbishment (Technical University of
of structural features Bari),
Italy
Collaborators: research group work (Fabio Fatiguso, Mariella De
Fino and Albina Scioti)

With reference to all the highlighted issues, the improvement of


the seismic behaviour in the traditional architecture can be
pursued, by preserving its qualities and static, material,
constructional features.
The principles of conservation may be more easily applied by
means of traditional techniques that have been suggested by the
historical architecture and the ancient treaties. By the light of the
contemporary scientific and cultural debate, the improvement of
the global resistance of the building in this way seems to be the
more suitable approach to basically preserve the original
conception of the masonry. As well, the single building has a
proper static configuration that cannot be warped. An
architecture where the peculiar construction process is changed
8 can be just considered as formalistic exteriority. This approach can
make use of innovative operative tools, namely the Codes of
Application of Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP): restraint of compressed elements
Practice that specify and describe in detail the general dispositions
in relation to the local construction realities. The Codes of Practice,
methodologically similar to the Handbooks of Refurbishment,
beyond gathering vulnerability analysis for the reference building,
propose a series of controls, examples of structural details,
solutions conformable with the original constructive building
features. However, all these contents have to be interpreted by the
planner in relation to the specific situation. The consequent
intervention is certainly adequate, as it does not change the
proper logic (formal, spatial, material) of the existing building
and if it is congruent with the modal logic (in other words, the
process) that it pursues.
Besides, recent earthquakes have shown that some structural
techniques, frequently applied over the last decades, are not
effective. For instance, the reconstruction of reinforced concrete
roofs, the insertion of too rigid beams at the top of the walls, the
employment of reinforced perforations rather than metal tie
beams, have often caused damages more dramatic than the
original ones. By the way, the employment of innovative
techniques has not to be precluded, in order to achieve the seismic
improvement and to preserve the original features and behaviour
of the historical buildings, since modern materials and techniques
may be more suitable and less intrusive than traditional ones.
For instance, the Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) show evident
advantages for these purposes: they use small quantity of
material, in terms of thickness and weight, they are removable
and easy to apply and they dont change the original behaviour of
the structures, as they work after the tensile resistance of the
element has been exceeded. By the way, some drawbacks have to Reinforcements of vaults by FRP

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Tool 8.
Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures II. Reflection and the Project
Seismic improvement and conservation of structural features

be underlined, so that new researches are necessary in this field in cornices and other secondary elements by metal/composite
order to verify the long term behaviour of these materials and material tie beams and anchorages
technologies, beyond the interesting results achieved at moment. stiffening of timber floors by the overlap of new floor on the
So, the developed issues highlight that the improvement of the existing one and application of iron crosses and transversal
seismic behaviour for the historical traditional architecture has to connections.
represent the optimum synthesis, rather than the compromise
between the safety and the conservation. The approach has to Among the innovative technologies, there are:
focus upon the individuation of the weak elements in relation to
the Rule of Art, the definition of the collapse mechanisms and the improvement of the connections between vertical elements
conservation project, strictly aimed at correcting the structural and floors by anchorages with metal clamps or steel bars
lacks. However, providing the building with suitable seismic between the single beams and the walls
resistance characteristics, most of all by ensuring box behaviour, is elimination/reduction of the drift of arches by metal or fibre
the global expected result. With reference to the structural reinforced carbon chains
techniques in the Mediterranean area, some specific restoration top connection by reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry
works can be exemplified that are able to ensure a good stringcourses or by fibre reinforced carbon belts in order to
comprehensive static quality. They basically care the features of reduce the possible drift of the roof, to distribute the induced
the walls and the connections of the load bearing walls with the horizontal stresses and to joint the walls
other ones, as well as with the floors. They use both traditional improvement of the connections between the walls by metal
solutions and, if necessary, innovative materials and techniques to chains and local reinforced perforations
enhance the structural and static characteristics of the building reduction of the structural loads, especially at the top floors, by 8
and to meet new safety requirements imposed by the modern the replacement of heavy and rigid elements (for instance, the
culture. reinforced concrete roofs realised instead of the original timber
Synthetically, among the traditional solutions there are: roofs).

restoration of the continuity of the wall texture, by localised Differently, all the solutions that modify the static behaviour of the
repairs and/or unsew-sew techniques building or the values and the arrangement of the loads have to
improvement of the resistance of the masonry panels to be avoided. Particularly, the increase of the permanent loads (by
horizontal stresses by the regeneration of the cavities with floors and roofs too heavy and rigid for the below walls), the
compatible and effective binder mixtures carrying out of stiffening separators or cavities for lifts or
elimination/reduction of the local masonry weaknesses. The staircases, the laying of new floors by means of local demolition
complete closing of chimney flues and niches for this purpose or opening of breaches, weakening the masonries, have to be
is allowed just if it is strictly necessary and does not change the considered very dangerous.
formal and structural characteristics of the building Indeed, such works have been widely realised in recent times,
improvement of the seismic resistance of vertical bosses, often without any control or by operators who were unaware of

FRP reinforcement of timber beams to increase their bearing capability

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Tool 8.
II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures
Seismic improvement and conservation of structural features

the distinctiveness of the structures. As a consequence, very


dramatic risks have been induced, particularly in case of
earthquake. The transformation, or even the demolition, of these
works would be necessary, within a modern and conscious
restoration, without any doubt on the technical benefits that
widely counterbalance the costs.

Rfrences

ABRAMS, D. P. (1992), Strength and behaviour of unreinforced masonry elements.


Proceedings of the tenth World Conference on earthquake engineering, A. A.
Balkema, vol. VI : 3475-3480.

BATOLI G., BLASI C. (1997), Masonry structures, historical buildings and monuments,
chapter 11 of Computer analysis and design of earthquake resistant structures A
handbook (Advances in earthquake engineering, vol. 3), edited by D. E. Beskos & S.
A. Anagnostopoulos, p. 563-606, Computational Mechanics Publications.
Improvement of timber floor bearing capacity (by use of reinforcing boarding)
CAROCCI C. (2001), Guidelines for the safety and preservation of historical centres in
seismic area, III International Seminar on Structural Analysis of Historical
Constructions, University of Minho, Guimares (Portugal), 7th - 9th Novembre 2001,
p. 145-165.
8 DE TOMMASI G., MONACO P., VITONE C., (2003), A first approach to the load path
method on masonry structure behaviour, in Brebbia, C. A. (Eds.), Structural Studies,
Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture VIII, Wessex Institute of
Technology WIT Press, Southampton (UK), ISBN : 1.85312.968.2.

GIUFFR A., CAROCCI C. (1996), Vulnerability and mitigation in historical centres in


seismic areas. Criteria for the formulation of a Practice Code, Proceedings of the 11th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Elsevier Science Ltd.

GIUFFR A., CAROCCI C. (1997), Codice di pratica: per la conservazione dei Sassi di
Matera, Matera, La Bautta.

GIUFFR A., CAROCCI C. (1999), Codice di pratica per la sicurezza e la conservazione del
centro storico di Palermo - Laterza, Bari (Italie).

KARAESMEN, E., UNAY, A. I., ERKAY, C., BOYACI, N. (1992), Seismic behaviour of old
masonry structures, Proceedings of the tenth World Conference on earthquake
engineering, A. A. Balkema, vol. VIII : 4531-4536.

SHRIVE N. G., SAYED-AHMED E. Y., TILEMAN D. (1997), Creep analysis of clay masonry
assemblages. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, n 24, p. 367-379.

mprovement of timber floor bearing capacity (by use of reinforcing concrete slab
connected to the wall)

Amlioration des connexions entre les lments verticaux et les planchers par des
Improvement of the connections between vertical elements and floors by
anchorages with metal tie beams

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Tool 8.
Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures II. Reflection and the Project

Reinforcing traditional Algerian Abdelaziz Badjadja


Architect
structures to resist earth movements Professor in Architecture at the University of Constantine,
Algeria

The principal elements that have to stand up to seismic action are


bracing elements and structural floors integrated with bearing
walls. In fact, the structural unity of the construction has to be
guaranteed by the building as a whole.
The loads acting on structural elements are: dead load, live load,
climatic loads and earthquake loads. The action of these stresses
has to be resisted to prevent breakage and distortion.
The structural elements resistant to earthquake and, therefore, to
horizontal shearing stress are:

Masonry bearing walls


Pillars of stone, brick or marble
Arches and vaults
8
Traditional construction has the advantage of being based
principally on the courtyard and symmetry, thereby creating a
disalignment between the centre of gravity and the point of
application of seismic action or the centre of torsion.
As a rule, traditional constructions are designed to have just two
levels (ground and first floors). If, for a variety of economic and
social reasons, extensions are built, thereby increasing the mass
and loads, particularly on the ground floor, the foundations and
the materials used in the bearing walls are no longer able to
ensure resistance.
In consequence, bearing walls often sag in response to the
horizontal action of earthquake stress.

Traditional structures in Algeria comprise:


Vertical elements: bearing walls of thicknesses of over 45 cm and
generally mixed (2 to 3 courses of common bricks and a course of
dry stone or rubble); stone, brick or marble columns, and cross
walls that serve to brace the structure
Horizontal elements: comprising the trunks of thuya wood of
various dimensions, varying from two to three and a half metres
long
Resistant elements: timber struts working in both directions,
linking common brick arches, forming an integrated structural
whole.
Since the first earthquakes of the 20th century, various techniques
have been used, mainly taking the form of wall ties, joining floor
structures and bearing walls using steel ties, a very efficient
technique but one that is little used today. This procedure became
generalized in all public buildings during the colonial period.
After the earthquake of El Asnam (now called Chlef), the need

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Tool 8.
II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures
Reinforcing traditional Algerian structures to resist earth movements

became apparent to repair joints in bearing walls by injecting


cement grout and using a lime-based rendering applied over wire
netting and filleting, and encasing the corner masonry when the
wall junctions are not built according to the rules of construction.
In most cases, recent work to consolidate the structures has
chosen to conserve the traditional structure with its timber
elements and add a secondary structure of metal bars to integrate
the two, thereby creating a new structural floor of foam concrete
that is lighter and above all more resistant to horizontal stresses.
All the timber struts, necessary to the stability and rigidity of
arches in courtyards, galleries and T-shaped rooms have been
replaced by round bar steel covered (clad) with wood.
The first problem was to find masons and others artisans who
were familiar with all the techniques needed to maintain and
surgically intervene in old buildings.

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Tool 8.
Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures II. Reflection and the Project

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Tool 8.
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Tool 8.
Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures II. Reflection and the Project
Restoring traditional timber constructions: the Turkish experience

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Tool 9
Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials
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Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials
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Tool 9
Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials II. Reflection and the Project

Renderings: consolidation, Patrice Morot-Sir


Engineer
restoration or replacement. Technical Director of the cole dAvignon,
France

When intervening in a faade, professionals have to address many


issues. The following inventory aims to list these points with the
objective of offering a preliminary guide to work. Each case calls
for a project based on three basic stages:

The inventory of state of repair


The choice of renovation work
The specifications of the intervention

The implementation of an intervention project and the contracting


of an architect cover these points. The presence of an architect is
all the more important if the project envisages modifications and
adaptations to the building.

Traces of old renderings can be discovered by observation: a coat of rendering over


a grainy facing conceals two white-painted undercoats, representing a finish coat.
The inventory of state of repair
9
The renovation of faades is an operation with a twofold aim.

To represent the building; the faade presents the visible face What rendering? What colour? What lime- or whitewash?
of the building and determines the ambition of its owners
To protect the walls from water damage by means of rendering 2. Protection of facings:
and paint.
What defects? What materials? What pathologies?
The inventory of the state of repair must, then, respond to these
two aspects. Before programming renovation work, it is advisable to diagnose
the state of the faades. In the event of total rehabilitation of the
1. The presentation of the facings building, a technical diagnosis of the overall construction is
established beforehand. In the case of simple faade renovation,
What building? What modifications? the apparent defects must be examined and the masonry drilled in
order to detect possible points of weakness.
Using descriptive data, it is necessary to determine the type of Cracks that run through the entire thickness of the wall and
building to be renovated. bulging effects, often due to thrusting, overloading, flexion of
The building has probably been the object of prior modifications beams or differential settlement, call for major intervention before
which have to be determined and evaluated in the light of the work starts on the faade. According to the case, the structure
planned renovation project. This involves determining the must be consolidated by repair to the foundations or the
characteristics of the building and the features that comprise its implementation of wall ties, piers or tie rods.
identity and history (if the building has no significant features, The fissures must be analysed according to their dynamic and
observe those surrounding it). speed of evolution: a tell-tale (strip of plaster, millimetre gauge)
It is then a question of completing the building according to the should be placed over cracks detected. If the crack is inactive, an
characteristics of the facings of the faade (or faades) which are injection of mortar grout will be sufficient to fill it. If movement of
to be renovated: the masonry continues, the structure must be consolidated.

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Tool 9
II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials
Renderings: consolidation, restoration or replacement.

Traces of damp and detached rendering require work to remedy mandatory. It is, nonetheless, advisable to carry out a specific
the various possible causes: sealing of leaks in pipes, removal of diagnosis:
renderings that are too impenetrable (using artificial cement),
drainage or seepage of rainwater, etc. Check the general adherence of rendering to the masonry
support by knocking on it with your hand or a small tool. If a
Before programming faade renovation, tests must be carried out large surface sounds hollow, it requires removal and
at different points of the faade. If the wall sounds hollow, renovation. If it sounds hollow in a localized area, a specific
indicating blistering and detachment of the rendering, cleaning of injection should ensure adherence.
the surface may prove necessary. If the defects are due to damp,
it will be sufficient to clean the affected parts and apply Check the cohesion of the mortar for powderiness by rubbing
smoothing mortar. If the phenomenon is due to poor adherence the surface hard. If grains of sand roll under your fingers, the
of the rendering to the support, as a result of insufficient rendering should be removed and repaired. If only a localized
evaporation of the water contained in the walls, the rendering area is affected, partial repair is possible.
must be totally cleaned away and replaced by a natural lime
mortar, which has the advantage of allowing the walls to breathe Check for the presence of rising damp, both outside and in the
while waterproofing them. interior. If there is rising damp, and if the rendering comprises
The rendering of the wall in question may be in a good general a hydraulic binder (artificial lime, lime and cement mortar) the
state of conservation, in which case complete renovation is not rendering must be removed to the height of the damp and

9
Preliminary diagnosis
Before undertaking work, it is necessary to gauge the state of health of
the building, with attention to the following points:

Entrance of water through the roofing,


Roofs chimney flashing, meeting of gable walls and
roofing.

Piping Guttering, rainwater pipes, downpipes (possible


and guttering to conceal them?).

Presence of cracks (active or otherwise), sealing


Walls and masonry up of holes, joints, presence of moss,
degradation of stone.

Rainwater header, beneath paving blocks, joints


Lower wall between ground and wall, possible drainage,
underground networks.

Wood finishing Verification of calking

Protection against rodents, pigeons, etc.

Possible concealment of mains, high current,


Miscellaneous individual line and low current

Removal of unused elements (metal brackets,


etc.)
Cracks that run through the entire thickness of the wall

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Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials II. Reflection and the Project
Renderings: consolidation, restoration or replacement.

replaced by a natural hydraulic lime (NHL), a slight Replacement: the finishes do not provide their intended function
overthickness, or given a differential treatment to turn this of protection, the renderings are coming away, there are
repaired stretch into a wall base. numerous signs of damp, etc. In this case, the renderings
definitively need to be replaced and the causes of damp
Check the type of mortar and finishing treatment. If the addressed. Depending on the location of the defect, replacement
binding agent used is very hydraulic (artificial lime, lime and may be partial, limited for example to the ground floor, the most
cement mortar) a ready mixed lime wash or mineral paint damaged faade or the whole building if the rendering has ceased
(AFNOR FDT 30-808 standard) will be preferable. In this case, to serve its purpose. The decision to undertake total replacement
the colours chosen must resemble the tones of lime wash. must be a consequence of the diagnosis, not a prior decision.
Lime mortar (aerial lime, CL, or natural hydraulic lime, NHL) must
be used for old masonry.
The choice of faade renovation The binding agent habitually used in both mortar and whitewash
was lime. This material is particularly suitable for old constructions
Before drafting a project for the complete renovation of the due to its mechanical and physical properties:
faade, particularly the rendering, it is advisable to consider the
purpose to which the building is to be put and the intended image Its soft texture allows the rendering to move with the building
it is to project. without creating cracks, as harder binding agents do, instead
The total renovation of the rendering, lime washing and wood developing a large mesh of micro-fissures that are
finishes may give the building a new appearanceperhaps too imperceptible to the eye and do not affect impermeability.
new for the choices that led to the purchase of the building. A
modest building only expresses its age and history through the Its porous structure makes lime mortar impermeable to water
degraded condition of these renderings and paint. The but permeable to water vapour. This property allows the
imperfections of the facingsthe patina of timeare evacuation of capillary rise, warmed by the sun, as the rising 9
sometimes the only feature giving the building the charm of an water is transformed into vapour and evacuated via a
old construction. breathable wall.
The aim of faade renovation must, then, be to conserve this old
appearance, requiring a project that respects this idea. Faade These mortars are applied manually to the wall by trowel, and may
renovation, an operation that today all too often takes the form also be projected by a hand-operated roughcast machine or with
of a totally new rendering after removal of the existing render, is projected sand, in which case the facing must be compressed by
in fact a more complex operation that should be undertaken trowel or float. They can also be applied by machine, in which
gradually. case admixes must be added to the mortar, with specific doses
according to the machine used and the type of mortar; they are
Maintenance: the finishes are in a good state of repair: generally air entraining agents and plasticizer (check their
The woodwork needs a new coat of paint compatibility with lime mortars). The suitability of using a sprayer
The rendering is well bonded to its support and just the base is will depend on the desired finish; it may be appropriate for
damaged to a height of some tens of centimetres. In this case, finishes smoothed with a trowel or float, but the saving in time is
re-rendering the wall up to a height of 90 cm using lime mortar less in the case of rendering that is dashed and then finished using
to create a base, touching up a few points and a diluted lime a trowel, and it is always advisable to carry out tests.
wash to create a uniform surface will be sufficient to conserve
or consolidate the old rendering and its imperfections.
The choice of binding agent
Conservation/restoration: the finishes are not in a good state of
repair, but the aesthetic quality of the facing and the nature of the Having decided on the choice of faade renovation, it is then
finishes (sundial, inscriptions, etc.) call for conservation: necessary to choose the binding agent. The following parameters
The techniques to be used are those of conservation, to fix the will help to narrow down the choice.
patina and the action of time, at the same time restoring to the
finishes their role of protection, resistance, etc. The nature of the support
These techniques are applied by specialists, and the project may Old or contemporary walls, limestone rubblework, medium or
envisage a localized intervention of this type that does not hard stone, rammed-earth or cob walls are different materials that
necessarily apply to all the facings. call for a specific binding agent for the scratch coat.

