Also by Stanley E. Zocholl In Paperback AC Motor ProtectionAnalyzing and Applying Current Transformers by Stanley E. Zocholl Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.Copyright © 2004 Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Ine All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, o transmitted, in any form or by any means, eloetronic, ‘mechanieal, photocopying. recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission ofthe author andior publisher. For information, contact Sehweiter Engineering Laboratories, Inc.,2350 NE Hopkins Court Pullnian, WA 99163, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ‘Zocholl, Staley E. ‘Analyzing and Applying Curent Transformers / Stanley Ei. Zcholl Bm, Includes bibliographical references (p. 95) ISBN 0.9725026.2. |. Bleetrie transfor 2. Blectrie ransformers-Proteetion, 1. Title ‘TK2SS1 263 2004 First Edition: August 2004 Printed and Bound in the sd States of America, SEL is a registred trademark of Schweitzer Engineer aboratories, IneContents Introduction .. Current Transformer Equivalent Circuit . Volt-Time Area and Saturated Waveforms The Excitation Curve ... Computer Simulation .. Flux Density Limit of the Volt-Time Area ..... The Criterion to Avoid Saturation .. Rating Current Transformers for Line Protection 23 Current ‘Transformer Selection Procedure 25 Calculating Current Transformer Burden 26 Limits of the Criterion 0.00.0... 2 Statistics of Asymmetry : 28 ACase History . 33 KA Fault With Ideal Current Transformers The Saturation Effet sisudt 33 kA Fault With Maximum Asymmetry in A-Phase ....... 36 33 KA Fault With Offset in B-Phase and C-Phase 38 CT Application Rules . Be eiveh ives ans ed Transformer Differential Relay Applications Generator Differential Relay Application ....... Bus Differential Relay App Percentage Slope Characteristics . jons .Alpha Plane Differential Characteristic .......... Determining the Slope for a Given Degree of Saturation ......... see Saturation Voltage The Effect of Remanent Flux on the Slope Setting ... .69 The Impact of High Fault Current on Overcurrent Protection ... Limitations of an 80 A Instantaneous Setting .. Defining a CT Selection Criterion . Maximum Fault Current With an 80 A Instantaneous Setting . 81 Minimum CY Rating With an 80 A Instantaneous Setting... 82 Implementing Instantaneous Overcurrent Elements . . . 83 Digital Implementation of Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays . 83 Digital Filter Performance With CT Si 84 The Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter ............-..-++- 86 A Simple Distortion Index a7 93 95 Annex A: Volt-Time Area Computer Simulation .. References .........Figure | Figure 2 Figure 3 igure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figures ‘Toroid Current Transformer ......eecesscceereeeseee L Current Transformer Equivalent Circuit 4 Secondary Current Waveforms for Various Levels of Excitation (Resistive Burden) eae Core Fux and Secondary Curent in a CT With a 20-Per-Unit Symmetrical Rating Carrying 0-Per-Unit Current With the Offset Due to 0.010 Second Primary Time Constant (75" Impedance Angle) sais san {€400, 2000:5 Current Transformer Excitation Curve Showing the 300:5 Tap With Knee-Point Tangent and Nonial Lines ..... ee 10 Magnetizing Impedance 2 Equivalent Cireuit of a Current Transformer 1B Equivalent Circuit for the Differential Connection of Current Transformers 4 B-H Loop and the Slope ofthe Mean Curve 6 C400, 2000:5 Current Transformer Computer Simulation . 18 C400, 2000:5 Current Transformer With 40 kA Asymmetrical Current 18 Burden Voltage for Asymmetrical Fault Curent 20 KA ABC Fault at 1.55 Miles on a 230 kV Line No CT Saturation)... 3 Secondary Current in a C800, 3000:5 With 33 KA Offset ‘Three-Phase Fault at 1.55 Miles With 0.066 Primary ‘Time Constant... .e.2.e0 2 Magnitude and Phase Difference of Sampled Secondary Current 4Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20, Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Event 233 kA ABC Fault at 1.55 Miles on a 230 KV Line (CT Saturation Caused by Maximum Offset in A-Phase) Event 3—33 kA ABC Fault at 1.55 Miles on @ 230 KV Line (CT Saturation Caused by Offset in B- and C-Phase) Power Plant Auxiliary ........ Differential Relay Restraint Currents 1) and Ip. Ils the Differential. ......... Mtarmonie Content ofthe Dire Cent in Fv 19 Plotted in Per Unit of the Fundamental Frequency Secondary Currents I, and Ip Due to a 58800 A ‘Through Fault Current With Offset. The Differential ‘Current fy Is Also Plotted. 6000:5 CTs Have Kaee-Point Volts of 700 and S00. X/R = 52. Secondary Currents 1 and fy Due to an Asymie ‘Through Fault of 58800 A. Adding Burden Resistance Decreases the Differential Current 1, 6000:5 CTs. Knce-Point Voltages of 700 and 500, X/R = 52. Differential Protection Percentage Characteristic Saturation Dust DC Offa. C200 20005 CT. 2.0.9 Burden. Fault Current 10667 Amp. XIR = 14 - Fundamental Waveforms Extracted by Digital Filter - Circle Characteristic Characteristic Resembling a Cardioid MATLAB Program Graphic Interface VS = 20 Fault Current 106674, VS = 40 Fault Current 106670 vs 30 Fault Current 106674 160 Fault Current 106674, 'S = 80 Fault Current 10667A With Cardioit ped Characteristic... VS = 160 Fault Current 10667 with Cont spt Characteristic 31 9 45; 46 oo 50 2 Ani 4 5 58 58 9 6 2 pas 8Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure 43 Figure 44 Figure 45 Figure 46, Figure 47 Figure 48 Figure 49 Figure 50 Figure 51 Figure 52 Figure 53 Figure 54 Figure 55 Figure 56 Slope k Versus CT Saturation Voltage Multirestraint Bus Differential Vs=40,k=30 oes... : Operate Signal Versus Restraint VS = 67, k= 44, 40 Percent Remanence Operate Signal Versus Restraint With 40 Percent Remanence Generator Auxiliary Bus With High Fault Current Relay Schematic Showing Measured Signals : Signal Extracted With a 200 A Primary CT Current CT and Relay Signals for a 40 kA Fault Using C50, 100:5CTs . Response to a 40 KA Fault Using C200, 200:5 CTs Response to a 40 kA Fault Using C400, 400:5 CTs Diagram of Bipolar Peak Detector. Bipolar Peak Detector Transient Overreach RMS Filter Transiew Ovenech Compre 0 Bipolr Peak Detector Filter Response, Fault 0 WA, X/R 0.5 W Burden Instantaneous Element Using the Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter Cosine Filter Pro\ Saturation C400, 200:5, 4500 A Fault With X/R Bipolar Peak Filter Providing Trip for a Waveform With High Saturation C50, 200:5, 20 kA Fault With X/R = 11.31 i Cosine Filter Providing Trip for a Waveform With No Saturation C100, 200:5, 4kA Symmetrical Fault Current Mathead Plot of Current and Flux . 31 1. C100, 200:5 CT, - 85 ing Tip fora Waveform With Low 65 0 - 8 68 1 sae 15 6 16 B 9 ERB 85 89 90 91 %Introduction ‘The purpose of this book is to develop an understanding of how to analyze and apply current transformers (CTs) used as current sources for protective relays. A CT appears to be the simplest of electrical devices. For example, a bushing CT is simply a winding ‘on an insulated core, which becomes a transformer only when placed over a primary conductor as shown in Figure 1 Figure 1 Toroid Current Transformer ‘The opening paragraph of S. D. Moreton’s classic paper [1] states that the art of calculating current transformer characteristies from excitation curve data has been known for some time. Moreton wrote this in 1943 and referred to papers written two years earlier. Tod: nearly 60 years later, there is still an abiding interest in this seemingly simplest of electrical devicesIntroduction For example, the Power System Relaying Committee Working Group 116 is presently revising IEEE Std C37.110-1996 Guide for the Application of Current Transformers Used for Protective Relaying Purposes {2] to include current transformer selection 2 group criteria for transmission line protection. A former worki ‘completed a paper addressing the problems of applying low ratio current transformers and the adverse effect of saturation on relay performance with extremely high fault currents. At the same time, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) funded a project to study models used to determine CT transient performance for relay testing using the Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP). Ideally, the CT functions to produce ratio current in the secondary ‘winding that is an undistorted replica of the primary waveform with the magnitude of the primary current divided by the turns ratio. The current transformer performs its function accurately over a range of primary current determined by its current rating, burden, and the X/R ratio of the protected circuit ‘Standard ratings and application guides deal with the steady-state sine wave behavior of a current transformer. However, despite the use of recommended rules applied to avoid it, transient saturation always occurs in certain critical relay applications. Consequently, the relay engineer needs to understand the nonlinear characteristics of current transformers, accuracy ratings, and the transient behavior of current transformers, Our purpose is to present current transformer concepts that provide these fundamentals.Current Transformer Equivalent Circuit We study the behavior of a current transformer using an equivalent circuit. The model is a constant current source where ratio current is injected into a magnetizing impedance that is in parallel with the burden as shown in Figure 2. Using a reactance to represent the ing leg of a current transformer provides a useful visual magneti concept, However, magnetization is « nonlinear phenomenon that requires the value of reactance to change for each level of excitation, For example. the three diagrams, shown in Figure 2, show flux versus magnetizing current J,,. representing low, moderate, and high levels of exe tation, At low excitation, the slope /di representing the inductance Jow. The low slope indicates a disproportionate amount of ‘magnetizing current compared to the burden