33

Martyrdom in Christianity
Martyrdom1fl Christianity and
and Islam
Islam

MAHMOUD
MAHMOTJDM.
M. AYOUB
AYOUB

n
O ue of
ne of me
V a religious
the most important marks of a person's
a religiousideology
ideology i.sis his
person'sfaith faith or
or commitment
commitment to to
his readiness
readinesstotodefend
defend that that faith
faith with
with life
life itself
itself
if
if necessary.
necessary.Examples
Examplesof ofsuch
suchheroic
heroicsacrifice
sacrificeorormartyrdom
martyrdomabound aboundinin born
both
ancient and contemporary society.
ancient society, InIn ancient
ancient times, heroic indifference
times, the heroic indifference
such men
of such men as asthe
the Stoic
Stoicphilosopher,
philosopher,Epktetus,
Epictetus,tototorrure
tortureandanddeath
death inin the
the
affirmation
affirmation of aa noblenoble ideal earned them the honor of martyrs;
ideal earned martyrs; their example
example
and ideal of of total indifference to passions passions and worldly
worldly lifelife provided
provided aa model
model
for early
early Christian
Christian martyrs.
martyrs. In In our
our own
own time,
time, such
such men men as Che Guaverra
Guaverra and and
his legendary comrade Tanya Tanya have have been
been regarded
regarded as as martyrs
martyrs and
and even saints
by
by some
some Catholic
Catholic leftist
leftist priests.
priests. Martyrdom
Martyrdom has has been
been one one of the most power-power-
ful instruments in the the establishment
establishment and and propagation
propagation of ofaa faith or or ideology,
ideology,
and hence
hence of of aa new
new social
social order.
this essay
In this essay we we shall examine the
shall examine the philosophy
philosophyof ofmartyrdom
martyrdomand and the role
of martyrs in Christianity and Islam. We shall
of shall first
firstconsider
considerthisthisphenomenon
phenomenon
each of
in each of the
the two
two traditions
traditions separately,
separately. andand then
thenbriefly
briefly discuss
discuss similarities
and differences of concept
and differences concept and and attitude towards
towards the the marcyr
martyr in the the two
tWO com-
com-
munities. Our Our aim aim isis essentially
essentially to appreciate
appreciate the the contribution which which thisthis
phenomenon has
phenomenon has made
made totothe thereligio-political
religio-political situation
situation of oftoday's
today's world.
world.
The term
term martyr as used in the the New
New Testament
Tesramcm means "witness.""witness," A A martyr
is a witness
is witness not not toto an idea but bur to an event,
to an event, toto the
the faith
faith in
in the
rhecrucified
crucified andand
risen
risen Christ. Thus the the author
author of of1I John writes,
writes, ""...... that
thatwhich
whichwe we have
have seen
seen
with our
with eyes, which we
our eyes, we have
havelooked
lookeduponuponandand [Duched
touched wirhwith ourour hands.
hands . ., ..
we proclaim also to you.
we you. .., ..
."1
"1 The first Christian martyr, Stephen,
The first Stephen, isis reported
reported
ro have
to have seen the heavensheavens open and the Son Son of God se"oltedseated on the right
right hand
hand
of
ofGod.2 Neitherininthe
God. 2 Neither theOld
Oldnor northetheNew
NewTestament,
Testament,however,
however,do doweweseeseeany
any
significant development
significant development of ofthe
the concept
concept beyond
beyond an an almost
almost juridical
juridical meaning
meaning
of
ofwitness.
witnen.
Inbiblical
In biblicaland andpost-biblical
post-biblicalJudaism,
Judaism.martyrdom
martyrdomwas was considered
considered to to be
be an
an
individualwork
individual work of ofpiety
pietyandandtesissance
resistance totoevil.
evil. The
Thecasescases of
of the
the woman
woman and and
her seven
her seven sons
sons in in IV
IV Maccabees
Maccabees (8:3ff)(8;3ff) and the three three young
young men men in inDaniel
Daniel
(ch. havesurvived
(ch. 3)3)have survivedas as powerful
powerful symbols
symbols in the the liturgy
Iirurgy and
andhagiography
hagiography of of
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theChurch.
the Church.The The aim
aim ofof martyrdom
martyrdom in inJudaism
Judaism wa.1was essentially
essentiallytotoperfect
perfectthe
the
fiedChrist
fied Christbefore
beforehis hisdeath,
death, waswas usedused asasaaproof
proofcase.case.The Thelelters
lettersvehemently
vehemently
victimandandedify
edifythe
thepeople.
people. Since
Sincemartyrdom,
martyrdom, as asaareEgious
religiousand andmoral
moralcon-
con-
victim protest
protestthe theuse
useof ofthe
theepithet martyrsfor
epithetmartYrI for confessors who enduredpersecution
confessors who endured persecution
cept, call
cept, can best
best develop
develop widlin
within anan eschatological framework,itit is
eschatological framework, is significant
significant but
but did
did not
not seal
seal their testimony with
their testimony with their
their blood."
blood.9In In The
TheShepherd
Shepherdof ofHer
Her-
that in
in Judaism
Judaism this
this concept
concept appears
appears only
only inin late
late Biblical and apocryphal mas.
that Biblical and apocryphal mas,this this imitator
imitator of of Christ
Christ through manyrdom earns
through martyrdom carns the martyr's salvation
the martyr's salvation
writingsin
writings in an
an eschatological
eschatologicalcontext.
context.The
Theearly
earlyChurch
Church fell
fellheir
heir toto both
both Jew-
Jew- and
and aa share
share in in the glory of
the glory of Christ.
Christ. "Those
"Those who whosuffered
sufferedfor forthe
thename
nameof ofdIe
die
ish escharology
ish eschatologyand and irs
its moral
moral implications.
implications. Son All their
Son of of God
God areare glorious.
glorious. All their sins
sins have
have been
been taken
takenaway."11
away."" The The mar.tyrs
martyrs
In Acts
Acts22:20,
22:20,St.
St. Paul
Paul acknowledges
acknowledgeshis hisrole
roleininthe
the manyrdom
martyrdom of of early
early
In are
are also pictured as
alsopictured assitting
sitting Oil thrones with
on thrones crownson
with CroWIIS their h~ads,
onthdr heads,with with Christ
Christ
Christians, "when
"when the
the blood
blood of of Thy servant Stephen
Stephen was shed."3 TheThe book
book
Christians, Thy servant was shed."3 engagedin
engaged in judging
judging the world." Such
the worlds' Such glory
glory belongs
belongs only only to to those
those who who have
have
of Revelation,
of Revelation,the the apocalypse
apocalypseof ofthe
the early
earlyChurch,
Church, presents
presents aa vivid
vivid image
image ofof suffered
sufferedstripes,
stripes,imprisonment. crucifixion, and
imprisonment, crucifixion, and wild
wild beasts
beasts for for Chrisr's
Christ's name,
name,
the martyrs: "I saw the woman drunk with the blood . .
the martyrs: "I saw the woman drunk with (he blood ... of the martyrs."44 . of the martyrs." insists
insiststhe the author
author of of The
The Shepherd.