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Renderings: consolidation, restoration or replacement.

The desired result: the finish coat scratch coat. In the following tables, non-hydraulic lime refers to
Climatic conditions, the timeline for work and the stockpiling slaked limes and lime putty.
system all intervene in the choice of the binding agent. All of these The surface to which the rendering is applied has its own
factors must be taken into account when applying the brown characteristics of bonding, porosity and affinity with water. These
coat. characteristics determine the choice of binding agent used to mix
the scratch coat. In the following tables, non-hydraulic lime
Le rsultat souhait, la finition refers to slaked limes and lime putty.
Today, the finish coat of a rendering is always applied with regard
for aesthetics. Factors to be considered are the grain of the B. Site environment and brown coat or levelling
texture, the colour of the rendering and the presence, if
applicable, of mouldings. The possibilities of stockpiling lime may dictate the choice.
The combination of these three elements should guide the choice Climate
of binding agent. Climate also affects the choice of binding agent. In the event of
extreme temperatures or high dry wind, it is preferable to use
A. Observations on the support: the scratch coat natural hydraulic rather than non-hydraulic lime, since the former
The surface to which the rendering is applied has its own sets faster. The choice of a suitable time for work (spring or
characteristics of bonding, porosity and affinity with water. These autumn) or the implementation of protection (wind break,
characteristics determine the choice of binding agent used to mix the sheeting, etc.) may make it possible to reverse this choice.

Type of support Stage of work Standard binding agent

Dusting off
Soft or medium
rubblework Wetting Aerial lime or NHL
masonry
Scratch coat

Dusting off
Fired clay brick
Wetting NHL, aerial lime

Scratch coat

Dusting off

Wetting
Compo (NHL + XHA)
Hard stone Keying
NHL
Wetting (mist)
OLD BUILDING Scratch coat

Dusting off

Wetting (mist)
Rammed earth, adobe, cob Aerial lime
Slurry

Scratch coat/Brown coat


(Three-coat plaster)

Dusting off

Wetting (mist)

Cob, concealed timber framing Slurry Aerial lime

Drying

Scratch coat/Brown coat

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The time schedule Moulding: the rendering is simply marked to simulate bonding
If the work is to be carried out in a short period of time, use of or presents relief.
natural hydraulic lime is preferable to non-hydraulic lime
(except in the case of three-coat plaster and mezzo-fresco Dash coats finished with a trowel or broom should be applied
application). In normal climatic conditions, the setting time onto a previously smoothed brown or finish coat. The dash coat
between scratch coat, brown coat and finish coat can be does not ensure a waterproof finish.
halved. The finish coat can be mixed using non-hydraulic lime. The colour of renderings is the result of the aggregate/binding
The finish coat continues to set after the scaffolding is agent mix or a lime wash.
removed.
In the case of coloration using aggregate, it is important to
C. The desired result: the finish coat bear in mind that natural hydraulic lime has a slight colour of
The main role of the finish coat is to highlight and present the its own (greyish beige, sometimes with a touch of ochre).
facings. The result is a combination of: Aerial limes are much whiter. The choice of one lime over
another can make all the difference to the aggregate and has
The grain of the rendering: the surface may be very smooth a direct effect on the colour of the rendering. Very white lime
or rough (coarse grained surface) tends to alter a solid colour, but there are no hard and fast
The colour: the colour is obtained by lime wash applied while rules. A prior test is always advisable.
the support is still wet or dry, or simply using exposed
aggregate and the binding agent of the mortar In the case of coloration using lime wash on a dry surface, it
may be applied to a rendering of non-hydraulic or natural
hydraulic lime.

In the case of fresco application, the binding agent of the 9

Grain of the finish coat should generally be non-hydraulic lime.


Stage of work Binding agent Observations
rendering

The choice of Guidelines


natural hydraulic
Aerial or lime may be
Repointing possibly natural useful in the The first step is always observation
hydraulic lime case of hard
stone or dry Photographic study (including all the faades treated, details of
Coarse
joints. framing, quoin stones, details of roofing and base)
grained
The appearance
or grain of the
General approach
Trowel-dashed Aerial or natural
rendering is Contact experts, architects, project manager
essentially
rendering hydraulic lime Draft a project, plans, coloured scale model
related to the
nature of the Choice of intervention
aggregate.

On-site work
Use of a
Float-finished Aerial or natural wooden float 1. When modifying openings, respect the proportions and
Fine
rendering hydraulic lime helps to limit general arrangement (a window that is taller than it is wide,
laitance.
etc.). In the case of large openings on the ground floor, a
Fine-grained detailed project must be produced, locating the element in the
sand. Slow plan of the faade.
Trowel-
Non-hydraulic setting provides
smoothed 2. Determination of the main faade and drafting of a project in
lime a second chance
rendering
to compress the which the finish of the rendering creates a hierarchy.
rendering.
Very fine 3. Lime rendering (aerial or natural hydraulic lime) with a coarse-
grained finish (dash-trowelled, daubed), trowel- or float-
Retouching Lime putty can
float-finished
Non-hydraulic
be coloured smoothed, etc. The colour will be that of the mixture of sand
lime
rendering with pigments. and lime. If it is not satisfactory, it can be modified using very
watered down milk of lime tinged with ochre and earth.

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4. The main plane of the rendering merges with the framing


stones. If this is not the case, the rendering covering part of the
stone should be cut back to form a regular frame.
5. The foot of the faade can be highlighted by a base in a
different colour and/or texture to those of the rendering. It will
subsequently be easier to renew the rendering only in the part
where it is damaged by rising damp or splashing.
6. The quoin stones will be on view or concealed by the
rendering. A false in-and-out bond can be used to highlight the
edges of the main faade.
7. A whitewash can be used on one or several faades, coloured
slightly by the addition of yellow ochre or natural sienna.
8. The shutters and doors are painted mainly dark colours (green,
brown) or a range of greys. The window frames are all the
same colour, lighter or a range of greys. Visible wood is not
advisable.
9. The ironwork of the openings is painted the same tone as the
woodwork.

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Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials II. Reflection and the Project

The treatment of damp Soledad Garca Morales


Doctor of Architecture
in traditional architecture Technical University of Madrid,
Spain

1. Criteria of intervention in damp from the ground

The criteria of intervention can be outlined as follows, according


to their degree of effectiveness:

1. As a rule of thumb, it is better to try to eliminate the cause


or focus of the water, if possible, as in the following cases:

a. Damage to municipal mains, which can be confused with


problems of capillarity. The best intervention is to locate and
repair the damage.
b. Rainwater seepage from the pavement, which affects the outer
walls of a building surrounded by paving (Fig. 1). This calls for
a more appropriate design of the engagement of the pavement
and the building, waterproofing the pavement if necessary.
c. Pockets of water on the ground which form during heavy rain
or flooding. In the absence of drainage, the water stands for 9
a long time. The best solution is to establish a type of
drainage that bursts the pocket, so that the water can
always find its way out. Filling the pocket with concrete is
usually ineffective unless the corresponding drainage is
1
implemented

2. In most cases, however, it is not possible to eliminate the source This is possible in those cases where the building is surrounded
of damp, because the source is rainwater, or the groundwater by paving, and slopes can be clearly established.
level, or water in the capillary fringe. In these cases, the correct The drainage channels or trenches built for this purpose should
course of action is to try to avoid contact between the be as far as possible from the faade in question. If the paving
water and the building, at the same time designing a is laid over infill or very permeable ground, the channel should
course for the water. It is important to stress that, in general, be waterproofed to avoid possible seepage to the base or
it is not enough to impede or prevent contact (barrier effect), foundations. As a general idea, we have to imagine that water
because water is constantly moving. The most efficient solution not only flows over paving, it also penetrates through cracks
is to design a course for it to follow. between slabs and footing, and runs beneath them, making it
necessary to study each case separately.
a. In the case of damp caused by the absorption zone, fed by rain If it is not possible to collect rainwater on the surface (due to
in the proximity, the best solution is to design a route for the an unpaved or partially paved surround) it will be necessary to
water (surface channelling, drainage, etc.) that protects the construct a perimetric drainage system to collect and channel
wall by preventing prolonged contact between the water and the water away. In fact, drainage is an artificial underground
the foundations or base. (Figs 2 and 3 show the solution stream, designed to facilitate the flow of water. This involves
adopted to evacuate rainwater retained in the atrium of the considering the following premises:
church of Santa Maria in Arvalo in Avila, Spain. Project: Isabel The drainage system must have a clear outflow point. The
Garca Muoz and Soledad Garca Morales.) depth of the system at this point is the main conditioning
Theoretically, the nearer to the surface the water is collected factor in the layout of the drain. If there is no possibility of
and channelled, the less risk the solution involves, as in this forming a natural outlet for drained water, it may be
case it is simpler to find a point towards which to conduct it. necessary to include a well (sufficiently large and at a

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distance from the building) from which the water can be


pumped out if necessary. If this option is not feasible either,
it is best not to build a drainage system.
An underground channel or drainpipe needs a slope of at
least 2%. In some cases, a smaller gradient (1%) is
admissible, but in this case prior thought must be given to
periodic cleaning of the pipe, with the construction of
inspection traps.
A drainage system near an underground wall or foundations
must be separated from them by a moisture barrier that is
strong enough to stand up to water under pressure. The
barrier must cover the entire wall that is under ground, not
just the level of the drainage tube. If the foundations are
built of irregular coursed rubblework and cannot be
waterproofed because of their irregularity, it is advisable to
separate the drainage system by means of a waterproofed
underground wall parallel to the foundations.
Because waterproofing an underground wall prevents it
evaporating, in the event of capillary damp in addition to
rainwater damp, it will be necessary to construct an
2
independent ventilation cavity, as well as drainage. (See
section on the design of ventilation cavities.)
9 The trench dug for the drainage system must be filled in
with clean aggregate (gravel and sand) that filters the water
to prevent mud or clay being deposited and blocking the
tube. It is also available to protect the waterproofing when
the aggregate is poured in, to prevent perforation.
Protection can take many forms (backing with boards or
geotextile fabric, for example).
Rather than covering a drainage system with solid paving it
is advisable to use a permeable alternative (gravel, for
example) or open-jointed paving slabs.
b. In the case of rising damp, to prevent the ground coming into
contact with the buried wall or foundations, it is advisable to
build a ventilation cavity (Fig. 4). The aim of the ventilation
cavity is to prevent the building materials coming into contact
with the ground, by intercepting capillary suction. However, it
must be built according to the following requisites:
The cavity must as far as possible be dry and protected from
the entry of rainwater or water from other types of damp
(damaged pipes, etc.)
It must in all cases be ventilated. Correct ventilation of a
cavity of this kind is not straightforward, because the air has
to enter (through a sufficient number of gratings), flow
through it and emerge on the other side. Ventilation cavities 3

are, conceptually, like air conditioning conduits, through


which it is not always simple to get the air moving without
mechanical assistance. If the air in a ventilation cavity is not
renewed sufficiently, the evaporated damp from the ground
will saturate the air inside it, and when relative humidity

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The treatment of damp in traditional architecture

reaches 100%, condensation will form on the walls (Fig. 5),


so that damp once again affects the wall or foundations. If
correct ventilation of the cavity cannot be guaranteed, it
should not be built.
When designing a ventilation cavity, it is important to
remember that damp air is less dense than dry air, and
therefore tends to rise. This physical principle should be used
to position the gratings correctly. Dry air should enter at the
bottom and damp air come out at the top.
The intake air has to be taken from the exterior and
returned to the exterior. Cavities that merely move air from
the interior of the building are not effective.
Ventilation cavities can be built inside or outside the
building, to ventilate walls, footing and foundations, but
ventilation must always take place as described above: to
the outside.
Well-ventilated caves, crypts and basements act as
ventilation cavities for the floors above. It is advisable to
maintain the openings that exist in them, as originally
designed (Fig. 6). Converting a basement into a living space
calls for a study of the entire building in order to avoid
possible negative repercussions.
9
c. Finding a solution to a problem caused by the groundwater
level is complicated, because no part of a traditional building is
impermeable. To prevent entry of water from the phreatic level,
the only solution is recourse to waterproofing construction
4
systems. The sole solution, traditionally used, is to channel part
of the phreatic level. The resulting system of channels and
trenches (Fig. 7) is the basis of a Mediterranean culture that is
skilled in conducting water. There are still examples of these
buildings, crisscrossed by networks of channels, cisterns and
wells. When remains of channels are uncovered in a building,
the wisest course of action is to study the system with a view,
as far as possible, to recovering its use. As a rule, what works
well at the start continues to give good results. This calls for
rigorous archaeological and hydrological studies, but it is an
interesting undertaking to recover ethnological and
architectural heritage. On some occasions, the only solution is
to construct a drainage shaft inside (or preferably outside) the
building, and pump water out of it (Fig. 8).

3. It is not always possible to channel water from the ground


before it comes into contact with the wall or footing. In this
5 case, the guiding criterion is to try to promote evaporation
of these elements:

By using renders made with mortars that are highly


permeable to vapour
By ventilating premises or rooms affected by damp.