current at low excitation. At moderate excitation, the dj/d/ is relatively high and the magnetizing current is small compared to the current in the burden. At high excitation, the @ versus J, curve exhibits the ‘maximum slope in transition between saturated states. The fact that ‘magnetizing current is so small compared to the ratio current during the transition suggests that it can be ignored. Consequently, the core can be viewed simply as a volt-time switch as shown in Figure 2, which opens during a rate of fux change and closes during saturationCurrent Transformer Equivalent Circuit oy Figure 2 Current Transformer Equivalent Circuit Low Moderate High excitationVolt-Time Area and Saturated Waveforms Secondary terminal voltage ratings designate relaying accuracy ratings, The concept of the voltage rating can be derived from the fundamental relation: awit a) cena, Where ¢ is a voltage induced by WV turns and a rate of change of flux > with Fespect to time +, and where the flux is limited to the transition from the saturation flux 9 to Gy and ¢ = Vsin0 then imegrating Equation 1 gives: 20M = fo-dr= V{Psin(O)dr (2) Equation 2 shows that the saturation flux 2s and the number of (urns limit the area under the secondary voltage sine wave. The Voltage rating of the CT is the rms value of the sine wave where the flux-timited volt-time area just fits under the half cycle of the sine ‘wave, Furthermore, if the current is increased beyond this point, ‘Saturation occurs and the sine wave is cut off at an angle less than 180 degrees. Expressing the instantaneous value e as a function of ‘he volt-time area can show the process of saturation. To do this, letVolt-Time Area and Saturated Waveforms V,, = 26sN. Making this substitution and integrating Equation 2 ives: cos(0,) ® Expressing cos(0,) in terms of sin(0,) and noting that sin(0,) = (e/V) gives: CBB e : saturation Solving Equation 4 for the instantaneous voltage ¢ during saturat aives 5) hv(v-8) ‘ Equation 5 can be expressed in multiples of a CT-rated oa letting V = MV, and V, = M,¥, where V, isthe peak sevon an voltage when rated current is applied to the transformer. With | substitutions, Equation 5 becomes: 6 Equation 6 is plotted in Figure 3 with the resulting voltage waveforms at various multiples of rated current. As show = A Figure 3, an input of (M,/2) produces a sine wave output we inp! volt-time area equal to that of the transformer core, When : ral is Ms. the output exists for 90 degrees of the sine wave anVolt-Time Area and Saturated Waveforms linear peak occurs. When the input exceeds M,., the volt-time area ccurs in less than 90 degrees and the peak output follows the Parabola described by Equation 6. . T wy T 4] * | N= (amt Ma} A . 4 4 Z 4 | Lal ‘View ° Wobaies CT Rateg) Tine Figure 3 Secondary Current Waveforms for Various Levels of Excitation (Resistive Burden) ‘The volt-time area concept gives a clear illustration ofthe voltage ‘ating and the limit of sine wave operation of a CT. It also provides ‘in uncluttered view of the saturation process and the waveforms Produced. The simple Mathcad® worksheet listed in Annex A implements the volt-time concept for demonstration purposes. Figure 4 shows a program output plot for a CT that has a 20-per-unit ting but is subjected to a 10-per-unit current with a dc component from a 0.010-second time constant (75-degree impedance) primary CircuitVolt-Time Area and Saturated Waveforms Gore Flux c owe ou rr 08 Seconds Figure 4 Core Flux and Secondary Current ina CT With a 20-Per-Unit Symmetrical Rating Carrying 10-Per-Unit Current With the Offset Due to 0.010 Second Primary Time Constant (75° impedance Angle) ‘The plot shows the saturation during the de offset. Please note that the volt-time area derivation is based on a resistive burden. The general impedance burden case is addressed in “Computer Simulation” on page 13.The Excitation Curve ‘The volt-time concept assumes the magnetic core is a volt-time switch. This concept assumes no magnetizing current when there is, rate of change of flux and the entire ratio current flows to the burden, When saturation flux is reached, as indicated by volt-time area, and there is no longer a change of flux, the switch closes, shunting the entire ratio current away from the burden until a reversal of current and integration becomes negative to reduce the flux. Here, saturation occurs at a well-defined point indicated by a specific value flux and turns. A finite amount of ampere-turns is required to establish flux in a CT ‘core and can be expressed as magnetizing current measured at the secondary terminals. The excitation current, which is subtracted from the ratio current, has definite values for each value of voltage as shown in Figure 5. This curve depicts steady-state voltage versus excitation current where the voltage is measured with an average reading voltmeter calibrated in rms. [tis actually a plot of flux versus magnetizing current since the average voltage is the volt-time integral averaged over the period of the sine wave. The excitation curve for a C400, 2000:5 multiratio bushing CT, shown in Figure 5, is a measure of CT performance and can be used to determine ratio correction factors at various levels of steady-stateThe Excitation Curve fined knee point: excitation. While the ¢xcitation curve has a well-defined kn i i , son. relaying {thas no discernible point of saturation. For this reason. Accuracy ratings are ba 10 percent, and ratings Secondary voltage. The CT will suppor across Without exceeding 19 sed on a ratio correction not exceeding Aare designated by classification and secondary voltage rating is the voltag ae standard burden with 20 times rated cut Percent ratio correction. 2005 ‘oo 3a tr ‘Stent Exton Angers ion Curve Figure C400, 2000:5 Current Transtormer Excitation Showing the 300:5 tap with Knee-Point Tangent an 1 A classification and a Secondary terminal voltage rating een a ANSI relaying accuracy ratings. Toroid current eon ge distributed Winding have negligible leakage flux in the San Biven the C classification indicating that the ratio can be cal Current transformers witha wouna secondary winding and ion. ‘ianifcant leakage flux in the core are given the T classifica Indcating thatthe ratio mast be deerrercn by test 10The Excitation Curve The standard burdens for relaying are |. 2. 4. and 8 ohms. all with an impedance angle of 60 degrees. Consequently. at 20 times the S-ampere rated secondary current, a multiratio CT is voltage rated Using the maximum turns ratio. The standard ratings are 100, 200. 400, and 800 volts. Since the CT rating occurs with 100 amperes of Secondary current at a 10 percent ratio correction factor. the voltage rating can be read from the excitation curve at 10 amperes of, excitation current, We must first subtract the internal voltage drop ue to the de resistance of the winding. For the 2000:5 ratio winding in Figure 5. the voltage read from the curve at 10 amperes is 496 volts. In this case. the voltage is less than the 800 rating and Ereater than 400. Therefore. the rating is C400. provided the 400 {urn winding has less than a 0.0024 ohms-per-tum de resistance to uarantee an internal voltage drop less than 96 volts. ‘The magnetizing impedance of the current transformer can be obtained by dividing each value of voltage read from the curve by the corresponding excitation current. The impedance is plotted in Figure 6. The magnetizing impedance is nonlinear. increasing from 3000 ohms at 0.001 amperes excitation current to a maximum of 8000 ohms at 0.0248 amperes of excitation. This is the point of maximum permeability and is located by the 45-degree tangent 10 the curve. The impedance values decrease from this point as the €xcitation is increased, reaching 49 ohms at 10 amperes of excitation current. 1"The Excitation Curve Eel | i tain Curent Figure 6 Magnetizing Impedance ‘Any point on the maximum ratio curve can be referred to a lower ratio tap by using a constant volts-per-turn relation for the voltage and a constant ampere-tur relation for the current. Consequently, 2 a so that the knee-point of each curve lies along the normal line to the 45-degree tangent drawn in Figure 5, which also shows the curve for the 300:5 ampere minimum tap. 2Computer Simulation Because current transformers are subject to saturation during the de transient of fault current, there is a growing interest in computer simulations like the EMTP program, which produces detailed plots of current corresponding to an oscillograph obtained from a full- scale system test. The primary aim of the simulation is to obtain digitized records, which can be reconstituted as secondary analog signals using D/A conversion and amplification, for the purpose of relay testing. The simple equivalent cireuit for the simulation is shown in Figure 7, where the primary current referred to the secondary is a constant current feeding a nonlinear magnetizing inductance and the resistance and inductance of the burden. Figure 7 Equivalent Circuit of a Current Transformer 13Computer Simulation ‘The equivalent circuit in Figure 8 is needed to simulate the interaction between the two CTs and the restraint and operating windings ofa differential relay. In Figure 8, the side A and side B CTs are represented by the ratio currents /, and J, and nonlinear ‘magnetizing inductances L,, and Ly. Linear elements Ry Ly) Ry and L> represent resistance and inductance of the leads and include the resistance of the CT secondary windings. R, and Ly represent the linear elements of the relay operate Winding. Lye iS the nonlinear inductance of a saturable reactor, a necessary element in the representation of machine di ferential relays. Figure 8 Equivalent Circuit for the Differential Connection of Current Transformers ‘The simulation isthe time-discrete solution of the differential ‘equation of the voltage drops caused by the loop currents. A recursive solution using a finite time increment is used because the ‘magnetizing inductance L,, changes