Chapter 7

ENTROPY
7.1 Clausius inequality;
7.2 Entropy as a property, the definition of entropy change;
7.3 T-ds relations.
7.4 Entropy change of the material and the ideal gas;
7.5 Over the process and the isentropic efficiency;
7.6 Availability; reversible work.
The system considered in the development of the Clausius inequality.

2
 Clasius inequality

The equality in the Clausius inequality holds

for totally or just internally reversible cycles
and the inequality for the irreversible ones.

Formal definition of entropy

3
The entropy change between two specified states is the same whether
the process is reversible or irreversible.

4
A quantity whose cyclic
integral is zero (i.e., a
property like volume)

Entropy is an extensive property

of a system.

The net change in volume (a property)

during a cycle is always zero.

5
A Special Case: Internally Reversible
Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes

This equation is particularly useful for

determining the entropy changes of
thermal energy reservoirs.
6
THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
A cycle composed of a reversible
and an irreversible process.

The equality holds for an internally

reversible process and the inequality
for an irreversible process.
7
THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process,

and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.

The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.

Can the entropy of a system during a process decrease?

8
The entropy change of an isolated
system is the sum of the entropy
changes of its components, and is
never less than zero.

A system and its surroundings

form an isolated system.

The increase
of entropy
principle
9
Some Remarks about Entropy
1. Processes can occur in a certain direction
only, not in any direction. A process must
proceed in the direction that complies with
the increase of entropy principle, that is,
Sgen 0. A process that violates this
principle is impossible.
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and
there is no such thing as the conservation of
entropy principle. Entropy is conserved
during the idealized reversible processes
only and increases during all actual
processes.
3. The performance of engineering systems is
degraded by the presence of irreversibilities,
The entropy change of a and entropy generation is a measure of the
system can be negative, magnitudes of the irreversibilities during that
but the entropy generation process. It is also used to establish criteria
cannot. for the performance of engineering devices.

10
ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Entropy is a property, and thus the
value of entropy of a system is fixed
once the state of the system is fixed.

Schematic of the T-s diagram for water.

The entropy of a pure substance Entropy change

is determined from the tables
(like other properties).
11
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
A process during which the entropy remains constant is called
an isentropic process.

During an internally
reversible, adiabatic
The isentropic process appears as a
(isentropic) process, the
vertical line segment on a T-s diagram.
entropy remains constant.
12
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY

On a T-S
diagram, the
area under the
process curve
represents the
heat transfer for
internally
reversible
processes.
For adiabatic steady-flow
devices, the vertical distance
h on an h-s diagram is a
measure of work, and the
horizontal distance s is a
measure of irreversibilities.

Mollier diagram: The h-s diagram

13
 THE T ds RELATIONS
the first T ds, or Gibbs equation the second T ds equation

Differential changes in
entropy in terms of other
properties

14
THE T ds RELATIONS

The T ds relations are valid for both reversible and irreversible processes
and for both closed and open systems.

15
ENTROPY CHANGE OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Since for liquids and solids
Liquids and solids can be
approximated as
incompressible substances
since their specific volumes
remain nearly constant
during a process.

For and isentropic process of an incompressible substance

16
THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
From the first T ds relation From the second T ds relation

A broadcast
from channel IG.

17
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)

Under the constant-specific-

heat assumption, the specific
heat is assumed to be constant
at some average value.

18
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)

Setting this eq. equal to

zero, we get

The isentropic relations of ideal

gases are valid for the isentropic
processes of ideal gases only.

19
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK

When kinetic and

potential energies
are negligible

The larger the

specific
volume, the
For the steady flow of a liquid through a greater the Reversible work
device that involves no work interactions work relations for
(such as a pipe section), the work term is produced (or steady-flow
zero (Bernoulli equation): consumed) by and closed
a steady-flow systems.
device.
20
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
When kinetic and
potential energies
are negligible

Isentropic (Pvk = constant):

Polytropic (Pvn = constant):

Isothermal (Pv = constant): P-v diagrams of isentropic,

polytropic, and isothermal
compression processes between
the same pressure limits.
The adiabatic compression (Pvk = constant)
requires the maximum work and the
isothermal compression (T = constant)
requires the minimum. Why?
21
ISENTROPIC
EFFICIENCIES OF
STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
The isentropic process involves no
irreversibilities and serves as the ideal
process for adiabatic devices.