Shepherd
During thethe apostolic
apostolic age.
age, the
the concept
concept ofofmartyrdom
martyrdom tooktook on onnew
newmeaning
meaning A
During A rich
richand
and elaborate
elaborate cultuscultus evolved
evolved out out ofof this
this great
great regard
regard for for martyrdom
martyrdom
as the
as the number
number of of martyrs increased and
martyrs increased and their
their memory
memory lived on. Yet
lived on. the two
Yet the two alld the veneration
veneration accorded
accorded martyrs.
martyrs. We
and the We can can discuss
discussonly only rhe beginnings of
the beginnings of
elements of
elements of witnessing
witnessing to to one's
one'sfaith
faithand
and stoic
stoicindifference
indifferencetotopainpain continued
continued this
this cultus,
cultus, and
and some
some of of its
its salient
salient reatutes.
features. Apparently,
Apparently, tlle the authorities
authorities rcspon-
respon-
to dominate
to dominate the the thinking
thinking of of the
the early Church. Thus
early Church. Thus wewe read
read inin II Clement
Clement sible
sible forfor the execution by
the execution by burning
burning of of Polycarp
Polycarp sought sought to to prevent
prevent the Chris-
the Chris-
5:4-7 (written
(written about
about A.D. 96):
5:4-7 A.D. 96): tians
tians from gathering his
from gathering remains which,
his remains which, theythey feared, would be
feared, would be venerated
venerated more more
than Christ. The
than Christ. faithful protested
The faithful protested this this accusation
accusation vehemently,
vehemently, arguing arguing tharthat
the veneration accorded
the veneration accorded to to martyrs
matlyrs for fur their sacrifice is
their sacrifice is not the same
not the same as as wor-
wor-
Peter, who
Peter, who because
because of of unrighte.ous
unrightenus jealowy
jealousysuff.m:d
sufferednot
notone one or
or ~o
two but
but many
many
ship
ship which
which belongs
belongs to to God
God alone.
alone. The The classic
classic difference
difference here here stared
stated and greatly
and greatly
trials, and
trials, and having
having thus
thus given
given his
his testimony went to
testimony went to the
the glotious
glotious place
place which
which elaborated in
elaborated in the
the Eastern
Eastern Church
Church is is between
between honor honor or or veneration
veneration and and wor-
wor
was his due.
was hi5 due. Through
Through jealousy
jealousy andand suife
strife Paul
Paul showed
showed the the way
way co to the
the prize
prize of
of
endurance; ship. The
ship. The parishioners
parishioners of of the bishop did
the bishop gather the
did gather the bones
bones of of the
the saint
saint for
for
endurance; seven
5cven times
times he he was
was inin bonds,
bonds, he he was
was exiled,
exiled, hehe was stoned, he
was stoned, he was
was
aa herald burial. considering
considering them them "to "to bebemore
more valuable
valuable than than precious
precious stones
stones andand finer
finer
herald both
Doth in
in the
rhe East
East and
and inin the
the West,
West, he
he gained
gained the the noble
noble: fame
fame ofof his
his burial,
faith, than refined
relined gold
gold..... [They]laid laidthem
theminina asuitable
suitableplace.
place. There
There the theLord
lord
f.irh, he
he taught
taught righteousness
righteousness to all the
to all world, and
the world, and when
when he he had
had reached
teached the
the than . . [They]
limits
limits of
of the
the West
West hehe gave his testimony
gave his testimony before
before the
the rulers,
rulers, and
and thus
rhus passed
passed from
from will permit
will permit us us [they
[they said]
said] ...
. . . toto gather
gather together
together in in joy
joy and
and gladness
gladness and and toto
the
the world
world and
and was
wa> taken
~akcn upup into
into the
theHoly
HolyPlacethe
Pla{e-~he greatest
greatest example
example ofof celebrate the
celebrate rhe day
day of his martyrdom
of his martyrdom as as aa birthday,
birthday, in in memory
memory of of those
those ath-
arh-
endurance.'
endurance.' . letes who
who have
have gone before.... "12 The "birrhday of the martyr" as nn :l[JIlUal
letes gone before. . . ."12 The "birthday of the martyr" as an annual
memorial was
memorial W3S a Christian adaptation
a Christian adaptation of ofpagan
pagan custom
custOm that thatplayed
playedaacrucial
crucial
role in
role in the
the growth
growth of of the
the cult
cult of martyrs. 13
of martyrs.*
One
One of ofthe
theearliest
earliest and
and most
most eager
eager martyrs
martyrs ofofthe
theChurch
Churchwas was Ignatius,
Ignatius, Others among
Others amongthe theearly
earlyChurch
Churchfathersfathersadvocated
advocatedgreat greatveneration
venerationfor for mar-
mar-
Bishop
Bishop of of Antioch,
Antioch, who who died
died in A.D. 108,
in A.D. 108. For
Foc Ignatius,
Ignatius, the
the martyr
manyrwas was "he
"he ryrs whom they considercd to be the treasures of rhe Church. Martyrdom was
tyrs whom they considered to be the treasures of the Church. Martyrdom was
who
who imitated
imiratedChrist
ChristininHis
Hissufferings."
sufferings."6 6 He
He therefore
therefore used
used the
the term
term disciple
disciple considered to to be
bc aa second
second baptism,
baptism, the the baptism
baptism of of blood,
blood, granting
granting the the mar-
mar
rather considered
rather than
than witness.
wit71eH. His
His view
view was fully theological,
was fully theological, and
and he
he insisted
insisted on
on bodily
bodily tvr immediate
tyr remissionofofsin
immediateremission sinand andentry
entryintoinroParadise.
Paradise.Martyrs
Martyrswho whowere im
were im-
suffering
suffering asas aa proof
proof that
that Christ,
Christ, the
the crucified
crucified Son
Son of
of God,
God. waswas clothed
clothed inin aa prisoned awaiting
prisoned awaiting death,death, theirtheir families,
families, and and eveneve~ thethe towns
towns in in which t~cy
which they
real
real body.
body. Ignatius
Ignatius wished
wished his
his own
own bodybody toto be
be crushed
crushed between
berweell the
the teeth
teeth of
of resided werewete held
held in in high
high honor.
honor. ThoseThose who who remained
remamcd steadfast
steadfast through
through im- Jm-
resided
wild
wild beasts,
beasts, toto become
become aaperfect
perfect loaf
loaffor
for Christ,
Christ, whose
whose own
own body
body isis repre-
repre prisonment and and torture
torture(although
(althoughescapinge5capingdeath) death)gained
gainedpositions
positions amongamong
prisonment
sented
sentedininthe
thebread
breadandandwine
wineofofthe
theEucharistregarded
Eucharist-regardedby byIgnatius
Ignatiusas as "the
"the theelite
the eliteofofsociety.
society. ThisThishonor
honorgave gave them
themthe theprivilege
privilegeofofepiscopal ofncc. 14
episcopaloffice.14
medicine
medicine of ofimmortality."7
immortality."7 From an anearly
early period,
period,martyrs
martyrswho whowere were imprisoned
imprisonedwere asked to~opray
wereasked pray
From
In
IIIthe
theaccount
accountofofthe themartyrdom
martyrdomofofPolycarp.