continually as a function of the voltage. Thus, the output of the program is an increment-by- increment time plot of the current, voltage. and flux density. Programs like the EMTP program use a piece-wise linear representation of the saturation curve of the current transformer that the user must enter as a series of points. Other programs use an 4Computer Simulation equation to emulate the B-H curve of the CT. The characteristic S-shaped curve of the Frohlich equation is made to fit the B-H curve for oriented grain steel by equating the slope of the curve at the origin to the maximum incremental permeability (on order of 5000), and the slope during saturation to the permeability of free space (4x 10°"). The inductance Ly is then calculated using an incremental permeability equal to the slope of the B-H curve as emulated by the Fréblich equation: ros Stet (8) where: Ly isthe magnetizing inductance in Henries N is the number of turns: A isthe core cross-sectional area (sq. meters) Hy isthe permeability of free space tie isthe core material incremental relative permeability 1 isthe mean length of the core (meters) ‘The plot of the B-H curve emulated by the Frohlich equation is shown in Figure 9. The permeability is taken to be the slope of the curve through the center of the hysteresis loop. The curve of the slope of the B-H curve in Figure 9 emphasizes that the magnet inductance has no single value but changes for every value of, instantaneous excitation during a cycle. In addition, the excitation ‘curve indicates that the slope of the B-H loop varies with the level of excitation. Since simulations are used to analyze high excitation involving saturation, the slope at the origin is set equal to the maximum permeability of the core. The maximum relative permeability for the C400, 2000:5 current transformer was found to 15Computer Simulation be 6300, calculated using the 8000 ohm maximum reactance of the impedance plot in Figure 6 on page 12 and using typical core dimensions, as 7 7 ® Figure 9 B-H Loop and the Slope of the Mean Curve The variable core permeability is the slope of the B-H curve of the 2ore material at any specific point. The current transformer model reeds a defined relationship between B and H so that the dermeability can be calculated, The empirical Frohlich equation is, used to emulate the S-shaped anhysteretic B-H curve: H oa uy where: B isthe Magnetic Flux Density, Tesla H isthe Magnetic Field Intensity. (amp-turns)/m_ 16‘Computer Simulation ‘The core material using Equations 10 and 1 determines the constants 6 and ¢: ¢ ao ay Bsar where: 4, is the initial permeability iy is the permeability of free space Bsqr isthe saturation flux density The graphical user interface of a current transformer simulation is shown in Figure 10. In this case. the C400, 2000:5 current transformer with standard burden (2 + j3.464) ohms is subjected toa current of 20 times its primary rating. The simulation provides what amounts to an oscillograph of the ratio, burden, and magnetizing current, Note that in accordance with the C400 rating. the magnetizing current causes not more than a 10 percent ratio correction factor.aputer Simulation ure 10 C400, 2000:5 Current Transformer Computer ulation ire 11 C400, 2000:5 Current Transformer With 40 kA mmetrical Current simulation in Figure 11 shows the saturation caused by the d volt-time area during an asymmetrical fault of 40 kA. The outer simulation will be used to supply the samples needed he subsequent current transformer selection criteria.Flux Density Limit of the Volt-Time Area ‘The burden voltage is related to core turn W and the rate of change of the core flux by the induction Equation 12: a ue 2) ‘We can integrate Equation 12 to show that the area under the voltage waveform represents the flux density in the core. Therefore, the flux Jinkages in the core are given by integral Equation 13 where the flux is expressed as flux density B times the core cross-sectional area A ON = BAN = flvedt (13) ‘We can now recognize the significance of the ANSI voltage rating because the area under the sine wave of that magnitude represents the saturated flux density B,. That volt-time area signifies the threshold of saturation and marks the boundary of saturation-free operation. Figure 12 shows the shaded volt-time area produced by asymmetrical fault current. Here, fy is the magnitude of the fault current in the secondary. Z, is the burden impedance, and L/R is the time constant of the primary fault circuit. The sine wave and 19riux Density Limit ofthe Volt-Time Area exponential components ofthe wave are shown dashed for comparison. The plot emphasizes the fact that although we think of the Cerating as a sine Wave, We must consider the increased volt- time area of the asymmetrical fault when selecting a CT. p rent Figure 12 Burden Voltage for Asymmetrical Fault Current Using the asymmetrical voltage in Equation 2 we can write: . weave = Ig fre “(Ba)- eoranoa «ay In Equation 14, the limit of the integral of the exponential term is the X/R ratio of the primary circuit. Since the limit integral of the cosine term is unity, we can write Equation 15: By N-A-o = (Ket) 1yZy as) 20Flux Density Limit of the Volt-Time Area Equation 15 expresses the C-rating voltage in terms of the physical parameters of the current transformer, namely the saturated flux density Bs. the turns ratio W, the core cross-sectional area A, and the system frequency @. Moreover, it determines the saturation-free operation range of the current transformer in terms of the system X/R ratio, the maximum fault current 1. and burden ZThe Criterion to Avoid Saturation We can derive a more versatile form of Equation 15 by recognizing thatthe rating voltage is 20 times the voltage across the standard burden at rated current. If we then express the fault current /,. in per unit ofthe rated current, and the burden Z, in per unit of the standard burden, Equation 15 becomes the simple criterion to avoid saturati o2(X41) 12, as J, isthe maximum fault current in per unit of CT rating Z, isthe CT burden in per unit of standard burden X/R isthe X/R ratio of the primary fault circuit Here is an example of how the criterion iy used: A transmission ling has an 85.24° impedance angle (i.e.. the XR ratio is 12). The ‘maximum fault current iy 4 times the rated current of the C800 current transformer. Find the maximum burden in ohms that can be used and still avoid saturation. 2The Criterion to Avoid Saturation In this case, we can solve Equation 16 for Z,,, which is the burden in per unit of the standard burden: 20 20 z,s—20 oes a" OF ak (241-4 (E+1)-4 ay Zaurven = Zerp°Zp = 8-085 = 3.08 ohms Equation 16 is satisfied when Z,, is equal to or less than 0.385 per unit of the standard 8-ohm burden. Therefore, saturation is avoided by keeping the burden at 3.08 ohms or less. Rating Current Transformers for Line Protection In practice. modem line relays clear faults in cycles to preserve stability, accurately identify fault type for single-pole reclosing applications, and determine an accurate fault location. To do this, line relays require undistorted CT secondary current to perform phasor measurement in the presence of the de offset. How well are CTs rated for line protection? The criterion stated in Equation 16 can be used to check any given application. For example, the line relaying for a 4.5 mile 138 kV transmission line uses a VT ratio of 1200:1 and a CT ratio of 300:1. The CT is €800, 2000:5 multiratio on the 1500:5 tap. The maximum fault is 4625 MVA or 19349 amperes and the line and source impedance angle is 74 degrees. The parameters for Equation 16: 193494 _ 199 x x 3 mee 3 = tan(74) = 3.48 ag) 23‘The Criterion to Avoid Saturation ‘Substitute these values in Equation 17 to determine the maximum burden in per unit of the standard burden: 20 20 Po x Baws Te Bey Z 0345, 19) Equation 19 indicates that the burden should be less than or equal to 0.345 per unit of the standard burden. Although the standard burden is 8 ohms for the C800 rating, based on constant volts per turn we must use three-quarters of the standard burden value because the 1500:5 tap is used. Consequently, saturation is avoided if the total burden is equal to or less than: Zp = 0345-6 = 20739 (20) ‘The burden budget for the installation is: CT leads 200 feet full circuit run of 0.2522 #11 AWG (1.261971000') CT winding 300 turns at 0,00250/turn 0.750 Allowable relay burden 1071 Total burden 2.073 ‘The relays, consisting of a microprocessor-based distance relay with. negligible burden and an overcurrent relay used as a current detector, have a combined burden easily less than the allotted 1,071 ohms. Consequently, CT saturation is avoided for all asymmetrical as well as symmetrical faults on the line. 24‘The Criterion to Avoid Saturation Current Transformer Selection Procedure The above example suggests the following current transformer selection procedure using Equation 16 in any given line relay application: 1. Determine the maximum fault current Igin primary amperes. 2. Determine the corresponding primary circuit X/R ratio, 3. Select the current transformer voltage rating. Then, determine the total burden in per unit of the standard burden 4. Using Equation 16, calculate /,, which is the fault current in per unit of current transformer nominal rating. 5. Divide the maximum primary fault current J, by the per unit current to determine the CT nominal current rating. Select the nearest standard rating greater than the calculated value. ‘Over what range of applications can the procedure be successful? ‘Whether or not Equation 16 can be satisfied depends on the X/R ratio and the magnitude of the maximum fault current. You can specify the burden and the X/R ratio and then use Equation 17 to calculate the maximum fault current for a given CT ratio. Table 1 lists the maximum fault currents versus X/R ratio for which saturation is avoided using 3000:5. 