Isentropic
Efficiency
of
Turbines

The h-s diagram for

the actual and
isentropic
processes of an
adiabatic turbine.
22
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps

When kinetic and

potential energies
are negligible
For a
pump
Isothermal The h-s diagram
efficiency of the actual and
isentropic
processes of an
adiabatic
compressor.
Compressors
Can you use isentropic efficiency for a
are sometimes
non-adiabatic compressor?
intentionally
cooled to Can you use isothermal efficiency for
minimize the an adiabatic compressor?
work input. 23
Isentropic Efficiency
of Nozzles

If the inlet velocity of the

fluid is small relative to
the exit velocity, the
The h-s diagram
energy balance is
of the actual and
isentropic
processes of an
adiabatic nozzle.
Then,

A substance leaves
actual nozzles at a
higher temperature
(thus a lower velocity)
as a result of friction.
24
ENTROPY BALANCE

Entropy Change of a
System, Ssystem

When the properties of the

system are not uniform

Energy and entropy

balances for a system.
25
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
1 Heat Transfer
Entropy transfer by heat transfer:

Entropy transfer by work:

Heat transfer is always

accompanied by entropy transfer
in the amount of Q/T, where T is
the boundary temperature.

No entropy accompanies work as it crosses

the system boundary. But entropy may be
generated within the system as work is
dissipated into a less useful form of energy. 26
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
2 Mass Flow
Entropy transfer by mass:

When the properties of the mass

change during the process

Mass contains entropy as well as

energy, and thus mass flow into or
out of system is always
accompanied by energy and
entropy transfer.

27
Entropy Generation, Sgen Entropy generation
outside system
boundaries can be
accounted for by
writing an entropy
balance on an
extended system that
includes the system
and its immediate
surroundings.

Mechanisms of entropy transfer for a

general system.
28
Closed Systems

29
 Control Volumes

The entropy of a
substance always
increases (or
remains constant in The entropy of a control
the case of a volume changes as a
reversible process) result of mass flow as well
as it flows through a as heat transfer.
single-stream,
adiabatic, steady-
flow device. 30
EXAMPLES
Entropy balance for heat
transfer through a wall

Entropy balance for

a throttling process

31
Example 7-1

For a particular power plant, the heat added and rejected both occur at constant
temperature and no other processes experience any heat transfer. The heat is added
in the amount of 3150 kJ at 440oC and is rejected in the amount of 1950 kJ at 20oC.
Is the Clausius inequality satisfied and is the cycle reversible or irreversible?

32
Since the inequality is less than
zero, the cycle has at least one
irreversible process and the
cycle is irreversible

Calculate the net work, cycle efficiency, and Carnot efficiency based on TH and TL for
this cycle.
Wnet Qin Qout (3150 1950) kJ 1200 kJ

Wnet 1200 kJ
th 0.381 or 38.1%
Qin 3150 kJ
TL (20 273) K
th, Carnot 1 1 0.589 or 58.9%
TH (440 273) K
33
The Clausius inequality is satisfied. Since the inequality is less than zero, the
cycle has at least one irreversible process and the cycle is irreversible.

Example 7-2

For a particular power plant, the heat added and rejected both occur at constant
temperature; no other processes experience any heat transfer. The heat is added in
the amount of 3150 kJ at 440oC and is rejected in the amount of 1294.46 kJ at 20oC.
Is the Clausius inequality satisfied and is the cycle reversible or irreversible?

34
The Clausius inequality is satisfied. Since the cyclic integral is equal to zero, the
cycle is made of reversible processes. What cycle can this be?

