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Demonstrate knowledge of compliance issues and their implications in the poultry industry
Contents
3. Present Consumption
4.1. Strengths
4.2. Weaknesses
4.4. Threats
6. Recommendations
7. References
8. Annexures
1. Introduction
Intense global competition and diminishing trade barriers are making it more and
more difficult for companies to maintain their market share. Competition from companies
operating in different markets has increased as advancements in telecommunications and
information technology have broken down traditional barriers to entry.
In a competitive environment, a business must persuade a customer to buy its
products rather than those of competitors at a price that is more than its cost of production.
A rational customer, however, would like to maximize value for his money. Therefore, a
successful producer must enhance the total value of his products so that the price is
acceptable to the customer while his own costs are low enough to allow him to make a
profit.
Total quality management (TQM) is all about fostering a culture that is
continuously oriented towards increasing customer satisfaction while minimizing the real
cost of production.
Increasing competition in the global market necessitates that productivity should
not be considered as an indicator of efficiency only; it must also measure effectiveness. Yet
the distinction between the two is often overlooked. For example, a company that produces
7
according to process specifications may be using its resources efficiently, but unless it is
producing what its customers want it may not be using them effectively. To be profitable, a
company must judge productivity and value from the perspective of the customer, not from
the engineer.
Older manufacturing facilities are often faced with productivity challenges due to
their inflexible designs. The application of some of the principles of lean manufacturing is
more restricted in such a setting. Today, ``lean'' may no longer be fashionable but its core
principles flow, value, pull, minimizing waste etc.) have become the paradigm for many
manufacturing (and service) operations. In order to provide a platform for establishing the
long-term competitive impact of the lean production model, the paper then develops a
theoretical construct explaining the mechanisms that underpin sustainable competitive
advantage.
2. Total Quality Management model and productivity
A simple model for TQM is depicted in Figure 1. The model consists of two main
components:
TQM philosophy;
TQM systems and tools.
TQM cannot exist without a complete acceptance of its philosophy by at least the
top management. Once the basic TQM philosophy is accepted by the top management then
different systems and tools can be initiated to propagate and facilitate a culture based on
such a philosophy.
TQM philosophy consists of four basic beliefs, which are as follows:
absolute customer focus;
employee empowerment, involvement and ownership;
continuous improvement;
the use of systematic approaches to management.
6
INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY BY TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND
CONSTRAINT MANAGEMENT
Prof. Marius-Dan DALOT!, Ph.D.
Romanian-American University
1B, Expozi&iei Avenue, Sector 1, Bucharest
dalota.marius.dan@profesor.rau.ro
Abstract:
The paper argues that the total quality management concept and its
implementation is the critical need for the survival of industries. In the meantime, lean
manufacturing and constraint management could work together to improve productivity,
efficiency and quality. The article discusses the environment in which businesses are
operating, the effect of the total quality management on productivity and presents some of
the benefits that were realized by implementing total quality management. Direct benefits
from combining the concepts of lean manufacturing and constrained management during
the productivity improvement process by using automation reduce production cycle times
by more effectively designing and scheduling the movement of robots. The ultimate goal is
to satisfy customers demand. The paper discusses how constrained management
substantially increases production.
Keywords: Productivity; Performance management; Total quality management;
Constraint management; Lean production.
JEL Classification: M10
1. Introduction
Intense global competition and diminishing trade barriers are making it more and
more difficult for companies to maintain their market share. Competition from companies
operating in different markets has increased as advancements in telecommunications and
information technology have broken down traditional barriers to entry.
In a competitive environment, a business must persuade a customer to buy its
products rather than those of competitors at a price that is more than its cost of production.
A rational customer, however, would like to maximize value for his money. Therefore, a
successful producer must enhance the total value of his products so that the price is
acceptable to the customer while his own costs are low enough to allow him to make a
profit.
Total quality management (TQM) is all about fostering a culture that is
continuously oriented towards increasing customer satisfaction while minimizing the real
cost of production.
Increasing competition in the global market necessitates that productivity should
not be considered as an indicator of efficiency only; it must also measure effectiveness. Yet
the distinction between the two is often overlooked. For example, a company that produces
7
according to process specifications may be using its resources efficiently, but unless it is
producing what its customers want it may not be using them effectively. To be profitable, a
company must judge productivity and value from the perspective of the customer, not from
the engineer.
Older manufacturing facilities are often faced with productivity challenges due to
their inflexible designs. The application of some of the principles of lean manufacturing is
more restricted in such a setting. Today, ``lean'' may no longer be fashionable but its core
principles flow, value, pull, minimizing waste etc.) have become the paradigm for many
manufacturing (and service) operations. In order to provide a platform for establishing the
long-term competitive impact of the lean production model, the paper then develops a
theoretical construct explaining the mechanisms that underpin sustainable competitive
advantage.
2. Total Quality Management model and productivity
A simple model for TQM is depicted in Figure 1. The model consists of two main
components:
TQM philosophy;
TQM systems and tools.
TQM cannot exist without a complete acceptance of its philosophy by at least the
top management. Once the basic TQM philosophy is accepted by the top management then
different systems and tools can be initiated to propagate and facilitate a culture based on
such a philosophy.
TQM philosophy consists of four basic beliefs, which are as follows:
absolute customer focus;
employee empowerment, involvement and ownership;
continuous improvement;
the use of systematic approaches to management.
8
In 1984, Garvin has proposed the following five approaches to defining quality:
The transcendent approach is the philosophic concept of ``innate
excellence'', which is both absolute and universally recognized through
experience.
The product-based approach focuses on the quantity of some ingredient
or attribute possessed by a product. Like the amount of cream in ice
cream, it can be assessed objectively and is based on more than
preferences alone.
The user-based approach begins with the premise that quality ``lies in the
eyes of the beholder''. It is subjective and motivated and rooted in
consumer preferences.