2000:5, or 1500:5 current transformers, 25‘The Criterion to Avoid Saturation TABLE1 Maximum Current to Avoid Saturation (€800, 3000:5 ¢800, 2000: xR ee2S 20 Line Angle Ratio (amperes) (amperes) (amperes) aor ee aakls 12,680 The a4 38 36012 30.010 11.254 Berea 28,780 23.983 4.994 se 7 23.689 1971s 7.393 83 81 20.997 17479 6.561 eg 18.261 15.217 5.107 ae 15.446 12872 4.827 se 143 12,548 1057 3.921 sr. 19, 9.561 7.968 2.988 a8 286 6478 2.025 Calculating Current Transformer Burden In the process of CT selection we are interested in minimizing the total burden that consists of the internal resistance of the CT winding itself, the resistance of the leads from the CT to the relay, including the return path, and the burden of the connected relays. Higher ratio current transformers (3000:5) contribute a resistance of 0.0025 ohms-per-turn to the burden; and lower ratios (300-5). 0.005 ohms-per-turn. Consequently, applying a 600-turn (3000:5) current transformer contributes an internal resistance of 1.5 ohms. In new installations, we can choose the wire size to control the 26The Criterion to Avoid Saturation resistance for a circuit run. For example, the log of resistance per 1000 feet of wire is proportional to the AWG gauge of the wire. A benchmark for copper wire is 0.9989 ohms/1000 feet for #10-gauge AWG wire. Decreasing the gauge by three numbers halves the resistance and increasing it by three doubles the resistance. Consequently. the handy formula for resistance versus AWG wire gauge is: 2/( 1000") = e°?#6-2 en where: 9/1000" is the resistance in ohms per 1000 feet G is the AWG gauge number A good practice is to size the leads to limit the lead resistance to 0.5 ohms or less. Under this rule, #10-gauge AWG wire would be the choice if the current transformers were located 250 feet from the relays, for a total run of 500 feet to and from the current transformers. ally, we can contrast the almost negligible burden of a ‘multifunction microprocessor-based relay with the burden in the order of ohms contributed by electromechanical relays for the same function. The advantage of the low burden is seen in view of the burdens and fault current restrictions versus X/R ratio listed in Table 1. Limits of the Criterion Can saturation be avoided in all applications? limit to the criterion is indicated in Table 1, where the permissible maximum fault 2‘The Criterion to Avoid Saturation ‘current for a given CT rating severely decreases with increasing X/R ratio. The limit occurs where high X/R ratio and high fault current are experienced near a generator. It then becomes. {impractical to size the CT to avoid saturation during an asymmetrical fault. We must then abandon the criterion and rate the CT for the reasonable sensitivity for line-end faults. It then remainy that we must assess the effect of saturation during the offset. Statistics of Asymmetry ‘When the current is less than 20 times the current transformer nominal rating and the burden is less than the rated standard burden, ‘no saturation will occur for symmetrical fault current. Furthermore, ‘an insulation breakdown or a flashover is more likely to occur at a voltage peak where the reactive current is at a natural ero. Consequently, line-to-ground faults are more likely to be symmetrical faults. However, in any three-phase fault. all currents cannot be at zero simultaneously in each phase and de offset is ible in one or more phases. In addition. the 120-degree phase displacement causes unequal de offset to occur in each phase.A Case History How does CT saturation affect the response of a distance relay? The effect is less dramatic than one might imagine and is best illustrated by an example, Consider a 31-mile 230 KV line protected by a microprocessor distance relay where the VT and CT ratios are 2000:1 and 600:1 respectively. The CT has a C800, 3000:5 rating with a total burden of 2.5 ohms. The line is one of several lines Connecting a generating station to the system where the maximum three-phase fault duty is 17184 MVA and the X/R ratio of the line and the source is 25. The fault current of a three-phase fault on the line at 1.55 miles from the station is 33195 amperes per phase. The relay response to a severe fault of this type at various inception angles is presented in the following three event reports. 33 kA Fault With Ideal Current Transformers Event 1, shown in Figure 13, is the ideal case of the three-phase fault with no CT saturation, This report contains quarter-cycle samples in 4 sequence-of-events format. Samples 9 through 36 of the report show pre-fault, fault, and post-fault current and voltage samples, and the states of all the fault-measuring elements, outputs, and inputs, Currents and voltages are labeled left to right atthe top with the element labels (read vertically) toward the right. Time progresses from top to bottom in quarter-cycle intervals. With a quarter-cycle 23ACase History representing 90 degrees between samples, any sample and the previous sample form the real and the imaginary parts of the phé yielding magnitude and phase angle of the measured quantity. ‘The event, triggered at the 16th sample, shows pickup of the supervisory instantaneous overcurrent element SOH. The negati* sequence element 51Q picks up momentarily as a complete cyel data is accumulated. However, the significant point is that the fir the phase-to-phase mho elements (ZBC) declares a Zone | fault actuates the trip contacts 1 and 2 (indicated by the B in that colv before the full cycle of data is acquired, The relay then continut ‘measure until the current is interrupted and in this interval, determines an accurate fault location. The relay then appends tt fault type, the front-panel targets, the fault location, and the trac frequency at the end of the report.ACase History UWOLE: WS 0, sneER > ates 07/1/96 Tine 06452782 ‘uments (es) OUTAGES (48 rs) RELAY EUOERTS OUT 1K TII220 E565. 187 1387 aCBGD 31110779 ALL ARLL cree RTA 181k BEES aPPIGP 2448 2488 Serge Ro 6 2M 0 0 0 onmanes as... 0 0 0 0 nina rg 138.2 1. 333 a moans as 8 2 ae... 230 ont. 128 ° 0 0 wo 86 08 -1m2y woe 1088 Por 102 ious 1s2 40.3. 87.1 97.6 2 66 13055 L169 250m 58.0 «6 168 TIL 220-2976 Doo) 1516 “7.1 28.3 68.6 IN, 16-136 19701 ae) 2 : 60 66) en ee a7 21 1682 1970 nM90 27-8 M86 me 3 “D8 1 13659 710. ma 77.8 62 666 27165 308 13.7 241690 1970 see 718 “0 2509817040 7058 “16-18 7. 3-265) Imad 2057) 3.6 21.5 10.1 129720 438 sate 9.88 AL 9 we iss ayee ve 8S 30 0 3 00 00 00 9 33 2 00 0 00 9 3 3 09 09 00 2 2 0 @ 0 09 00 00 ™ 2 0 @ 0 09 00 00 s 2 3 09 0 00 * ven AC Location: 1.85 Frauen: 60.0 Targets: NST TUNEL EVA BC VL Men: 138.0 / 38 Figure 13 Event 1-33 kA ABC Fault at 1.55 Miles on a 230 kV Line (Theoretical-No CT Saturation) 3t‘ACase History This event is, of course, purely theoretical because 1) de offset cannot be avoided for a three-phase fault, and 2) the specified CT rating, burden, and X/R ratio indicate that de offset will cause saturation with as little as 7413 amperes of fault current. The severe current transformer saturation caused by the 33 kA fault with maximum offset in A-Phase is shown in Figure 14. wy Tie econ ee : ad i $ Tevonoy Figure 14 Secondary Current in a C800, 3000:5 With 33 kA Offset Three-Phase Fault at 1.55 Miles With 0.066 Primary Time Constant 32ACase History The Saturation Effect We can see the effects of saturation in the waveforms of Figure 14. ‘A large portion of the A-Phase ratio current has gone to magnetizing current. What is left of the ratio current in the burden is severely reduced and distributed toward the leading edge of the waveform. ‘The digital filtering used in a microprocessor relay extracts the fundamental component of the waveform. ' Consequently, the relay extracts a fundamental current reduced in magnitude and advanced in phase when compared to the ratio current. At the same time, because the maximum offset is in the A-Phase, saturation is delayed in B- and C-Phases. The result of sampling the A-Phase current with a 16-sample-per- cycle cosine filter is shown in Figure 15. The saturated secondary and the magnitude of the fundamental are shown solid, with the ratio current and the magnitude of its fundamental shown dashed. Immediately below is a plot of the phase angle by which the fundamental of the saturated signal leads that of the ratio current. The ratio of the fundamental of the saturated secondary current to ideal secondary ratio current results in a complex factor. We may think of this factor as being applied to the samples of the ratio current to produce the saturated waveform. For example. the sample-by-sample factors for the first two cycles of the waveforms of Figure 14 are listed in Table 2. The factors show little change. However, at 1.5 cycles, A-Phase secondary current is 58.3 percent of the ratio and leads the ratio current by 23.7 degrees. 