Calculate the net work and cycle efficiency for this cycle.
Wnet Qin Qout (3150 1294.46) kJ 1855.4 kJ
Wnet 185554
. kJ
th 0.589 or 58.9%
Qin 3150 kJ

35
Example 7-3

Find the total entropy change, or entropy generation, for the transfer of 1000 kJ of
heat energy from a heat reservoir at 1000 K to a heat reservoir at 500 K.
HR
at T Areas
T=1000 K = 1000 kJ
1000 K
Q=1000 kJ
HR 500 K
at
T-T = 500K
0 1 2 S, kJ/K

The second law for the isolated system is

Q Q
S gen STotal
T T T
1000kJ 1000kJ

1000 K 500 K
kJ
( 1 2)
K
kJ
1
K 36
Example 7-4

Find the entropy and/or temperature of steam at the following states:

P, (MPa) T ,C Region s, kJ/(kg K)

5 MPa 120oC

1 MPa 50oC

1.8 MPa 400oC

40 kPa Quality, x = 0.9

40 kPa 7.1794

37
Example 7-5

Determine the entropy change of water contained in a closed system as it changes

phase from saturated liquid to saturated vapor when the pressure is 0.1 MPa and
constant. Why is the entropy change positive for this process?

System: The water contained in the system (a piston-cylinder device)

T

Steam

Property Relation: Steam tables

Process and Process Diagram: Constant pressure (sketch the process relative to
the saturation lines)

Conservation Principles: Using the definition of entropy change, the entropy

change of the water per mass is

38
 s s2 s1 sg s f s fg
kJ
6.0562
kg K
The entropy change is positive because: (Heat is added to the water.)

Example 7-6

Steam at 1 MPa, 600oC, expands in a turbine to 0.01 MPa. If the process is

isentropic, find the final temperature, the final enthalpy of the steam, and the turbine
work.

System: The control volume formed by the turbine

T
1
Wout

Control surface
2

39
Property Relation: Steam tables

Process and Process Diagram: Isentropic (sketch the process relative to the
saturation lines on the T-s diagram)

Conservation Principles:

Assume: steady-state, steady-flow, one entrance, one exit, neglect KE and PE

Conservation of mass:
1 m
m 2 m

First Law or conservation of energy:

The process is isentropic and thus adiabatic and reversible; therefore Q = 0. The
conservation of energy becomes
Ein E out
m 1h1 m 2 h2 Wout

40
Since the mass flow rates in and out are equal, solve for the work done per unit mass

E in E out
Wout m 1h1 m 2 h2
m (h1 h2 )
Wout
w h1 h2
m
Now, lets go to the steam tables to find the hs.
kJ
h 3698.6
P1 1MPa 1
kg

T1 600o C kJ
s1 8.0311
kg K

The process is isentropic, therefore; s2 = s1 = 8.0311 kJ/(kg K )

At P2 = 0.01 MPa, sf = 0.6492 kJ/kgK, and sg = 8.1488 kJ/(kg K);
thus, sf < s2 < sg.

State 2 is in the saturation region, and the quality is needed to specify the state.

41
 s2 s f x2 s fg
s2 s f
x2
s fg
8.0311 0.6492
0.984
7.4996
h2 h f x2 h fg
191.8 (0.984)(2392.1)
kJ
2545.6
kg
Since state 2 is in the two-phase region, T2 = Tsat at P2 = 45.81oC.
w h1 h2
kJ
(3698.6 2545.6)
kg
kJ
1153
kg

42
Example 7-9

Air, initially at 17oC, is compressed in an isentropic process through a pressure ratio

of 8:1. Find the final temperature assuming constant specific heats and variable
specific heats.

a. Constant specific heats, isentropic process

For air, k = 1.4, and a pressure ratio of 8:1 means that P2/P1 = 8

b. Variable specific heat method

43
 Using the air data from Table A-17 for T1 = (17+273) K = 290 K, Pr1 = 1.2311.

P2
Pr 2 Pr 1
P1
12311
. (8) 9.8488

Example 7-10

Air initially at 0.1 MPa, 27oC, is compressed reversibly to a final state.

(a) Find the entropy change of the air when the final state is 0.5 MPa, 227oC.
(b) Find the entropy change when the final state is 0.5 MPa, 180oC.
(c) Find the temperature at 0.5 MPa that makes the entropy change zero.

Assume air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.