The manufacturing-based approach focuses on engineering and
manufacturing practices. It identifies quality as ``conformance to
requirements'', and it is equated with meeting specifications or making a
product right the first time.
The value-based approach defines quality in terms of costs and prices.
Quality provides performance at an acceptable price. The phrase
``affordable excellence'' summarizes the dilemma.
This particular definition of quality is also presented in the pictorial form in Figure 2.
Fig. 2: Five approaches to defining quality
The possible critical factors that can cause the failure of productivity improvement
programs are the following:
Lack of incentives or appropriate regards (or disincentives).
Insufficient capital for improvement plant and equipment.
Poor employee relations.
Poor relationship with union leaders.
Insufficient awareness by engineering of the manufacturing implications
of product and process designs.
Insufficient investment in workforce training.
Poor financial controls and/or information systems.
Weak middle managers.
Decline of the work ethic.
Weakness in industrial and manufacturing engineering.
Weak first-line supervision.
Poor communication organization-wide.
A piecemeal, unplanned approach to improving productivity.
Inadequate/ineffective coordination among departments or functional
areas (excessive functional of departmental autonomy).
Uncooperative union leadership.
Poorly trained supervisory personnel in the area of productivity related
problems.
Programs that just cannot be implemented.
10
Insufficient investment in management and supervisor training and
development.
Lukewarm commitment and involvement by top management.
Lack of loyal, skilled workforce.
Summary
Abstract
.
Keywords and Phrase: Total Quality Management (TQM), Productivity, Poultry Processing Plant (PPP).
I-Introduction
II-Literature Review:
The main objective of the current study is to explore and highlight out the impact of Implementation of total
quality management on poultry processing plants' productivity. Many researches have been undertaken abroad
in nearly similar fields to assess the correlation between implementation of TQM on productivity but there is
scarcity of the same researches locally. Many academics and practitioners advocate the positive effects of TQM
practices on productivity improvement. Jamshed, H. Khan [8], has studied the impact of implementation of
TQM on productivity in Pakistani SME and concluded that there is important and critical need for
implementation of TQM to sustain the survival of industries locally and internationally. Thomas J. fisher,[10]
argued that basing on several companies undertaking processes which are generally focused on total quality
management concept. He concluded that approaches have had a significant impact on operation and relationship
inside the organization which have probably contributed to their long-term viability. The direct impact of
quality-oriented process is greatly over shadowed by effects of other internal and external factors which
influence business performance [10]. Firms with effective TQM implementation can accomplish the internal
benefits such as improving quality, enhancing productivity, or realizing better operating income ;[11] Hendricks
and Singhal,[12].Arawati Agus et al,[13] in their empirical study explored the impact of TQM on productivity
and profitability. Their study investigated the following TQM practices as independents variable top
management commitment, customer focus, supplier relationship, training, Employee focus, benchmarking,
quality measurement, process improvement and zero defects. They concluded that there were positive effects of
all TQM practices on productivity and profitability. Literature review for QM researches that have been
undergone shows that TQM implementation has a potential effect on increasing competitiveness [14]; Bayazit &
Karpak,[15]. The independent variables used in the present study are TQM practices that considered to have
strong correlation with productivity measurement. Top management commitment is the main compass that
orientates the implementation of TQM towards creating, values, systems and goals to satisfy customer
expectation and improve organization performance and productivity [14]. The customer focus provides
awareness to the business to be updated to any environmental change in the field and undergoes the required
change needed for product quality and innovative action. Quality oriented training is the most important
practices to accustom employees (internal customers) to quality concept, methods and skills. Likewise the other
practices of TQM are of the same importance and dully advocated by both practitioners and researchers.
III-Problem Statement:
Total quality management as a new managerial philosophy that becomes an urgent need for any
organization to outperform over competitors. Since total quality management is a cost factor overall
organizational levels, there should a clear explanation of the TQM implementation value added comparatively
with quality cost. Productivity as a business excellence determinant has to be measured against degree of
implementation of TQM to clarify the importance of TQM implementation. Thereby the key question of this
study is:
Is the implementation of TQM has a positive effects on poultry processing plants' productivity?
The above stated question can be considered as a major question of the study but there are some factors
positively or negatively affect the total revenue or the total cost of the plant which can be postulated in the
following seven hypnoses:
H1. Top Manage commitment has a positive impact on plant productivity
H2. Customer Focus has a positive impact on plant productivity
H3. Continual Improvement has a positive impact on plant productivity
H4. Cooperation & Teamwork has a positive impact on plant productivity
H5.Rewards & training has a positive impact on plant productivity
H6. Measurement system has a positive impact on plant productivity
H7. Prevention Focus has a positive impact on plant productivity
Elhaj Abdelmoula.Elsiddig Musa et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)
ISSN : 0975-5462 Vol. 3 No. 5 May 2011 4427
IV-Research Methodology:
Due to high confidentiality of in poultry in Saudi Arabia the present study used qualitative statistical method to
answer the questions of the study. The study questions mainly depend on the degree of implementation of TQM
and the corresponding productivity index. There are five steps used in the methodology:
1. Using appropriate constructs to measure degree of implementation of TQM and the corresponding
productivity index.
2. Research population and sample
3. Data collection methods
4. Data presentation and analysis.
1-1 TQM Construct:
The effective implementation of total quality management was gauged through inspection of TQM
implementation requirements which used in many previous studies. Suairy, Haifa [16] ] in her study to
the extent of harmonization of employees' values against Quality principles used commitment of top
management, customer focus, rewards, training, teamwork, cooperation, measurement system,
continual improvement, focus on prevention rather than inspection. Micaela Martnez-Costa and Angel
R. Martnez-Lorente,[17] in their study they used Leadership, rewards system, process control,
feedback, process management, performance, teamwork and customers orientation as variables for
measuring degree of TQM implementation. Many previous researches stated different construct and
parameter according to the nature of the study. This study used principles that have positive or negative
impacts on productivity parameter variables (annual revenue and total annual). Thereby this study used
the followings: top management commitment, rewards & training, customer focus, cooperation and
teamwork, measurement system and analysis, prevention focus and continual improvement.