Polycarp, bishop
bishopofofSmyrna,
Smyrna, written
written forthe
thehealth,
health,well-being,
well being,and salvationofofthe
andsalvation thepious.
pious.ItItwaswasaanatural
naturaldevelop-
develop
about for
about A.D.
A.b. 155,
155, witnessing
wimessing faith
faith toto the
the humanity
humanityand andsuffering
sufferillgof ofthe
theSonSon mentthat
ment tharsuch
suchrequests
requestsfor forprayers
prayers came came to to beberenewed
renewed after afterthe themartyr's
martyr's
of
ofGod
Godwas was fully
fully developed
developed as as aa concept."
concept." InIn the
theLeonine
leonine letters
letters of
ofabout
abour death. This controversial point no dou bt led to all even greater tensioll ,be-
A.D. 170 the term martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of
death. This controversial point no doubt led to an even greater tension be-
A.o. 170 the tcrm martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of tweenworship
tween worshipof ofthe
thedeada
dead -acommon commonpractice pracriceininpre-Christian
pre-Christianpagan pagansociety
SOCIety
blood
bloodforforChrist.
Christ.Here,
Here,the
theexample
exampleofofStephen,
Stephen,whowhosawsaw(witnessed)
(wimcssed)the theglori-
glori -andthe theveneration
venerationofofmartyrs.martyrs.The Thecult t ofmartyrs
cuI of martyrswith withitsitsrelics
reliesandandshrines
shrines
and

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70 MAHMOUDM.
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71

became the
became the objca
object of
of scorn
scorntotothe
the Protestant
Protestant Reformation;
Reformation; asasaaresult
resultthe
the Camo.
Catho- accept
acceptaadeed unlessitit isis done
deed unless done sincerely
sincerelyfor forHimHimand and that
that the doer seek seell: by
by
lic Church
lie Church was wasforced
forcedtotodefine
defineitsitstheology
theologyof
ofmarryrdom
martyrdom again
againand
and again.
again. mis
this only
only His His (God's)
(God's) face.""face."20
In me
III the words
words of of rhe
the Council
Council ofof 'frent,
Trent, which
whichmet
metinin pan
part (0
to answer
answer thethe criti-
criti- At leastin
At least in early
earlyIslam,
Islam,the theapplication
applicationof of the
the term martyr was
term martyr wasnot not limited
limited
cismsof
cisms of thethe Reformation:
Reformation:"The "The holy
holy bodies
bodiesof
of holy
holymanyrs,
martyrs,andand of
of omers
others to
to the person who who is is killed
killed inin the way
way of of God
God on on the
the battldidd.
battlefield. Martyrdom
Martyrdom
now living
now living withwith Christ-which
Christwhichbodies bodieswere
werethe
theliving
living members
members of of Christ
Christ isis an act of jihad
an act jihad (striving)
(striving) in in the way
way of God. God. Jihad.
Jihad, however,
however,contraty contrary to to
a~d
and the temple
temple of of the
the Holy
Holy Ghost
Ghost (I(I Corinthians
Corinthians 3:16),
3:16), and which are by
which are by the
the common
common view view held held in in the West,
West, is not simply simply militance:
militance: more basic basic is is
Him to be raised
HIm raiscd unto eternal
eternaIlifC, ~ glorifiedare
life, and to be glorified-arc w to be venerated
venerated thejiadagainsc
thefihadagainst the theevil oo~'sown
evilininone's own soul
soul andand in society. It
in society. It isis this
this inner
inner pu-pu-
by the
by the faithful
faithful through which which bodies
bodies many
mwy benefits
benefits are bestowed
bestowed by by God rity
rity resulting
resulting from from the the Jihad
jihad of the the soul
soul thatthat creates
creates the the right
right intemion
intention of of
on men
on men.,3
I
'
serving
serving the the cause
cause of of [ruth whatever way
truth in whatever waypossible.
possible.In Inaddition
addition to to dying
dying in in
Christianity a rich
While in Christiaoicy rich cultus
cultus arose
arose around
around the shrines and relics relics of deferue
defense of of one's
one's faith,
faith, property,
property, or life,
life, therefore,
cllerefore, the act of of falling off off one's
one's
the martyrs,
martyrs, in in Islam
Islam thisthisphenomenon
phenomenon remained remained limited
limited to Shi'i Islam,
to Shi'j Islam, andand mount, dying dying of of snakebite, or drowningdrowning is is also
also regarded
regarded as as martyrdom.
martyrdom. Like- Like-
even there
even there took
took aa different
different formformand andmeaning,
meaning, The The "friend
"friend of of God"
God" or sainrsaint wise,
wise, he he who
who dies
dies fromfrom a stray
stray arrow
arrow or or bullet,
bullet, or from from his house collapsing
in Islam, whose shrine
Islam, whose shrine became
became aa placeplace of pilgrimage
pilgrimage fur for the
the pious.
pious, was was not down upon
down upon him, is is considered
considered a martyr.martyr. Even Even thosethose whowho die die of of the plague
required to
required to be a martyr. fact, the Prophet recommended
martyr. In fact, recommended that, whenever whenever or a stomach
stomach ailment,
ailment, or a woman who who dies
dies in in childbirth,
childbirth, arc are considered mar-
possible, manyrs
possible, martyrsshould should be be buried
buried at at the spot where
where they they fell
fell in
in batcle.
battle."'6 To
To tyrs.
tyrs. TheThe famous
famous tradiciomst,
traditionist, Ibn Abbas, Abbas, is is said
said to to have
have declared:
declared: "A '~ man
m~
my kn~wledge,
knowledge, there there arc
are no shrines in the Muslim world world except
except those
those of the dies in his bis bed in in the
theway way ofofGod,
God,yet yetheheisisaamartyr?"11
martyr."" Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, in spite.: spite
Shiah Imams
Shlah imams 10 in Iraq
Iraq and
and Iran
Iran;; specifically
specificaUy erected
erected as as memorials
memorials for martyrs.martyrs. of allall this,
this, the true true martyr
martyr is is he who
who is is slain
slain in the the way
way of God. God.
Yet even
Yet even here
here the imam'simam's rolerole isis far
far greater
greater thm than simply
simply that of of martyr.
martyr. Early
Early traditionisrs
traditionists may may have
have used
used thethe term martyr very very broadly
broadly and with
and with
The word
The word shahid
shahid ("witness"),
("witness"), with its irs derivatives, OCcurs over fifty
deIivatives, occurs fifty times because they feared the
caution because the rise of a special
rise of special cult of martyrs.
martyrs. 'Dms, Thus, in rela-
in the
the Quran.