44
Show the two processes on a T-s diagram.

a.

b.

45
c.

The T-s plot is

T
P2
2
a
c
b
P1

Give an explanation for the difference in the signs for the entropy changes.

46
Example 7-11

Nitrogen expands isentropically in a piston cylinder device from a temperature of 500

K while its volume doubles. What is the final temperature of the nitrogen, and how
much work did the nitrogen do against the piston, in kJ/kg?

System: The closed piston-cylinder device

47
Property Relation: Ideal gas equations, constant properties

Process and Process Diagram: Isentropic expansion

Conservation Principles:

Second law:

Since we know T1 and the volume ratio, the isentropic process, s = 0, allows us to
find the final temperature. Assuming constant properties, the temperatures are
related by

Why did the temperature decrease?

48
First law, closed system:

Note, for the isentropic process (reversible, adiabatic); the heat transfer is zero. The
conservation of energy for this closed system becomes

Ein Eout E
W U
W U
Using the ideal gas relations, the work per unit mass is
W mCv (T2 T1 )
W
w Cv (T2 T1 )
m
kJ
0.743 (378.9 500) K
kg K
kJ
90.2
kg
Why is the work positive?

49
Example 7-12

A Carnot engine has 1 kg of air as the working fluid. Heat is supplied to the air at 800
K and rejected by the air at 300 K. At the beginning of the heat addition process, the
pressure is 0.8 MPa and during heat addition the volume triples.

(a) Calculate the net cycle work assuming air is an ideal gas with constant specific
heats.
(b) Calculate the amount of work done in the isentropic expansion process.
(c) Calculate the entropy change during the heat rejection process.

System: The Carnot engine piston-cylinder device.

50
Property Relation: Ideal gas equations, constant properties.

Process and Process Diagram: Constant temperature heat addition.

51
Conservation Principles:

a.
Apply the first law, closed system, to the constant temperature heat addition process,
1-2.
Qnet ,12 Wnet ,12 U12
mCv (T2 T1 ) 0
Qnet ,12 Wnet ,12
So for the ideal gas isothermal process,

52
But
Qnet ,12 QH
QH 252.2 kJ
The cycle thermal efficiency is
Wnet , cycle
th
QH
For the Carnot cycle, the thermal efficiency is also given by

TL 300 K
th 1 1
TH 800 K
0.625
The net work done by the cycle is

53
 Wnet , cycle th QH
0.625(252.2 kJ )
157.6 kJ
b.
Apply the first law, closed system, to the isentropic expansion process, 2-3.

But the isentropic process is adiabatic, reversible; so, Q23 = 0.

Ein Eout E
W U
W23 U 23
Using the ideal gas relations, the work per unit mass is
W23 mCv (T3 T2 )
kJ
(1kg )(0.718 )(300 800) K
kg K
359.0 kJ
This is the work leaving the cycle in process 2-3. 54
c.
Using equation (6-34)

But T4 = T3 = TL = 300 K, and we need to find P4 and P3.

Consider process 1-2 where T1 = T2 = TH = 800 K, and, for ideal gases

m1 m2
PV PV
1 1
2 2
T1 T2
V1
P2 P1
3V1
1
(800 kPa )
3
266.7 kPa

55
Consider process 2-3 where s3 = s2.

Now, consider process 4-1 where s4 = s1.

k /( k 1)
T4
P4 P1
T1
1.4 /(1.4 1)
300 K
8000 kPa
800k
25.834 kPa

56
Now,

57
Example 7-13

Saturated liquid water at 10 kPa leaves the condenser of a steam power plant and is
pumped to the boiler pressure of 5 MPa. Calculate the work for an isentropic
pumping process.

a. From the above analysis, the work for the reversible process can be applied to the
isentropic process (it is left for the student to show this is true) as

WC mv
1 ( P2 P1 )
Here at 10 kPa, v1 = vf = 0.001010 m3/kg.