1-2 Productivity Construct:
Productivity is how efficiently a firm or any organization can change input into output in form of
goods and services as stated in below formula: [18]
Productivity = output/ input = annual revenue/ annual cost
From above formula point of view, productivity is proportional with factors that positively affect
annual revenue and reciprocally proportional with that positively affect annual cost and vice versa. So
in order to construct a parameter to gauge productivity we have to point out factors that correlated with
TQM, cost and revenue. The postulated factors for revenue are production rate, efficiency,
effectiveness, competitiveness. The cost factors were compared against the value added of quality
against quality cost such as deterioration of raw material and rework etc.
2- Research Population and Sample:
Three out of eight poultry processing plants that effectively implement total quality management were
purposively used to represent the whole community. The sample survey respondents were purposively selected
from each plant which encompassed staffs that are aware of TQM requirements and its implementation. The
sample consisted of 75 respondents included quality team, production supervisors, quality and production
managers and Management representative (MR) in quality council.
3- Data Collection Method:
Data was collected by questionnaires tools. The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first part
was about the demographic profile the respondents. The second part was design to measure the degree of
implementation of TQM. The third part of the questionnaire was designed to measure the corresponding
productivity index.
4-Data Presentation and Analysis:
SPSS was used to analyze the collected data. Data analysis was undergone in three stages. In the first
stage reliability of data will be checked by using Cronbach's Alpha which measure internal consistency or gage
correlation of items in the survey instrument. In the second stage Pearson correlation was applied to assess the
strength of the relationship between dependent and independent variables. In the third stage multiple regression
Elhaj Abdelmoula.Elsiddig Musa et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)
ISSN : 0975-5462 Vol. 3 No. 5 May 2011 4428
analysis was applied to check association of variables with each other and the extent of variance which
determines the coefficient of determination independent variable.
V- Research Findings and Discussion
V-1-Reliability of Data:
The construct was tested by using SPSS. The reliability was tested by using Cronbach's Alpha. Tab 1
illustrates test results:
Tab 1: Reliability Test
In review the Alpha coefficients values for constructs variables, it was found that most of the
coefficients of independent variables lay in the range between 0.737 and 0.887 which means the
construct was reliable to measure the degree of implementation of quality practices. On the other hand
only two variables are of less reliability comparing with the values of the remaining dependent
variables. These variables are customer focus 0.503 and measurement system 0.684 but both of them
are over 0.500 which to some extent are considered reliable values but comparatively weak with the
others variables. The coefficient of dependent variable '' productivity'' was found to be 0.747 which
lays in the acceptable range.This means that individual constructs were reliable to measure the parameters
of productivity.
V.2 Research Sample Demographic Analysis:
In demographic analysis of the sample, it was found that 91.6% of respondents are less than
40 years and more than 75% having qualification of bachelor and above. 45.8% of staff having
professional experience more that 5 years where as about 37.5 % having experience varies between 5
and 2 years. This indicates that the study sample is well educated with a good experience in quality
management which creates rational answers of questionnaire. Despite that there is a weakness in
training programs where there were 43.5 % of the respondents have never attended any training
program where as those attending fundamental knowledge in TQM course were about 37% and those
attended professional course are only 16.7% and the remains are missed answer.
SN. Variables No. of
Items
Reliability
coefficient
1. Top management commitment 4 0737.
2. Customer Focus 4 0.5o3
3. Continual Improvement 6 0.828
4. Cooperation & Teamwork 6 0.825
5. Prevention Focus 8 0.877
6. Measurement System 5 0.684
7. Rewards & Training 5 0.887
8. Productivity 24 0.747
Elhaj Abdelmoula.Elsiddig Musa et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)
ISSN : 0975-5462 Vol. 3 No. 5 May 2011 4429
Tab 2. Respondents Profile
V.3 Correlation Analysis:
The correlation coefficient is utilized in assessing the relationship between the dependent
variables and independent ones. This coefficient answered the three questions, the first one is there any
relationship between the two foresaid variables, if so what the direction of this relationship (positive or
negative impact etc.) and it also answer the magnitude of this correlation. [19]
The values of correlations between dependent variable productivity (PRD) and independent variables
TQM practices was found that there is a positive correlation between productivity and TQM practices
in the construct as illustrated in Tab.2 and fig. 1
Tab2. Correlation between TQM practices and productivity
PRD MC CF Coop&twk Meas -syst Con-
Imv
Rew&
Traing
PrevF
PRD 1 0.630 0.687 0.715 o.666 0.640 0.637 0.819
MC 0.630 1 0.706 0.744 0.785 0.708 0.690 0.852
CF 0.687 0.706 1 0.758 0.755 0.714 0.311 0.823
Coop&twk 0.715 0.744 0.785 1 0.651 0.617 0.569 0.875
Meas-syst 0.666 0.785 0.755 0.651 1 0.332 0.387 0.718
Con-Imv 0.666 0.708 0.417 0.617 0.333 1 0.860 0.768
Rew&traing 0.637 0.690 0.311 0.596 0.376 0.860 1 0.735
PrevF 0.819 0.852 0.823 0.875 0.718 0.768 0.735 1
Value of correlation of dependent variable productivity with management commitment (MC) is 0.630,
0.687 with customer focus (CF) and the same manner the other variables. High correlations were found
between productivity and prevention focus (PrevF) and cooperation and teamwork o.819, 0.715
respectively. In addition to the correlation of TQM practices with productivity there correlation
between TQM variable with each other which are statistically significant e.g. the correlation between
prevention focus management commitment, customer focus and cooperation & teamwork were found
to be 0.852, 0.823, 0.875 respectively and so on as stated in tab.2.
