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Gregory M. Herek
University of California, Davis
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was targeted for attack because he was gay.
Sexual prejudice refers to negative attitudes
Unfortunately, their slayings were not isolated
toward an individual because of her or his
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events. Lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people
sexual orientation. In this article, it is used to
as well as heterosexuals perceived to be gay
characterize heterosexuals negative attitudes
routinely experience violence, discrimination,
toward (a) homosexual behavior; (b) people
and personal rejection. A total of 1,102 hate
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with a homosexual or bisexual orientation;
crimes based on sexual orientation were tallied
and (c) communities of gay, lesbian, and
by law enforcement authorities in 1997. Because
bisexual people. Sexual prejudice is a
a substantial proportion of such crimes are never
preferable term to homophobia because it
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reported to police, that figure represents only the
conveys no assumptions about the motivations
tip of an iceberg (Herek, Gillis, & Cogan, 1999).
underlying negative attitudes, locates the
study of attitudes concerning sexual
orientation within the broader context of
social psychological research on prejudice,
io People with homosexual or bisexual
orientations have long been stigmatized. With the
rise of the gay political movement in the late
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1960s, however, homosexualitys condemnation
and avoids value judgments about such
as immoral, criminal, and sick came under
attitudes. Sexual prejudice remains
increasing scrutiny. When the American
widespread in the United States, although
Psychiatric Association dropped homosexuality
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moral condemnation has decreased in the
as a psychiatric diagnosis in 1973, the question of
1990s and opposition to antigay
why some heterosexuals harbor strongly
discrimination has increased. The article
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1 2
Address correspondence to Gregory Herek, Although Weinberg coined the term homophobia, it
Department of Psychology, University of California, was first used in print in 1969 by Jack Nichols and
Davis, CA 95616-8775. Preparation of this paper Lige Clarke in their May 23rd column in Screw
was supported in part by an Independent Scientist magazine. Personal communications with George
Award from the National Institute of Mental Health Weinberg (October 30, 1998) and Jack Nichols
(K02 MH01455). (November 5, 1998).
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heterosexuality. 3 Although usage of the two has three principal features: It is an attitude (i.e.,
words has not been uniform, homophobia has an evaluation or judgment); it is directed at a
typically been employed to describe individual social group and its members; and it is negative,
antigay attitudes and behaviors whereas involving hostility or dislike.
heterosexism has referred to societal-level Conceptualizing heterosexuals negative
ideologies and patterns of institutionalized attitudes toward homosexuality and bisexuality as
oppression of non-heterosexual people. sexual prejudice rather than homophobia
By drawing popular and scientific attention to has several advantages. First, sexual prejudice is
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antigay hostility, the creation of these terms a descriptive term. Unlike homophobia, it
marked a watershed. Of the two, homophobia is conveys no a priori assumptions about the
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probably more widely used and more often origins, dynamics, and underlying motivations of
criticized. Its critics note that homophobia antigay attitudes. Second, the term explicitly links
implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best the study of antigay hostility with the rich
understood as an irrational fear and that they tradition of social psychological research on
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represent a form of individual psychopathology prejudice. Third, using the construct of sexual
rather than a socially reinforced prejudice. As prejudice does not require value judgments that
antigay attitudes have become increasingly antigay attitudes are inherently irrational or evil.
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central to conservative political and religious PREVALENCE
ideologies since the 1980s, these limitations have
Most adults in the United States hold negative
become more problematic. Yet, heterosexism,
with its historic macro-level focus on cultural
ideologies rather than individual attitudes, is not a io attitudes toward homosexual behavior, regarding
it as wrong and unnatural (Herek & Capitanio,
1996; Yang, 1997). Nevertheless, poll data show
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satisfactory replacement for homophobia.
Thus, scientific analysis of the psychology of that attitudes have become more favorable over
antigay attitudes will be facilitated by a new the past three decades. For example, whereas at
term. I offer sexual prejudice for this purpose. least two-thirds of respondents to the General
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Broadly conceived, sexual prejudice refers to all Social Survey (GSS) considered homosexual
negative attitudes based on sexual orientation, behavior always wrong in the 1970s and
1980s, that figure declined noticeably in the
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homosexual behavior; (b) people with a Respondents to the ongoing American National
homosexual or bisexual orientation; and (c) Election Studies have typically rated lesbians and
communities of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. gay men among the lowest of all groups on a
101-point feeling thermometer, although mean
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partners limited recognition (e.g., employee conservatives and Republicans expressing the
health benefits, hospital visitation rights), they highest levels (Yang, 1998).
generally oppose legalizing same-sex marriages. Sexual prejudice is strongly related to
Whereas the public generally supports the whether or not a heterosexual knows gay people
employment rights of gay teachers, they do not personally. The lowest levels of prejudice are
believe that lesbians and gay men should be able manifested by heterosexuals with gay friends or
to adopt children (Yang, 1997). family members who describe their relationships
Unfortunately, most studies have not with those individuals as close and report having
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separately assessed attitudes toward lesbians directly discussed the gay or lesbian persons
and gay men. To the extent that data are sexual orientation with him or her. Interpersonal
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available, attitudes toward gay men appear to be contact and prejudice are reciprocally related.
more negative than attitudes toward lesbians, Not only are heterosexuals with gay friends or
especially among heterosexual men (Herek & relatives less prejudiced, but heterosexuals from
Capitanio, 1996; Kite & Whitley, 1998). This demographic groups with low levels of sexual
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pattern may reflect differences in the underlying prejudice (e.g., women, highly educated people)
cognitive organization of attitudes toward gay are more likely to experience personal contact
men and lesbians (Herek & Capitanio, 1999). with an openly gay person (Herek & Capitanio,
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CORRELATES 1996).
