Thermodynamics

DAM20503
TOPIC 1: BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION

En. Muhammad Hanafi Bin Asril Rajo

Mantari
1.1. Introduction
Thermodynamics: The science of energy.
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
Thermodynamics is the branch of science
concerned with heat and temperature and
their relation to energy and work
The name thermodynamics stems from the
Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis
(power). Hanafi, JKM,PPD,16
1.2. Laws of Thermodynamics

Laws of
thermodynamics

Zeroth law First law Second law

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 The zeroth Law: if two thermodynamics systems are
each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
The first law: An expression of the conservation of
energy principle. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The second law: It emphasize that energy has quality
as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of energy.

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1.3. System, boundary and surrounding
System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
Systems may be considered to be closed or
open.
Boundary (sempadan): The real or
imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
Surroundings (sekitaran): The mass or
region outside the system

A thermodynamic system is a
quantity of matter (jirim) or region
(kawasan) in space (ruang tertentu) Hanafi, JKM,PPD,16
that we are interested in study.
1.4. Closed System and Open System

A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross the
system boundary. The closed system boundary may move.

Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (note the
volume does not have to be fixed). However, energy in the form of heat and work
may cross the boundaries of a closed system.

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Mass cannot cross the boundaries A closed system with a moving
of a closed system, but energy can boundary

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An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy
crossing the boundary, called a control surface. Examples of open
systems are pumps, nozzles, diffusers, compressors, turbines, throttling
valves, mixing chambers, pipe, duct flow and heat exchangers.

An open system (a control volume) with one inlet and one exit
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An open system (a control volume) with one
inlet and one exit.

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An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat
or work may cross the boundaries. An isolated system is a closed
system with no energy crossing the boundaries and is normally a
collection of a main system and its surroundings that are exchanging
mass and energy among themselves and no other system.

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Hanafi, JKM,PPD,16
1.5. Process, State and Thermodynamics
Properties
Property: Any characteristic of
a system.
Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T,
volume V, and mass m.

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Properties of a System
Properties are considered to
be either intensive or
extensive.
Intensive properties: Those
that are independent of the
MASS of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and
density.
Extensive properties:
depend on the SIZE of the
system. Example: Mass,
volume, weight, length.
Specific properties:
Extensive properties per unit
mass. Hanafi, JKM,PPD,16
Density and Specific Gravity
Density Specific gravity: The
ratio of the density of a
substance to the density
of some standard
Specific Gravity substance at a specified
temperature (usually water
at 4C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

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State and Equilibrium

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 Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state of
balance.
In an equilibrium state there
are no unbalanced potentials
(or driving forces) within the
system.

A closed system reaching

thermal equilibrium.
A system at two different states.

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 Types of Equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure
at any point of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and
when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level
and stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a
system does not change with time, that is, no chemical
reactions occur.
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 The State of Postulate
The number of properties required
to fix the state of a system is given
by the state postulate:
The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by two
independent, intensive The state of nitrogen is fixed by two
properties. independent, intensive properties
Simple compressible system: If temperature and specific volume .
a system involves no electrical,
magnetic, gravitational, motion,
and surface tension effects.

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 Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state
to another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a
process.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium (near equilibriumprocess:
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains
infinitesimally (infinitely small) close to an equilibrium state at all times.
Notes: Quasi means Almost
 Process diagrams plotted by employing
thermodynamic properties as coordinates are very
useful in visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are used as
coordinates are temperature T, pressure P, and
volume V (or specific volume v).
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process
for which a particularproperty remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process during which the
temperature T remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during which the
pressure P remains constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process
The P-V diagram of a
during which the specific volume v remains constant.
compression process.
Cycle: A process during which the initial and final
states are identical.
1.6. The working fluid, the types of
properties, properties as a function of
the state, a state diagram, the types of
processes
 The Steady Flow Process
The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite
of steady is unsteady, or transient.
A large number of engineering devices operate for long
periods of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices.
Steady-flow process: A process during which a fluid flows
through a control volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for continuous operation such as
turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers
or power plants or refrigeration systems.
 Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
and energy contents of a control volume
remain constant.
During a steady-flow process, fluid properties
within the control volume may change with
position but not with time.
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal

equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium

with each other.