Variables Freq. % Variables freq %
Nationality Specialization Field
1- Saudi 42 58.3 Veterinary 9 12.5
2- Non-Saudi 30 41.7 Animal Production 30 41.7
Missed answer 0 0 Food Technology 15 20.8
Total 72 100 Science 12 16.7
Age Other 6 8.3
Less than 2oyrs 0 0 Missed answers 0 0
20 -30 yrs 33 45.8 Total 72 100
31-40 yrs 33 45.8 Training in Quality Field
Over 40yrs 6 8.4 None 30 43.5
Missed answer 0 0 Fundamental courses 27 37.5
Total 72 1oo Professional courses 12 16.7
Academic Qualification Missed answers 3 4.2
Primary - intermediate 0 0 Total 72 100
High school 0 0 Experience
Diploma 15 20.8 Less Than 1 Yrs 3 4.2
Bachelor 51 70.8 1-2 yrs 18 25
High Studies 3 4.3 Above 2 Yrs.- 5yrs 9 12.5
Missed answer 3 4.3 Above 5 Yrs. 33 45.8
Total 72 100 Missed Answers 9 12.5
Total 72 100
Elhaj Abdelmoula.Elsiddig Musa et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)
ISSN : 0975-5462 Vol. 3 No. 5 May 2011 4430
Fig. 1 Correlation between Quality practices and productivity
The degree of implementation of TQM in the study sample as illustrated in fig 2 shows high value of
implementation of measurement system and analysis of 4.7 value and less value of implementation of rewards
and training of 2.82 value. The overall degree of implementation of TQM practices can be arranged as follow
starting from high degree of implementation to the less one, measurement system and analysis, customer Focus,
management commitment, cooperation and teamwork, continual improvement, rewards and training.
Fig. 3
V.4 Multiple Regression Analysis
Multiple regression analysis is technique that used to explore the nature of a relationship between two
groups of continuous random variables. Regression model is used to quantify the relationship between the two
groups. Multiple regression equation method involves a linear combination of explanatory variables
(independent) [20]. The present study consist of seven independent variables which encompass top management
commitment, Customer focus, measurement system and analysis, cooperation and teamwork, continual
improvement, prevention focus and Reward & training. Accordingly a multiple regression equation was
developed as follows:
Prod = 0 + 1 MC+ 2 CF+ 3 MS+ 4 CTWK+ 5 CIMV+ 6 PrevF+ 7 RWDTR +
Where as:
Prod= Mean productivity
Y
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
PRD
MC
CF
Coop&twk
Meas-syst
Con-Imv
Rew&traing
PrevF
Y
Elhaj Abdelmoula.Elsiddig Musa et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)
ISSN : 0975-5462 Vol. 3 No. 5 May 2011 4431
0= constant of proportionality
MC= management commitment
CF= Customer Focus
MS= Measurement System and analysis
CTWK= Cooperation & Teamwork
CIMV= Continuous Improvement
PrevF= Prevention Focus
RWDTR= reward and training
= error
The regression equation can be stated as follow as per details in tab. 4
Prod = 0.837 +0.383MC+ 0.378 MS+ 0.230CIMV+0.495 PrevF+ 0.153 RWDTR +
In the model summary Tab.3 shows the result on entering of seven independent variables against productivity. R
(0.890) is a correlation of the seven dependent variables with productivity. Taking in consideration the
interaction and correlation between the dependents variables, the regression models shows R 2 as (0.792) which
indicated that 89% of variation in productivity value of the studied sample can be dully explained by the seven
dependents variables. This value of R2 substantiates the model and the hypotheses of the study.
Tab. 3 Model Summary
Model R R-Squared Adjusted R
Squared
Std. Error of
the Estimate
1 0.890a 0.792 0.719 0.22140
Reference to the seven developed hypotheses regarding the independent variables which advocate the positive
relationship with poultry processing plants' productivity, tab. 4 shows the values of -coefficients of these
predictor variables.
Tab. 4 Coefficients a
Model
Un-standardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
Std. Error T Sig.
1 constant 0.837 0.512 1.635 0.120
MC -o.383 0.134 -0.746 -2.851 0.011
CF -0.016 0.197 -0.020 -0.082 0.936
CTWK -0.027 0.113 -0.57 -0.242 0.936
CIMV 0.230 0.122 0.413 1.883 0.077
MS 0.378 0.145 0.564 2.603 0.015
PrevF 0.495 0.225 0.811 2.197 0.042
RWDTR 0.153 0/054 0.396 2.843 0.006
The values of -Coefficients of prevention Focus, management commitment, measurement system and reward
& training are statistically significant and dully substantiate our hypotheses regarding these four variables.
Where as customer focus and cooperation and teamwork -Coefficients are not statistically significant and of
less contributions in the in the regression equation that measured the productivity. The continual improvement
-Coefficient is of considerable value in the regression equation and its statistical significance can be estimated
in a considerable range.
VI- Conclusion:
Gracious
The present study is a correlation and causal study. The correlation study presented a positive correlation
between all dependant variables (TQM practices) against poultry processing plants (PPP) productivity. The
causal study was undergone by the aid of multiple regression analysis. The findings of multiple regression
analysis indicate that some independent variables such as prevention focus (PrevF), Management commitment
(MC) Rewards and training , measurement system and analysis are considered as major and critical
determinants of productivity parameter. Also continual improvement (CIMV) is considered as statistically
significant factor where as customer focus and cooperation and teamwork are not of the required significance to
be considered as critical factors. These findings validate the previous studies that reviewed in the present study.
Elhaj Abdelmoula.Elsiddig Musa et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)
ISSN : 0975-5462 Vol. 3 No. 5 May 2011 4432
This study can be utilized by firms that target to maximize their productivity by using and activating the critical
factors in productivity parameter.
