Chapter 8

THE THERMODYNAMICS
CYCLES
8.1 Carnot cycle;
8.2 Cycle air standards;
8.3 Cycle generator systems.
In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit. The source of
mechanical energy may vary widely from a hand crank to an internal
combustion engine. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric
power grids. 2
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Launches Industrial Combined Heat and
Power Initiative

3
PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES

A perpetual-motion machine that

violates the second law of
A perpetual-motion machine that
thermodynamics (PMM2).
violates the first law (PMM1).
Perpetual-motion machine: Any device that violates the first or the second
law.
A device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1.
A device that violates the second law is called a PMM2.
Despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is known to have
worked. If something sounds too good to be true, it probably is.
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REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace
on the surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.
All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
Why are we interested in reversible processes?
(1) they are easy to analyze and (2) they serve as
idealized models (theoretical limits) to which actual
processes can be compared.
Some processes are more irreversible than others.
We try to approximate reversible processes. Why?

Two familiar Reversible processes deliver the most and consume

reversible processes. the least work.
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 The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
They include friction, unrestrained expansion,
mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
Friction temperature difference, electric resistance,
renders a inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
process reactions.
irreversible.
The presence of any of these effects renders a
process irreversible.

Irreversibilities
(a) Heat
transfer
through a
temperature
difference is
irreversible, Irreversible
and (b) the compression
reverse and
process is expansion
impossible. processes. 6
 Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of
the system during the process.
Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system or its
surroundings.
A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative
effects.

A reversible process
involves no internal and Totally and internally reversible heat
external irreversibilities. transfer processes.
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 THE
CARNOT
CYCLE

Execution of
the Carnot
cycle in a
closed
system.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH)
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P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle. P-V diagram of the reversed
Carnot cycle.

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed,
in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle.
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 THE CARNOT
PRINCIPLES

Proof of the first Carnot principle.

The Carnot principles.

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same. 10
THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE
A temperature scale that is
independent of the
properties of the
substances that are used
to measure temperature is
called a thermodynamic
temperature scale.
Such a temperature scale
offers great conveniences
in thermodynamic
calculations.
All reversible heat
engines operating
between the same two
reservoirs have the The arrangement of heat
same efficiency.
engines used to develop
the thermodynamic
temperature scale.
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 This temperature scale is
called the Kelvin scale,
and the temperatures on
this scale are called
absolute temperatures.

For reversible cycles, the A conceptual experimental setup

heat transfer ratio QH /QL to determine thermodynamic
can be replaced by the temperatures on the Kelvin
absolute temperature ratio scale by measuring heat
TH /TL. transfers QH and QL.

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THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

The Carnot
heat engine
is the most
efficient of
all heat
engines
operating
between the
same high-
and low- No heat engine can have a higher
temperature efficiency than a reversible heat engine
reservoirs. operating between the same high- and
low-temperature reservoirs.
Any heat Carnot heat
engine engine

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The Quality of Energy

Can we use
C unit for
temperature
The higher the temperature
here?
of the thermal energy, the
higher its quality.

The fraction of heat that How do you increase the

can be converted to work thermal efficiency of a Carnot
as a function of source heat engine? How about for
temperature. actual heat engines?
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THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR
AND HEAT PUMP Any refrigerator or heat pump

Carnot refrigerator or heat pump

How do you increase the

No refrigerator can have a higher COP COP of a Carnot
than a reversible refrigerator operating refrigerator or heat pump?
between the same temperature limits. How about for actual ones?

15
Example 6-1

A Carnot heat engine receives 500 kJ of heat per cycle from

a high-temperature heat reservoir at 652oC and rejects heat
to a low-temperature heat reservoir at 30oC. Determine

(a) The thermal efficiency of this Carnot engine.

(b) The amount of heat rejected to the low-temperature
heat reservoir.

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a.
TH = 652oC

QH TL
th , rev 1
WOUT TH
HE
(30 273) K
QL 1
(652 273) K
TL = 30oC 0.672 or 67.2%

b.
QL TL

QH TH
(30 273) K
0.328
(652 273) K
QL 500 kJ (0.328)
164 kJ

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Example 6-2

An inventor claims to have invented a heat engine that

develops a thermal efficiency of 80 percent when operating
between two heat reservoirs at 1000 K and 300 K. Evaluate
his claim.
TH = 1000 K

QH

WOUT TL
HE th , rev 1
TH
QL
300 K
TL = 300 K 1
1000 K
0.70 or 70%

The claim is false since no heat engine may be more efficient

than a Carnot engine operating between the heat reservoirs.
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Example 6-3

An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator that

maintains the refrigerated space at 2oC while operating in a
room where the temperature is 25oC and has a COP of 13.5.
Is there any truth to his claim?

TH = 25oC

QL TL
QH COPR
QH QL TH TL
Win
R (2 273) K

QL (25 2) K
TL = 2oC
1196
.

The claim is false since no refrigerator may have a COP

larger than the COP for the reversed Carnot device.
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Example 6-4

A heat pump is to be used to heat a building during the winter. The

building is to be maintained at 21oC at all times. The building is
estimated to be losing heat at a rate of 135,000 kJ/h when the outside
temperature drops to -5oC. Determine the minimum power required
to drive the heat pump unit for this outside temperature.
Q Lost

oC
Win
21

Q H
HP Q L
-5 oC

The heat lost by the building has to be supplied by the

heat pump. 20
 kJ
Q H Q Lost 135000
h
Q H TH
COPHP
Q H Q L TH TL
(21 273) K

(21 ( 5)) K
1131
.

Using the basic definition of the COP

Q H
COPHP
Wnet , in
Q H
Wnet , in
COPHP
135,000 kJ / h 1h 1 kW

1131
. 3600s kJ / s
3.316 kW
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 Example 6-5
A Carnot heat engine receives 500kJ of heat per cycle from a
high temperature source at 652C and rejects heat to a low
temperature sink at 30C. Determine the thermal efficiency of
this Carnot engine and the amount of heat rejected to the sink per
cycle.
SOLUTION:
Thermal efficiency,

The Carnot heat engine converts 67.24% of heat it receives to work.

The amount of heat rejected,
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Example 6-6
During a very cold winter, a heat pump is used to heat a building and
the temperature is to be maintained at 294 K. It is estimated that the
building loses at a rate of 150 000 kJ/hr when the outside temperature
drops to 268 K. From this information, determine the minimum power
required to drive the heat pump unit for this outside temperature.

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