Quean. In Inmost
mostof ofthese
thesereferences,
references, the the emphasis
emphasis is on its its linguistic
linguistic tionship to
tionship authoricy of
to the authority of Abu Hurayrah,
Hurayrah, the the Prophet
Prophet is is said to have de-
to have de
mea~ing and usage as witness
meaning witness here
here onon earth
earth toto the oneness of God, God, the apos- clared: "Whoever has faith faith in God
God andandin inHis
His apostle,
apostle, observes
observes regular
regular prayers
prayers
tleship of
tleshIp of Muhammad,
Muhammad, and and thethe truth of the faith. faith. Witnesses
Witnesses are are notnot in a fasts the month of Ramadan.
and fasts Ramadan, it shall shall be be incumbem
incumbent upon God to to make
make
category
category by by themselves
themselvesbut butare
areclassed
classedwith withdIetheprophets,
prophets, the the righteous,
righteous, and him enterenter Paradise,
Paradise, whether
whether he fights in the way
he fights way of of God
God or remainsremains in in the
the
rhe: truthful
truthful-mat that is,
is, with those who have have found favor with God.
favor with God.IT 17 land of of his birth."
birth:' Yet Yet when the the people
people askedasked ififtheyLhey should
should convey
convey this glad
The
The first
first question
question of of concern
concern to to us
us is:
is; Who
Who is is a martyr?
martyr? The The answer,
answer, as as tiding to to others,
others, the the Prophet
Prophetdid didnotnotanswer
answer directly.
directly. Instead, he he described
described
we shall see,
we shall see, isisinin the
the end legally determined. A
legally determined. A man,
man, we we ate
are told, said to high station
the high station of ofthe themartyrs
martyrsininParadise.s!
Paradise. 12 Perhaps
Perhaps for this reason itit was
tills reason was
the
rhe Prophet:
Prophet: "A '''A man
man may may fight in quest
quest of booty. Another may
ofboory.Anomer may fight
fight for fame the jurist rather than the the orator
orator oror theologian
theologian who derermined determined the the principle
principle
and still
still another
another for fur aa show
show of status.
status. Who among these would be be fighting according to
according to which
which aa man or woman woman may may be considered
considered to be be aa martyr.
martyr.
in the
the way
way of God?" The Prophet Prophet answered,
answered, "Whoever
"Whoever fights fights in in order that We cannot
We cannot enter in detail detail into thi~ technical
into this tethnical topic topic of ofthethe qualifications
qualifications
the word
word of God God be uppermost,
uppermost, would would be be lighting
fighting in in the way
way of of God."18
God."" of aa martyr;
of martyr; aa few few general
general remarks
remarks mustmustsuffice.
suffice. Three
Three categories
categories of of martyrs
martyrs
The famous traditionist, Ibn Ibn Hajar
Rajar al-Asqalani,
al-Asqalani, comments on this hadith hat/jth distinguished: martyr of
may be distinguished: of this
this world,
world, martyr of this and the the world
world to to
("Tradition
("'Ihdition of the Prophet"):Prophet"): "One "Onemay mayfight
fightforfur one
oneof offive reaso~: booty;
five reasons: booty; come, and martyr
come, martyr of of the
the world
world to to come
come only.only. TheThe first
first is
is he
he whowho diesdies forfor aa
aa show
show of bravery;
braveI)'; or or a show
show before others; in defense
before others; defense of of wealth,
wealth, family,
family, or or worldly cause other other thanthan that
that of
offaith.
faith. TheThesecond
secood isis he hewhowho isis slain
slain forfor no
no
land;
land; andand outOut of ofanger.
anger. AnyAnyone one ofofthese
rhese could
could in in itself
itselfbe bepraiseworthy
praiseworthy or or other reason
other reason but but that
that "the"theword
word of ofGod
God be beuppermost."
uppermost." Such Such aa martyrmartyt is is to
to
the
the opposite.
opposite. So So long
long as as the
the main
main purpose
purpose remains
remains that that the
the 'word
'word of of God
God bebe buried
buried in in his
his clothes, without
without washing
washing or shrouding-ordinarily,
shrouding ordinarily, necessary necessary
be
be uppermost'
uppermost' (which (which isis here defined as as defending the the cause
cause of of Islam), ir it mat- rites for the dead.
rites dead. The Themartyr
martyrof ofthis
thisworld
worldisis likewise
likewise buried
buried in in his
his clothes,
clothes.
ters
ters not
not what
whatother otherreasons
reasonsmay mayexist
existasassecondary
secondal)'causes."t9
causes."" since in the
since the end
endhis hismotives
motives are are known
known only only to to God,
God,who whowill will reward
reward eachea(h
In
In yet
yet another tradition,
tradition, the the Prophet
Prophetwas was asked
asked whether a man man fighting
fighting person according
person according- to to his
his acts
acts and
and intentions. Umar Ibn al-Khattab a1-Khattab and and AllAli
for
fur material
mllterial rewards
rewards would also have aa reward
also have reward withwith GodGod on the the day
day ofofresur-
resur- Ibn Abi
1bn Abi Talib, the second and md fourth of of the
the four
four tightly
rightly guided
guidedcaliphs caliphs who who
rection.
rection. The Prophet answered, "Nothing." He continued, "God
answered. "Nothing." "God would
would not not were stabbed
were stabbed and died later
and died laterofoftheir
theirwounds,
wounds, were were given regular burial. While While

ACLURM002822
72 lIIIU1MOUD M. AYOUB
man:stoma M. AYOUB ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE
ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE 73

hmh
both werewen: considered
consideredmartyrs martyrsin inthe
the way
wayof ofGod,
God, 5uch
such burial
burial indicates
indicates that that
principle of
principle of their faith and
their faith andpiety.
piety. Every
Every year year during
during the lim ten
the first days of
ten days of Mu-
Mu-
they
they werewerenor, not, technically
technicallyspeaking,
speaking,martyrs.
martyrs.The Thethird
thirdcaliph,
caliph,Uthman,
Uthman, who who
harram
harram (the first month
(the first month of ofthethe Muslim
Muslim calendar),
calendar). they they relive
relive thethe experience
experience
was
wasslainslainin in his
his house,
house, was wasalso alsonot notwashed
washedor orshrouded.
shrouded." Z
)
of
of Husayn
Husayn Ibn Ibn Ali,
Ali, thethe third imam. who
third imam, who through
through his his death
death at at Karbala
Karbala pro- pro
Finally,
Finally, the the Quran counsels Muslims
Quran counsels Muslims to make peace
to make peace among
among themselves.
themselves. vided for
vided for all
all Muslims
Muslims the supreme example
the supreme example of ofself-sacrifice
self-sacrifice in in the
the way
way ofof God.
God.