'E.O. Schweitzer IIL and Daquing Hou. “Filtering for Protective Relaying.” Proceedings of the Western Relay Conference. Spokane, WA 1992,ACase History Cycles Figure 15 Magnitude and Phase Difference of Sampled Secondary CurrentTABLE 2 Phase Current Samples ACase History ‘A-Phase Current B-Phase Current Phase Current GEES Tina Gang] CVE ToMaay dangle] “CFCEY TaTlannanale ‘0 0.9993 000s] 0 09947 ogni] 0 o9e78 00127 0.0825 09991 0.0920) 0.0625 09984 o.0121| 0.0625 09975 0.1045 0.1250 09984 a.0061| 0.1250 09979 0.0293) 0.1250 09994 0.1616 0.1875 09983 0151) 01875 09973, 0.1875 1.0004 0.1018 0.2500 09976 a0361| 02500 0.9967 0.2500 1.0002 0.0562 03125 09963 00893) 03125 0.9963 03125 0.9998 0.0377 03780 0.9945 0.2320| 0.3750 09976 0.3780 0.9998 0032 04375 0.9934 0.65080] 04375 1.0008, 04375 09990 0.0833 05000 0.9993 1.2230] 0.5000 1.0021 0.5000 09985 0.0690 05625 10187 1.4725] 05625 1.0017 05625 0.9983 0.1133, 06250 1.0285 1.0979| 6250 1.0010 0.1753) 06250 09985 0.1722 0.6875 1.0271 0.6637] 06875 1.0005 0.1794] 6875 09996 02079 0.7500 1.0233 0.4677| 07500 1.0003 0.1942) 0.7500 1.0005 02012 08125 1.0206 0.5630] 08125 1.0008 0.2072] 08125 1.0010 0.1699 08750 1.0202 agot2| 08750 1.0007 0.1998] 0.8750 1.0010 0.1422 09375 L024 07519] 09375 1.0008 0.1653] 09375 1.0008 0.1298 1.0000 1.0238 0.6500] 1.0000 1.0002 0.1603] 1.0000 1.0008 0.1313 1.0625 1.0068 1.381] 1.0625 09992 0.1747] 1.0625 1.0008 0.1333 1.1250 08951-7223] 1.1250 09978 0.2349) (1.1280 1.0008 0.1319, 1.1875 0.7017 9.300] 1.1875 09961 0.3922) 1.1875 1.0008 0.1268 1.2500 05235 2.9531} 1.2500 09951 0.7282) 1.2500 1.0006 0.1197 13125-05240 24.3842] 1.3125 09978 1.2680] 1.3125 1.0003 0.1141 1.3750 0.5866 30.8397] 1.3750 1.0062 1.6627] 1.3750 09987 0.185 1437S 0.6180 28.9589] 14375 1.0142 15694] 14375 09988 0.1872 1.5000 0.5830 23.7362] 1.5000 1.0149 1.2803) 1000 09978 0.2216 1.5625 0.4831 19.4597] 1.5625 1.0098 1.3008] 1.5625 09972 0.3659 1.6250 0.3674 23.0943] 1.6250 1.0066 1.6388] 1.6250 09980 0.5795, 1.6575 03089 37.5746] 1.6875 1.0065 1.9396] 16875 1.0009 0.7760 1.7500 03226 49.7819] 1.7300 1.0080 2.0592| 17500 1.0048 0.4242 1.8125 03426 535113] 1.8125 1.0087 2.1382] 18125 1.0068 0.7346 1.8750 03499 53,6025] 1.8750 1.0089 2.0608) 1.8750 1.0060 0.6601, 19375 0.3510 54.1780] 1.9375 1.0088 2.1106) 19375 1.0083 0.7319, 2.0000 _0.3475 3.8137] 2.0000 1.0042 _1.9722| 2.0000 _1.0037_o8s40 35,ACase History 33 kA Fault With Maximum Asymmetry in A-Phase ‘The effect of the saturation factors is apparent in the samples recorded in the event report shown in Figure 16. The Zone | trip is similar to that of the ideal case. The 50M instantaneous element asserts first, followed by the momentary pickup of the negative- ‘sequence directional element 32Q and the negative-sequence ‘overcurrent element 51Q, This happens during the acquisition of a full cycle of three-phase information, As in the previous case, the event is triggered at the 16th sample and the phase elements ZAB, ZBC, and ZCA all indicate a Zone | trip in the 18th sample before a full cycle of samples has accumulated. Once the trip is issued, the relay continues measurement to identify the fault type and location. The effect of A-Phase saturation is seen with the appearance of false residual current at sample 21 and 22 Consequently, the fault identification logic detects a ground fault at sample 23 and declares a BC-to-ground fault to block two of the phase elements. In this case, despite the reduced A-Phase current and the false residual, the relay calculated the fault location at 1.52 miles using BC voltage and current.‘ACase History mous: 5 o 6 o 0 ‘ ea som 6 ne ios “or 228-78 so 208 see 17961 18) 851 amie 130 pe oe 208 ss ne Dee ‘70 lowe 303 a8 4 a 8 vents ace ttaen 3 syn 9nneoo oats 07/3/96 Tne: 1002 uments (ort) ous 2 VOLTAGES (44 prs) RELAY ELDERS TIN «ow 0 -ns.2 o 8s as 18.2 a0 ans. 09 622 120.1 600 118 2 5406 6309 11787 -100.6 oo) 702 128 1a 12) nate 22 sa) 2861 3685 7 et 539 60.7 0706-27065 24.8 1987 me 27 30600 2296 30.5, sod 1785-18 sono 27206 -2.0 hee ie 12 aise ate 2ea55 isle sez «18076 0.2 a9 -10m2 “0 688 0X 3 3 186 ° oe ase Targetss NST 20861 HA BG Hae sis. 09 39 ‘aGAD 21070 LLL Een ve ve eves Davonge 2 2H8 Semple ont Ta nett oes bed sais 27 1a “eal 38 ‘i how wae ane 0 mie fon sa a save ues « sho 792 1 ole 30.3 1% ws 75. ” 8 ee i» Ins 9.1 2 2 wa ns ma ne 68 17 i085 ams "8? Freeney: 0.0 vim: 8a / st Figure 16 Event 2-33 kA ABC Fault at 1.55 Miles on a 230 kV Line (CT Saturation Caused by Maximum Offset in A-Phase) a7ACase History 33 KA Fault With Offset in B-Phase and C-Phase An incorrect fault identification is the only consequence of the current transformer saturation condition in Event 2. The last case considered is Event 3, shown in Figure 17. where the fault inception angle causes no offset in A-Phase with equal offset in B- and C-Phase. AAs in Event 2, the event is triggered at sample 16 and the Zone 1 trip is declared in sample 17 with the assertion of both trip contacts, indicated by the B in that column, The false residual is caused by saturation in both B- and C-Phases. This effect causes the assertion of the A-Phase-to-ground distance element ZAG. After the trip, the relay uses the subsequent samples to correctly identify a three-phase fault. However, the reduced B- and C-Phase current caused the calculation of an erroneous fault location of 3.61 miles.A Case History ees: os acc 3 5/4 9000002 te: 077 96 inet 800.197 CuRENTS (ori) YoLTAGES pr(en) RELY ELONENTS OTN ‘cae 2111070 ee Sd oo oo a o 9 8 kom 4 : fe o-us oat : ws aes Serer) a 3a ras so ws “owe 51-4065 11601 2515 solar late 19623 is lave -2eres eat 21m 2301 38-2506, eit 2208 27222-1050 a sas -2u6s “136s 18208 set ae 350 230 1160 = 208 23996 “4156-19729 * 8013-2509 9702-2408 . sins 216s eave i376 we. 4s6 19707 -10183 2068 we. 66 11067 "2065 0260 oe) 60 sos sis6 aise ML ten Op ae “i396 05 S38 11. tat 12 107 se St Se 1A apn ere aes Tab A oppo 0 8 6 6 ee ee ig iy: oo 00 cree $300 3 OA sercee ee ee ee ee ee vents ARC Locations 9.61 Frewengy: 6.0 argetss INST 20M OA BEG VE Mens 221/132 Figure 17 Event 3-33 kA ABC Fault at 1.55 Miles on a 230 kV Line (CT Saturation Caused by Offset in B- and C-Phase) 39CT Application Rules Generally, protective relays are designed for sine wave operation and their performance is not specified for other waveforms Therefore, in a protective relay application. the voltage rating and the burden ofthe CT should be specified to ensure undistorted “Secondary current for the maximum fault condition. TEEE/ANSI Standard C57.13-1993 [3] suggests that CTs for "laying be applied on the basis that the maximum symmetrical fault ‘Surrent not ‘exceed 20 times the CT current rating and that the burden voltage not exceed the accuracy class voltage of the CT. Applying CTs for relaying is an art rather than a science because the erbineer is left to choose the specific operating point on the “citation curve. However, there is a rationale for choosing a CT to Produce the knee-point excitation at the maximum symmetrical ful THT since the magnetizing reactance is at a maximum. Observe - the knee-point of a typical excitation curve. as shown in coma’ 5" Page 10, is about 46 percent of excitation voltage, thamsing to a 10-ampere excitation current. A popular rule of deve Suggests that the C-rating be twice the excitation voltage ie el by the maximum fault current. By good planning or dumb “iS tule of thumb guarantees operation near the knee-point of ®Xcitation curve for the maximum symmetrical fault.CT Application Rules Preventing saturation due to the exponential component of fault ‘current requires a C-rating exceeding the symmetrical rating by a factor equal to the X/R ratio of the faulted primary system plus one. ‘The dilemma is that itis routinely impossible to achieve such ratings despite the fact that saturation affects the performance of high-speed relays. [tis in these cases that simulations are used to assess the effects of transient saturation on relay performancTransformer Differential Relay Applications Figure 18 shows a 4160-volt power plant auxiliary bus supplied by a 3000 KVA delta-wye resistance grounded transformer. The transformer has a 4.95 percent impedance on a 5 MVA base and is fed by a standby and an emergency bus. The bus is protected by phase and ground directional overcurrent relays. The transformer is protected by percentage differential relays with harmonic restraint and also a ground overcurrent relay fed by a CT in the transformer neutral. ‘AC-200, 1200:5 rating was selected for the low-side CTs and a C-200, 600:5 rating was selected for the high-side CTs. The taps for the 87T relay were set at 2.9 amperes for the high-side winding and at 8.7 amperes for the low-side winding, leaving a ratio mismatch of 4.4 percent. The percentage differential for tripping was set at 25 percent. ‘The complication in this application is the fact that the 600:5 CTs are located 1400 feet from the switchgear, requiring att least 2800 feet of leads. Only 25 feet of leads are required for the 1200:5 CTs ‘mounted in the switchgear with the relay. The long run was installed with paralleled #10 gauge AWG wire, which has a calculated resistance of 3.36 ohms, including the totally resistive relay burden. 42Transformer Differential Relay Applications The 1200:5 CT was installed with a calculated total burden of 0.365 ohms. The maximum through-fault current was calculated as 12312 amperes on the 4160 bus (3711 amperes at 13.8 kV) with an X/R ratio of 11 In the low-side 1200:5 CT. the maximum symmetrical secondary fault current of 51.3 amperes flowing in the total burden of 0.365 ohms produces 18.72 volts. This voltage multiplied by(X/R+1) = 12 gives 225 volts. Consequently, the low-side CT can support undistorted asymmetrical ratio current in the secondary. In the 600:5 CTs. a maximum symmetrical fault current of 30.9 amperes flowing in the total circuit burden of 3.4 ohms produces 105 volts. or about half the 200-volt accuracy rating. These CTs, therefore, are adequately rated by the accepted rules. However, their core will saturate with asymmetrical fault current. Since only one set of CTs will saturate, relay operating current will persist for asymmetrical faultsTransformer Differential Relay Applications ish 'BBRY stondby Bus, BBAV Emergency 84 Connell S22 AY Standby Bus 6005 ass) 0/51 87 s7so% 12005 % 4160.V Bus — Figure 18 Power Plant Auxiliary 44Transformer Differential Relay Applications secondary amp cysts Fi Het 19. Differential Relay Restraint Currents I and la Differential, Igls The © Computer simulation of Figure 19 shows the implications of this Arche typical application. The graph shows the time plot of saturated insaturated 1200:5 CT ae ee secondary current with the ut wich plot shows the larg diflerence clrreni magn, lecays with the de transient. The plot's literally the tis oe current during saturation caused BY the asymmetry. It \e same wave shape and is caused by the same phenomenon as th inrush current of the power transformer itself. Figure 20 isa plot rent, The magnitudes of tee content of the difference cur in harmonics are pled per wit of the fundamental. The hat shows a typical 42 percent second harmonic, 15 percent Secor harmonic, and 10 percent fifth harmontc: As it tur St.ond harmonics igh enush ui the offset that a differential With harmonic restraint units will restrain the relay from‘Transformer Differential Relay Applications operating. Therefore, the rule of thumb proved adequate tor this transformer differential application. 