Risk is an inherent feature of modern poultry production. Production systems are complex
and both the intermediate products (hatching eggs, day-old chicks etc.) and end products
(meat and eggs) are perishable. Poultry production is based on a pyramid such as is
illustrated in figure 1.
At the apex of the pyramid is a very small population of elite breeding birds. Successive
generations both within the primary breeding company and at the level of commercial
farms means that 1 male selected by the primary breeder could theoretically contribute
genes to up to 20 million broiler chickens. In this way genetic progress can be rapidly
distributed among the commercial poultry population, but, on the other hand, genetic and
infectious problems can be too. For all of these reasons the practices of hazard
identification, followed by informal risk assessment and implementation of risk
management measures have for many years been the normal way of doing things in the
poultry industry. The sorts of routine hazards which must be considered are:
Most of these hazards are of no direct relevance to food safety, and formal risk assessment
is often not required because the magnitude of risk is patently obvious (such as, for
instance, the effects of a power failure in a hatchery or controlled environment farm).
Probably the first example of a risk assessment and management exercise in modern
poultry production was the Pullorum Disease eradication programme initiated in the
1930's. This disease is caused by a host-specific strain of Salmonella which causes severe
disease. There is a high rate of maternal transmission (from hen to chick), yet low
transmission among mature hens. The development of a simple on-farm blood test allowed
the implementation of a test-and-remove-reactors programme to develop breeding flocks
free from the disease. Similar strategies (with some modifications) have been applied to
eradication programmes for a number of other diseases, such as Mycoplasmosis, Avian
Leucosis and so on. Nasty
Quality Systems
The above example demonstrates that we have been practising risk management in the
poultry industry for some time, even if we did not always call it this. Other practices aimed
at controlling and improving product quality have, however, a more obvious and direct
relationship to risk analysis. One such system has been developed by and promoted by the
American management consultant W. Edwards Deming from the 50's to the present. His
main innovation was to use a statistical approach to solve practical problems, but he also
promoted a concept of "continuous improvement" and "Total Quality Management". One
tool used to good effect by Deming is the "Quality Circle", one version of which is
illustrated in Figure 2 below. This is characterised by a data-collection phase, analysis of
the data, planning an intervention, and implementing the intervention. Then the process
starts all over again. It could be argued that, in one way or another (with some insight, luck
and serendipity thrown in), most technological developments are based on this approach.
The strength of this approach is that is essentially experimental, at least in the sense that it
has a specific goal. Any results obtained, however, are immediately applicable because
they are generated under practical conditions. On the debit side it could be said that it is
reactive rather than proactive, that it may not take into account unintended side-effects, and
that it may actually introduce cyclical variation. All of these risks associated with this
model can, once they are recognised, be taken account of.
The HACCP (Hazard analysis and critical control points) system (Cross, 1996) could be
viewed as a specific application of the Deming circle. What it adds is the recognition that
in any production process there will be a whole series of possible quality circles. It, in
effect, states that such activities should be concentrated on those points of the production
chain which are known to most affect end product quality - the critical control points. It is
also intended to be proactive in that it aims to identify and control hazards before they
cause an adverse effect.
Quantitative Risk Analysis.
The analysis component of both the "Deming Circle" and the HACCP system will
commonly involve collating available information and calculating the effects of various
"what-if" scenarios. Electronic spread-sheet programmes are an extremely convenient,
quick, simple and transparent way of carrying out this analysis for simple models or
systems. The technique of quantitative risk analysis (QRA) has recently been developed to
more accurately represent risk in systems composed of a web of interacting factors. The
key difference in quantitative risk assessment is that it attempts to "take into account every
possible value for each variable and weights each possible scenario by the probability of its
occurrence" (Vose, 1996). It has been proposed that techniques of quantitative risk
assessment should be incorporated into HACCP systems as soon as there is sufficient
information to allow this (Notermans & Mead, 1996). A number of mathematical
techniques have been developed for the purpose of QRA (for example, exact algebraic
solution and Monte Carlo Simulation). These techniques allow incorporation of both
distributions derived from data and from expert opinion in the model. For details of the
mathematical techniques, and the software tools available for this purpose the reader is
referred to Vose (1996).
1. Enough must be known about the nature of the problem, and the relationship between its
parts so that the structure of the model can be created.
2. The distribution of the relevant variables must be capable of estimation from either the
available data or from expert opinion or a combination of the two
The general principles of risk assessment as applied to the food chain have been reviewed
recently (Ahl and Buntain, 1997). The depiction of a food chain in Figure 3 was adapted
from a figure in that paper. The concept of a food chain is particularly relevant to the
control of chemical and microbiological hazards in food. Risk assessment has been
proposed as a possible valuable tool in this area (Kindred, 1996) though there are still very
few references in the literature to practical application of these techniques to poultry
production.
These concepts of risk assessment have considerable promise for the control of food-borne
infections , such as Salmonella sp.(Notermans & Teunis 1996). In fact work is already
ongoing at the UK Central Veterinary Laboratory to develop QRA models for this purpose
(Kelly et al 1998). The UK has one of the most sophisticated regimes in the world for the
testing and reporting of Salmonellainfections in food producing animals and their
environment. In addition to official tests required by legislation a large number of tests are
carried out in accordance with agreements between producers and retailers and under
voluntary monitoring exercises. The pattern of occurrence of different serotypes
of Salmonella sp. in chickens is actually quite different from that which is reported to
occur in the human population, however some serotypes of considerable human health
importance (e.g. S.enteritidis, and S.typhimurium ) are capable of establishing themselves
in poultry production systems. Unfortunately Salmonella sp. are widely dispersed in nature
- Figure 4 attempts to illustrate some of the complexity this introduces in any model of this
infection. The thicker arrows indicate what are, in the authors opinion, the greater risks of
transmission of these infections. Note that other infected chickens (either parents, or other
commercial flocks) are only one of a large number of possibilities.