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6 7

None of these interventions offer a definitive solution, but in If diagnosis detects that the problem is due to hygroscopic salts,
some cases they are the only possibility, until new construction the criteria of intervention are the following:
techniques become available. The aim is to conserve, to the
best of our ability, buildings affected by irresolvable damp, and a. a. Check that no focus of damp exists, or is so minor that
prior study has to answer questions such as what will happen intervention is not required.
to the materials when evaporation is accelerated, or where the b. Next, if the element is of artistic or heritage value, the next step
evaporated water will be evacuated to. We have to avoid the is to try to eliminate surface salts. Restorers are well acquainted
evaporation from one place causing condensation in another. A with the task of desalination of walls and sculptures. This
typical case is ventilation of a cave or crypt: unless the entire involves placing cellulose membranes soaked in distilled water
building is analysed, damp may condense under the roof or in on the surface to be restored. The water in the membrane
the vaults, because damp air tends to rise, and could dissolves the surface salts of the element in question, and
accumulate there. subsequent evaporation transfers the salts to the paper, on
which they dry and crystallize. The dressing may then be easily
removed. This process is repeated as often as necessary.
2. Criteria of intervention in damp caused by hygroscopic This system serves to remove small amounts of salts deposited
condensation on the part of the wall nearest the surface. It is a delicate and
expensive procedure that requires the intervention of a
As we have seen, this type of damp is produced when the building specialist and ongoing supervision to prevent deterioration of
comprises materials that present abnormal hydric behaviour due the material. It is therefore not a suitable solution for large
to the presence of hygroscopic salts. The reaction of the material surfaces without particular value.
to the presence of damp (even in vapour form) is disproportionate: c. If desalination is not considered appropriate, the only solution is
large stains appear, seemingly caused by intense focuses of damp to eliminate the contaminated materials: chipping away
though in some cases there is no more than a little evaporation renderings and, sometimes, the bonding mortar in brick
from damp ground, or sometimes even just vapour in the masonry. Sometimes the salts are only in the render and, once
atmosphere. removed, the damp disappears. If the walls are not rendered,

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8
9

but are built of bare brick or stone, only the mortar can be The most effective course of action is to verify the first, using the
removed, which somewhat improves the appearance of the necessary techniques. Solving the problem is not usually difficult
lesion without completely eliminating it. because it involves construction: designing an appropriate solution
In some buildings, it is common practice to replace bricks or for each case.
ashlars with new ones. In this case, hygroscopic damp
disappears completely, though this criterion of intervention Through the roof
cannot at present be generalized. Seepage is normally caused by a poor original design or ageing of
d. If none of the above courses of intervention are possible, the the materials used, and intervention must address the specific
stain is there to stay. Ultimately, if the only focus of damp is case.
ambient vapour, the lesion is not important, despite being At this point, it is interesting to reflect on the permeable nature of
unsightly. The project and type of building will dictate the most Mediterranean flat and terrace roofs. Their effectiveness lies in
appropriate course of action in each case. layers of mortar that are carefully analysed and selected according
to the microclimate with the purpose of rapidly evacuating excess
water, at the same time absorbing some of it, which subsequently
3. Criteria of intervention in damp caused by rainwater evaporates and cools the interior ambiance. The water absorbed
seepage must never reach the interior facing; experience and construction
tradition have established the most appropriate design in each
If diagnosis reveals this problem, the most correct course is to try place.
to prevent seepage as close as possible to source. This means The solution will fail if an attempt is made without analysis to
finding out: convert the traditional flat roof into an impermeable roof by
interposing waterproof sheeting or materials with an insufficient
Where the water enters absorption coefficient (modern ceramic or encaustic tiles). The
The route it takes change of concept in the functioning of the roof calls for an
Why it appears where it does. analysis of its new behaviour, in response to high levels of runoff
that did not used to exist. The existence of runoff means

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addressing different issues to those of the traditional roof (joints,


meeting with the slope and waterspout, etc.), which do not
require as much attention in the permeable roof. Furthermore, the
interposition of waterproof sheeting hinders or prevents
evaporation, as a result of which the roof ceases to contribute to
hygrothermal comfort and may even cause problems of
condensation when vapour gets trapped in cold areas.
This means that solving damp caused by rainwater seepage
requires thorough knowledge of the construction and typology of
the building in question. It also calls for a laboratory study of old
and modern materials in order to establish their hydric
characteristics and make their use compatible with present-day
requirements.

Through walls
Some of the criteria for intervention in the roof are also applicable
to walls that are subject to the action of rainwater and to the
design of the necessary protection elements.
The rain that falls on a wall both produces runoff and is absorbed
by the materials. The balance between runoff and the amount of
water absorbed is a characteristic of different construction
solutions and, as in the case of the roof, responds to the practice
9 of many years (or even centuries), adapting construction to the
materials available and local climatic factors (Fig. 9).
As in the last section, uninformed modification of these practices
may lead to failure.
It is important to remember that a wall in poor condition is not the
same wall that was originally built. For example: rounded edges of
ashlars may completely modify the proportion of water absorbed
by a wall, in some cases calling for intervention that goes beyond
repointing to replacing ashlars or a render.
As this text illustrates, an analysis of rainwater in permeable
buildings is necessary to a correctly designed solution, and
solutions do not admit of recipe-swapping or model answers.
For us, this difficulty is a source of interest, and its study is a mine
of knowledge

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Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials II. Reflection and the Project

Consolidation of the sandstone Ziad Al-Saad


Ph.D. in conservation and archaeometry
monuments of the world heritage Dean of Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology of Yarmouk
site of Petra University, Irbid-Jordan

Fandi Waked
Architect
Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology of Yarmouk University,
Irbid-Jordan
1. Abstract

The main aim of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of


a number of sandstone consolidants. The methodology of the
present research is based on laboratory tests for assessing the
extent to which various preservatives meet predetermined
requirements.
Four types of materials were selected for this study. These are
variations of silicic acid esters and silicate based materials.
Sandstone samples from the word heritage site of Petra were
treated by these consolidants and then tested by a series of
standard laboratory tests.

2. Introduction

Situated in present-day Jordan and hidden amidst nearly 9


impenetrable mountains to the east of the valley connecting the
Gulf of Aqaba and the Dead Sea, stands the ancient city of Petra,
one of the worlds most visually stunning archaeological sites with
spectacular sandstone monuments. Due to it is high significance
Petra was inscribed on the world heritage list on 1985.
The signs of decay on the monuments of the world heritage site
of Petra, that are cut out from the living rock are numerous and Petra (Jordan)
alarming. It is estimated that more than 80% of the elaborately
chiselled and decorated faades have been lost forever. Since the
days when the Nabataeans left Petra for good, all buildings of the
town have decayed and the rock monuments were reintegrated
into the cycle of nature and left unprotected to the forces of
erosion and dilapidation. The threat of further loss of fabric and
irreplaceable architectural detail is imminent and real. Therefore conclude from the simple models to the complex situation on a
urgent conservation measures should be implemented to curb the monument. But the arrangements of the materials on the
deterioration and depletion of this important world cultural monument and the response of the materials to the
heritage. environmental influence are so different that all problems of
It would be grossly irresponsible to apply any unproved material to conservation cannot be anticipated in the laboratory experiment
masonry of high artistic value and historical importance like Petra. alone without the field test (Snethlage et al, 1990). Therefore,
However, such masonry is in the most urgent need for treatment. field testing should be run parallel with the laboratory testing
Therefore, reliable procedures for the rapid evaluation of potential program.
preservatives and consolidants are very essential. When one wishes to study a particular problem product to be
A universally applicable preservative or consolidant does not exist. applied to a certain type of Stone, it is essential to run a series of
However, with the aid of the pre-testing program, the risk of tests that take in consideration the nature of the stone, its
taking unsuitable measures or products is minimized. weathering behaviour and the ultimate aim of the conservation
Laboratory tests are important because the experiments cannot be process. The tests are carried out on samples of treated in
carried out with the objects themselves. The scientists must comparison with untreated stone.

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Consolidation of the sandstone monuments of the world heritage site of Petra

It must be noted that the testing of the conservation methods has 4.2. Laboratory testing program
an exclusively comparative significance. Above all when we The following laboratory testing methods were applied in this study.
consider the fact that the simulations carried out in the laboratory
are only approximations of the natural mechanisms of 4.2.1- Consolidant uptake value (Depth of penetration)
deterioration. This project is based on designing a test regime that The main aim of this test is to evaluate the penetration properties
could be effectively used to 'evaluate a series of promising of a consolidation product. Drill cores with 4.1cm diameter and
commercially available stone consolidants and preservatives. The known weights were used in this test. The consolidants were
aim is to select the suitable material that can be used to protect added to the stone by capillary rise method. The drill cores were
the threatened and weathered monuments of Petra. placed on the top of sponge saturated with different consolidants.
The weight increase and rising height of the consolidant were
recorded as a function of time. Reading were taken after 30, 60,
3. Performance Criteria 120, 300, 600,1200, 1800,and 2400 seconds.

In deciding on the most suitable consolidant for a particular 4.2.2-Capillary water uptake value
treatment, various factors must be taken into consideration. To carry out water absorption measurements 15 drill cores with
(Amoroso and Fassina 1983: 244). Based on experience and 4.1cm diameter of different lengths and known weight were
knowledge accumulated in the past few decades, there is almost used. The tests were performed according to DIN 52617. Drill
a consensus about the requirements that a stone consolidant cores were treated with the different consolidants by spraying.
should fulfill. These are: Some untreated cores were kept as a control. Each test sample
was individually placed on top of the water saturated pad to allow
1. Increase in the cohesive strength of the treated stone. water to penetrate from the bottom surface of the samples by
2. Substantial penetration of the treated stone, accompanied by capillary suction. After 30, 60, 120, 300, 600, 1800, 2400 and
9 deposition of the consolidant to the full thickness of the 6000 seconds the level of water and the amount of water sucked
weathered zone of the stone. up w ere measured and recorded by height and weight increase.
3. Absence of deleterious chemical or physical interactions
between the consolidant and the stone. 4.2.3-- Water absorption by total immersion
4. Creation of a continuous hardness profile. Untreated and treated drill cores of the Petra sandstone were
5. Low coefficient of thermal expansion. immersed in water. The absorption of water represented by the %
6. compatibility with the nature of the stone. weight gain was recorded after 10, 30, 60 and after 24 hours. The
7. Water vapor permeability/ water repellency (where 10 minutes value, the initial absorption capacity gives insight into
applicable).
8. Ease of 'application.
9. User safe and economical (labor and material)
10. Long term effectiveness.
(Torraca, 1988:87), (Price, 1975: 352), (Amoroso and Fassina,
1983: 243), (Clifton, 1984: 153-54), (Weber and Zinsmeister,
1990: 54),(Weber, 1980: 379).

4. Materials and methods

4.1. Consolidants
Four commercially available stone consolidants were selected for
the purpose of this study.
Three of the consolidants are based on silicic acid esters: Wacker
OH, Wacker H and Funcosil. The fourth is Befix which is a silicate
based material (Remmers: 1995, Sanotec: 1995, Wacker-Chemie:
1995). The materials are either water based or solvent based and
were applied with a brush or by spraying to drill cores and cubes
of sandstone taken from a quarry in Petra. Petra (Jordan)

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Consolidation of the sandstone monuments of the world heritage site of Petra

the absorptive behavior of the stone in the initial phase of a rain stone. The tests were performed following the methods outlined
shower. in procedure A of ASTM method C 666. Samples treated with
different Consolidants in addition to a control untreated sample
4.2.4- Water vapor permeability were cycled between -18 oC and 22 oC with a cycle time of 4
For performing this test 6 samples were used; from each sample, hours.
two slices, about 7 to 10 mm thick, one for dry cup and the other
for wet cup, were taken. The test was carried out according to DIN
52615; 5. Results and Discussion

4.2.5-Salt crystallization test The depths of penetration of solutions of Wacker H, Wacker OH,
The test was carried out according to DIN 5211. Five drill cores Funcosil OH, concentrated Befix, 1:1 Befix, 1:3 Befix and 1:6 Befix
were used in this test. Treated and untreated samples were into the drill cores of the sandstone were found to vary between
immersed in a sodium sulfate solution for 16 hours. The samples 57.50 mm and 27.00 mm. The best penetration was achieved by
were then removed from the solution and heated in an oven for 5 Wacker H followed by Wacker OH. This is mainly due to their low
to 7 hours at 110oC. A one time soaking and heating procedure viscosity and due to their low molecular weights.
is considered to be one cycle. The specimens were subjected to a The capillary water uptake values of different samples of the
series of cycles; after each cycle they were examined visually and untreated were high and varied. They range from 3.26 to 7.69
weight losses were determined. kg/m2h0.5. This is mainly due to the difference in the nature of the
sandstone which means different porosity and due to the different
4.2.6-- Compressive strength measurements extent of weathering that the stones suffered. All consolidants
Compressive strength measurements were carried in accordance have decreased the capillary water absorption to different extents.
with DIN 1164. The tested consolidants were applied to duplicate The calculated water absorption coefficients indicate that the
prism specimens of stone, 65x 150 x 25 mm. Duplicate prism order of reduction of water absorption was: Wacker H =Befix 1:1 9
specimens of untreated stone were also tested. The compressive > Befix concentrated >Wacker OH > Funcosil OH >Befix l: 3 > Befix
strength was measured under a hydraulic press (maximum 1:6 >untreated. Wacker H imparts its water repellency effect due
compression 10 T). (Sattler, L., and Snethlage, R.:1990) mainly to its alkoxysilanes component. Alkoxysilanes have the
advantage of imparting a degree of water repellency to the stone
4.2.7-Resistance to Freeze-Thaw Damage by virtue of their alkyl group which is methyl group in most cases
This test was done to evaluate the effectiveness of different (Larson.J.H S.:1982). Mixtures of silicic ester and
consolidation treatment to improve frost damage resistant of the methlyltrialkoxysilane are cross-linked within the stone by a
condensation or condensation process to both consolidate the
spalling stone surface and protect it by making it water-repellent.
Befix is an aqueous solution consisting of organic part and of a
reactive silicate part. The reactive silicate part reacts with the
dissolved calcium and magnesium ions of the stone surface to
form a new, compact and stable silicate compound which with its
organic part will impart a hydrophobing effect.
From the weight loss with time in the wet cup experiment and the
weight increase in the dry cup experiment water vapor diffusion in
Kg/m2 was calculated.
The untreated sample has a high water vapor permeability which
is manifested in its low diffusion resistance coefficient. It is quite
evident from the results that the treatment of the stone with the
different consolidants brings about a decrease in the permeability
of the stone. However the decrease in permeability results from
the treatment is not remarkable. The largest decrease in water
vapor permeability was caused by treatment with Wacker H (28%)
while the lowest decrease was caused by treatment with Funcosil
OH (8%). Treatment with Wacker OH and Befix 1:6 caused almost
Petra (Jordan) similar decrease with 8% and 10% respectively.

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Consolidation of the sandstone monuments of the world heritage site of Petra

Conclusion

The obtained results demonstrate that the tested stone


consolidants have an acceptable but variable consolidating
abilities. There is no constant trend for any of the tested materials.
In some of the tests a material may give a very positive result. This
does not apply to all of the tests where less positive results are
obtained. All the tested consolidants have there positive merits
but also the negative ones. It is quite obvious that there is no
perfect and universal consolidant which can solve all the
problems. For Instance, the consolidants applied as a solvent base
solutions (Wacker OH, Wacker H and Funcosil OH) have in general
better penetration depth than those applied as an aqueous
solutions (Befix). On the other hand using highly volatile and
Petra (Jordan) flammable solvents, especially in hot climate, may have a serious
negative impacts on the human and environment. In addition,
evaporation of the solvents results in bringing to the surface of the
stone considerable amount of the consolidant which consequently
decreases their effectiveness.
The obtained results show that treatment with Befix provided the The consolidants with hydrophobing effects (Wacker H and Befix)
greatest increase in compressive strength, while the treatment have better abilities to reduce the water uptake of the stone when
with Wacker OH provided the smallest increase. However it is compared to the other consolidants. These materials on the other
9 quite evident that all the test stone consolidants were effective in hand reduced to slightly larger extent the water vapor
increasing the compressive strength of the stone. The increase in permeability of the stone. Considering the examples mentioned
the compressive strength of the samples treated with Wacker H, above it is evident that an evaluation of the results with respect to
Wacker OH and Funcosil OH is quite comparable. This is because the durability of the treatment is very difficult because several
all these consolidants contain silicic acid esters as the reactive factors are influencing each other. The magnitude of a single
components that are responsible for the consolidation of the factor is hardly to be quantified; different performance of the
stone. Silicic acid esters act as a stone consolidants by deposing treatment may affect a range from optimized water repellency up
silica gel, the natural stone binder within the pores of the to the absorption of the untreated material. The same effects can
weathered stone leading to an improvement in its cohesion be caused by stone inhomogenities, the main influence having
strength. Befix imparts its consolidation strength by a different variations in the distribution of the pore diameters. The main
mechanism. It is reactive inorganic part reacts with the dissolved conclusion of this study is that even there is no single stone
calcium and magnesium ions of the weathered stone. This results consolidant which could satisfy and meet all the requirements,
in the formation of a new stable silicate compounds. applying consolidants to heavily weathered and endangered stone
The sample treated with Funcosil OH showed the most resistance is far much better than doing nothing. This is only true if extreme
toward the crystallization of salts. However, it suffered from the care is taken to optimize all the variables involved. Every object
development of micro-cracks and powdering. The lowest and material presents peculiar problems which must be faced
durability was shown by the sample treated with Wacker OH while according to circumstances. This is only can be achieved by the
the best resistance was shown by the sample treated with Funcosil careful design of field testing programs utilizing the results
OH. This result is puzzling as both Wacker OH and Funcosil OH are obtained by the laboratory testing programs
basically ethyl silicates. However it seems to be that to get
comparable results of the two treatments with Wacker OH should
be renewed after a certain time. References

Snethlage, R., Wendler, E., and Sattler, L., The Application of Laboratory Processes
and Studies to Real Structures, Proc. Sympo. Analytical Methodologies for the
Investigation of damaged Stones, 14-21 Sep., Pavia: Italy, 1990.

Amoroso, S., and Fassina, V., Stone decay and conservation, Materials Science
Monographs, 11, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1983.

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Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials II. Reflection and the Project
Consolidation of the sandstone monuments of the world heritage site of Petra

Price, C. A., The Decay and Preservation of Natural Building Material, Chemistry in
Britain, 350-353, 1975, 11(10).

Clifton, J. R., Adhesives and Consolidants. Reprint of contributions to the Paris


Congress 2-8 September, 1984 (ed. N.S. Brommelle, Elizabeth M. Pye, Perry Smith
and Garry Thomson). International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic
Works. London, 151-155, 1984.

Torraca, G., Porous Materials. Building Materials Science for Architectural


Conservation. Third edition, Rome, Italy, 1988.

Weber, H. and Zinsmeister, K, Conservation of Natural Stone, Expert Verlag,


Ehningen, 53-84, 1990.