7 0 “ Percent of Fundamental 10 BRESRRESIBBE Frequency 00: S58 Figure 20 Harmonic Content of the Differential Current in Figure 19 Plotted in Per Unit of the Fundamental Frequency 46Generator Differential Relay Application Itis impractical to size CTs to avoid transient saturation ina Benerator differential because of the high X/R ratios encountered. ‘The rule is to select the largest practical rating and match the terminal and neutral-side CTs. The pitfall is that the highest CT accuracy class is C800 and that any CT with an excitation voltage exceeding 800 volts is classified C800 no matter how high the Voltage. For example, one 6000:5 CT may have an excitation voltage of 1500 volts at 10 amperes of excitation current and be classified C800. A second 6000:5 CT from a different manufacturer may have 978 volts at 10 amperes of excitation and also be classified C800. The generator CTs must have the same excitation curve with ‘matching knee-point voltage and the same excitation voltage at 10 amperes excitation current. Consider the application of a generator differential relay for a - TIL MVA, 13.8 kV generator. The machine has an X/R ratio et and can contribute 58800 amperes to an external bus fault. All the CTs are rated 6000: ‘5, C800. However, the set of generator terminal CTs has a 700-volt knee-point voltage while the set of neutral-side CTs has a 500-volt knee-point voltage. We have observed that the knee-point voltage is generally 46 percent of the excitation voltage Occurring at 10 amperes of excitation. The actual rating can be 47Generator Differential Relay Application estimated as 700/0.46 = 1522 and 500/0.46 = 1086 volts. isa respectively. The table of input data for the maximum fault cas follows: Side ACT Data Side BCT Data Ratio 1200 1200 Core mean length (m) 1.02 1.02 Side Niead and Side 8 Lead am Winding Data Winding Dat "Lad Reise nee Restraint Winding 0.01 oo Resistance Restraint Winding oor oot ) Reactance Speratr Winding and External Reactor bata —— Operating Winding Resistance 052 Operating Winding Reactance oO Reactor Knee-Point Volts i Ext. Ohms: Reactance 170 Ext. Reactor Coe Length a2 ee Primary Current “Bias Carag et Primary Time Constant 15 Incident Angle (Max. Offset) agGenerator Differential Relay Application Figure Disa Lisa plot ofthe restraint curents and te differenti current Sie the maximum asymmetrical fault case. In this pee the CT voltage rating exceeds the burden volage by the maximum symmetrical faut by factor of 11.9 in the side-, ide-A CT and by a factor of 9.6 in the esser-rated CT. These nearly two cycles, Conserv; arate mlaes delayed saturation for 1g time for a subsequent instantaneous tip. Figure 22 shows the effect of adding 0.6 ohms tothe side-A but ial CT mismatch. pe eden to even the time ae In this case, the pulse of differential current is virwally ated, This study shows the margin for cel and | Dt ‘The Different Point Volts ue to a 58800 A ial Current Ig is Fig ire 21 Secondary Currents ‘of 700 and ro Arcough Fault Current with offset. G0 Plotted. 6000:5 CTs Have Knee" . X/R = 52, 49Generator Differential Relay Application cent Sai yes "igure 22 Secondary Currents 1; and iz Due to an pavmmetrical Through Foul of 58800 A Adding Burge ct lta he Differential Current iy, 6000" Knee-Point Vottages of 700 and 500, x/R = 52,Bus Di iS Differential Relay Applications for clearing internal tivity are fast Differe ee ia provide speed and sensi Sroueh a8; hea bus and generator applications: ‘These relays: aah ae during the offset portion of fault Produce cp imagines together with high X78 0% < turation and false differential Curent Such -onspire © high fault curren appli oe ratbraed CTS 10 PEE lyon the percentage differential slope characteristic 10 rotal schet must restrain over ride in emai aierentil. The * Sensitivity ne for the most severe extemal © operate on the minimum fal 1 fault and yer nave te must live with the gineer the engineer must sstallations. ns oF Wi pplication by specific Felation to cde must determiné rcentage Security, Hi 1e degree of saturation that provides the reavir slope char: lere, we will explore 1 ween the percentage of CT nan eteite and the degree roduced by a range Will show at encountered in utility a" 1s. We Testraint chi € plots of the trajectories ©! caren d for field applications: fault currents and CT rating’: In ing sct Wcgars hemes, the application en contend with vi CTs. Even in new ins ith switchgear space limitatio cured by c company standards rather than 4 the Pel industrial f operating Cu and establish settings im 61Percentage Slope Characteristics Figure 23 shows the single-line diagram of a machine differential relay where the currents 1, and Ip are shown with the polarity of an {internal fault. As shown in Figure 24, in a percentage differential relay, the magnitude of the sum of the currents entering the zone ‘must exceed a predetermined percentage of a restraint quantity, Figure 23 Differential Protection Operate | oa “ tres Figure 24 Percentage Characteristic 62Percentage Slope Characteristics The restraint quantity may have one of several definitions. Two common characteristics are given in Equations 22 and 23: Mattel = Al (22) Mattel = ACUe + ald (23) The left-hand side in each equation is the operate signal equal to the magnitude of the sum of the currents. The right-hand side in each equation is the restraint signal that is multiplied by the slope &. The restraint signal in Equation 22 is the magnitude of the difference of the currents. In Equation 23, the restraint signal is the sum of the ‘magnitudes of the currents. Both characteristics produce the relay characteristic shown in Figure 17. Some relays use the average magnitude of the currents, in which case the slope & in the equations is half the slope setting of the relay. The only purpose for the percentage differential characteristic is to override false differential current caused by CT ratio error. Since the CT ratio errors are much less than ten percent in the linear range, the only purpose for the percentage slope characteristic is to override the error due to saturation caused by the de offset. What is the nature Of the errors due to saturation, and how significant are they? Figures 25 and 26 show the severity of the CT saturation error. Figure 25 compares the saturated secondary current with the true ratio sine wave current for a C200 2000:5 CT for a 10667 A fault. In a microprocessor relay. the digital filter removes the de component and all harmonics. leaving only the fundamental of the waveform as shown in Figure 26, In the saturated waveform. the latter part of the half cycle of ratio current is missing. The missing current flows inPercentage Siope Characteristics aeessed bY in Figure 25. These are the signals proce’ the relay: the w. CTs saturates ‘rst case is when the lett-hand set of CT: and set does not. and the right-hies Percentage Slope charact Secondary Amps wetorms Extracted Fi Iqure 26 Fundamental Wa\istic Alpha Plane Differential Characters visualized bY ‘The percentage differential characteristic can be va expressing Equations 22 and 23 in terms of the ratio [: Cl) = a+ jb Equation 22 writen in terms Of the ratio becomes: jos td Substituting the “Complex number (a + jb) for the ratio and “Xpanding gives the equation ay gltk ;‘Alpha Plane Differential characteristic Con sequel tnelosing a the percentage slope characteristic acircle the alpha = stability (no trip) region in the ‘complex plane called een Similarly, Equation 23 weten in terms of the ratio rents becomes: 1+ 9) Subs, Si ee number (a +6) forthe Fae and ge equation ofa characteristic resembling ® that circumscribes the circle characteristic: 30) -(cost®)-F) rete Where Po isatee @ is r- cos(8)58Determining the Slope for a Given Degree of Saturation aly dee. PP Plane characteristic provides a convenient Way ee . ration B® Slope setting in relation to a given deeres 01 ane Hon. The method is to plot the ratio of currents (Ug/11 eal Plane for an external fault and then choose slope t SH ata tM ate enclosed by the circle- or cardio shape AB? ti "letistic. The current samples are obtained from 2 ie lation program, GUI_2CTS.m, that calculates current ‘WA -87 microsecond intervals for 6 cycles. The ProBram™ in Figure 29 lists the CT data. 57 phic Interface Fiqure 29 MATLAB Program ™%Determining the Slope for a Given Degree of Saturation ‘The 1815 samples of each of the two currents are resampled by the 16-samples-a-cycle cosine filter to obtain the fundamental phasor values. The ratios of the samples are then calculated. The samples are plotted and appear as a cluster of points in the left complex plane for an external fault. A slope & is then selected so that the plot of the ‘characteristic encloses all of the samples. ‘The degree of saturation depends on the saturation voltage Vs across the burden impedance given in Equation 31 vs =(1+4)-1,2, 1) where is the maximum fault current in a unit of the CT rating Z, _ isthe burden in a unit of the standard burden X/R__ isthe X/R ratio of primary fault current Our procedure will be to start with the left and right set of CTs rated at C800 and apply the maximum fault current that just produces the threshold of saturation for a predetermined X/R ratio. The value of Vs equals 20 in this case. This value of fault current will be retained in all subsequent cases. The saturation voltage V, will then be doubled from the previous case by lowering the ANSI voltage class of one set of CTs by one standard rating. In this way. the saturation voltage will take on the values 20, 40, 80, and 160. Each simulation will produce 101 phasor samples that plot as a cluster of points in the alpha plane. In each