There is a voluminous literature on the epidemiology of Salmonella infections. Recently
the strategies to control both Salmonella and Campylobacter on raw poultry products have
been reviewed (White et al. 1997). This body of published information in conjunction with
expert opinion already forms the basis of control programmes in most countries. In spite of
the considerable knowledge accumulated there is still much uncertainty about what will
happen in any given combination of circumstances. One possible risk analysis pathway is
shown in Figure 5, but it needs to be kept in mind that there are multiple other pathways by
which infection may occur. A recent paper (Vose, 1997) illustrates 2 mathematical
approaches to the calculation of risk in an example similar to this. It is hoped that this
approach will allow the industry to better allocate resources among the broad range of
control measures now available.
2. Digestive Enhancers
Recently considerable attention has been focused on the use of antimicrobial digestive
enhancers in animal agriculture. It has been suggested that there is a risk that such use has
a significant impact on the ability of doctors to control certain rare but serious infections,
by transfer of infection or resistance genes from the animal to the human population. To
people unfamiliar with agricultural production systems digestive enhancement may seem a
trivial use for anti-bacterials. The effects of such use are, however, far from trivial. In
addition to their direct economic effects, they can have a significant benefit for animal
welfare. Sometimes they act directly by helping control a specific disease such as necrotic
enteritis in poultry, but they may also improve welfare by improving the utilisation of
nutrients and reducing the volume or moisture of undigested material deposited in the
animals environment. Wider environmental issues are also significant. It is currently
estimated that the use of digestive enhancers in pigs and broiler chickens in the UK saves
290500 tonnes of feed, 11620 lorry journeys, 714000 cubic metres of water and avoids the
need for 25538 hectares of arable land planted with cereals. In addition 532000 cubic
metres of pig slurry do not need to be spread. These savings are made every year we
continue to use these products. There are also benefits for society and the consumer
through the maintenance of animal agriculture and food processing in the Europe, both of
which provide employment and revenue. Under the current, more liberal, international
trade agreements it is inevitable that unilateral bans on these production aids will result in
production moving to other countries. To address medical and public concerns about the
use of these compounds FEFANA (the European federation of feed additive manufacturers)
plans to carry out a detailed survey on resistance patterns in intestinal bacteria from the
major food species in a number of European countries. It is to be hoped that the results of
this information and various other research initiatives in this area will provide sufficient
information to develop an adequate risk assessment of this issue.
There seems to be a growing tendency for society to demand zero risk, while accepting
zero responsibility, indeed this seems to be the central message of many "consumerist"
organisations. The political response to this (if the pressure groups are sufficiently vocal) is
to apply "the precautionary principle" - i.e. risk, no matter how small, is unacceptable.
Although this may appear at first glance to be reasonable, it fails to take into account the
complex web of interacting factors which make up real-life food production systems. Most
importantly, it assumes that the precaution itself introduces no risk. Take, for example, the
Swedish proposal to extend their ban on digestive enhancers throughout Europe. There is
no evidence that this will actually improve human health, but it will certainly reduce the
already meagre profitability of European poultry companies, making it even more difficult
to justify the investments required to further reduce the level of Salmonella infections. It is
also likely to increase the proportion of poultry meat sourced from third countries, many of
which have limited control programmes for food-borne infections and no or very lax
controls on the use of antibiotics in food animals. Thus implementation of a ban on a
European basis may actually be counter-productive in the things it is seeking to achieve! A
full risk assessment of these issues should be able to take account of all such factors.
Conclusions
The poultry industry is a large and well-organised system for the efficient production of
animal protein foods. It has a long history of pragmatic measures for the control of animal
health and other risks. More recently a structured approach of cyclic data collection,
analysis, planning, and implementation has become the norm. This process underpins most
technological developments. Quantitative risk assessment techniques hold considerable
promise for analysing and allocating resources in complex production systems. However
they are complex and cannot produce zero-risk. Whether they can produce information in a
form appropriate for communication of risk to the general public has yet to be seen. It is, in
any case, vital that all discussions of the results of risk analysis make the assumptions on
which the analysis is based totally clear.
Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector in India today. Driving this
expansion are a combination of factors - growth in per capita income, a growing urban population and
falling real poultry prices. Compared with meat, poultry industry has registered significant growth.
India ranks fifth in the world with annual egg production of 1.61 million tones. Poultry exports are
mostly to Maldives and Oman. Indian poultry meat products have good markets in Japan, Malaysia,
Indonesia and Singapore.1
India has gifted the world the species Red jungle and Silver jungle fowls, out of whose progenies,
domesticated and crossbreed have emerged the "Pure lines" of today. The history of poultry in India is
about 5000 years old. But the strange paradox of this country is that although it introduced poultry to
1
http://www.agriculture-industry-india.com/agricultural-commodities/eggs.html
the world it itself remained indifferent to it for a long time. The main factor was religious taboo for
poultry products in many Indian communities. But the total credit for developing the poultry in this
country should go to the Christian Missionary Organization and some British people who brought
some superior exotic breeds in beginning of 20 th century. In 1950 the production of egg was only 1.8
billion eggs, in 1995 it was 27 billion eggs and in 2005 it is 42 billion eggs. The poultry industry can
be classified into broiler industry and layer industry. Late Dr.B.V.Rao, called Father of Modern
Poultry in India.Dr.B.V.Rao was instrumental in setting up the National Egg Coordination Committee
in 1982,it is a charitable trust with 24 zones and 118 local committees has about 25,000 farmers as its
members spread out all over India helping the layer farmers obtain reasonable, remunerative, viable
price for eggs. Broiler industry is concerned with poultry meat and layer industry is concerned with
egg production. BROMARK (Broiler marketing Cooperative Society): Bromark, also a brainchild of
late Dr.B.V.Rao is an all India Broiler Farmers' Body registered under the Multi State Cooperative
Societies Act in 1994. The objective of the Bromark is to ensure the gap between producers price and
consumer price is reduced and promote the consumption of chicken meat by advertising on its
nutritive value.