Weber, H., Stone renovation and consolidation using silicones and silicic esters.
Wacker-Chemie Gmbh: Munchen, 385-375, 1980.

Remmers, Funcosil Facade Protection and Restoration Systems, Remmers Bauchemie


GMBH: Germany, 1995.

Sanotec Austria, Innovation, Research and Development for the Protection of the
Environment, Special Products for Buildings, Construction, Preservation and
Treatment, Sanotec Austria Technical Report, Austria, 1995.

Wacker,), Wacker Silicones for Masonry Protection, Wacker-Chemie GmbH: Germany,


1995.

Sattler, L., and Snethlage, R., Durability and Stone Consolidation Treatments with 9
Silicic Acid Ester, Proc. Sympo. Analytical Methodologies for the Investigation of
damaged Stones, 14-21 Sep., Pavia: Italy, 1990.

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II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials

Treating and protecting timber Joaqun Montn


Technical architect
Professor in the Department of Architectural Technology II,
School of Building Construction of Barcelona (Technical
University of Catalonia), Spain

As my previous article explains, wood is degraded by the attacks


of biotic and abiotic agents that may lead to its complete
destruction.
Action can however be taken to prevent it. First, we have to
analyse the causes of degradation in order to take appropriate
action. We also have to consider the characteristics of the wood
used, its natural durability, its impregnability by protective
products, the position of the timber element (this is considered
below in the classes of risk) and, on the basis of this data, we can
select the most suitable treatment.

Class of risk

Before going onto the treatments, I will begin by determining the Spraying old timber beams before reinstalling them
risk to a timber element in a construction. The concept of class of
9 risk is related to the probability of a timber element, structural or
otherwise, being attacked by biotic agents according to its
potential or real placement. As damp is fundamental to the
majority of biotic attacks, the following classes of risk are listed.

Class of risk 1 : no risk of damp. The solid timber element is under


cover, protected from the elements and not exposed to damp. In
these conditions, wood has a moisture content of less than 20%. Class of risk 4: permanent risk of damp. The timber element is in
There is no risk of attack by fungi and there may occasionally be contact with the ground or with freshwater and therefore exposed
attacks by termites and larva-cycle insects. to humidification and a permanent moisture content of over 20%,
Examples: flooring, stairs, doors, structural elements in general which means permanent risk of rot and termite attacks.
that are not close to sources of damp, structures inside buildings. Examples: constructions in freshwater and pillars in direct contact
with the ground, fences, piles, railway sleepers.
Class of risk 2: Risk of accidental damp. The timber element is
under cover and protected from the elements but the moisture Class of risk 5: the structural element is in permanent contact
content may occasionally rise above 20% in part or all of the with saltwater. In these circumstances, the moisture content of
element, which would allow fungi to develop. The risk of attack wood is permanently greater than 20%. There is a risk of attacks
by wood-boring insects is similar to the previous group. by marine biotic agents to the submerged parts and all kinds of
Examples: damp timber caused by leaks in drains, leaking roofs biotic attacks in unsubmerged parts with very high moisture levels.
and structures of a covered swimming pool with high atmospheric Examples: constructions in saltwater, jetties, piles, etc.
humidity and occasional condensation.
Natural durability and impregnability
Class of risk 3: Risk of intermittent damp. The structural element
is in the open, but not in contact with the ground and subject to Natural durability is defined as woods intrinsic resistance to
frequent humidification, with a moisture content of over 20%. destructive agents. Some woods are very durable, others are not.
There is a predisposition to rot and attacks of wood-boring insects. Impregnability is a woods capacity to allow liquid to penetrate it.
Examples: outer door and window frames, bridges and pergolas, Sapwood is far more easily impregnated than heartwood, and
street furniture. some woods are easy to impregnate while others are not.

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Treating and protecting timber

Protective products

These are products with insecticide and fungicide properties for


application to wood, though we might also consider protection
from atmospheric agents and fire, among others.
Not all cases require the same treatment or product, so it is
important to choose the appropriate protective product and
method of application.

Characteristics of protective products


An ideal wood preservative must:

1. Be toxic to fungi and insects (insecticide and fungicide)


but non-toxic to humans and warm-blooded animals.
2. Have a high residual power and be resistant to washing Surface spraying of thin pieces of wood
out, evaporation and sublimation.
3. Be chemically stable for a long period of time.
4. Be easy to find and plentiful on the market.
5. Be safe to handle.
6. Be easy to use.
7. Not be corrosive to metals.
8. Penetrate wood well.
9. Not increase the flammability of wood. 9
10. Allow painting or varnishing of the wood after its
application.
11. Not give off an unpleasant smell.
12. Be colourless to allow the treated wood to conserve its
natural colour.

No single preservative combines all of these qualities, making it


necessary to choose the most convenient and practical option for
each case.
Surface spraying of a structural element

Types of protective product


Water-borne preservatives. These are mixtures of mineral salts
dissolved in water as a vehicle to penetrate wood. Their
concentration varies according to the degree of desired
protection. The method of application has to ensure in-depth
penetration, such as the autoclave. They are applied to wet wood
or wet the wood during treatment, requiring subsequent drying,
which may produce distortion and splitting. They generally colour
wood. applied to wet wood or wet the wood during the treatment,
Water-dispersible preservatives. These are mixtures of active requiring subsequent drying. Wood treated with water-dispersible
principles that are not water soluble, to which an emulsifying preservatives does not as a rule change colour, can be given a
agent is added to produce an emulsion. The active principles are finish, is compatible with glues, does not corrode metals or
organic compounds. They are usually applied by means of plastics, does not increase its flammability and does not stain the
procedures that produce surface penetration, such as brush and materials it comes into contact with.
spray treatments and dipping. Organic solvent preservatives. These are synthetic organic
This is an intermediate product between water-borne compounds that use organic solvent as a vehicle to penetrate
preservatives and products containing organic solvent. They are wood. These products can be used for both surface and in-depth

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Treating and protecting timber

treatments. They penetrate very well and can be applied to both Class of risk Type of protection
new wood and wood that forms part of a construction, but
1 None (surface treatment recommended)
always dry (less than 20% moisture content). They do not change
the colour of wood. Some active principles (DDT, dieldrin, lindane) 2 Surface (average treatment recommended)

and organic solvent are environmentally unfriendly and, in some 3


Medium (in-depth treatment recommended)
In-depth
cases, highly toxic.
4 In-depth
Natural organic preservatives. These are products obtained by
distilling coal tar (creosotes) or wood, or pyrolysis. Their 5 In-depth
characteristics make the most suitable methods of application the
hot and cold bath or pressure treatment in autoclave. They are
very effective against xylofagous agents due to their high toxicity,
have a high power of adherence to wood (giving them a long- Types of protective treatment
lasting effect) and do not corrode metals. They smell unpleasant
for quite a long time; they stain the surface of wood and do now We use the word treatment to refer to the application of a wood
allow immediate subsequent finishes. Due to their smell and the protection product using the appropriate procedure in order to
toxic characteristics of some of their components, their use is prevent it being attacked by agents of degradation (preventive) or
forbidden in interiors, though they are highly suitable for woods to eliminate the agents that have attacked it (curative).
that need to be in contact with the ground, such as railway The treatments can be applied to wood before using it for
sleepers and posts. construction or when it is already in position, and may be
preventive or curative.
Types of protection from biotic agents
The types of wood protection according to the depth of penetration Preventive treatments
9 of the product are classified as follows: Preventive treatments are applied to wet or dry wood, before or
after use, to prevent attack by biotic or abiotic destructive agents.
Surface protection is when the average penetration reached by
the preservative is 3 mm, with a minimum of 1 mm in any part of
the treated surface. The appropriate methods of treatment are
brush and spray treatments and dipping. Suitable products are
water-dispersible products and those using organic solvents..
Average protection is when the average penetration reached by
the preservative is greater than 3 mm in any treated area, but less
than 75% of the impregnable volume. The appropriate methods
of treatment are immersion and some autoclave treatments. The
preservatives used are water-borne salts and preservatives in
organic solvent.
In-depth protection is when the average penetration reached
by the preservative is equal to or greater than 75% of the volume.
The methods of application are vacuum and pressure treatment in
an autoclave.
Most of the systems of applicationimmersion and autoclave
systemsare only suitable for new or replacement wood, or
elements that can be dismounted for treatment.
In the case of rehabilitation, when dealing with wood already in
situ, brush and spray treatments will be the most suitable. If in-
depth penetration is required, injection treatments, with or
without pressure, will be necessary.

The table below indicates the type of protection required


according to the class of risk. Protection used during chemical treatment

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Treating and protecting timber

Type of treatment Method of treatment Type of preservative


Exposure to Amount of product
Class of risk Type of protection Product Method of application
humidification applied
1 Not necessary
No contact with the
ground None Recommendable Organic 80-120 ml/m2
Under cover Surface Water-dispersible 80-120 ml/m2 Brush
spray
50 g/m2 dipping
2 Surface Water-borne
3.5 kg/m3
No contact with the
Occasional
ground Brush
Under cover Recommendable Organic 250 ml/m2
spraying
medium Water-dispersible 250 ml/m2
dipping

Water-borne 3,5-10 kg/m3 Dipping


autoclave
3 Medium
No contact with the Autoclave
Frequent Double-vacuum product 5-15 kg/m3
ground
In the open
Water-borne
Recommendable
3,5-14 kg/m3 Autoclave
In-depth

Double-vacuum
4 25 kg/m3 Autoclave
Creosote product
In contact with the
In-depth
ground or freshwater Permanent

Water-borne 9
8-15 kg/m3 Autoclave

5 In-depth
Permanent Water-borne 8-15 kg/m3 Autoclave
In saltwater

Wood before use Curative treatments are only applied to timber elements already in
Surface treatment (dipping) place and under attack.
Surface treatment (spraying)
Surface treatment (brush) Wood in use
In-depth treatment (prolonged immersion) Surface treatment (spraying)
In-depth treatment (double vacuum) Surface treatment (brush)
In-depth treatment (pressure process in an autoclave) In-depth treatment (pressure injection)

Wood already in use


Surface treatment (spraying) Specific treatments against biotic agents
Surface treatment (brush)
In-depth treatment (pressure injection) Anti-fungal treatment. Here we will concentrate on areas of the
building where suitable conditions for the development of these
attacks are found: areas where there is a risk of damp, especially
Curative treatments areas embedded in the walls or in contact with them and with the
ground. This requires in-depth curative treatment in the form of
These are specific treatments for new or old woods that have been injection of a preservative with organic solvent. The source of
attacked by wood-eating organisms. Their purpose is to eliminate damp must also be eliminated.
the aggressive agent (biotic agents), check the damage caused by Treatment against larva-cycle insects. Those areas where an
the agent (abiotic) and protect wood against future attacks. intense attack is detected must be given in-depth curative

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Treating and protecting timber

treatment, by injection. In other areas that may be susceptible to Treatments against abiotic agents of degradation
attack, preventive surface treatment will be sufficient.
Social insects. Termites. Normally, when treating wood for an Treatments against photo-degradation.This involves the
attack of termites (Reticulitermes), we will not be able to eliminate application of varnishes or, preferably, stains. Stains are oil-based
the termite nest, which is generally outside the building. We have products to give an open-pore finish to new or old woods. Their
to therefore try to isolate the building and eliminate the insects main characteristic is that they do not form a film on the surface
that remain inside. This will be more or less difficult, depending on of the wood and as a result there is no degradation. They are less
the complexity of the building. First, a chemical barrier has to be effective as insecticides and fungicides than preservative base
created around the perimeter of the building by injecting the coats, but they incorporate mineral pigments (metal oxides that
insecticide into the ground and the base of the walls. The next resist photo-degradation) to reflect the suns ultraviolet rays that
step is in-depth treatment, injecting all the timber in the dwelling: damage the wood.
pillars, beams, truss, door and window frames, etc. This is a very Fire-prevention treatments. These may take the form of
expensive treatment with an aggressive effect on the timber. products that reduce flammability, fire retardants such as
A new type of treatment is currently being worked on. It involves ammonium sulphate, borax and others. Another possibility is to
putting down cellulose bait treated with a chitin inhibitor. This coat wood with products such as fire-resistant paints, intumescent
type of treatment appears to eliminate the termite nest coatings, plaster and other materials, with the drawback that they
completely. It is less aggressive than the traditional system as it conceal the wood.
does not require perforating all wooden elements and inserting
injection valves every 30 cm.

In-depth injection treatment with alternate perforations

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Methods and substances for treating Wahid El-Barbary


Architect
and repairing the wooden elements, General Director in Projects Sector of the Supreme
the Egyptian experience Council of Antiquities, Egypt

The researches that have been done in treating and repairing


wooden elements in Egypt are distinguished addition to long field
experience in conserving the heritage of this important elements
and in determining the methods and the appropriate solutions for
their restoration as they were exposed to deterioration and
destruction factors like chemical, physical, biological and
environmental ones.
Its useful to know the basic principles that Egyptian restorers used
in this field and which resulted from the long experience over years:

1. Applying repairing and restoration process only for the


elements that need this process and which are exposed to
destruction and lost.
2. A detailed study of destruction aspects with accurate
documentation for determining destruction type or damage
and how it affects the element.
3. Applying the primary experiments for substances use in the 2. Chemical Methods: its effectiveness was proved in keeping 9
treating on a sample from the same wood kind of the the humidity amount inside the wooden element in harmony with
historical element. the humidity amount in the surrounding environment, and this by
4. Accurate use of the new chemical substances to ensure that the using melted waxes to stabilize this relative case between the
treated wooden elements will not be harmed again in future. element and its environment.
5. The restorer should have high skill and long experience to be Its used to strengthen the basic body of the element whether by
qualified for the restoration and repairing. painting or injection and that by using basic oils which help in
6. Using the most high technologies which help for a perfect lowing humidity amount in wood, but injection operations are
restoration and treatment. more successful than painting in keeping the humidity amount
inside the wood roots which are exposed to splitting caused by
The damages which happen to wooden elements can be stresses and strains especially in dry weathers.
summarized in: Polymers (industrials ratings melted in organic compositions) are
used too in the walls of the rolling wooden elements cells, such as
1. Rolling or cracking as a direct result of the humidity content phenol formaldehyde ratings, which gave the best results in
change according to the environmental physical changes. stabilizing the shape of the bending wood, and this is due to its
2. Funguses and insects infection. qualities in reaching the depth of the wooden elements.

Best methods of treating the rolling and cracking: 3. Strengthen the weaken wooden elements: restorers tend to
use modern chemical substances for its success in long period to
1. Mechanical Methods: its effectiveness was proved in case of keep the wooden element, but as we mentioned before, there are
small thickness woods either decorated by other substances or two ways to strengthen the weak woods:
undecorated. Rolling and cracking in this case represent a lot of 1. Mechanical way
danger that threatens the feeding substances and spoiling the 2. Chemical way
colors. These methods need suitable periods of weather Most of the times, it is sufficient to use the chemical ways, but in
conditions to prevent the rolling of the element again in case of some cases, the element needs the mechanical way, and that is for
exposure to the same environmental conditions that causes rolling increasing the degree of stability and giving the hardness to its
in the first time. body. This depends on the condition of the wooden element.

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II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials
Methods and substances for treating and repairing the wooden elements, the
Egyptian experience

Treatment of the wooden elements which are infected with element. The use of this method must be at least for two years to
insects: ensure the insect exposing in all its growing stages.
This chemical way resistance is applied through three techniques:
First: Resistance by natural ways: Spray way with special pumps, that is used if its hard to use the
By depending on weather factors to kill the insects activities: brush.
1. Heat Flooding way.
2. Light Steaming way.
3. Humidity
4. Air pressure Treatment of wood infections by funguses:
Funguses are affected with humidity, high temperature and light
Second: Resistance by mechanical ways: in the surrounding environment. These elements affect its
1. Using hunting boxes for attracting insects. generation degree. Wooden elements could be steamed by using
2. Building walls and holes in insects paths. pesticides which divide into:
3. Collecting insects eggs by hand. 1. Pesticides which are soluble in water.
4. Killing the host upon which the insect depends in its food. 2. Pesticides which aren't soluble in water, and these are better to
use
Third: Resistance by chemical ways:
Considered the best way, by using pesticides with special The used pesticides should have these conditions:
descriptions which include its continuous effect for a suitable 1. High effectiveness and a relative long effect.
period to overcome insects, and arent harmful for the wooden 2. Easily to reach the cells of tiny insects.
3. Dont leave traces on the treated wooden element.