The work per unit mass flow is

WC
wC v1 ( P2 P1 )
m
m3 kJ
0.001010 (5000 10) kPa 3
kg m kPa
kJ
5.04
kg

58
b. Using the steam table data for the isentropic process, we have
Wnet m (h2 h1 )
(0 W ) m (h h )
C 2 1

From the saturation pressure table,

kJ
h 191.81
P1 10 kPa
1
kg

Sat. Liquid kJ
s1 0.6492
kg K
Since the process is isentropic, s2 = s1. Interpolation in the compressed liquid tables
gives
P2 5 MPa
kJ
kJ h2 197.42
s2 s1 0.6492 kg
kg K
The work per unit mass flow is
WC
wC (h2 h1 )

m
kJ
(197.42 191.81)
kg
kJ
5.61
kg 59
Example 7-14

The isentropic work of the turbine in Example 7-6 is 1152.2 kJ/kg. If the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine is 90 percent, calculate the actual work. Find the actual
turbine exit temperature or quality of the steam.
Actual turbine work w
T a
Isentropic turbine work ws
kJ kJ
wa T ws (0.9)(1153.0 ) 1037.7
kg kg
h1 h2 a
T
h1 h2 s
Now to find the actual exit state for the steam.

From Example 7-6, steam enters the turbine at 1 MPa, 600oC, and expands to 0.01
MPa.

60
From the steam tables at state 1
kJ
h 3698.6
P1 1 MPa 1 kg

T1 600o C kJ
s1 8.0311
kg K
At the end of the isentropic expansion process, see Example 7-6.
P2 0.01 MPa kJ
2s
h 2545.6
kJ kg
s2 s s1 8.0311
kg K
x2 s 0.984
The actual turbine work per unit mass flow is (see Example 7-6)
wa h1 h2 a
h2 a h1 wa
kJ
(3698.6 1037.7)
kg
kJ
2660.9
kg

61
For the actual turbine exit state 2a, the computer software gives

A second method for finding the actual state 2 comes directly from the expression for
the turbine isentropic efficiency. Solve for h2a.
h2 a h1 T (h1 h2 s )
kJ kJ
3698.6 (0.9)(3698.6 2545.6)
kg kg
kJ
2660.9
kg
Then P2 and h2a give T2a = 86.85oC.

62
Example 7-15

Air enters a compressor and is compressed adiabatically from 0.1 MPa, 27oC, to a
final state of 0.5 MPa. Find the work done on the air for a compressor isentropic
efficiency of 80 percent.

System: The compressor control volume

Property Relation: Ideal gas equations, assume constant properties.

2a
T 2s P2

P1
1

63
Process and Process Diagram: First, assume isentropic, steady-flow and then
apply the compressor isentropic efficiency to find the actual work.

Conservation Principles:

For the isentropic case, Qnet = 0. Assuming steady-state, steady-flow, and neglecting
changes in kinetic and potential energies for one entrance, one exit, the first law is

E in E out
1h1 WCs m
m 2 h2 s
The conservation of mass gives
1 m
m 2 m

The conservation of energy reduces to

WCs m (h2 s h1 )
WCs
wCs (h2 s h1 )
m

64
Using the ideal gas assumption with constant specific heats, the isentropic work per
unit mass flow is
wCs Cp (T2 s T1 )

The isentropic temperature at state 2 is found from the isentropic relation

The conservation of energy becomes

wCs C p (T2 s T1 )
kJ
1005
. (475.4 300) K
kg K
kJ
176.0
kg

65
The compressor isentropic efficiency is defined as
ws
C
wa
wcs
wCa
C
kJ
176
kg kJ
220
0.8 kg
Example 7-16

Nitrogen expands in a nozzle from a temperature of 500 K while its pressure

decreases by factor of two. What is the exit velocity of the nitrogen when the nozzle
isentropic efficiency is 95 percent?

System: The nozzle control volume.

66
Property Relation: The ideal gas equations, assuming constant specific heats

Process and Process Diagram: First assume an isentropic process and then apply
the nozzle isentropic efficiency to find the actual exit velocity.