2. Present Scenario:
The poultry sector in India has undergone a paradigm shift in structure and operation. A significant
feature of India's poultry industry has been its transformation from a mere backyard activity into a
major commercial activity in just about four decades. This transformation has involved sizeable
investments in breeding, hatching, rearing and processing. Farmers in India have moved from rearing
non-descript birds to today rearing hybrids such as is Hyaline, lt is Shaver, ll and in Babcock, lt which
ensure faster growth, good liveability, excellent feed conversion and high profits to the rearers. The
industry has grown largely due to the initiative of private enterprise, minimal government intervention,
considerable indigenous poultry genetics capabilities, and considerable support from the
complementary veterinary health, poultry feed, poultry equipment, and poultry processing sectors.
India is one of the few countries in the world that has put into place a sustained Specific Pathogen Free
(SPF) egg production project.2
The output of eggs is increasing at the rate of 4-6 % and broiler at 8-10 % per annum. The per capita
consumption is 36 eggs only and poultry meat is 850 gm against the recommended consumption of
180 eggs and 10.8 Kg poultry meat per person per annum as by the Nutritional Advisory Committee.
More than 100 million people are employed in this industry. It accounts about 3 % of the total GNP
and 10 % of the total GNP attributed to livestock products. This sector is growing rapidly at the rate of
15 to 20 % and it is about Rs 65 billion-mega industry. It accounts a turnover of more than Rs 95
billon at the retail level.3
2
http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6170E/x6170e2k.htm
3
http://www.poultrysolutions.com/knowledg/about/i_poultry.htm
But one very dark part of this industry is that it is dependent on imported pure-line and grand parents.
The parents and commercial birds from these imported lines are multiplied in commercially run
hatcheries.
3. Present Consumption:
In the domestic market the consumption of poultry meat is low due to many reasons; the main reason
is the low purchasing power of people. Just just 25% population living in urban areas consumes about
75-80 % of eggs and poultry meat. The per capita consumption of egg is100 and poultry meat is 1.2
Kg per person per annum in urban areas. In rural area it is only 15 eggs and 0.15 Kg poultry meat.
Another important aspect of poultry development in India is the significant variation in the industry
across regions. The four southern states - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu -
account for about 45 percent of the country's egg production, with a per capita consumption of 57 eggs
and 0.5 kg. of broiler meat. The eastern and central regions of India account for about 20 percent of
egg production, with a per capita consumption of 18 eggs and 0.13 kg. of broiler meat. The northern
and western regions of the country record much higher figures than the eastern and central regions
with respect to per capita availability of eggs and broiler meat. Graph 3[ see Annexure] shows egg
production in India by region during 1992-93.
4.1 STRENGTHS
1. Fresh, chilled chicken availability in whole, cutups, de-boned, formed or in processed, further
processed, ready to cook, ready to eat form. Product sales will expand but it is unlikely that the
frozen segment will see big expansion. Contribute to promotion of consumption. This will widen
the end product markets; take new concepts to existing consumption centers and lower consumer
prices.
2. Increasing use of enzymes formulations and pro-biotic, higher off take and lower margins in
vitamin formulations for feed use are very likely.
3. Costs will mean user prices will not be lower, perhaps marginally higher.
4. We will see surprisingly more successes than failures in end product distribution.
5. Rationalized pricing of breeder and commercial stock
6. From now and through the years up to 2010, India will see major changes in the way chicken is
sold. Live chicken sales at retail level will continue to thrive, but the entry of bigger players in this
segment will give it a big lift. Cleaner outlets, with emphasis on sanitation and hygiene, reduced
contamination, and the use of small feathering plucking machines, accurate weighing machines
will help cut out the image of chicken shops as dangerously dirty places to buy food. As more
outlets of this type open, existing retailers will see sense and improve conditions of their own
outlets.
7. Improved FCRs due to quality controls, upgraded, more efficient feed production by feed
commoners. New feed milling technologies and equipment, bigger capacity mills (500 tones/day)
and many more small feed mills (200 tones/day) will become necessary
8. Manufacturers in a single area may initially have to operate at below capacity, but in a short term
will be able to gain business strengths and become viable. In the 5 years from 1999, feed
manufacturing units will handle bigger than current volumes
9. Purchase terms of feed raw materials will ease and supply of better quality materials will be easier.
No significant rise in commodity prices will occur in the months up to end March 1999, except for
very brief periods if supply lines are interrupted. The first 10 years will be marked by steady (if not
falling ) prices of cereals and oilseed extractions. Any short term prices rises that occur in 1999
will not translate into significant annual increase over average 1998 prices
11. Broilers will reach newer consumption centers, either through food stores in chilled form or
through superior, cleaner and hygienically-maintained live bird outlets. Such developments will
reduce pressure on existing markets in the metros and improve trade relations.
12. Important for the layer segment would be emergence of competition in the breeder and commercial
layer markets.
13. Stabilisation and re-emergence of the fledgling egg processing industry and resumption of egg
product exports.
14. Feed units will open in areas where there are none, in existing poultry production regions and in
upcoming ones. This will mean total feed output will go up.
17. The feed additives and poultry health products business will register a steady growth. Lower tariffs
will benefit importers but higher marketing Increasing use of enzymes and probiotics, higher
offtake and lower margins in vitamin formulations for feed use are very likely for manufacturers
and repackers.
18. Marketing of branded eggs in consumer packs would bring value addition and promote
consumption.
19. Fewer players in the pharma-vet products and feed additives business will come with "me-too"
products.
20. More utilization of eggs and chicken by catering establishments and by those manufacturing
convenience foods.
21. Industry's ability to operate on even lower margins, bigger volumes, narrowing the farmer-to-
consumer price gap.