Relatively little empirical research has
Laboratory and questionnaire studies have
utilized a variety of scales and outcome
measures to assess heterosexuals attitudes
toward gay men and lesbians (e.g., Davis,
io examined racial and ethnic differences. Sexual
prejudice may be somewhat greater among
heterosexual African Americans than among
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Whites, mainly because of White womens
Yarber, Bauserman, Schreer, & Davis, 1998). relatively favorable attitudes toward lesbians and
Consistent with findings from public opinion gay men. The correlates of sexual prejudice may
surveys, they have revealed higher levels of vary by race and ethnicity. Interpersonal contact
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sexual prejudice among individuals who are experiences may be more important in shaping
older, less educated, living in the U.S. South or the attitudes of Whites than of Blacks, for
Midwest, and rural residents (Herek, 1994). The
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Capitanio, 1995).
Whitley, 1998) but also in attitudes concerning
civil rights and social policy (Yang, 1998). UNDERLYING MOTIVATIONS
Sexual prejudice is also reliably correlated As with other forms of prejudice, sexual
with several psychological and social variables. prejudice has multiple motivations. For some
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another source of prejudice is the perception that prejudice is still in its early stages. To date, the
gay people and the gay community represent prevalence and correlates of sexual prejudice
values that are directly in conflict with ones have received the most attention. Relatively little
personal value system. research has been devoted as yet to
These different motivations can be understanding the dynamic cognitive processes
understood as deriving from the psychological associated with antigay attitudes and stereotypes,
functions that sexual prejudice serves, which that is, how heterosexuals think about lesbians
vary from one individual to another. One and gay men. Nor has extensive systematic
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heterosexuals sexual prejudice, for example, inquiry been devoted to the underlying
may reduce anxiety associated with his fears motivations for sexual prejudice or the
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about sexuality and gender, whereas anothers effectiveness of different interventions for
prejudice might reinforce a positive sense of reducing sexual prejudice. These represent
herself as a member of the social group good promising areas for future research.
Christians. Such attitudes are functional only In addition, descriptive studies of sexual
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when they are consistent with cultural and prejudice are needed within different subsets of
situational cues, for example, when the population, including ethnic and age groups.
homosexuality is defined as inconsistent with a Given the tendency for antigay behaviors to be
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masculine identity or when a religious perpetrated by adolescents and young adults,
congregation defines hostility to homosexuality as studies are especially needed of the development
a criterion for being a good Christian (Herek,
1987).
PREJUDICE AND BEHAVIOR io of sexual prejudice early in the life span. Finally,
study is needed of commonalities and
convergences in the psychology of sexual
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prejudice according to whether the target is men
Hate crimes and discrimination are inevitably or women, homosexuals or bisexuals. Much of
influenced by complex situational factors the empirical research in this area to date has
(Franklin, 1998). Nevertheless, sexual prejudice been limited because it focused (implicitly or
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contributes to antigay behaviors. In experimental explicitly) on heterosexuals attitudes toward gay
studies, sexual prejudice is correlated with men.
antigay behaviors, although other factors often
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1-23). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Haddock, G., & Zanna, M. (1998). Recommended Readings
Authoritarianism values, and the favorability and
structure of antigay attitudes. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Herek, G.M. (Ed.).(1998). Stigma and sexual
Stigma and sexual orientation (pp. 82-107). Newbury orientation: Understanding prejudice against
Park, CA: Sage. lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Herek, G. M. (1987). Can functions be measured?
A new perspective on the functional approach to Herek, G. M., & Berrill, K. (Eds.) (1992). Hate
attitudes. Social Psychology Quarterly, 50, 285-303. crimes: Confronting violence against lesbians and
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gay men. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Herek, G. M. (1994). Assessing attitudes toward
lesbians and gay men: A review of empirical research Herek, G. M., Kimmel, D. C., Amaro, H., & Melton,
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with the ATLG scale. In B. Greene, & G. M. Herek G. B. (1991). Avoiding heterosexist bias in
(Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology (pp. 206-228). psychological research. American Psychologist, 46,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 957-963.
Herman, D. (1997). The antigay agenda: Orthodox
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Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. (1995). Black
heterosexuals attitudes toward lesbians and gay men vision and the Christian Right. Chicago: University
in the United States. Journal of Sex Research, 32, 95- of Chicago Press.
105. Rothblum, E., & Bond, L. (Eds.).(1996). Preventing
heterosexism and homophobia. Thousand Oaks, CA:
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Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. (1996). Some of my
best friends: Intergroup contact, concealable stigma, Sage.
and heterosexuals attitudes toward gay men and
lesbians. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 22, 412-424.
Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1999). Sex
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differences in how heterosexuals think about lesbians
and gay men: Evidence from survey context effects.
Journal of Sex Research, in press.
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Herek, G. M., Gillis, J., & Cogan, J. (1999).
Psychological sequelae of hate crime victimization
among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of
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