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The reality of on-site work III. The work

On-site reality Jos Manuel Lpez Osorio


Architect
Expert in building rehabilitation, Granada,
Spain

If we wait until we know enough to act with complete certainty,


we are condemning ourselves to inaction. Jean Rostand

While it is true that the development of the programme of


preliminary studies, the reflection phase and a judicious project are
vital to the successful rehabilitation of a traditional building, we
must not forget that the real objective of the Rehabimed Guide is
to turn the material conservation of traditional Mediterranean
architecture into an effective reality.
The words of the French scientist and thinker Jean Rostand
inevitably suggest the need for action as the only instrument
capable of implementing the enormous development of
theoretical approaches and interminable debates as to criteria of
intervention that do not always achieve the expected objectives.
Complex, diverse Mediterranean reality calls for action as the only New popular architecture combines traditional forms and typologies with the new
guarantee that justifies the writing of this method. It is, then, on site materials now available. La Pobla de Benifass, Castelln (Spain).

that the principles of the Rehabimed Method have to be applied


and where it is even more important, if possible, to adopt a realistic,
integrative, flexible view of the Method, as all the previous phases rural environments, are informal interventions that do not usually
10
and stages undergo their true acid test during on-site work, where involve the presence of specialists or have the corresponding
it is necessary to absorb and assimilate the incalculable series of administrative authorization. However, these spontaneous
unforeseen events that arise in rehabilitation work. interventions, the product of the users direct need, also deserve
This reality becomes even more complex because the aim of this consideration, whether for their capacity to destroy traditional
guide is to establish a methodology for intervention in the ways and means or for their evocative potential to present the
Mediterranean geographical area, which, despite common new popular reality challenging the habitual direct relation
historical roots and identities, presents a diverse, changing between the traditional and the popular.
panorama with cultural and socioeconomic differences that This diversity of conditions can upset the linearity of processes
condition processes of intervention. established according to principles that are excessively rigid or
The carrying out of work is subject to the existing materiality and remote from this constructional or deconstructional reality in
a series of technical, administrative and economic circumstances traditional architecture. The situation calls for the design of an
that produce an uneven sphere of action. Carrying out open strategy that conserves a sufficiently clear, well-defined
rehabilitation work in the run-down buildings of Europes old structure while enabling new incorporations that do not distort
towns is not the same as in the tourist centres of the the Methods initial objectives, just as a fishbone maintains its
Mediterranean islands, the narrow streets of North Africas stable form while still being flexible and adapting to the variable
medinas, villages lost in the Atlas Mountains or the run-down conditions of its surroundings.
oases of pre-Saharan valleys. Criteria of intervention and programmes defined in advance tend
We are facing changing circumstances in compact urban settings or to be disrupted when subjected to on-site reality. This is the real
scattered buildings in the rural world, where difficult access, the battlefield where there is no looking back, except to learn from
non-existence of qualified labour, problems finding the right ones mistakes and try to avoid them in future. Rigorous prior
construction materials or simply complex bureaucracy are the knowledge of the building and of the cultural, legal, technical and
obstacles to be overcome during the process of rehabilitation work. socioeconomic reality of each region or country requires hard
Furthermore, we cannot forget that much of the rehabilitation, work to plan a judicious intervention.
extension and remodelling work that takes place in the This section of the Method therefore sets out to define a series of
Mediterranean basin, particularly in countries in the south and basic concepts that can help us to establish common points of

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departure when undertaking rehabilitation of traditional values in traditional architecture and the reality of a contemporary
Mediterranean architecture. rural world that seeks to modernize housing with new forms and
materials as a symbol of progress.
The reality is that until recently user participation in the construction
The transformations of traditional architecture and user and rehabilitation of housing was quite normal when producing
participation in the rehabilitation of housing traditional architecture. It seems necessary that it should continue to
be so and that the presence of the direct beneficiary of the
Throughout history, traditional architecture has been carried out intervention, both in the project phase and in the carrying out of
without the involvement of architects, constituting the natural work, should be one of the keys to popular architecture.
spontaneous expression of a people with the need to provide a Nonetheless, the traditional forms, colours and materials that are
roof over their heads. Buildings constructed without a project appreciated in a contemporary view of the traditional world are
show their natural capacity for transformation when it was frequently not accepted by their users, who look down on the
necessary to consolidate, remodel or extend in accordance with traditional as being associated with the past, the symbol of
the programme of needs. underdevelopment they hope to rise above, and whose
The industrial revolution, improved communications and the expectations of housing are closer to conventional urban housing,
availability of new materials have opened the range of technical which they identify with progress.
and formal possibilities to local builders, who continue to be Specifically, this takes the form, for example, of the loss of value
responsible for the construction or remodelling of traditional for the local population of traditional cobbled paving, normally
architecture. However, the change in starting conditions, with roughly built with large stones, which are replaced by flat stones
new structural and typological concepts that are no longer based for greater convenience and to allow traffic.
on local tradition or the principles of economic and social These valuations on the part of the user contrast with the opinions
organization, has substantially modified the end result and the of the occasional visitor, the tourist or the newcomer, attracted by
image of new popular architecture, which is still the response to rural tourism or gentrification in a historical neighbourhood. In
the new circumstances of the surroundings despite parting many cases these new users becomes residents who consider
companyprobably definitivelywith the fundamentals of these epidermic values of architecture to be the seal of
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tradition. authenticity. Conflict is inevitable, and the solution has to steer a
The present-day context of traditional architecture in much of the course between the different requirements, which will depend on
Mediterranean is a manifest conflict between two radically the specific conditions of the place, the heritage or exclusively
opposed concepts: the developed urban world that finds heritage residential nature of the neighbourhood or rural setting and, in

Popular architecture is characterized by the use of colour and salvaged materials. The museified remains of traditional architecture form part of the present-day
Barrio de la Chanca, Almera (Spain). urban landscape in harmony with the new architecture. Larache (Morocco).

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short, on identifying why and for whom we are undertaking in our Mediterranean environment, in heritage contexts with limited
rehabilitation. socioeconomic conditions. In order to carry out this standardization,
The presence of the architect, responsible since the Modern the role of an understanding administration that considers these two
Movement for solving housing problems, finds in traditional aspects is once again very important. There are examples in the south
architecture the apparent contradiction of having to order this of Spain, where the regional government of Andalusia has
process. His or her participation in striking a balance between the implemented public programmes of self-construction and
conservation of values to be preserved while responding to the rehabilitation of dwellings, financing the necessary materials to carry
present-day needs of the occupant and user of traditional out the work and hiring of specialists.
architecture is a major challenge. The experiences carried out have included numerous associated
However, the reality in many Mediterranean regions is that the advantages. The user directly manages site work and even
presence of the architect is limited in the processes of construction contributes his labour, leading to a reduction of costs and greater
or rehabilitation of dwellings in popular contexts, where the social profitability of the investment made. This is also useful for
owner, with the help of a local builder, designs, finances and future transformation and maintenance work, thanks to the users
carries out work without a prior project and, in many cases, knowledge of the location of structural elements, installations, etc.
without administrative control. Here, the processes of self- This practice is normally associated with small-scale work, though in
construction or self-rehabilitation display a higher degree of user many cases actual needs call for overall interventions affecting a
participation in the production of housing. large number of buildings or the rehabilitation of singular buildings.
The naturalness of these processes and personal involvement in These interventions are habitually promoted by local or state
the construction of ones home are worthy of attention, government and involve the initial consequence of hiring a single
considering the phenomenon as a reality that deserves to be construction company that is not usually linked to the site of work.
valued, with, as applicable, the introduction of elements to order In this case, experiences have been directed at obliging the tendering
and reinforce the phenomenon: the presence of an architect as a company to hire local residents of the neighbourhood or town as
professional who can help to redirect the process and the workers on the site. This measure introduces major social benefits, as
participation of the public administration to co-finance work, it provides employment in the place in question and contributes to
provide the necessary economic resources to hire specialists and, professional qualification. In return, the local residents offer
10
in short, improve the quality of the intervention. knowledge of local construction culture and their participation on
The standardization of this practice is desirable, not as the site is an advantage for subsequent maintenance or repair work. The
implantation of measures to distort its initial values but as a strategy experiences carried out were not straightforward due to the difficulty
to reinforce them, considering self-rehabilitation as a possible model of finding workers with the relevant basic training and personal

In countries in the south of the Mediterranean, a new metal door is integrated into The use of a mixture of traditional and Western clothing illustrates the social reality
popular architecture. In the north of the basin, the traditional wooden door in many regions of the Mediterranean. This combination can also be seen in the
becomes a fossilized object in an open-air museum. High Atlas (Morocco) / architecture. Syria.
Alpujarra (Spain).

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interest. These are, however, initiatives of undeniable interest that The technical team, normally comprising architects and specialists,
deserve to be incentivized. is responsible for drafting the project, overseeing rehabilitation
work and economic administration. It plays a vital role in the
correct planning and rationalization of the process. However, the
The agents involved in carrying out rehabilitation work different circumstances that converge in the rehabilitation of
traditional architecture call for greater efforts on the part of those
The technical and economic administration of building work responsible, who cannot limit their participation to technical
always requires the active participation of three main agents: the aspects of the intervention. They are required to give greater
client or user of the building, the specialists who manage the site commitment and dedication, since they have to modify their
and the construction company employed to do the work. traditional role as distant, unrelated specialists to increasingly
However, the singular characteristics of rehabilitation work call for become mediators between housing and heritage, between rules
a redefinition of these figures and their forms of interrelation. and reality, between the private individual or the government
The owner and user is the person who decides to rehabilitate their body that hires them and the needs of the dwellings user.
dwelling, initially using their own resources. However, The construction company is responsible for carrying out physical
rehabilitation normally involves greater technical and economic rehabilitation work and has to adapt to the specific characteristics
problems than conventional construction, and certain heritage of this kind of project. In these cases, the presence of small local
values tend to affect the population in general rather than just the companies, or just a good builder who is familiar with local
owner. This gives rise to the appearance of the administration to construction systems and materials, is the best choice if the scale
develop the work, normally establishing measures of protection of intervention allows it. However, the loss of traditional trades in
and contributing economic resources. The presence of this new most countries in the Mediterranean basin calls for applied research
agent is more obvious in the case of singular buildings or facilities to recover traditional construction systems, making ongoing
such as public washing places, deposits, mills, etc., where public collaboration with the technical team particularly important.
use and, in many cases, public ownership, clearly calls for the These three figures are not always perfectly defined and
participation of the administration. completely independent. This can have a noticeable effect on the
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The recovery of public washing places, financed by the regional government, has Recovery of the local set paving conserving the traditional technique. Albayzn,
been carried out using local construction materials and systems. The Alpujarra, Granada (Spain).
Granada (Spain).

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management model, substantially conditioning the intervention given urban or rural areas, and the imposition by the
design, mechanisms of control and the end result. administration of specific criteria of intervention.
The necessary interaction between the different agents involved The role of public initiative must be seen as an element to
is, then, an important issue for consideration, particularly if the regulate and stabilize a process in which market entropy or
public administration is involved in the process, since in some private interest could produce imbalances that interfere with the
cases this supposes the distancing of the direct beneficiary of conservation of the values of traditional architecture. However, if
intervention. This requires the modification of established roles public initiative does not respect local singularities, the hoped for
and a more demanding position for all of them, though one with results will not always materialize.
great ultimate benefits. On other occasions, the difficulty is that In some cases, the administrations interests do not coincide with
the interventions are informal, beyond the control of the the real needs of the direct beneficiaries of intervention. These
administration. This is the case of self-rehabilitation, where the issues are difficult to address by means of general or systematize
owner of the dwelling, with the help of a local builder, designs, reflections, calling rather for personalized attention that is
finances and carries out work without the presence of difficult to achieve in large-scale rehabilitation interventions.
specialists, still a relatively habitual circumstance in some areas Sadly, many public interventions in historic centres carried out in
of Mediterranean geography and one that is worthy of mention. recent decades have invested their efforts in improving the
exterior image of buildings and, with it, the urban image of the
The public administration as regulator of the process district, rather than solving the real needs of their inhabitants.
In Mediterranean countries where the economic and Though this trend is fortunately tending to disappear, many
management capacity of the public administration is sufficient, programmes have been carried out to rehabilitate faades or
the rehabilitation of traditional architecture is usually promoted urban elements without paying due heed to the interior of
by the state. buildings and, therefore, failing to address problems of structure
Its presence as technical overseer of the process also involves or habitability. In other cases, the initial criterion of recovering a
total or partial financing of work. This generally takes place traditional typology, inevitably disrupted by the subdivisions of
within the framework of programmes to protect or safeguard dwellings, occupation of courtyards and galleries or extensions,
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Recovery of the construction technique of rammed-earth walls, traditional in the The application of a layer of plaster over the timber roof sheathing before laying
north of the Mediterranean basin. La Peza, Granada (Spain). the tiles is a traditional technique now being recovered by rehabilitation projects.
Albayzn, Granada (Spain).

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comes into direct conflict with the spatial requirements of the be brought in, subcontracting local companies with tight profit
current users. margins, generally reverting negatively on the quality of work.
Another issue to emerge in interventions by the public Another figure introduced by government bodies is the approved
administration is the difficulty of establishing the dividing line company, which has to present specific requirements to be able to
between the case of heritage architecture with values to be work on rehabilitation in a neighbourhood, village or region. The
conserved and that of an intervention to exclusively solve approved company guarantees a minimum level of quality and
problems of basic habitability. Normally, there are three raises the average standard of interventions, and is required to
government agents involved: one responsible for the conservation provide general standardization. This circumstance, necessary but
of heritage, one responsible for developing public housing and not always possible in certain informal construction sectors, is
one responsible for social aspects. In traditional architecture, it is habitual in small-scale remodelling projects and is widespread in
difficult to define the dividing line between competences and how most Mediterranean countries.
to direct the priorities of intervention and available funding, The approval of companies and, in short, the insistence on
leading to numerous conflicts in past experiences. improving their technical capacity and economic administration
The public presence must in any case be well received, since in necessarily involves specific programmes to retrain or recycle
economically active contexts, limited but judiciously directed state artisans and workshops or training centres, which are definitely a
investment has proved to act as an incentive to private investment. positive experience that helps to raise the quality of construction
However, in more limited contexts the intervention ends when companies staff.
government funding dries up, making it ultimately responsible for
the commitment to intervention and the end result.
The project and the tender action
The training of specialists and construction companies
The most delicate part of intervention in traditional architecture The production project and site contract establish and define the
comes with implementation on site, due to the lack of a culture of relations between the developer, the specialists and the
rehabilitation and the shortage of specialists and qualified labour, construction company intervening on any building site, which
which logically affect the quality of finished work. acquire singular characteristics in the case of rehabilitation work.
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Professionals have to complete their specific training with The production project must reflect the content of work to be
specialization courses, preferably focusing on site work, where the carried out and is a valuable document that has to adjust to the
theoretical conditions of academic training are insufficient to deal real needs of the intervention. The definition and characteristics of
with the complexity of rehabilitation. this document are covered in other chapters of this guide, but the
This is necessary in all Mediterranean countries, but particularly so project merits further discussion here as regards aspects related to
in those in the south, where the number of architects is on-site work, as it depends in many aspects on this documents
insufficient to deal with existing demands for the construction of capacity to respond to unforeseen events that may appear during
new dwellings. Here, professionals are less interested in work.
rehabilitation work and in those cases where it does exist, in It is indisputable that the best guarantee of the implementation of
practice it is limited to the restoration of monuments, to the a project is the degree of closeness to the reality of the
exclusion of traditional architecture. intervention. The most efficient strategy is to carry out a
Generally, when the administration takes part in the process, it comprehensive phase of preliminary studies and diagnosis of the
imposes minimum conditions on specialists involved in building in order to limit unforeseen events during on-site work.
rehabilitation. The creation of groups of professionals to draft and However, this is not always possible due to the difficulty of
direct rehabilitation work has produced satisfactory results and carrying out analyses, removing renders or false ceilings, etc., in a
contributes to the specialization of professional activity. building that is being lived in by its inhabitants.
Another consequence of the above is that detailed knowledge of
Construction companies are required to have specific knowledge all the technical and construction solutions and materials present
of the singular characteristics of the architecture in question. Local in the building will not be collated until the site-work phase, when
companies working in villages in the rural world or historical partial modification of some of the intended solutions will be
neighbourhoods are the best choice, due to their knowledge of necessary. The project will inevitably require modification and
construction systems, and to the difficulties of storage and access must therefore be sufficiently open and flexible to absorb new
to materials. However, these companies do not normally comply circumstances.
with requisites in the event of the administration being responsible Another requirement is the involvement of the users and their
for contracting. Larger firms or those from other contexts tend to active participation in the drafting of the project. This is often