Yct
Yet if ifone
onegroupgrouptransgresses
transgressesagainst against another,
another,that thatgroup
groupmustmust be be fought
fought un: un-
In the tragedy
In the tragedy of of Karbala
Karbala in 680, the
A.D. 680,
in A.D. ideal of
the ideal of martyrdom
martyrdom took took onon newnew
til
til it
it rerurns
returns to the right
to the right path.24
path." Thus, Thus, we weare aretold,
told,after
after the
the battle
battle of of Nahra-
Nahra-
theological
theological and pietisric significance.
and pietistic significance, Thus Thus Husayn,
Husayn, "the Prince of
"the Prince of Martyrs"
Martyrs"
wan
wan against
against the the Kharijites
Kharijites(A.D. (Aro.659),659),Ali Allhadhadthethe dead
dead on on hishis side buned
side buried
and
and "Master
"Master of of the Youths of
the Youths the People
of the People of of Paradise,"
Paradise." was was said
said to to have
have heenbeen
as
as martyrs.
martyrs. This Thisprinciple
principlehas hascontinued
continued to to be
be observed
observed (and (and often
often abused)
abused)
destined
destined for for this
this sacrifice
sacrifice fromfrom the beginning of
the beginning of creation,
creation. History
History was was read
read
to the present
to the present day. day. backward
backwardfrom from him him to to Adam.
Adam, and beyond and
and beyond and forward
furward to to the
the end
end of of the world.
the world.
As
As in Chri5tianity. the
in Christianity, blood of
the blood of the
the martyr
martyr in in Islam
Islam washes
washes away away his his oror
DefOre
Before him, him, history
history was wasaalong longprelude
prelude to to the
the drama
drama of of suffering
suffering and and death
death
her sins. It
her sins. is important
It is important to ob5erve that
to observe even though
that even though women
women are arc exempted
exempted of
of which
which he. he, hishis friends.
friends, andand immediate
immediate relatives relatives were were the cemral characters,
the central characters.
from
from actual
actual fighting
fighting for for religious
religious and and juristic
juristic reasons,
reasons, thethe first martyr in
first martyr Islam
in Islam
Mter
After him.
him, history
history is is a period
period of of intense
intense hope hope in in the
the anticipation
anticipation of of the
the return
return
was
was aa woman-
womanSumayya. Sumayya,the themother
motherof of Ammar
Ammar Ibn Yasir, who
Ibn Yasir, who was wastortured
tortured
of
of the
the Mahdi
Mandi (his (his ninth
ninth descendant
descendant and twelfth imam
and twelfth imam of of the Shish ~omcnu
the Shiah commu-
to
to death
death withwith hcr her husband
husband and and son by the Mcccan Mcccan ArabsArabs hefure
before thethe conquest
conquest
nity)
nity) to to avenge
avenge the the death
death of ofHusayn
Husayn and and vindicate
vindicate the the fairhful
faithful for for rhelf
their actual
actual
the city.
of the city.TheTheinjunction
injunction to to let
let the
the blood
blood of of the martyrs be
the martyrs be their
their purification
of purification
and
and vicarious sharing in
vicarious sharing the sufferings
in the sufferings of of rheholy
the holy familyfamily of ofthe
the Prophet
Prophet Mu- M~
is said
is said toto have
have been been given
given by by the
the Propher
Prophet regarding
regarding those slain in the battle
those slain battle hammad.
hammad. Yet Yet Husayn himself himself was said ro to have:
have beenbeen rold told by by the Prophet ~n in
of 'Mud."
of Uhud. 1 ' Ile He said:
said: "Shroud
"Shroud them them in in their blood and
their blood and dodo notnot wash
wash them.
them. a dream that "he "he hashas an an exalted
exalred station
station with with God which which he cannot attain
Por no
For no man
man who who is is injured
injured in in the
the waywayof ofGodGodbut but that he shall
that he shall come on the
on the
except
except through mattyrdom."31
through mattyrdom.""
day of
day of resurrection
resurrection with with his his blood
blood gushing
gushing OUt out of his veins.
of his veins. The color shall
The color shall The death of
The death ofHusayn,
Husayn, moreover,
moreover. became became for for Shiah
Shiah Muslims
Muslims aa sourcesource of of
be that
be that of of blood
blood and and the the odor
odor that that ofof musk."26
musk.":!6 redemption
redemption and and healing.
healing. According
According to well-known uadit~on,
to aa well-known tradition, just be~ore
just before
The martyrs-"those
The martyrs "those who who are ate slain
slain in the way
in the way ofof God"-the
God" theQuran Quran tellstells his
his death
death the the Prophet
Prophet said: said: "I am leaving with
am leaving with you you(the [the Mushm
Muslim commUulty)
community]
us "
us "are
are not
not to be reckoned
to be reckoned as as dead; ratner, they
dead; rather, they are
are alive
alive with their Lord
with their Lord sus-
sus- the
the twotwo weights
weights onto onto which
which if if you
you holdhold fast, fast, you
you shallshall never
never go go astray:
astray: the
the
rained."z1
mince" Islamiceschatology
Islamic e5clutologyhas hasalways
always been
been expressed
expressed in in the
the language
language and and
Book
Book of of God
God and and my my family,
family, the the people
people of of mymy household.
household. They They shall
shall never
never
the social
the social framework
framework of of this
this life.
life. Hence,
Hence, tradition
tradition veryvery early
eady displayed
displayed greatgreat be separated
be separated until they come
until they come to to me
me at the spring."
at the spring."'3 This paradisiacal
" This paradisiacal springspring
imagination in
imagination in depicting
depicring the the great
great pleasures
pleasures of the martyrs
of the martyrs in Paradise.' Yet
in Paradise." Yer shall be
shall be given
given to to the
the Prophet
Prophet on on the
the dayday of of judgment
judgment to to quench
quench the the thirst
thirst .of
of
rhe true
the tlUe martyr
martyr for fur God
God retains
retains his his desire
desire for for martyrdom
martyrdom even even in in Paradise.
Paradise. the piau:; "on
the pious "on thethe dayday ofof the thirst."34
great thirst:'
the great Both the
" Both the Quran
Quran and and thethe family
famdy
Malik Ibn
Malik Ibn Anas
Anas related
related thatthat tbe
the Prophet said: "No
Prophet said: "No oneone who
who enters
enters Paradise
Paradise of
of Muhammad
Muhammad will will judge and intercede
judge and intercede before before God God and and his his Prophet
Prophet for for those
those
would wish
would wish to to rerum
return [Q this world,
to this world, eveneven if if he were to
he were possess all
to possess all that
that isis in
in of the
of Muslims who
the Muslims honored the
who honored the twotwo weights
weights or neglected and
Of neglected mistreared
and mistreated
ie, except
it, excepr the manyr. He
the martyr. He would
would desiredesire roto return
return to to the world to
the world to be killed ten
be killed ten them. Husayn
them. Husayo will will also
also stand before God
stand before God on on thethe day
day of of resurrection
rcsurrection as as aa head-
head-
times because of
rimes because of the
the great
great honor
honor (with God) which
[with God] which he he sees
sees in
in this act,"29 "The
this act."29 "The
less body
less body to motend with his
to contend his murderers and intercede for ti)r his followers."
followers." For
door of
door Paradise," we
of Paradise," we areare told
told in another tradition,
in another tradition, "is "is under
under the the glittering
glittering Shiah piety it is is Fatmah.