case, the value of & will be selected such that the circle characteristics will enclose all the points. The values of k will then be plotted as a function of the saturation voltage V5 Each simulation was run for a 2000:5 CT with a lead and relayDetermining the Slope for a Given Degree of Saturation burden of 1.0 ohm total and a winding resistance of 1.0 ohm. The fault current in each case is an offset 10667 amperes, where the X/R ratio is 14. The cases are plotted in the following Figures 30 through 33. The darker points in each plot are the ratios (IRVIL). The lighter points are the reciprocal ratios (IL/IR). Note that the in each plot is in percent, Plots using the cardioid-shaped characteristic are shown in Figures 34 and 35.Determining the Slope for a Given Degree of Saturation Rae ss ue eaten Figure 30 Vs = 20 Fault Current 106674 Pesta Figure 31 Vs = 40 Fault Current 106678 62Determining the Slope for a Given Degree of Saturation ato IRL and LR Figure 32 Vs = 80 Fault Current 10667A a) 8) internal Pau eso) Figure 33 Vs = 160 Fault Current 10667Aration Determining the Slope for a Given Degree of Saturatio > 1 id sere 6! Ye 80 Fault Cursneiosera win Cadel ‘Shaped Characteristic Figure 3s v, Shaped Charact = 160 Fault teristic it Current 10667A With CardSat turation Voltage gree of saturations saturation voltage 36. ration. This The Tele Biven cae between the slope setting and the de cue with the slope & as a function of thes ies ts its empirical equation, s a is valid for V, < 160. shown in Figur 80 ke = 0.824(V5)~ .00242(V5)" 60 40 ‘Slope k 100 ° 50 {yak (+i Vs Fi es ee aai ial Bus and Machine Different Applications fason for the |n machine differential plications, there is no ae aie Be terminal-side CTs And the neutral-side CTs to — avoid nee 'n act, tis impractical wo size CTs high cure Esnerator differential because of the ven. 60 ‘Magnitude and high X/R ratios encountered, ae ial 'St0 selec the largest Practical rating and match th mote Crt side CTs, so thar in the presence of saturatior CTs produce $ ail RIL) FF "dentical waveform and the ratio (ll ~1 during an external faut, in Ts in Unlike the machine differential application, identi na the sam Tultirestraint bus ial scheme do not guarani al scheme Waveform in all CTs For example, the bus ites der. The Flaure 37 shows the ™aximum external fault ee ase: the faulted f * caries the total fault current of | luces ae YOR ratio of 14, 51840 and the fault current prod yal the However, the CTs of the transformer and tie carry wie c300 current, Consequently, these CTs act as one equivale With 2 saturation ed ces undistor oltage, V,. of 20 that produces unt Secondary curren Sifferent 66us and Machine Difterental ‘Applications pic 40, 2005 ‘ 10667 & lQure 37 Muttirestraint Bus oiferenti se ieee ae Pc emgion’ 9on the equa where the & of 30 js obtained bY using Vs equal 1040 in ica ‘developed from the plot i? gure 36. Te alps PAM &e shown plot ofthe operate versus He restraint current forte CASE m in Figures 38 and 39 orBus and Machine Differential Applications Fae wa (RST = aN IRIN Restrnt Curent Figure 39 Operate Signal Versus Restraint 68The Effect of Remanent Flux on the Slope Setting A high offset fault current is usually interrupted in a few cycles. Consequently, the duration of the fault current can be much shorter than the time constant of the primary circuit. The interruption leaves 4 remanent flux in the core that is not affected by normal load ‘current and that can be removed only by demagnetization. A survey of 141 CTs on a 230 kV system is reported in Annex C of Reference 2]. In this survey, the remanent flux ranged from 20 to 80 percent of, the flux at the threshold of saturation. ‘The ANSI voltage rating of a CT is the voltage caused by 20 times the rated S-ampere secondary current flowing in the standard burden. Furthermore, the volt-time area of the rated voltage represents the flux at the threshold of saturation. Consequently, the ‘remanent flux in percent of the flux at the threshold of saturation reduces the voltage rating of the CT by that percentage. For ‘example, a C400 CT with 40 percent remanent flux has been effectively reduced to a C240 rating. The effect of remanent flux can be included in the calculation of the saturation voltage V by modifying the standard burden as follows: ¥, Yawsi( , _ % Remanence’y Zuid = ABH ws) (32) 69‘The Effect of Remanent Flux on the Slope Setting The calculation of k for the case shown in Figures 31 and 32 for a C400 CT with 40 percent remanent flux is as follows: Maximum fault current 106674 X/R ratio of primary circuit XR 4 CT primary current rating CT rating = (CT burden in ohms Zburden = 2.0 ohms Percent remanent flux % Rem = 40 ‘Standard burden y, Zstd = ANS! ( _ Rem 2 ed = “(1 - Een) e Saturation voltage yi urden 14%) ot Phu ke) Chewing Zsid 10667 2.0 =(+ 29. 67 (ie iy 2000 2.4 ° Slope setting 0.824Vs -0.00242Vs" = 44 ‘The calculation shows that the 40 percent remanent flux increases the saturation voltage from 40 to 67 and the secure slope from 30 to 44, The alpha plane plot and the plot of the operate versus the restraint current for this case are shown in Figures 40 and 41The Effect of Remanent Flux on the Slope Setting Figure 41 Operate Signal Versus Restraint With 40 Percent RemanenceThe Impact of High Fault Current on Overcurrent Protection Current transformers for transmission lines are rated to avoid saturation during the asymmetrical portion of the maximum fault current. Saturation is avoided by selecting an ANSI voltage rating larger than the maximum fault burden voltage with the (1 +X/R) factor applied. This is possible in line protection applications since large load currents result in the use of high ratio CTs, and fault currents are typically limited from three to five. and rarely exceed ten, times the CT primary current rating. It becomes more difficult to avoid saturation with transformer differential protection, In these applications. the high-side CTs tend to be mounted on the transformer bushings and require long lead runs to the relay. The lower current ratio required on the high side of, the transformer, together with longer leads, conspires to cause saturation during offset, while the well-rated low-side CTs have @ higher ratio and remain linear. However, the relay detects the second harmonic present in the fulse differential current and blocks tripping for external faults. Consequently, you can apply an ANSI rating as Jow as twice the maximum fault burden, rather than applying the (1+ X/R) factor. 72‘The Impact of High Fault Current on Overcurrent Protection Whereas IEEE guides address CT selection for line and differential relays, there is an unfamiliar and neglected area where no guidelines exist. We now discuss CT ratings used in power plant auxiliaries and related applications, where fault currents can exceed 200 times the CT primary current rating. A CT selection criterion is developed for these applications based on a two-cycle trip time, We review the limitations of conventional digital filtering used in modern instantaneous overcurrent elements. We then introduce proper digital measurement techniques in order to maintain speed and reliability when instantaneous overcurrent elements are applied with highly saturated current waveforms.Limitations of an 80 A Instantaneous Setting Relays protecting power plant auxiliaries may experience fault currents as high as 40 KA, where the X/R ratio exceeds 20. In addition, low ratio CTs may be used with relays that allow the instantaneous overcurrent element to be set as high as 80 A. What is the response of a relay with an 80 A instantaneous setting, and what are the current waveforms? Are there operating limits? Are there published guidelines? Such an auxiliary bus is shown in Figure 42. ‘The following example addresses these issues. In Figure 42, the 600-hp water pump motor on the plant auxiliary bus uses C50, 100:5 CTs. The motor relay has a motor full-load current setting of 6.7 A corresponding to 135 A primary current. The locked rotor setting is 40 A, which is six times the full load current. The instantaneous element is set to 80 A, which is twice the locked rotor value. 4Limitations of an 80 A instantaneous Setting came i ' wh ween eR RK \ ro on) ut cen) Aux Bus we oe oe { (see, Li Ee 3 T SS es GB le K 40 mA LL (1) 600 rs Figure 42 Generator Auxiliary Bus With High Fault Current. Figure 43 is the schematic diagram of the microprocessor-based relay showing the location of the signals measured. As illustrated by Figure 43, the relay auxiliary transformer converts the CT secondary Current to a scaled voltage signal. The anti-aliasing filter removes any high frequency present in the waveform, and the A/D converter converts the signal to the digital value of the current at a typical sampling rate of 16 samples-a-cycle. The function of the digital filter isto reject all harmonics and to extract the magnitude of the fundamental content of the signal. Figure 44 shows the extracted fundamental magnitude resulting from a 200 A primary current. The sine wave current and the extracted fundamental magnitude are theLimitations of an 80 A Instantaneous Setting expected waveforms. However, what waveform can be expected for the 40 kA fault? Figure 45 shows the severely saturated CT secondary current and the limited magnitude A/D output. What is more, the fundamental extracted from the A/D output falls short of the 80 A trip threshold. He] Fe] [Sese=| [Le Stn a AB ag ts eS EX ctin oi Pier et Figure 43 Relay Schematic Showing Measured Signals Figure 44 Signal Extracted With a 200 A Primary CT Current 76Defining a CT Selection Criterion ‘The problem associated with high fault current and the 80. A instantaneous setting is shown by the failure to clear the 40 kA fault (Figure 45), The C50, 100:5 CT is clearly inadequate, but what criteria should be used? As a criterion, we will select the CT rating to guarantee a relay trip time in no more than two cycles. Using the CT simulation, we