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limited to a consultation and the exchange of information during


the information and diagnosis phase, and to the presentation of
the initial plans during the project-drafting phase. However, the
difficulty of conveying the language of architecture, normally
involving abstract representations such as the floor plan, elevation
and section of a volumetric reality, hinders an understanding of
the project by its beneficiaries, especially in popular contexts.
What effectively happens, then, is that the users perceive the
reality of the intervention during the production phase, which is
when they ask for modifications to the project.
The most usual requirements are related to the finishes and the
choice of cladding materials (flooring, tiles, colour of the faade,
etc.), habitually during on-site work. This question is of great
importance, as its represents the personalization of the dwelling in
popular contexts and avoids the homogenization of large-scale
interventions that affect large numbers of dwellings and are
normally commissioned to a single technical team. In this context,
there is a risk of taking excessively standardized decisions at the
project phase, a far cry from the decentralized, spontaneous
production of popular architecture, which, despite having
recourse to a limited range of materials and technical resources,
offered personalized solutions. The new range of materials
available certainly allows the possibility of singularization, but
The neighbourhoods buildings are restored using traditional techniques, recovering
represents the risk of losing the local character that is one of the
the original typologies and adapting them to the new needs of contemporary use. values to be conserved.
10
The courtyard of the traditional Moorish house has been covered by glass to allow
The project must consider these circumstances and offer users
climatization of the space and its incorporation into the home. Albayzn, Granada
(Spain). various possibilities in the course of work to take part in the choice
of materials and the creation of a personal space that is different
to that of their neighbours, seeing this as a positive contribution
to the final result.
Another aspect that may condition changes and modifications
during on-site work is the real cost of rehabilitation. The project
has to include the bill of quantities, listing all the work to be
carried out, the surface area affected and an overall valuation of
the intervention. The economic valuation of the different concepts
must be realistic, calling for a detailed study of prices in the area
and the real circumstances of rehabilitation work in a historical
neighbourhood or a rural context, where costs may be increased
due to difficulty of access and obtaining different materials and
qualified labour. The bill of quantities must be comprehensive but
sufficiently flexible to cover all situations. An exact but closed
document, with budget items that have excessively low margins,
can become a dangerous tool that works against the process
rather than helping to order and rationalize it, and it is always
preferable to produce a quote with a degree of economic margin.
Some experiences in northern Mediterranean countries establish
basic price agreements that serve as a reference and must be
complied with to receive government grants. These basic price
Testing mortars to obtain the right texture and colour for a traditional render is vital
to obtaining the expected results. Granada (Spain). agreements are previously adjusted to market prices, but each
situation is different and only the accumulated experience of

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managers, specialists and constructors can produce documents circumstances that are possible if not desirable in a rehabilitation
that are able to adapt to the unforeseen events of site work. project, and therefore accepted and incorporated as a normal part
The second vital document for the correct development of of this type of intervention.
rehabilitation work is the works contract, which establishes the These documents are particularly important in works covered by
economic relation between the owner and the construction the Act on Contracts of Public Administrations applied, with
company. This document must be known to the technical team, variations, in different Mediterranean countries. Administrative
which will advise the client. This team will also take part in selecting difficulties tend to arise when rigid conditions, normally created
the most suitable bid, as an excessively low quote for rehabilitation for new constructions, are applied to rehabilitation, making it
work does not necessarily guarantee savings at the end of the day. especially necessary to adapt project regulations and the Act on
The contract must specify the time limit for rehabilitation work Contracts to the singularity, characteristics and scale of
and the form of payment, normally by certification associated with rehabilitation work.
time periods or phases of work. Another question that must be Although most countries have an appropriate administrative
reflected in the works contract is the possibility of issuing a framework for the above conditions, compliance with these
certificate of completion, which adapts the estimated budget to regulations is another matter. The strict application of regulations
work actually carried out and details possible deviations from the would bring many rehabilitation projects to a halt, particularly in
initial quote. contexts where mechanisms of this kind are not habitually applied
However, if there is too great a difference from the original project and where the administrative procedures introduced by the
and the possibility of extending the budget or, simply, if there have northern Mediterranean are applied without sufficient adaptation
been major technical changes, a modified project may have to be to southern countries. Another more recent circumstance is that
drawn up. The modified project redefines the initial project and of intervention financed by European and international
incorporates new interventions, as well as carrying out a new cooperation programmes, which impose a series of administrative,
valuation. However, in many cases, this document involves partial technical, economic and safety requisites in technical and social
stoppage of work, a circumstance which is not always possible contexts where practices of this kind were not hitherto habitual.
when working on a dwelling that continues to be partially Independently of these administrative issues, we must not forget
inhabited or when the occupants are being temporarily rehoused that many interventions in traditional architecture are carried out
10
in conditions that are not always acceptable. informally and subject to scant control or supervision by the public
Liquidation and the modified project should be considered not as administration. A technical project or document drafted by a
deviations from or errors in the original project but as professional who has suitably planned rehabilitation work and a

The wealth of nuances of colour and texture in the walls of traditional construction The combination of new and traditional materials is one of the distinguishing
is an element to be conserved after rehabilitation. Rincn de Ademuz, Valencia features of new popular architecture. Alpujarra, Granada (Spain).
(Spain).

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works contract to establish the economic relations between the The choice of materials, environmental aspects and waste
parties are vital to the correct implementation of work. Striking management
the balance between what is desirable and what is possible is, in Traditional architecture did not present environmental problems,
these cases, the only useful strategy for carrying out the regulated since it was one element more in the ecosystem. However, the
process of rehabilitation of traditional architecture. It is, then, situation has changed: the adaptation of the building to present-
necessary to define a changing management model that adapts to day conditions of use necessarily requires the incorporation of new
the starting conditions of the socioeconomic context where the materials, and changes in social circumstances and production
intervention is carried out, initially establishing basic measures of economies, particularly in the rural world, are an added difficulty
control that can progressively increase in intensity until the in the conservation of the traditional model.
proposed aims are achieved. Historical buildings, and particularly architecture in the rural world,
were constructed using materials taken from their immediate
surroundings and used practically without being transformed.
On-site work However, the exhaustion of some natural resources, the
disappearance of systems of farming or forestry, and the creation
Preliminary issues of protected spaces have limited the availability of traditional
Before on-site work begins, there are various administrative issues materials, sometimes making it difficult to find the materials
to be resolved. needed for rehabilitation.
Normally, municipal authorities require a building permit, which It is often difficult to obtain stone or aggregate from nearby
authorizes the intervention subject to compliance of the quarries, which may have been closed down due to low
production project with urban planning regulations. Authorization profitability or because they are situated within natural parks and
is also needed to occupy the public highway or to supply water, can no longer be worked. In other cases, certain types of wood
electricity and drainage, normally requiring the payment of that were frequently used in traditional architecture are now
administrative fees. protected, or it is difficult to find products traditionally used in
In the case of intervention in buildings situated in urban or rural farming and livestock-keeping, such as straw, reeds, animal
complexes affected by heritage or environmental protection laws, excrement, etc.
10
the project must be reviewed by the corresponding authority. In this situation, it is only possible to use materials of similar
Protection measures may call for the carrying out of archaeological characteristics that are also found locally. However, this practice
studies on the site where work is to take place. involves a major risk: ease of transport and incomprehensible

The rehabilitation of this traditional dwelling was carried out with particular The restoration of the marabout of Sidi Abdellah ben Ali, situated in the ksar of
attention to the use of local construction materials and techniques, recovering the Tamnougalt, has helped to consolidate the local populations cultural and religious
elements that characterize it: the oven and the fireplace. Navapalos, Soria (Spain). symbols. The Draa Valley (Morocco).

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market laws now allow the use of raw materials from other
geographical contexts which are, in some cases, beyond regional
or national borders. The use of decontextualized local materials is
producing an alarming homogenization in traditional
construction: Galician slate used in supposedly traditional
constructions in the mountains on the Mediterranean coast, or
ceramics from the east of Spain in North African constructions are
some examples that illustrate the risk of this activity. However, in
other cases, their incorporation is inevitable: in pre-Saharan valleys
it is no longer possible to use palm beams to construct or
rehabilitate buildings, as the palm tree is protected in some
regions. Its replacement by eucalyptus is now accepted and forms
part of the new traditional architecture, despite not being an
Adobes drying before being used for construction. Dades Valley (Morocco).
autochthonous material.
It is always better to use a neutral material, such as a render to
cover a wall that should be built of stone, than to use a material
unknown to local construction, and it is preferable to accept a
degree of transformation in textures and materials that can be
integrated than to use traditional materials from other
geographical contexts.
The best solution, however, is to reuse materials salvaged from the
same building or other nearby buildings whose state of
conservation calls for a complete renovation and, therefore,
dismantling. We find a very representative case in southern
Morocco, where an abundant material such as the earth used to
10
build rammed-earth walls was reused to construct a new building
on its own ruins. However, there are not enough materials
available to systematically reuse them in all cases and it is
necessary to establish priorities, normally associated with the Palm timber beams and boards salvaged from an old construction are stockpiled for
use in a new building. Tafilalt (Morocco).
rehabilitation of public or especially representative buildings.
The difficulty of obtaining appropriate construction materials and
therefore recovering the traditional construction system in some
cases means a higher economic cost, which is a common
argument against it. But this is not always the case; sometimes it
simply calls for a little more effort in management or the planning
of materials and, in most situations, breaking with the builders
usual routine. Though it is true that it initially requires a greater
investment in time and effort on the part of the person or body in
charge of the work or the builder who carries it out, once the use
of a traditional material has been relearned it is accepted naturally
at no additional cost.
Another aspect that requires the transformation of traditional
architecture is adaptation to present-day levels of comfort and
habitability. This affects the use of new materials that comply with
functions of insulation, soundproofing or waterproofing,
especially drainage, plumbing and electrical installations, and the
implantation of renewable energy technologies.
In these cases, it is necessary to avoid the use of materials such as
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane foams or formaldehyde Old and new materials are used in the regions new constructions. Alpujarra, Granada
compounds, which present problems of toxicity and waste (Spain).

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treatment. There are more environmental friendly alternative There are different approaches to this reflection, however,
materials, such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), rubber, according to the economic context in question. In northern
cork and wood. Mediterranean countries, developed economies can and must
Likewise, the excessive use of cement and steeluniversal assume the indirect costs of materials, which have a smaller
emblems of progress, though they represent major energy costs in repercussion on the end price than labour, which is more
their manufactureis completely out of keeping with the expensive. However, the reality in other Mediterranean countries
environment and the consequences are irreparable. The is quite different, normally more dependent on imported materials
alternatives tend to be more costly or less efficient in structural and technologies, proportionally more expensive than labour.
terms, calling for further research into models based on traditional
materials such as earth, ceramics or wood, possibly in constant Recovering and implementing traditional construction
confrontation with regulations but removed from dogmatic systems
stances that seek to simplify reality. The heritage qualities of traditional architecture respond to
Renewable energies are difficult to integrate into architecture, specific singularities associated with a region, a valley or a village,
particularly into a traditional building. This is not however a reason the value of which is of a quite different order. Traditionally,
for ruling them out and imaginative ways can be found to knowledge of the construction system and the appropriate use of
incorporate them. the material were the local builders heritage. In many
The use of new technologies and materials is here to stay, and Mediterranean regions, this intangible knowledge has either
must be accepted as a way of improving the conditions of disappeared or is in the process of doing so, due to the loss of
habitability of a traditional building. Nonetheless, particular value of local singularity and traditional trades. However, it can still
attention should be paid to the bioclimatic characteristics of be seen in the existing materiality of those buildings that are least
traditional architecture, a scientific study of which should be changed, even if it is not valuedor even identifiedby todays
promoted with a view to limiting the installation of other local population.
technologies, particularly in heating and lighting a building. A good observer of traditional architecture who can identify the
The final aspect to be considered is the management of waste characteristic way of building eaves, the particular bonding of a
produced during rehabilitation work as a result of the partial stone wall or the construction system used in a floor structure will
10
demolition of a building whose materials cannot be salvaged or be capable of distinguishing and valuing the local specificities of
the waste produced by the new intervention. Efforts must be traditional construction. This appreciation is only possible on the
made to limit the production of waste, especially if it is toxic, and basis of overall experience and a systematic knowledge of
dispose of it appropriately at an authorized dump. different traditional architectures in different geographical
This question is directly related to salvaging, which, despite initially contexts. Evidently, once the local construction tradition has
involving higher labour costs, allows reuse of the materials and disappeared, the recovery of the traditional model is the
avoids the need for transport to a dump and unnecessary waste responsibility of the initiated researcher or the technical team in
production. Reuse creates employment and limits the charge of the intervention. However, theoretical knowledge of the
consumption of raw materials, eliminating production and technique is not sufficient for its implementation in the recovery
transport costs, making it a particularly appropriate practice from of traditional architecture, which requires practical knowledge and
social and environmental viewpoints. the participation of the constructor.
In short, the use of a material, its implementation and If we were to compare the conservation of materiality using
environmental cost are not directly related to its market price, techniques borrowed from the field of monumental restoration
which is often considered decisive in whether or not to choose it. (the direct inheritance of material culture) with the real recovery of
However, this value does not include the indirect costs or the traditional construction trade, the latter would probably be
replacement costs. For the Uruguayan engineer Eladio Dieste, considered of greater value. There are representative examples to
there is a clear difference between financial economy, associated show that the conservation of materiality is necessary but, in
with money, and cosmic economy, which, in his words, represents general, the poor condition or ageing of the materials used in
being in agreement with the profound order of the world. This traditional architecture and the high economic cost of their strict
means including as part of the decision-making process a restoration call for an unprejudiced intervention, considering that
consideration of energy, environmental and social costs, and the the true value of this architecture lies more in the knowledge of a
loss of the values of traditional culture and symbols of local technique and the recovery of a trade than in the freezing of a
identification. The disappearance of these values obeys the historical structure.
principle of irreversibility, not cost-profit logics; once lost, they We must therefore accept the dismantling and reconstruction of a
cannot be recovered. stone wall or its repair using stone of similar characteristics, seeing

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this intervention as a natural regeneration of the masonry this respect, the presence on site of specialists and a
requiring new elements without losing its authenticity. This makes comprehensive control of tasks, however insignificant they may
rigorous knowledge of local construction techniques particularly seem, is essential to the conservation of these values.
important in order to avoid the simplifications and regional
homogenization that present traditional architecture as a historical The organization of tasks
falsity. This calls for a new concept: an understanding of the The organization of site work with time schedules and cost charts
building as a changing element that has undergone numerous is vital to any construction project, ensuring the efficient carrying
interventions in the course of its history and manifests itself as a out of tasks and quantifying the economic cost of each phase. A
sum total of construction sequences. suitable works schedule serves to anticipate supplies of the
Our intervention, then, must be seen as part of the living process different materials and availability of the technical and economic
of the building that is not afraid of being visible, without resources needed for the successful competition of the
necessarily incorporating new materials or new spatial or formal intervention.
concepts. Repairing an existing wall, which continues to fulfil the The experience of the builder or construction company in charge
same function in the building, is not the same as extending it of work is an important factor in this type of intervention, since
upwards to create a new floor or lengthwise to occupy part of an they are responsible both for organizing tasks and meeting
empty plot. standards.
However, it seems obvious that mere knowledge of the technique However, the inherent difficulty of rehabilitation work, due to
and the use of the material, once relearned by the builder, are not unforeseen events, makes it difficult to accurately specify the
sufficient to ensure criteria in the intervention; this also requires content and scope of work, and a definite time schedule. The
conceptual clarity. This sometimes emerges during on-site work, need for partial dismantling, the dependence on materials that are
as it normally takes the form of slight nuances that can only be not available on the conventional market and the many tests
addressed by physical construction: a detailed study of the sometimes needed to decide the judicious course of action all
contacts between masonries when a traditional construction is hinder work and require an added effort to keep to the deadlines
extended or conservation of the different heights in the eaves of and budgets laid out in the works schedule.
a roof in a converted building. Changes of render that express Normally, the standardization of conventional construction is
10
time sequences by means of slight differences in colour or texture based on the clear separation of the trades intervening, normally
produced by the proportion of mortars or the type of sand or
render chosen can also illustrate the transformations of a building
in the course of its history or manifest the latest intervention.
All too frequently, an ambitious restoration project causes the
traditional building to lose many of the nuances that characterized
it, becoming so regular as to remove all distinguishing marks. In

Rammed-earth walls are a living construction technique in the region. The Anti-
Atlas (Morocco).