Patmah, the the daughter
daughter of of Muhammad
Muhammad and and mother
mother of ofHusayn,
Husayn,
swords:']
swools. '30
who has has in this world
world embodied
embodied the the suffering
suffering of of her
her descendants
descendants and and who who
who in this
Tradition records
Tradition records numerous
numerous examples examples of of marryrs
martyrswho who sensed
sensed the the odor
odor of of continues to
continues to shed
shed tearsrears ofof anguish
anguish even even in in Paradise.
Paradise."
l6
Paradisc on
Paradise on thethe battlefield
battlefield and and thus
thus gladly
gladly met met their
their death.
death. One One suchsuch exam-
exam- This ethos
This ethos of of suffering stands in
suffering stands in sharp
sharp contrast
contrast to to the quick and
the quick and spectacu-
spectacu
ple is
ple is that
that of of aa man
man calledcalled Abdallah
Abdallah Ibrt IbnJahsh
_latishwho whoprayed
prayedon on the
the morning
morning
lar success
lar success of ofthethe early
early generarions
generations of of Muslims.
Muslims. Yet Yetit it is
isitself the prod~c~
itself the product of of
of the
of the battle
battle of ofUhud. saying: "0
Uhud, saying: "0God, God. letletme metoday
[Oday meet
meetaastrong
srrong and and brave
brave that military
that military and and economic
cconomic success,
success, coming
coming as as i~ ~oes. ou~
it does out ofof the con~lwon
the conviction
knight who
knight who willwill kill
kill meme andand cutcur off
off mymy nose
nose and two ears.
and two ears. Thus
Thus whenwhen II shall
shall that political
that political justice
justice must,
must, in in the
the end,
end.reflectreflect divine
dIVIne justice.
JustIce. God Go~ Himself,
Himself.
meet you
meet you tomorrow,
tomorrow, you you will
will say,
say. 'My'My servant,
servant, fur for what. were your
what were your nose
nose and and
in Shah
in Shiahtheology,
theology, isis boundboundonly onlyby by HisHisown own justice.
justic.e, Hence,
Hencc, Shiites
Shiites repeat
repeat
cars cut
ears cut off?'
off?' II will
will then answer. 'It
then answer, was in
It was in You
You [for
[for your
your sake],
sake], my my Lord.
Lord, and and
daily in
daily worship the
their worship
in their the prayer.
prayer: "0 "0God, God. we we desire
deSlfe of o~ You
you an ho~orable
an honorable
in your
in your apostle.'"
apostle ..." 31
5tate in
state in which
which You You honor
honor Islam
Islam and and irs its people,
people, and humlhate hypocrisy
and humiliate hypoCflsy and and
Shiall Muslims
Shiah Muslims have have mademade the the ethos
ethos of of martyrdom
martyrdom and and suffering
suffering aa basic
basic its people.
its people. [We [We pray)pray] that
that inin itir you
you render
render us us among
among those those who who call
call [others]
lothers)

ACLURM002823
74 NAHMOUD M.
MAHMOUD M. AYOUB
AYOUB ENABLING FACTORS
BNABUNG FACTORS FOR
FOR CHANGE
CHANGE 75

to obedience to you,
[Q you, and that
thatyou
youmake makeus usleaders
leaders to toyour
yourway."
way." This ideal in Christianity martyrdom
martyrdom was glorious struggle
was a glorious struggle before
before Christendom
Christendom became
order will
will come
come only onlywhen
when human
human justice will will approx.imate
approximate divine jUlit!ce justice most
most world power
a world powerunder under Constantine.
Constantine, in Islam Islam the Jihadjihad or struggle
struggle of the mar- mar
closely, whichcan
closely. which canonly
onlybebeachil:ved
achieveduuder underthe the leadership
leadership of of anan imam
imam pro- tyrs was
tyrs wasinstituted
instituted after Islam became a religious, social, and
religious. social. and political order.
tected by God from
by God from error.
error. In
In this
this hope-or
hopeor rather. rather, humanly unrealized goal Thus, when the symbol of of supreme
supreme martyrdom, the cross, became the
cross, became the banner
banner
politicalidealism
-polirical idealismand and theology
theology meet. under which political wars were were waged.
waged, the the significance
significanceof of me
the principle
principle alto
alto-
It is noteworthy
noteworthy thar that Shiites, more than the Sunni
Shiites, more Suoni majority
majority of ofMuslims,
Muslims, gether became subjecr subject to to question and doubt. The most intense protest against
have tisked life
have risked life and
and Muslim
Muslim uniry
unity in in this quest. They have, have. moreover,
moreover, main- this "distonion"
this "distortion" may may be be seen
seen in the radical
radical Reformation
Reformation arul and thethe rich
rich and
tained
tuined a long
long and recognizable list of martyrs.
and recognizable martyrs. The The list begins
begins with
with Abel
Abel (QabiI)
(Qabil) martyrologies that
moving martyrologies that Mennonites and and Anabaptists
Anabaptists have have left as their leg-
and includes the Prophet Muhammad and all the imams but one. The twelfth acy for
acy for posterity.
posterity.The The ideal
ideal martyr in Christianity was was therefore he "who suf-
imam,
imam. the HiddenHidden Imam, Imam. willwill return
return to to close
close thisrhis long
long chapter
chaprer of of wrong-
wrong- stripes, imprisonment,
fered stripes, imprisonment, crucifixion
crucifixion and wild beasts ... . . ."" Is
Is it because
because of
doing and martyrdom,
martyrdom, and establish justice in
establish justice in the
the earth. Thus the Prophet this loss
this loss ofof the
the original
original meaning
meaning of rhis this ideal that thar even
even among
among committed
committed
is
is said [Qto have
have declared: "Evenifif there
declared: "Even there remains
remains [only [only] one day
lone day of the life of fundamentalist Christians
fundamentalist Christians martyrdom is no longer
is no longer the
the imp ems it was for
impetus for the
the world,
world. God will will prolong thar
that day llntiluntil aa man
man of of my progeny shall appear, early Church?
early
whose
whose namename is is my
my name
name and whosewhose agnomen is my my agnomen.
agnomen. He shall shall fill
fill In Islam,
Islam, the idealideal martyr
marEyr is is he
he who
who strives
strives inin the way
way of God "with his
the
die earth with equity and justice as as it has
has been filled filled with
with inequity
inequity and in- hand, with his tongue,
haud., tongue. and and. with
with his
his heart."