can increase standard CT ratings until we obtain the desired result. Figure 46 shows that a C200, 200:5 CT produces trip time longer than two cycles. Figure 47 shows that a C400, 400:5 CT produces a trip time of less than two cycles and is the ‘minimum rating that meets the criterion. ‘The degree of saturation is defined by saturation voltage, Vs. For Tine protection, Vg was limited to 20 and used as the criterion to avoid saturation, In bus protection. values of V, exceeding 20 were Used to define and correlate various degrees of CT saturation to percentage slope settings for low-impedance bus differential applications. Here we will base the CT selection criterion on the degree of saturation voltage produced by the 40 kA fault in the C400, 400:5 CT,Defining a CT Selection Criterion ‘The equation for the saturation voltage, Vs is X61) vs2(X+1) Ip 2 33) where: 1 isthe maximum fault current in per unit of CT rating 4 the CT burden in per unit of standard burden X/R_— isthe X/R ratio of the primary fault circuit #8 8 8 ‘SECONDARY CURRENT Acoee ee z ‘i : 6 3 cycles Figure 45 CT and Relay Signals for a 40 kA Fault Using CSO, 100:5 CTs 78Defining a CT Selection Criterion ° r 2 3 corcues Figure 46 Response to a 40 kA Fault Using C200, 200:5 CTs aes Figure 47 Response to a 40 kA Fault Using C400, 400:5 CTs 79Defining a CT Selection Criterion . Using the 400 A CT primary rating and 40 kA fault curren 34) Ip= lax _ $0000 _ 199 ' CTrating — 400 jen of Using the C400 standard burden of 4 and the actual CT burt 052 6s) ‘With an X/R ratio of 20: 66) ) V2 (20+ 1): 100-0.125 = 2625 with Consequently, for power plant auiliary applications, CTS ¥94 the microprocessor relay should meet the following criteriom: @ 2(¥ 2052(Kei) pz, where: 1y the maximum faut current in per unit of CT rating 4 burder Z, isthe CT burden in per unit of standar X/R isthe X/R ratio of the primary fault circu" ‘The following examples show how the criterion is used.Defining a CT Selection Criterion Maxi imum Fault Current With an 80 A In 'stantaneous Setting Maxi mus 1m Fault current in terms of primary CT and ANST voltage atin 18, burden in ohms, and X/R ratio: 7, 2605 ANSL Max= “CT, (38) 7 RATING (et) 4 SAH a / Exa imple: ple: A microprocessor overcurrent relay has 2° 80A ved with a C400, 400:5 CT instan og — setting. The relay will be us maxim 15 O total burden. The X/R ratio ! um fault be for secure operation? is 20. How high can the The burden is primarily due to the CT windings and external leads (0 den itself is negligible): the Felay (the microprocessor relay bu! 3 100 feet full-circuit run of #10-gaus© AWG 03 Wire (1.0.0/1000-ft) CT winding of 80 turns at 0.0025 14 02 Total burden 052 2 ‘SI 39) tax 2625, ANSE. CTparine ¢ 7X) 0% Ute (40) atDefining a CT Selection Criterion Minimum CT Rating With an 80 A Instantaneous Setting CT rating in terms of maximum fault current, X/R ratio. ANSI rating, and burden: CTraring ab Example: With an 80 A instantaneous setting, what is the minimum CT rating that can be used when the maximum fault current is 40 KA, X/R = 20, and the burden is 0.5 ©: (42) CTrarinc = GPO TPR. 4000005 = 400 (43) ‘The criterion allows protection engineers to determine the limits of high-current applications in terms of the fault current magnitude, the x/R ratio, and the relay burden. The criterion addresses the jjmitation of CT ratings. We must now address the tripping speed.Implementing Instantaneous Overcurrent Elements Digital Implementation of Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays Microprocessor relays use a pair of orthogonal finite impulse response filters for phasor acquisition of current and voltage Quantities. Phasory are usually obtained using Fourier or cosine filters, which eliminate de and harmonic components while Contributing minimal transient overreach. T addition, root-mean-square (rms). peak, or averaging filters can also be realized. The rms filters respond to the total energy content 4nd the de component, and every frequency present in the Waveform. Digital peak detectors also respond to the harmonics and the de component, Although they are not generally applied, we will discuss the distinct advantage of peak detectors. Figure 48 shows a variation of the peak detector that has a reduced {ransient overreach, The filter computes the waveform peak value as the average of the absolute value of two consecutive positive and Negative peaks. The maximum transient overreach of 112 percent Occurs with a I-cycle time constant and decreases as the time Constant is increased, as shown in Figure 49. 83'mlementing instantaneous Overcurrent Elements a cuent “curate measurement of fault or tate Saturation occurs, We have seen, in Figure 45 on page 78. that ssn a inet ee aveform : However the (ro PF%ERtatin of actual fault current. the fast rising responses Of the rms and the peak filter af 84ents Implementing Instantaneous Overcurrent Elem: More representative of the actual magnitude The rms iter has Fs "sing signal but exhibits a prohibitive 150 percent transient CreTreach because it must respond to dc offset as shown It ‘Bure 50. The responses of the peak. rms. and cosine iter 37° Compared in Figure $1. OF the three filters, the comparison STEWS atthe bipolar peak detector makes the best magnitude acquis sred to Figure 50. ms Fier Transient Overreach Compa Bipolar Peak Detector Seconany cunReNT cues R= 20, C100, Figure 51. Fiter Response, Fatt 40 KA, / 200:5 CT, 0.5 0 Burden 85The Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter The cosine filter has excellent performance with respect to de offset and removal of harmonics. The bipolar peak detector has the best ‘magnitude acquisition in situations of extreme CT saturation. Combining the two filters provides an efficient solution for the ideal instantaneous element, This instantaneous element. shown in Figure 52, is called a cosine-peak adaptive filter since it incorporates both filters. The cosine filter supplies the magnitude for normal sine ‘wave operation. The bipolar peak detector provides magnitude for saturated waveforms. A detector measures the degree of saturation by evaluating the level of distortion and switches the input to the bipolar peak detector when the distortion reaches a predetermined value,‘The Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter srg ey =a Ue meace-{ sirorbanss }+[ “or"Goune ar Figure 52 _ Instantaneous Element Using the Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter A Simple Distortion Index A simple form for the distortion index measures the ratio of the sum of P harmonic magnitudes over the fundamental magnitude: EM DI (44 Mil : AS an example, if we use the fundamental, second, and third harmonics, the formula becomes: lA] + [Aa] +|A: py = Milt Al + As) 45) Al 87‘The Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter In Equation 45, A,,A>,and A, are the fundamental, second. and third harmonic phasors. For waveforms with no distortion (or no harmonics), the distortion index will be equal to one. For highly saturated current waveforms, a distortion index of this nature will reach levels greater than two, The basic concept is to then switch the ‘magnitude measurement from the conventional digital filtering system to the peak detector when the distortion index becomes greater than a fixed threshold. Typically, this threshold will be set at 1.75. ‘The distortion index is computed sample-by-sample and compared to the threshold, The comparator, in turn, controls a switch. When the distortion exceeds the threshold value, the waveform magnitude Measurement is taken from the bipolar peak detector output, When the distortion is less than the threshold value, the waveform ‘magnitude is taken from the cosine filter output. The cases shown in Figures 53 through 55 demonstrate the action of the switch, Figure 53 shows a case of low saturation where the distortion index falls below the threshold, and the cosine filter produces the instantaneous trip. Figure 54 shows a case of high saturation where the instantaneous trip is produced by the bipolar peak filter, Figure 55 shows a case with no saturation where the distortion index settles below the distortion threshold, and the cosine filter provides the measurement. The distortion index registers a high initial value in response to an abrupt change but settles quickly to the correct value, The 3/4-cycle security timer overrides the settling time to ensure an accurate measurement. 88The Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter ‘SECONDARY CURRENT SECONDARY CURRENT Figure 53. Cosine Filter Providing Trip for a Waveform With, Low Saturation C400, 200:5, 4500 A Fault With X/R =11.31 aThe Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter‘The Cosine-Peak Adaptive Filter _ Distorion Index Distortion Tareshold ‘SECONDARY CURRENT. ae 8 ‘CURRENT & 8 SECONDARY Bo Ld 1 + 7 evcues Figure 55 Cosine Filter Providing Trp for 2 Waveform With No Saturation C100, 200:5, 4kA Symmetrical Fault Current aAnnex A: Volt-Time Area Computer Simulation ‘The steps of the Mathcad® worksheet on the following page use core Volt-time area to determine the waveform of CT secondary current, Wherein the user specifies the primary fault current and X/R ratio. the CT primary current rating, and the ANSI voltage rating and burden (plotted in Figure 56). Tratio, Amos Figure 56 Mathcad Plot of Current and Flux 93nex A: Volt-Time Area Computer Simulation tp 4000 Fault Curent (Primary Amps) Zp=2 CT Burden (Ohma) XR = 11 XR Rao of Fouk Creut (CTraing = 200 CT Primary Rating (with 5 amp Secondary) ANSI: 200 CT ANS! Voltage Rating Per unit Current M=20 (CT Burden in Per Unt of Standard Burden 20 Pernt Seurate Te Numberot eyes CA Oey Cloning Angle Ao 0 Per Unt Residual Fx f= 60 © a= 543 nial Constants. T0001 w= 22¢ T2282 To. om9 constants tenet Be oyeet Celasaton nox -h Us Mp 67 conta) -cos(),0 + CA) Core Vonage As fore Vol-Time Area Ye Met ye Ey or ea pa] se AHO iA, 90 ae -2 AL

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