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carried out by companies subcontracted for this purpose. This moisture content, become lighter in weight and achieve its final
circumstance, also an aspect of major work on monumental strength. The construction of a rammed-earth wall represents a
architecture, is not characteristic of traditional architecture, where considerable delay, which normally conflicts with the tight timing
the scale and the local nature of the intervention allow work to be of a conventional construction site.
carried out by a single team of builders who master most of the The finishes of the rehabilitation project also deserve some
necessary trades. One direct consequence is greater flexibility in consideration. The integrity of traditional architecture, in which
the organization of work, a necessary circumstance when carrying materials are present with limited transformations, conditions the
out rehabilitation work. final image of work, and this means envisaging colours and
Another aspect conditioning the organization of rehabilitation finishes during the initial phases. A timber beam that is to be
work, particularly in the case of a traditional building, is the stained and darkened has to undergo this treatment and the
availability of the necessary materials. It is important to be able to definitive colour must be decided before it is used. If the treatment
plan supplies in advance to ensure that a lack of materials is no is given afterwards, the inevitable seasonal movements of the
obstacle to completion of work. timber due to changes of humidity will produce colour differences.
Traditional materials are not industrially manufactured nor, in The singularity of the different tasks has a considerable effect on
many cases, are they supplied by a conventional builders the established time schedule. A common case is the choice of
merchant. It can therefore be difficult to find sufficient texture and colour of the mortar used to render a faade, as
homogeneous batches to complete work. The characteristic numerous tests have to be carried out to gauge the effects of
example is a batch of bricks or tiles that differ in format, colour combinations of different aggregates and binding agents to
and texture, either because they are made by artisans or are achieve the right mortar and finish. The long setting time of
salvaged from different demolition sites, which have to be traditional mortar and its chromatic influence on other elements
combined as they are used to prevent obvious differences. in the building require the tests to be carried out sufficiently in
In general, the time factor has a considerable influence on site advance.
work. Many projects take much longer than planned, as they
require certain climatological or seasonal conditions. For example, Safety measures
because lime mortar takes a long time to set it cannot be used in The implementation of safety measures and their strict
10
certain geographical areas during a hard winter, as it does not enforcement are aspects that cannot be too highly stressed, due
withstand frost. In other cases, traditional adobe can only be to the negative consequences of insufficient attention. They are
made after the harvest since it requires the fresh straw that vital to ensure the safety of workers, specialists and passers-by in
increases its strength and prevents retraction as it dries. Another rehabilitation work.
common case is the need for timber that is sufficiently seasoned It will be necessary to draft a technical document, the safety study
for use, which, in some cases, requires a period of a year. or plan, which reflects all the measures of individual and collective
Another characteristic example is the construction of a rammed- protection to be carried out in the course of on-site work.
earth wall which, being so thick, takes a long time to lose its In the case of rehabilitation work, special attention is needed to
the appropriate propping of the building during the partial
demolition of structural elements which, in a traditional
construction, find their stability in the interrelation of the whole.
The partial elimination of the structural system may modify the
original work and cause the rest of the structure to collapse. A
paradigm case is the conservation of the faade wall of a historical
building that is being gutted. Without going into the conceptual
appropriateness of this practice, it is habitual in many
Mediterranean old towns, where regulations to protect heritage
are limited to the frontage, producing a situation of particular risk
due to the possible collapse of the faade. In general, in buildings
with masonry walls is it important to identify bearing walls and
simple dividing wallsa vital consideration during demolition.
Another characteristic example is the partial dismantling of a
buildings timber roof framework. Structural knowledge and the
Construction of an adobe wall by a local builder, or maalem. Dades Valley
implementation of each of the constituent elements are the only
(Morocco). guarantee of a safe intervention.

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Collective protection measures (scaffolding, railings, protection is particularly problematic on sites in the rural environment, due to
nets, etc.) used to guarantee safety on site are designed for the physical distance from mechanisms of control and inspection.
installation in conventional buildings. They are difficult to adapt to This requires particular effort on the part of the agents involved in
historical buildings with their singular elements (cornices, these contexts.
balconies, timber floor structures, etc.). These considerations
should not however be presented as an excuse. They call for the
incorporation of complementary elements to guarantee correct Tasks to be carried out after competition of work
installation.
An important issue to be taken into account as regards safety is Once rehabilitation work is complete, the next stage is graphic
the installation during site work of elements to ease the and written documentation to explicitly record the work that has
subsequent conservation of the building, particularly cleaning and been carried out. Taking the initial project as its basis, it will
maintenance of roofs. include any modifications made and incidences or appreciations
In short, compliance with measures for both individual and connected to on-site work.
collective safety constitutes a necessary practice for the correct This completion document is very important, as it serves as a
carrying out of rehabilitation work. However, this is not an easy reference for future interventions. The technical and construction
task in contexts without this tradition. Many avoidable accidents characteristics of traditional architecture in adjacent contexts tend
happen, making it essential for the person or body in charge and to respond to the same circumstances and be affected by similar
the corresponding authority to make sure that safety measures are pathologies. The documentation and diffusion of experiences
implemented. carried out is therefore of incalculable value to other interventions
In the Mediterranean, the degree of compliance with these carried out in the same district or village.
measures varies depending on the country. However, the situation Detailed documentation of the definitive solutions applied on site

10

In the rural world in the south of Morocco, dwellings are still built with earth walls, he Kasbah Ait Ben Moro has been restored for use as tourist accommodation using
according to traditional methods. Dades Valley (Morocco). traditional materials and techniques. Skoura (Morocco).

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will also serve to facilitate maintenance of the building. Plans


drawn after the intervention, with the exact position of drainage
and plumbing installations, will identify their location for future
repairs, these being elements that, due to their characteristics of
use, tend to be the first to need conservation.
This brings us to a particularly important issue: the periodic
conservation and maintenance of the building once work is
completed.
The materials used to construct a historical building age gracefully if
the building periodically undergoes maintenance and conservation
work, as the passing of time does not, in itself, represent the loss of
aesthetic or functional qualities. Removing vegetation from
drainpipes and between tiles, repairing flat roofs, the seasonal
whitewashing of outer walls or the treatment of timber elements
are vital tasks to guarantee long life. There is no question that the
abandonment of a traditional construction is the most serious of
its pathologies, and one that inevitably leads to its ruin.

Safety measures must be incorporated to avoid accidents in rehabilitation work.


Granada (Spain).

10

he Kasbah Ait Ben Moro has been restored for use as tourist accommodation using In the High Atlas of Morocco, stone is still used in construction. Teluet (Morocco).
traditional materials and techniques. Skoura (Morocco).

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Job creation through restoration Khaldun Bshara


Architect
towards a sustainable community Director of the Conservation Unit, RIWAQ -
Centre for Architectural Conservation,
Palestine (P.N.A.)1

Introduction

According to Riwaq's Registry of Historic Buildings in Palestine, the


West Bank and Gaza Strip contain more than 50,000 historic
buildings2. These constitute the national treasure of Palestine, for
their cultural value that can be utilised as a major lifting agent to
the economic situation. "Perhaps more than any other aspect of
Palestinian material culture, the Built Heritage is experiencing a
rapid loss of its distinctive character. Particularly disturbing is the
state of negligence to old buildings all over Palestine. Valuable
historic buildings are being bulldozed or abandoned, and allowed
to collapse only to be replaced by new constructions that echo no
link with the past architectural heritage. Traditional construction
methods, building crafts, know-how, and skills are nearing
extinction with the retirement and death of master builders and
craftspeople. The rest of the natural environment is also
undergoing devastating changes. The beautiful rocky landscape
and stone-terraces, typical of Palestinian landscape are being
replaced by badly finished concrete buildings."3
10
Under normal circumstances, the rationale for conserving historic
buildings derives from such issues as the reviving of national pride
through the revival of its physical incarnation, the safeguarding of
certain historical, aesthetic, educational or environmental merits,
or the desire to upgrade the economic status by encouraging
cultural tourism connected to the built heritage.
Palestine, a land in crisis, has been somewhat special with regard
to the conservation of built heritage; the main objective having
been the struggle against Israeli occupation and manifesting a
Palestinian determination with reference to land and history. Hence this policy was adopted by different organizations as a
In a continuously deteriorating political situation with mean of alleviating poverty.. "Conservation as a Means and not a
unemployment over 50% in the West Bank and Gaza strip, Riwaq4 Goal" appears as the future local slogan for restoration in a
launched "Job Creation through Restoration Projects" creating globalised world which considers conservation work as a luxurious
jobs for thousands, who became incapable of reaching their activity, only to be carried out once the basic needs of community
workplaces due to closure and curfew. Increasingly, the value of are fulfilled. Palestine, a devastated country, is far behind
historic buildings to be restored or rehabilitated could be achieving the basic needs.
measured by the level of unemployment, the worsening economic
situation and the threats both of the Israeli settlement and the
apartheid separation wall. Cultural Heritage Conservation: a Necessity rather than
Tens of historic buildings in different towns and villages have been Luxury
restored and rehabilitated to host social and cultural activities that
serve marginalized sectors, creating both direct and indirect man If one examines the Palestinian eventual conservation reality, one
days of work for the unemployed. Starting in 2002, it became might conclude that conservation was never a priority in the public
increasingly that "Job Creation through Restoration" was very and private sectors, and that some years ago conservation was
productive and played a tangible role in socio-economic recovery. considered a time, effort and resource-wasting activity, carried out

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Job creation through restoration towards a sustainable community

by upper middle class-intellectuals. Being occupied, and with BCH is possible, feasible and inexpensive simply because these
neither state sovereignty nor strategic planning, Palestine was not works are domestic.
prepared for such luxury! 3. Built Cultural Heritage has proved to have high adaptability
The weak legal frame for the protection, conservation and possibilities. Rehabilitated historic houses have been converted
development of Built Cultural Heritage contributed to the to housing, commercial and small business and tourism
deteriorating situation from which cultural heritage suffers. This facilities and services all assisting in the creation of
may explain the dire state of this heritage resulting from both the permanent jobs or alternative income possibilities for local
natural and man made destruction of these irreplaceable assets. communities.
This heritage has never been restored for its significance for a 4. Built Cultural Heritage rehabilitation involves job creation in
Palestinian past or future. The conservation initiatives were either both the short and long term. From Palestinian experiences it
driven by political forces (such as the case of Jerusalem and has been noted that restoration costs are primarily allocated to
Hebron), or by private investment initiatives (such as the investing local manpower and domestic material, rather than to
in tourism services). It was only after Oslo Agreement (1993) that imported labour and foreign materials, leading to some
Palestine witnessed substantial progress in conservation (large economic recovery in local suppliers and industries.
scale projects, introduction of new techniques, holistic or planning
approach, built cultural heritage new legislation, nomination of From political conservation to job creation
sites to WH List, restoration manuals).
The dire state of this heritage calls for immediate action, not only Between 2002 and 2006, RIWAQ managed to renovate more than
because this heritage constitute a major lifting agent to Palestinian thirty historic buildings in different towns and villages through
economy, but also because of what it constitute as part of the "Job Creation through Restoration5 Projects, to host social and
humanity material heritage; thus exceeds the narrow "national" cultural activities that serve marginalized social sectors. More than
borders or meanings. seventy thousand direct6 and indirect7 man days were achieved.
Workers skilled and semi-skilled, engineers and specialists
benefited.
Rehabilitation and socio-economic recovery RIWAQ sought to maximize employment through intensive labour
10
polices. Mechanical equipment was diminished or prohibited, thus
Cultural heritage conservations impact on soci-economic largely relying on manual labour in construction, excavation
development is becoming widely known on both local and global works, and mortar mixing There has also been a determination
levels. These rehabilitation projects manage to create a dynamic of to use locally manufactured items in construction and finishes
development in both the short term (during the rehabilitation such as tiles with traditional floor patterns to maximize the indirect
activities) and long term (after the rehabilitation activities). This man days achieved off-site. Riwaq relies on the traditional building
actually stems from the fact that rehabilitation works are local techniques and the employment of traditional details especially in
activities, which build on local techniques and domestic materials stone works, blacksmithing, joinery and carpentry, all needing
in most of its processes. According to the Palestinian experience, more labour, both skilled and unskilled, to produce. With the
conservation work dovetail well with the prospect of sustainable experience obtained over the years, the point has been reached
development because of the following: that now that almost two thirds of the total cost of the
rehabilitation projects is expended onsite and off-site manpower.
1. Built Cultural Heritage is made from local materials with local One third of the budget is allocated for materials and supplies,
know-how and techniques, and hence rehabilitation activities mostly local.
revive the building related crafts (such as stone carving,
joinery) and local industries (such as the manufacturing of
traditional floor tile patterns, lime production). Job Creation through Restoration as a new trend
2. Built Cultural Heritage rehabilitation is economically feasible
because conservation proved to be cheaper than building anew It is worth mentioning that Hebron Rehabilitation Committee
(the cost of restoration works is no more than 50% of the cost commenced in 2003 with cleaning and preventive conservation
of building new). In addition, restoration of vernacular projects in Hebron Old City neighbourhoods. The intention was to
architecture has a high recycling possibility during the create as many jobs as possible for Hebronites and to lay ground
restoration activity (reuse of materials) or in the case of the for private households to carry on the rehabilitation of their own
destruction of parts of these structures, the results are interiors. Also, as part of its Programme of Assistance to the
environment friendly deposits. Nonetheless, maintenance of Palestinian People in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the United

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Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been implementing


the project Tashghil or Job Creation (2004-2006) which calls for
the rehabilitation and restoration of several historic buildings in
seven different sites in North West Bank areas.
Finally, regardless of the number of job opportunities created or
the size of unemployment, thousands of families were aided by
providing programs in which conservation became a mean of
upgrading living conditions instead of being a goal of its own. In
addition to the previous outcome, tens of historic buildings were
transformed into active centres which themselves constitute long
term job opportunities. It might be useful to consider this type of
conservation (conservation as a mean and not goal, a necessity
and not a luxury), with all its setbacks8, as one of the most
promising types of conservation noted by developers and donors
especially in crisis zones around the world. This new category in
conservation takes the needs of local communities prior to those
of the tourists or even before those of the stones (buildings) itself.
Thus cultural components and heritage is sustained by the local
community, whereas the inverse is not always true.
It is now clear that Job Creation through Restoration Projects is
very productive and hence, adapted by different organizations as
a mean of alleviation of poverty. This kind of work has proved to
be as important as the large development projects such as
infrastructure, construction works, or tourism. The financial
resources, injected into the walls of these buildings, most certainly
10
yields a positive impact on the community while raising awareness
concerning the Palestinian built cultural heritage.

1
kbshara@yahoo.com
2
Historic buildings, according to Riwa's Registry , are those built before II World
War with vernacular or traditional methods (two-face stone walls, earth
structures, vaults, staked roofing).
3
Excerpts from Riwaq's brochure
4
Established in spring of 1991 RIWAQ: Centre for Architectural Conservation works
on many levels to confine the damage to both the vernacular architecture and
historical buildings and the unique Palestinian landscape. To achieve this end
RIWAQ has as its main objective the conservation and restoration of old buildings
and the development and promotion of an indigenous Palestinian form of
architecture based on firmly rooted building traditions and techniques.
5
Restoration meaning accedes the classic meaning of the word; reuse, adaptation,
conservation, consolidation, maintenance projects, to name but some, were
implemented in this program.
6
Direct man days are those obtained by hiring workers to do jobs on site such as
carpentry, plastering, jointing, tiling, mechanical and electrical works, etc.
7
Indirect man days are those obtained outside the site such as blacksmith, joinery,
traditional decorative tiles' production, etc.
8
Restoring Built Cultural Heritage for what it sells and not for its own merits.

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Some observations Athina Papadopoulou


Architect
about Project Management Conservation Architect employed by UNDP-UNOPS
for the Nicosia Master Plan,
Cyprus

In order to achieve strong economic control in a project, thus


contributing to the optimization of time and resources as well as
to obtain better final results, there are a number of factors to be
followed.
An analytical work plan must be submitted by the contractor
within the first 7 days of project commencement. It should be
discussed and agreed with project architect, engineer and other
consultants of the restoration project.
Weekly site meetings conducted under the coordination of the
architect with the participation of the contractor and all involved
consultants. Site minutes should be taken with actions to be
implemented and by who clearly indicated and circulated to all
participants.
Areas which may present the foreseen need for additional
Nicosia, Cyprus
investigation by the architect after restoration works begin, in
order to formulate an intervention, should be of high priority in
the work plan. If sensitive areas are defined early on in the
project this will allow the contractor to work in another area,
while intervention decisions are being formulated without
10
adversely affecting the time and economic dimensions of the
project.
Where public utility authorities are concerned coordination
with all the relative authorities and the design team should take
place under the restoration architect. This coordination is
necessary at the stage of design and at the stage of construction.
Representatives of the utility authorities should participate in the
weekly site meetings.
The contractor must keep a detailed site journal stating the
work implemented, the work force occupied, the machinery used,
inclement weather, site visits by architect and engineers and any
other important occurrences on a daily basis.
The contractor should submit regular payment certificates in
order to aid the project manager maintain a regulated economic
flow of the project budget in synchronization with the work plan
and degree of difficulty of the works.

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Support material for building Ramon Graus


Architect
maintenance: the identity card Professor in the Department of History and Theory
of Architecture, School of Building Construction of Barcelona
(Technical University of Catalonia),
Spain

If we accept that as of the completion of rehabilitation, the


building starts to age, it seems appropriate to establish a series of
measures to guarantee its conservation from the very start. The
society that built traditional Mediterranean architecture had its
own culture of maintenance that provided for careful
conservation, but other articles in this publication show that this
society is breaking down and, with it, the tradition of looking after
the house. This section therefore aims to reintroduce the theme of
maintenance of traditional architecture, starting with the
intervention of the architect/engineer who directed the
rehabilitation project.
Firstly, the rehabilitation project has to give some thought to
carrying out the principal maintenance operations to guarantee
safe, economical access. Experience shows that it is very difficult
to implement some maintenance operations unless they are
provided for in the initial phase of the project (safe ways to clean
the outside of a window, change a light bulb in a double-height
space, gain access to the roof, remove leaves from guttering, etc.).
Secondly, once the project is finished, the idea is to hand over to
the owner the plans of the work carried out (with information
about the building, the location of the principal installations, a
diagram of the structure) and for the architect/engineer to plan Ladders are vital to the world of maintenance, but they are not always a safe aid to 11
work. Tunis, Tunisia.
the maintenance of the building. Conceptually, planned
maintenance goes beyond the idea of repairing an element when
it breaks and introduces guidelines of preventive maintenance to
prevent deterioration of the building. Preventive maintenance as
conceived by RehabiMed is based on a calendar of four types of
basic operations: inspection, cleaning, repair and renewal.
Phase seven of RehabiMeds building method suggests
introducing a mechanism to implement maintenance from this
viewpoint. It is based on the creation of an identity card for the
building, a document that records all the existing information
about the building, instructions for its use and a five-year calendar
to plan building maintenance operations. The sheets below
(model and fictitious example) propose one way of applying this
philosophy for the integration of the correct use and maintenance
of traditional architecture. The documents are very similar in
structure to the sheets proposed in the preliminary diagnosis
section, in order to facilitate the work of the architect/engineer.
Rehabilitated buildings must incorporate measures to facilitate easy and economical
maintenance. Tiled roof with special features to enable access for maintenance.
Lisbon, Portugal.