Conservation Principles:

For the isentropic case, Qnet = 0. Assume steady-state, steady-flow, no work is done.
Neglect the inlet kinetic energy and changes in potential energies. Then for one
entrance, one exit, the first law reduces to
E in E out
2
V
m 1h1 m 2 (h2 s 2 s )
2

67
The conservation of mass gives
1 m
m 2 m

The conservation of energy reduces to

V2 s 2(h1 h2 s )
Using the ideal gas assumption with constant specific heats, the isentropic exit
velocity is

V2 s 2Cp (T1 T2 s )

The isentropic temperature at state 2 is found from the isentropic relation

68
The nozzle exit velocity is obtained from the nozzle isentropic efficiency as
2
V2 a / 2
N 2
V2 s / 2
m m
V2 a V2 s N 442.8 0.95 421.8
s s
69
Example 7-17

An inventor claims to have developed a water mixing device in which 10 kg/s of water
at 25oC and 0.1 MPa and 0.5 kg/s of water at 100oC, 0.1 MPa, are mixed to produce
10.5 kg/s of water as a saturated liquid at 0.1 MPa. If the surroundings to this device
are at 20oC, is this process possible? If not, what temperature must the surroundings
have for the process to be possible?

System: The mixing chamber control volume.

Property Relation: The steam tables

Process and Process Diagram: Assume steady-flow

70
Conservation Principles:

First lets determine if there is a heat transfer from the surroundings to the mixing
chamber. Assume there is no work done during the mixing process, and neglect
kinetic and potential energy changes. Then for two entrances and one exit, the first
law becomes

kJ
h h 104.83
P1 0.1 MPa 1 f @ T1
kg

T1 25o C kJ
s1 s f @T1 0.3672
kg K

kJ
h 2675.8
P2 0.1 MPa 2 kg

T2 100o C kJ
s2 7.3611
kg K

71
 kJ
h 417.51
P3 0.1 MPa
3
kg

Sat. liquid kJ
s3 1.3028
kg K
Q net m 3h3 m 1h1 m 2 h2
kg kJ kg kJ kg kJ
10.5 417.51 10 104.83 0.5 2675.8
s kg s kg s kg
kJ
1997.7
s
So, 1996.33 kJ/s of heat energy must be transferred from the surroundings to this
mixing process, or Q net , surr Q net , CV
For the process to be possible, the second law must be satisfied. Write the second
law for the isolated system,
Q k
T m i si m e se Sgen SCV
k

For steady-flow SCV 0 . Solving for entropy generation, we have

72
 Q k
S gen m e se m i si

Tk
Q cv
m 3 s3 m 1s1 m 2 s2
Tsurr
kg kJ kg kJ
10.5 1.3028 10 0.3672
s kg K s kg K
kg kJ 1997.7 kJ / s
0.5 7.3611
s kg K (20 273) K
kJ
0.491
K s
Since Sgen must be 0 to satisfy the second law, this process is impossible, and the
inventor's claim is false.

To find the minimum value of the surrounding temperature to make this mixing
process possible, set Sgen = 0 and solve for Tsurr.

73
 Q k
S gen m e se m i si
0
Tk
Q cv
Tsurr
m 3 s3 m 1s1 m 2 s2
1997.7 kJ / s

kg kJ kg kJ kg kJ
10.5 1.3028 10 0.3672 0.5 7.3611
s kg K s kg K s kg K
315.75K

One way to think about this process is as follows: Heat is transferred from the
surroundings at 315.75 K (42.75oC) in the amount of 1997.7 kJ/s to increase the
water temperature to approximately 42.75oC before the water is mixed with the
superheated steam. Recall that the surroundings must be at a temperature greater
than the water for the heat transfer to take place from the surroundings to the water.

74
Answer to Example 7-4

Find the entropy and/or temperature of steam at the following states:

P T Region s kJ/kgK

5 MPa 120oC Compressed liquid and 1.5233

in the table

1 MPa 50oC Compressed liquid but s = sf at 50oC

not in the table = 0.7038

1.8 MPa 400oC Superheated 7.1794

40 kPa T=Tsat Quality, x = 0.9 s = sf + x sfg

=75.87oC Saturated mixture = 7.0056

40 kPa T=Tsat sf<s<sg at P 7.1794

=75.87oC Saturated mixture
X = (s-sf )/sfg
= 0.9262

75