heart." Yet Yet striving onlyonly withwith the heart
hcatt
justice." This
justice."" This rradition,
tradition, with minor variations, variations, is is accepted
accepted by by both Shiah is considered
considered to to be "the weakest faith."41 This emphasis 011
weakest of faith."41 on outward strug-
and Sunni
Sunni traclitionists,
traditiollists. Thus
Thus thethe ideal
idealititexpresses
expresses has has gained
gained official
official accep- does not imply wild
gle does wild and
and uncontrolled
uncontrolledwarfare, warfare. however;
however; rather,rather, itit advo-
advo
tance among Muslims
tance Muslims of of both groups.
groups. cates aa regulated
cates regulated struggle for for the good and against against evil.
evil. (At
(At anyany rate, such
such
This ideal of great great justice was
wasrealized
realizedfor foraabrief
brieftime
time only
only by bythe
the Prophet,
Prophet, enjoined in
is enjoined
is in the Quran and hadith rtadition.)
the Quran tradition.) This struggle has definite definite
Muhammad,
Muhammad, in Medina. Medina. The The Quran refers refers toto the realization
realization of the ideal of priorities of concern;
priorities affii~tion befalls
concern: "If affliction befalls you,"you," advised
advised Abdallah
Abdallah Ibn lbn Jun-'
Jun--
a good society
societyin in aastatement
statement coming
coming shortly shortly before
beforethe the Prophec's
Prophet's deathdeath and dub, themeson sonofofaa well-known
well-known Companion,
Companion."ransom "ransomyouryoursouls
souls by by your wealth.
after all the obligations of Islam Islam had been instituted:
instituted: "Today"Today have I perfected But if if affliction
alHiction increases,
increases, put put your souls before
your souls before your
yourfaith.
faith. forPot aa truly
truly de-
your religion for
your religion for you;
you; I have
have completed my my favor towardstowards you you and have have ac-
ac- prived man is he whose religion is taken away away fromfrom him.
him. This is is because
because there
cepted
cepted Islam
Islam as as a religion for you."38 Martyrsthroughout
yoU."38 Martyrs throughout Islamic history have is
is no poverty
poverty afterafter Paradise,
Paradise,nor norisis there
there any anywealth
wealthafterafterthe the Pire
Fire.",
...'
been an affirmation
affirmation of this hope, and aa recognition recognition that this this hope remains
remains In spite of this lm important
portantdifference,
difference, however,
however. both both Islam
Islam and and Christianity
an ideal
ideal unfulfilled because of human folly.
unfulfilled because folly. Hence,
Hence. the the challenge
challenge remains
remains agree on
agree on the basic concept of martyrdom
basic concept martyrdom as as witness
witnesstotothe the truth.
truth. The true
as powerfultoday
as powerful todayininIran.
Iran,Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, the the Arabian
Arabian peninsula.,
peninsula, and even here martyr, the two
martyr, tWo religions also agree, agree, is he he who is is free
free from any other motive
any ocher
in the
the New
New World as it was was when
when it was was first
first uttered. but that
but that witness.
wimess. WhileWhile the the ideal
ideal martyr
martyr in in Islam
Islam is the one who falls on the
falls on
"Surely God God has has exchanged
exchanged with with the people of faith their their lives
lives and wealth battlefield, actual
battlefield, fighting is
actual fighting is not an absolute
absolure requirement
requirement for fur martyrdom.
martyrdom.
so that they
they shall have Paradise:
Paradise: they fight in
they fight the way
in the way{)fof God, they kill
God, they kill and Islam, moreover, hasits
Islam, moreover,.has its marqrs
martyrs who whosilently
silentlyand and bravely
bravelyendure
endure tortu[e
torture and
are killed.., . ."39
are killed. :'39 This verse
versecontinues,
continues, "It "Jrisisaapromise
promiseincumbent
incumbentupon upon Him
Him death. Finally, traditions are in agreement regarding the exalted
Finally, both uaditiol15 exalted station
in truth,
truth. in in the
the Torah
Torah and the Gospel."
Gospel." Thus Islam Islam hashas from
from thethe beginning of the martyr with God and the the belief
beliefthat thar the
themartyr
martyrwill will carry
carry the marks
marks
recognized dle the place and value of of martyrdom
martyrdom in the major major scriptures revealed of his sacrifice
sacrificewith withhimhim to to be displayed
displayed even heaven. ~~
even in heaven.45
before it.
befure it. In art earlier surah
an earlier surah ofof the
the Quean,
Quran, revealed
revealed beforebefore thethe principle of In more recent Christian developments,
developments. the the two
two ideals
ideals maymay yet yet have more
jihad was
was established
establishedfor forthe
theMuslim
Muslimcommunity,
community,the theQuran
Quran alludes
alludes toto the in common than thanever ever before,
before. Liberation
Liberation theology
theology- the product product of ofpoverty,
poverty,
famous Christian
Christian martyIS
martyrs of ofNajran
Najtano 40 who became the subject of of much exe-
exe piety, and political awarenessmay
piety, awateness-may yet yetprove
provetotobe bethe
themost
mostimportant
important phe-
getical
getical and hadith scholarship.
scholarship. It It isis therefore
thereforeimportant
important to to ask,
ask, inin conclusion,
condusion, nomenon in in modern
modernChristian
Christianhistory.
history. As A:; a Muslim, I believe that piety with-
about
about thethe similarities
similarities and differences
differences in in the
the view
view of ofand
and attitude
attitude toward
towatd mar- OUt invulvemem is at best all theory and no practice. It shall be those
out political involvement
tyrs
tyrs in the
the twotwo religious
religious traditions.
[[aditions. who feed
who feed thethe hungry, clothe the naked,
hungry, clothe naked, care for the
care for the sick,
sick, andand defend
defend the
Perhaps the most obvious obvious andand important
important historical difference differeuce is is that
that while wronged
wronged in in prison
prison whowho willwill inherit
inherit the kingdom
kingdom of God. God.

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 76 MAHMUUD M. AYOUB
76 MAHMUUD M. AYOUB ENABLING FACTOIlS POl! CHIINGB 77
ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE
77
Notes
Notes
Quran5:3.
3B.38.Quran 5:3.
1. 1 John 1:1. (All Biblical quotations are taken from the Revised Standard Version.) 39. QuEaa9:111.
39-QUl:l!!1 9:111.
40.
t.2.I John 1:1. (All Biblical quotations are taken from the Re.ised Stand:ml Version.)
Acts 7:55-56. Quran85:4--B.
40.Quran 85:4-8.
2.3.Acts 7:5S--%. 41.