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Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

Identity card

INFORMATION ABOUT THE BUILDING

Owner:

Contact data:

Address:

District / town:

Person responsible for maintenance:

Number of basement floors: Number of floors: GF+

Privately owned Privately owned


Number of business premises: Number of dwellings:
Rented Rented

Age in years: Built depth: m

Built surface area: m 2


Surface area of courtyards, gardens: m2

MUNICIPAL URBAN PLANNING INFORMATION

Urban planning classification Designation of public property,


(permitted uses): censuses, mortgages:
Heritage listing: Building levels: Built m2 / m2 land

Permitted number of floors: GF+ Permitted building depth: m

SITE CHARACTERISTICS

Area (urban/rural): Distance to urban centre: km

Street width: m Pavement width: m

Height of adjacent building on left: GF+ Height of adjacent building on right: GF+

UTILITIES

Drinking water: Electricity:


11 Sewerage: Telephone:

LIST OF PLANS OF THE WORK CARRIED OUT

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Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USE

FINDING OUT ABOUT THE HOUSE

Elements Description Correct use

STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)

Walls and/or columns

Floors

Stairways

Roof structure

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

Roof cladding

Eaves

Chimneys

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

Claddings and renderings

Balconies

Door and window frames 11


Railings, grilles

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)

Water
Eau

Drainage

Electricity

Gas

EMERGENCIES

See instructions for specific use in annexed sheets: SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name:

Conducted in on 20

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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

MAINTENANCE CALENDAR FOR: 2 0

Elements Inspection Cleaning Repair Renewal

STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)

Walls and/or columns

Floors

Stairways

Roof structure

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

Roof cladding

Eaves

Chimneys

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

Claddings and renderings

Balconies

Door and window frames

Railings, grilles

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)

Water

Drainage

Electricity

Gas
11

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (Calculate the cost of the operation)

Estimated cost

Real cost

OBSERVATIONS

INSPECTION CLEANING SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name:

1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year

REPAIR RENEWAL

1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective

Conducted in on 20

Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out.

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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

Identity card (fictitious)

INFORMATION ABOUT THE BUILDING

Owner Pedro Jimnez Solera

Contact data: 8660660505

Address: Calle de Entresuelos, 22

District / town: Matar

Person responsible for maintenance: Jos Martnez Rollo (777 67 7767)

Number of basement floors: -- Number of floors: GF+1

1 privately owned 1 privately owned


Number of business premises: Number of dwellings:
-- rented -- rented

Age in years: Over 100 Built depth: 15 m

Built surface area: 150 m


2
Surface area of courtyards, gardens: 80 m2

MUNICIPAL URBAN PLANNING INFORMATION

Urban planning classification Designation of public property,


Residential, old town None
(permitted uses): censuses, mortgages:
Heritage listing: None Building levels: 0,25 built m2 / m2 land

Permitted number of floors: GF+ 2 Permitted building depth: 14 m m

SITE CHARACTERISTICS

Area (urban/rural): Urban Distance to urban centre: -- km

Street width: 7 m Pavement width: 1 m

Height of adjacent building on left: GF+ 1 Height of adjacent building on right: GF+ 3

UTILITIES

Drinking water: YES Electricity: YES

Sewerage: YES Telephone: YES 11

LIST OF PLANS OF THE WORK CARRIED OUT

1. Location

2. Current state. Ground floor

3. Current state. First floor

4. Current state. Roof floor

5. Current state. Street faade

6. Current state. Section

7. Rehabilitation. Ground floor

8. Rehabilitation. First floor

9. Rehabilitation. Roof floor

10. Rehabilitation. Street faade

11. Rehabilitation. Section

12. Structure. Floor plans

13. Installations. Floor plans

14. Construction details

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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USE

FINDING OUT ABOUT THE HOUSE

The house as a whole and each of its component parts should be correctly used and maintained. This is why the owner should find out about the general
characteristics of the building and its different parts. A house in good condition should be:

- Safe. The house provides safety, but as buildings age they can present dangers: a domestic accident, a gas leak or an electrical discharge. By keeping the
house in good condition, we eliminate these dangers and increase safety.

- Long-lasting and economical. If the house is in good condition, it will last longer and age more gracefully, allowing us to enjoy it for longer. At the same
time, periodical maintenance avoids the large expenses involved in suddenly having to carry out major repair work due to a minor problem that has
worsened with time. Keeping the house in good condition is economically worthwhile.

- Ecological. Insulation and the correct functioning of installations (electricity, gas, heating, air conditioning, etc.) represent a major energy saving. If
appliances work well, we avoid overspending on energy as well as respecting the environment. A house in good condition is ecological.

- Comfortable. We can enjoy a house with the maximum applications of all of its part and installations, and achieve optimum comfort levels in the form
of the right temperature and humidity, good soundproofing and optimum lighting and ventilation. A house in good condition represents quality of life.

- Pleasant. A house in good condition looks better, thereby improving the image of our village or town.

Elements Description Correct use

STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)

The elements forming part of the buildings structure must not be altered
without the intervention of an architect/engineer. This includes making
Walls and/or columns Masonry
chases and creating doorways for the redistribution of interior spaces.

The structure has a limited resistance level: it is tailor-made to bear its


own weight and the added loads of people, furniture and domestic
appliances. If the use of the building changes (e.g. it is turned into storage
Floors Timber beams space), the structure will be overloaded and the safety limits exceeded.
The admissible surface load of the floors of a dwelling is 200 kg/m2.
11

Stairways Timber beams --

If the use of a roof (particular flat roofs) is to be modified, an


Roof structure Timber trus architect/engineer must be consulted.

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

Roofs must be kept clean and plant-free, particularly drains, drainpipes


Roof cladding Curved roofing tiles and guttering. Access to the roof must always be safe.

Eaves Timber --

Chimneys Brick Sweep the chimney periodically, because soot is inflammable.

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

Faade finishes are usually one of the buildings most fragile features,
because they are in direct contact with the elements. Furthermore, what
Claddings and renderings Lime rendering may initially be just dirt or degradation of the aesthetic image may become
a danger, because anything that becomes detached will fall straight into
the street.

Balconies -- --

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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

Do not mount scaffolding, pulleys for lifting objects or furniture, exterior


cleaning mechanisms or any other objects on windows and balconies that
may damage them. Avoid knocks and blows to the windows. Windows can
be made airtight and soundproof by fitting specially designed draught
Door and window frames Timber excluders.
Windowpanes should be cleaned with soapy, preferably warm water and
then dried. They should not be cleaned with dry cloths, as this scratches
the glass.

Railings, grilles Wrought iron --

Heavy weights such as flowerpots or stored materials should not be placed


Gallery with arches
Brick in galleries. Care should be taken to prevent water used for watering plants
from dripping down the faade.
INSTALLATIONS (en garantir le fonctionnement et la scurit lutilisateur)

Turn off the stopcock in the event of prolonged absence. In the event of low
temperatures, leave water running slightly to prevent it freezing in the
pipes.
Water Copper tubing
The correct functioning of the hot water network is a decisive factor in
energy saving, requiring greater attention to optimum energy
performance..

It is very important to keep the drainage installation clean and clear. It can
be achieved by basic maintenance involving correct use and hygiene habits
on the part of the users (the water drainage system, particularly the
Fibre-cement tubes lavatory, should not be used as a rubbish bin. Plastic, cotton wool, sanitary
Drainage
towels, razorblades, cotton buds, etc., should not be disposed of in this
way).

Suitable precautions must be taken when using the electrical installations,


due to the potential danger they represent. The circuits and fuse boxes
must be handled by specialized persons only.
When plugged in, electrical appliances must not be handled by children or,
in general, anyone with wet hands. Special care must be taken in bathroom
and kitchen installations.
Sockets must not be used for appliances using higher electrical power than 11
specified or various appliances that all together require higher power. In
the event of heating of cables or sockets, the appliances should be
disconnected. This is a symptom that the installation is overloaded or does
Electricity 2 circuits, 4.4 kw of power
not have a high enough capacity. The plug pins must be well screwed in to
prevent them producing sparks. Poor connections lead to overheating,
which can cause fires.
Disconnect before cleaning lamps and bars of electrical appliances. They
should be cleaned with a damp cloth and detergent. The power supply may
be cleaned with a damp cloth and detergent. The power supply may be
reconnected once they are dry.

Flexible tubes connecting the gas source to appliances should not be longer
than 1.50 metres and should be printed with the period of validity, which
must be respected. It is important to make sure that the flexible tube and
connections of the appliance are directly joined and not loose. The joints
should be subjected by clips or clamps. They must not touch hot surfaces,
Gas Butane e.g. the oven.
Butane gas is heavier than air so, in the event of a leak, it lies near the
ground. Two ventilation grilles are required, one at the top and one at the
bottom of the exterior wall in the room where the installation is situated to
create a through draught.

EMERGENCIES

Fast, efficient action in an emergency can prevent unnecessary accidents, dangers and fires.

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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

FIRE PREVENTION
Do not store inflammable or explosive materials (petrol, fireworks, solvents, etc.) inside the house
Sweep the chimney periodicallysoot is inflammable.
Keep inflammable products away from the fire, and do not use them to light it (alcohol, petrol)
Avoid overloading and short-circuiting the electricity supply; this can cause fires.
Do not smoke in bed; you could fall asleep and cause a fire.
It is advisable to have a fire extinguisher in the house to deal with the various potential fires.
Disconnect electrical appliances and television aerials during storms and whenever you go away for an extended period.

WHAT TO DO IN THE EVENT OF FIRE


Quickly inform everyone in the building and call the fire brigade.
Close all possible doors and windows to isolate the fire and stop any draughts. Wet and stop smoke entrances with wet clothes or towels.
If you have a gas installation, turn off the tap immediately. If there is a gas cylinder, move it away from the fire.
If it is necessary to evacuate the house, use the stairs. If the way out is blocked, find a window and call for help. Do not jump or attempt to climb down
the faade using drainpipes or sheets.
Except when it is impossible to get out, evacuation should take place through the bottom of the building, never the top.
Before opening a door, check to see if it is hot. If it is, do not open it.
When leaving the building, if you have to go through smoke-filled places, bend down, as there is less smoke lower down, and try to hold your breath and
close your eyes for as long as possible.

WHAT TO DO IN THE EVENT OF GAS LEAKS


If you detect a gas leak, turn off the gas tap immediately. Air the room, do not light matches, ring doorbells or switch electrical mechanisms on or off, do
not make sparks, and inform the authorized gas installation company or its emergency service.
Above all, do not switch any lights on or off, as this may produce a spark.

WHAT TO DO IN THE EVENT OF OTHER EMERGENCIES


Heavy snow. Do not push the snow off the roof into the street. Melt it with salt or potash.
High winds. After the storm, check the roof to make sure that nothing has come loose or is likely to fall.
If lightning strikes, when the storm is over check the electrical protection and connections.
Flooding. Move to the top of the house and disconnect the fuse box. Do not try to dam the water with barriers and parapets, as this could damage the
structure.

See instructions for specific use in annexed sheets: SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name:

11
Julin Almagro Prez, architect
Conducted in Matar on 20 september 20 06

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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

Maintenance Calendar for the year: 2 0 0 7

Elements Inspection Cleaning Repair Renewal

STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)

Walls and/or columns

Floors

Stairways

Roof structure

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

(2) Overhaul roof


Roof cladding
Carried out 1/3/2007

Eaves

(5) Sweep the chimney


Chimneys
Carried out 2/9/2007

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

Claddings and renderings

Balconies

(2) Window panes (monthly)


Door and window frames
Carried out

Railings, grilles

Gallery with arches

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)

Water

(2) Unblock washing 11


Drainage machine waste pipe
Carried out 25/2/2007

Electricity

Gas

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (Calculate the cost of the operation)

Estimated cost: 0.00 250.00 300.00 0.00

Real cost: 0.00 280.00 1.200.00 0.00

OBSERVATIONS

Heavy rain in February affected the roof and 20 tiles had to be changed.

INSPECTION CLEANING SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name :

1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year

REPAIR RENEWAL

1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective
Julin Almagro Prez, architect
Conducted in Matar on 2 january 20 08

Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task wa carried out.

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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

Maintenance calendar for the year (ficticious) : 2 0 0 8

Elements Inspection Cleaning Repair Renewal

STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)

Walls and/or columns

Floors

Stairways

Roof structure

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

Roof cladding

(1) Repainted with enamel


Eaves
paint

Chimneys (5) Sweep the chimney

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

Claddings and renderings (1) Whitewashing

Balconies

Door and window frames (1) Repainted with enamel


(2) Window panes (monthly)
paint

(1) Repainted with enamel


Railings, grilles
paint

Gallery with arches

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)

Water

Drainage
11
Electricity

Gas

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (Calculate the cost of the operation)

Estimated cost: 0.00 260.00 300.00 1.000.00

Real cost:

OBSERVATIONS

INSPECTION CLEANING SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name :

1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year

REPAIR RENEWAL

1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective

Conducted in on 20

Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out.

394
ENE11 4/7/07 23:11 Pgina 395

Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

Maintenance calendar for the year (ficticious) : 2 0 0 9

Elements Inspection Cleaning Repair Renewal

STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)

Walls and/or columns

Floors

Stairways

Roof structure

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

Roof cladding

Eaves

Chimneys (5) Sweep the chimney

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

Claddings and renderings (1) Whitewashing

Balconies

Door and window frames (2) Window panes (monthly)

Railings, grilles

Gallery with arches

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)

Water

Drainage

Electricity

Gas 11

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (Calculate the cost of the operation)

Estimated cost: 0.00 280.00 300.00 600.00

Real cost:

OBSERVATIONS

INSPECTION CLEANING SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name :

1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year

REPAIR RENEWAL

1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective

Conducted in on 20

Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out.

395
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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

Maintenance calendar for the year (ficticious) : 2 0 1 0

Elements Inspection Cleaning Repair Renewal

STRUCTURE (Ensure coherence of load transmission)

Walls and/or columns

Floors

Stairways

Roof structure

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

Roof cladding

(1) Repainted with enamel


Eaves
paint

Chimneys (5) Sweep the chimney

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

Claddings and renderings (1) Whitewashing

Balconies

Door and window frames (1) Repainted with enamel


(2) Window panes (monthly)
paint

(1) Repainted with enamel


Railings, grilles
paint

Gallery with arches

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)

Water

Drainage
11
Electricity (1) Technical inspection

Gas (1) Technical inspection (1) Repaint exterior gas

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (Calculate the cost of the operation)

Estimated cost: 0.00 280.00 300.00 1500.00

Real cost:

OBSERVATIONS

INSPECTION CLEANING SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name :

1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year

REPAIR RENEWAL

1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective

Conducted in on 20

Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out.

396
ENE11 4/7/07 23:11 Pgina 397

Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card

Maintenance calendar for the year (ficticious) : 2 0 1 1

Elements Inspection Cleaning rparer Renewal

STRUCTURE (assurer la cohrence de la descente des charges)

1) Technical inspection of
Walls and/or columns
the structure

(1) Technical inspection of


Floors
the structure

Stairways (1) Check railings for safety

(1) Technical inspection of


Roof structure
the structure

ROOF (Ensure evacuation of rainwater)

Roof cladding

Eaves

Chimneys (5) Sweep the chimney

FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)

(1) Inspect for possible


Claddings and renderings detachment (1) Whitewashing

(1) Inspect for possible


Balconies detachment

Door and window frames (2) Window panes (monthly)

Railings, grilles

(1) Inspect for possible


Gallery with arches detachment

INSTALLATIONS (Guarantee functioning and user safety)r)


11
Water

Drainage

Electricity

Gas

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (Calculate the cost of the intervention)

Estimated cost: 500.00 290.00 300.00 600.00

Real cost:

OBSERVATIONS

INSPECTION CLEANING SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name :

1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year

REPAIR RENEWAL

1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective

Conducted in on 20

Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out

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ENE11 4/7/07 23:11 Pgina 398

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