By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can

be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have

the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
Two bodies reaching
thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
isolated enclosure.
1.7. The pressure, volume and
temperature, and measurement
units.
 Temperature Scales
All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states
such as the freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and the
steam point.
Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air
saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0C or 32F).
Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100C or 212F).
Celsius scale: in SI unit system
Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of any substance.
Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures on this scale are measured using
a constant-volume gas thermometer.
P versus T plots of the experimental data A constant-volume gas thermometer would
obtained from a constant-volume gas read 273.15C at absolute zero pressure.
thermometer using four different gases at
different (but low) pressures.
 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.
 Pressure
68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area

Afeet=300c
m2

0.23 0.46
kgf/cm 2 kgf/cm2
P=68/300=0.23
kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or pressure) on

the feet of a chubby person is much
greater than on the feet of a slim
person.
 Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices
are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate
gage pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Pabs = Pgage + Patm

Pvac = Patm - Pabs

Throughout this course, the
pressure P will denote absolute
pressure unless specified
otherwise.
 Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a result of fluid element in equilibrium.
added weight).
Pascals law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.

Lifting of a large weight

by a small force by the
application of Pascals
law.
 The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure
differences. A manometer contains one or more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density and height h is gh.
Measuring the pressure drop across a flow section
or a flow device by a differential manometer.

Patm

P2
 Other Measurement Devices
Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook
whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle.

Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to convert the

pressure effect to an electrical effect such as a change in
voltage, resistance, or capacitance.

Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they can be

more sensitive, reliable, and precise than their mechanical
counterparts.

Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by having a

diaphragm deflect between two chambers open to the pressure
inputs.

Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state pressure

transducers, work on the principle that an electric potential is
generated in a crystalline substance when it is subjected to
mechanical pressure.
 The Baromoter and Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the cross-

sectional area of the tube has
no effect on the height of the
fluid column of a barometer,
provided that the tube
diameter is large enough to
avoid surface tension
Basic barometer (capillary) effects.
 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions,
while others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary
dimensions, or derived dimensions.
 Metric SI system: A simple and
logical system based on a decimal
relationship between the various
units.
English system: It has no
apparent systematic numerical
base, and various units in this
system are related to each other
rather arbitrarily.
 SI and English Unit

Work = Force
Distance The SI unit prefixes are used in all
branches of engineering.

1 J = 1 Nm

The definition of
the force units.
A body
weighing 60
kgf on earth
will weight W weight
only 10 kgf m mass
on the moon. g gravitational
acceleration

The weight of
a unit mass at The relative magnitudes of
sea level. the force
units newton (N), kilogram-
force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).
 All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

All non-primary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unit-less, and thus such
ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.
Exercises:
1. 1 kg of water at 10 C is added to 10 kg of water at 50 C.
What is the temperature of the water when it reaches thermal
equilibrium?
2. A gas in a system has constant pressure. The surroundings
around the system lose 62 J of heat and does 474 J of work
onto the system. What is the internal energy of the system?
 Answer (Q1)
qlost = qgain

10 X 50
However: C C
q = (mass) (t) (Cp)
1 kg 10kg
So:
(mass) (t) (Cp) = (mass) (t) (Cp)

With qlost on the left side and qgain on the right side.
Substituting values into the above, we then have:

(1) (x -10)(Cp) = (10) (50 x)(Cp) x = 46.36C

Answer (Q2)

To find internal energy, U, we must consider the relationship between the

system and the surroundings. Since the First Law of Thermodynamics states
that energy is not created nor destroyed we know that anything lost by the
surroundings is gained by the system. The surrounding area loses heat and does
work onto the system. Therefore, q and w are positive in the equation
U=q+w because the system gains heat and gets work done on itself.
U = (62J) + (474J); U = 536J