22. Widening reach of wholesale egg trade and distribution network and retail sales.
23. Positive role of integrators and corporates in promoting live and fresh chilled chicken sales at retail
and institutional levels will give more strength to the industry.
4.2 WEAKNESSES
1. Lower feeding stuffs prices and improved availability consequent to higher domestic production,
falling exports and imports of raw materials
2. Lower bad debts and write-offs will offset higher energy and labor costs
3. Positive and negative impact of fewer but bigger operators at breeder and commercial levels
The first opportunity that was created in July 1991 when devaluation of the rupee and subsequently
full conversion of rupee was done, which put India on a relatively competitive front.
4.4 THREATS
One of the ways to market a new product is to change the old product. The contents of the chicken egg
can be changed in such ways as to be more healthful and appealing to a segment of our consumers
who are willing to pay for those changes in the egg. "Designer eggs" are those in which the content
has been modified from the standard egg. There are various types of Designer eggs which are highly
popular in western countries and in certain cities in India like Banglore (KOOL KOMESTIBLES PVT LTD).
5.1.a. Omega-3 eggs: The types of fatty acids found in the yolk of an egg are directly related to the
types of fat fed to the chicken. Thus, adding products high in omega-3 fatty acids, such as flaxseed,
marine algae, fish and fish oil, to chicken feed can increase the omega-3 fatty acid content in the egg
yolk. Omega-3 fatty acids are important for optimal development of an infant's brain and eyes. These
fats also have many other important benefits, including helping reduce one's risk of arteriosclerosis
and stroke. Omega-3 fatty acid-enriched eggs taste and cook like other eggs, but typically have a
darker yolk color
5.1.b. Eggs with lower saturated fat and cholesterol: Some designer egg manufacturers have focused
on lowering the cholesterol and ratio of saturated to unsaturated fat in their eggs. This is generally
done by feeding the chickens an all-vegetarian diet high in canola oil. To market a product as being
lower in cholesterol or saturated fat, the product must have 25 percent less of the nutrient in question
than the standard product. A large egg contains approximately 200-220 milligrams of cholesterol.
5.1.c. Cage-free or free-roaming eggs: The majority of commercial egg-laying chickens around the
world are housed in cages. Caging hens reduces the spread of disease by separating birds from their
feces, reduces that amount of dust and ammonia present in the hen house and reduces the amount of
physical labor required to manage chickens and collect the eggs. However, this system can be viewed
as being less humane to the chicken; therefore, there is a niche market for eggs produced by chickens
raised in a cage-free or free-roaming system. Typically, birds raised in a cage-free or free-roaming
system are kept inside and maintained on the floor of the poultry house. Only if the label says "free-
range" can you expect that the chickens were allowed to graze or roam outdoors. India can trap this
market since most of the poultry in India are free roaming birds.
5.1.d. Organic eggs: To be label as organically produced eggs, the eggs must be produced from hens
that have been fed certified-organic feed produced without synthetic pesticides or herbicides,
antibiotics or genetically-modified crops. In addition, synthetic pesticides cannot be used to control
parasites that may affect the chicken. Typically, organic eggs also are produced from hens in cage-free
systems .This market can also be tapped by Indian farmers.The cost incurred will be for labor and cost
of labeling in India labor is cheap and Labeling can be done at a price of 5% of the total output by the
nodal agency.
The feed cost constitutes about 80% of the total cost of production. Prices of feed have increased 40
% whereas the price of produce has increased only by 2-4 %. So in order to lower the price there is a
unique method devised by Namakkal Hatcheries in Tamil Nadu .They compute the poultry feed by
calculating DCP and TDN using the most cheaply available feed ingredients on day to day basis. So
the cost of feed can be reduced drastically .For example if the relative price of maize has increased
compared to yesterday they will replace maize with a comparatively cheaper cereal, but the final
protein (DCP) and total nutrients (TDN)will be the same.
6. Recommendations:
1. As the poultry industry is among the fastest growing in the world, its potential to attract to big-
time foreign investment is negligible and that is why it is necessary to change it needs greater
integration, better cost-effectiveness and improvement in the distribution.
2. There should be proper storage facility for maize as it is produced as rain-fed crop and
therefore subjects to vagaries of monsoon. Maize production has not been able to keep pace
with its consumption by animal feed sector.
3. The poultry companies have to encourage direct procurement of maize from the farmers by
using contract farming, models that are currently use in oilseeds and wheat.
4. Indian poultry industry needs good branding system in order to increase the consumption of
chicken.
5. More retail outlets, mass gathering and creating awareness home to home about the nutrient
values of chicken and egg.
6. Reduce the feed cost by integration and even 50-paisa reduction per Kg of feed can make all
the difference in the net realization.
7. Collection of reliable, updated statistics necessary for immediate and long term planning and
thus help preventing surplus, shortages etc.
8. Develop mechanism to counter anti-meat lobbies.
9. Developing efficient, independent, authority for disease monitoring, biological quality control.
7. References:
1. http://www.poultrysolutions.com/knowledg/about/i_poultry.htm
2. www.mhr-viandes.com
3. www.poultrytimesofindia.com
4. www.financialexpress.com
5. www.thehindubusinessline.com
7. http://www.poultrysolutions.com/knowledg/about/swot.htm#Strength
8. http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6170E/x6170e2k.htm
9. http://www.agriculture-industry-india.com/agricultural-commodities/eggs.html
10. www.blonnet.com/2004/02/06/stories/2004020600211100.htm
11. www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/vision2020/c12.pdf
12. www.ers.usda.gov/publications/WRS0403/WRS0403i.pdf
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8. Annexure:
Graph 1
Poultry sector size in major countries (2001)
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
1 ,0 0 0 to n s
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
United China EU-15 Brazil Mexico Thailand India Japan
States
Graph 2
Graph 3
Egg Production and Poultry in India 1998 2000
[Source: . http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6170E/x6170e2k.htm]