41.Abu Is. Muhammad bin Iso bin Sawrah .1 Tirmidhi, SUM" alT;rm;ahi, Abdul Rahman
Sec also Acts 1:8, Luke 21:13, John 15:27, and Matt. 10:28, where the term martyr is also Abu Isa Muhammad bin Isa bin Sawrah al-Tirmidbi, Sunan al-Tirraldbr;
used3.inSee thealso Actsof1:8.
sense Luke 21:I3.John 15:27. and Matt. 10:28, whete the term ma'lyr is also
witness. Muhammad Utlurum, 3d ed., (Beiru~ Dar ajFikr, 1398(1978) vol. }, p. 318. Abdul Rahman
Muhammad 1.1thinan, 3dfted., (Beirut.
aliI/am, p. Dar al-Fikr, 1398/1978) vol. 3, p. 318.
usr:d in4.the Rev.sense
17:6.ofSeewjtnC!i5.
also Rev. 6:9-11, 20:4. 42. Khalid,(ll-Shahiti
42.Khalid, 138.
al-Shabia'fi al-Lrlata, p. 138.
4.5.ReCyril
. 17;6. See also Rev. U:9-I1. 20:4. 43. e already cited Muslim tradition in support of this idea. For the Christian lI"dilion,
43.[hhave
C. Richardson as al, cds., Early ChristianFathers.
Fathers,The already cited Muslim tradition in support of this idea. For the Christian tradition,
S. Cyril C. Riehatdoon e, aI . cds . EoT/y Ch,iJlian TheLibrary
LibraryofChristiao
of ChristianClassiC.
Classics Ayoub,Redemptive
seeAyoub,
See SuiferiTlg ;n l!llZm, pp. 199, 282 (n.7).
(Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1953), vol. 1, p. 46. Redemptive Suffering in Mom, pp. 199, 282 (n.7).
(Philadelphia:
6. See Rom. The Westminster Pc.... 19B). vol. I. p. 46.
6:3, and the entire epistle that revolves around this concept.
6.7.Se.
SeeRom. 20:2,and the eotire epistle that revolves around this concept
Eph. 6:3.
7.8.Se.
SeeEph. 20:2.
Richardson, Early Chrinian Fathers, pp. 149ff.
B.9. Se.
NewRichardson, Edrly Chrislia11 Rtlhe,... pp.
Catholic Encyclopaedia, 149tf.
9. New Co2tI",I;" EI1"yelopaedi", vol.11.
vol. 11.1967.
1967,p.p. 312.
312.
10. Ibid.
10. Ihid.
11. Ibid.
12.Ibid.
II.
Richardson, Early Christian Fathers, p. 156.
12.
13. Rich.rdson. Ea'/, ChTiJtio2n liztherJ. p. 156.
On the development of the cult of the martyrs and its
13. On the
antecedents, seedevelopment
James Hastings, of [he
ed.,cult relationships ro
of [be manYQ and irs rclatiomhips to GraccoRomlUl
Graeco-Roman
ameteden". see James Encyclopaediaa/Religion
. Encyclapuaw of Religionana and EtM
Ethics (New Yack:
York:Chari.,
Charles
Scribner's Sons, n.d.), Ha"ings.
vol. 9, pp.cd 52ff .. (New
Scribner's
14. Ibid., 53. vol. 9. pp. )llf..
Sons.p.n.d.).
14. Ibid
15. . p.
Ibid., '3.
p. 51.
15. Ibid., />.Khalid,
16. Hasan 51. al-Shabidfi
57:19. ji 1111Jlam. (Beirut: Dar aIlim liI.malayin. 1971). p. n.
Kh.lid. (Beirut: Dar al-11m 61-malayin, 1971), p. 75.
16. Sec
17. Hasan Quran 4:69,a/Shahid
18. Soc QUCln
17. Ahmad 4:69. H:19.
ibn All bin Hajar al-Asqllani, Rath
fi sharh Atha al-bukhari(lieintt: Dar
HajaralAsq.llani. l'I1lhalb..,iji.r!;arhJahihlZ/b"khari(Bcirut:
18. Ahwad
al-marifah, n.d.)ibnvol.Ali6,bin
p. 28.
~1.marif.Jh.
19. Ibid., n.d.) vol. 6. p. 28.
p. 28.
19, Ibid.
20. lhid., p. 2B.
Ibid. al-Shahid fi al-Islam,
20. Khalid,
21.
21. Ibn
22. K1,.Jid,
Hajar, aI-ShaM" ji ull;/am, p. p. 57.
n Scc
Sec also
also pp.
pp. 55-57.
~ ~-57.
Fath al-hari fi tharh sahib al-bukhan; p.
22. Scc
23. Haiar. Fath a/.hari ft Jharh 1i1I;ih q(bllkhari, p. IL
Jbn Khalid, 11.
al-Shahitlfi al-Is/am, pp. 69-72.
23. See
24, Sec:Quran
Khalid. aIShahidfi al1JIam. pp. 69-72.
49:9.
24. See
25. Qutan 49:9.
See Khalid,
ft al-Islam,
26. Sec KhaIid. alShalJj" ji a/-klam, p.p. 70.
25. Ibid. 70.
26. [bid.
27. Quran 3:169.
27. Qu ... n 3:169.
28. See Imad al-Din Abi al-Fida Ismail Bin Kathir, Eefrjr al-Quran gAAzim,
~B. Sr.e1389/1970),
Dar al-Fikr, [mad .1.Dinvol. Abi alFid. Ism.iI Bin Kalhir.1iI[rir 1I/QU1lJR llI.Azim.2d 2ded.
cd.(Beirut:
(Beirut:
2, pp. 153-60.
Dac a)Pike.
29. 1bn Hajar,13891197U). vol. 2,/>p. 1~3~60.
Each al-hari ft tharb tahih d-bukhan;
Ibn Haj.t. Nih aIbari Ii JMr!; JtiTh;h aI,oIlAhan; p,p.31.
29.Ibid.
30. 31.
30.Khalid,
31. Ibid. al-Shahid fi aarlam,
p. 138.
fl/Shahiti Iial-Khawarizmi,
Khalid,al-Muvraffaq
31.Akhtab
32. a/.TJ/am, p. BU.
32. t\kht~b Maqtal al-Husayn (Najaf: Mubammad
1367/1947), vol. 1, p. 187. .1K.hawarizmi. MdqIl1I aIHUlayn (Naja!;Muhammad
a1MuwaJF..q al-Samavvi,
a1Samawi,
136711947).
33. Abu Jafar vol. al-Saduq
I. p. 187. lbn Babawayh
33. Abu1389/1970),
Jaf.r .I..s.duq !korai
Ibn Dabaw.yb aIQummi, Ihnal dDm(Najaf:al-Din (Naja!:al-Mathaah
alMarbaabal-aI
Ilaydariyyah, p. 62.
Uaydatiyy.h.
34. Mahmoud 13B911970).
M. Ayoub,p. Redemptive
62.
Suffering In Islam (The Hague: Mouton Publishers,
1978),34. pp.Mahmoud
205ff. M. Ayoub. Retiempli.e Suffering In lilam (The Hague: Mournn Publishers.
197B). pp. 20sff.
35. [bid., p. 214.
36. Ibid.,pp.p.144-45.
35.Ibid., 214.
36.Ibid.,
37. Ibidp.
. 217.
pp. 144-45.
37. Ibid . p. 217.

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