BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

General Psychology

The Nervous System

The bodys electrochemical communication circuitry; made up of billions of interconnected cells.

Characteristics:

1. Complexity - the brain itself is composed of billions of nerve cells

(as you are reading, your brain is carrying out a huge number of task breathing, seeing, thinking, movingin which
extensive assemblies of nerve cells are participating)

2. Integration - pulling information together

3. Adaptability - the world is constantly changing. We need to adapt in order to survive.

4. Electrochemical transmission - The brain and the nervous system function essentially as an information-
processing system, powered by electrical impulses and chemical messengers.

Pathways in the Nervous System

a. Afferent Nerves (Latin bring to)

These sensory pathways communicate information about external and bodily environments from
sensory receptors into and throughout the brain.
b. Efferent Nerves (Latin bring forth)
These motor pathways communicate information from the brain to the hands, feet, and other
areas of the body that allow a person to engage in motor behavior.

A schematic diagram of the relationship of the parts of the nervous system

The Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous Central Nervous

System System
PNS CNS

Autonomic Brain Spinal Cord

Somatic Division
Division
(Voluntary)
(Involuntary)

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Division Division
(Arousing) (Calming)
 CNS made up of the brain and spinal cord
PNS network of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord and other parts of the body.
- bring information to and from the brain and spinal cord.
- carry out the commands of the CNS to execute various muscular and glandular activities.

Peripheral Nervous System

1. Somatic nervous system

a. consist of sensory nerves
b. Convey information from the skin and muscles to the CNS about conditions such as pain and
temperature, and motor nerves, whose function is to tell the muscles what to do.
2. Autonomic Nervous system
a. Communicates with the bodys internal organs and monitors processes such as breathing, heart
rate, and digestion.
i. 2.1 sympathetic arouses the body
ii. 2.2 parasympathetic calms the body

Neurons

Nerve cells, chemicals, and electrical impulses work together to transmit information at speeds of up to
330 miles an hour.
**Information can travel from your brain to your hands (or vice versa) in a matter of milliseconds.

Two types of cells in the nervous system:

1) Neurons basic units of the nervous system

nerve cells that are specialized for processing information.
human brain contains about 100 billion neurons
average neuron is as complex as a small computer and has as many as 10,000 physical connections
with other cells.
[a mere thought requires millions of neurons acting simultaneously]
2) Glial cells provide support and nutritional benefits in the nervous system.
Magnified actual brain nerve cells

NEURON and parts

Part of the neurons

o Cell body part of the neuron which contains the nucleus

o Nucleus directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance
o Dendrites branches of neurons that receive and orient information toward the cell body.
Most nerve cells have numerous dendrites, which increase their surface area, allowing each
neuron to receive input from many other neurons.
o Axon part of neuron that carries information away from the cell body to other cells (1/10,000 of an
inch).
can be very long, with many branches
Some extend more than 3 feet from the top of the brain to the base of the spinal cord.
o Myelin sheath layer of fat cells, encases and insulates most axons
by insulating axons, myelin sheaths speed up transmission of nerve impulses.

>>> Multiple sclerosis (scars) when hardening of myelin tissue occurs; there will be disruption in neuronal
communication.

SYNAPSES AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Neurons do not touch each other directly, but they manage to communicate.

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

o Synapses tiny junction between neurons; the gap between neurons referred to as synaptic gap.

** Most synapse lie between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron.

>> Before an impulse can cross the synaptic gap, it must be converted into a chemical signal.

>> Each axon branches out into numerous fibers that end in structures called terminal buttons.

>> stored in minute synaptic vesicles (sac) within the terminal buttons are chemical substances called
neurotransmitters.

>> transmit or carry information across the synaptic gap to the next neuron.

NEUROCHEMICAL MESSENGERS

1. Acetylcholine found throughout the CNS and PNS

stimulates the firing of neurons and involved in the action of muscles, learning, and memory
Ex. Venom of black widow spider causes Ach to gush out of the synapses between the spinal cord and
skeletal muscles, producing violent spasms while poison on darts block receptors for Ach, paralyzing
muscles.

2. GABA (gamma amino butyric acid) found throughout the nervous system

Keeps many neurons from firing/helps control the precision of the signal being carried from one neuron to
the next.
Low level of GABA is linked with anxiety.
3. Norepinephrine

Inhibits the firing of neurons in the central nervous system but excites the heart muscle, intestines, and
urogenital tract.
stimulated by stress
helps to control alertness
too little is associated with depression
too much triggers, agitated manic stress

**Neurotransmitters my work in teams or two

Ex. Norepinephrine works with acetylcholine to regulate the states of sleep and wakefulness.

4. Dopamine

Helps control voluntary movement and affect sleep, mood, attention, and learning.
Low levels associated with Parkinsons disease (physical movements deteriorate); high levels
associated with schizophrenia.

5. Serotonin

involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning

teams with acetylcholine to regulate sleep and wakefulness
low level is associated with depression

6. Endorphin natural opiates that mainly stimulate the firing of neurons.

shield the body from pain and elevate feelings of pleasure

Ex. A long distance runner, a woman giving birth, a person in shock after a car wreck has elevated levels of
endorphins.
Morphine mimics the action of endorphins by stimulating receptors in the brain involved with pleasure
and pain.

7. Oxytocin hormone and neurotransmitter that plays an important role in the experience of love and human
bonding.

A powerful surge of oxytocin is released in mothers who have just given birth, and oxytocin is related to
the onset of lactation and breast feeding.
Involved with human tendency to form emotional bonds with romantic partners.

DRUGS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Most drugs that influence behavior do so mainly by interfering with the work of neurotransmitters.
Drugs can mimic or increase the effects of neurotransmitters, or they can block those effects.
agonist drug that mimics or increases a neurotransmitters effects
antagonist block the neurotransmitters effect
Parts and Functions of the Brain

1. The Central Core: Our Old Brain

Control basic functions such as eating and sleeping and is common to all vertebrates.

Parts of the Central Core Old Brain

a) Hindbrain - contains the medulla, pons, and

Cerebellum - the part of the brain that controls bodily balance.
Medulla - control a number of critical body functions, most important are breathing & heartbeat.
Pons - join the 2 halves of the cerebellum; contains large number of nerves: transmitter of motor
information, coordinating muscles, and integrating movement between the right and left halves of
the body; involved in the control of sleep.

b) The Limbic System

- Located outside the new brain that controls eating, aggression, and reproduction.
- Borders the top of the central core and has connections with the cerebral cortex.
- Consist of a series of doughnut shaped structures: amygdala, hippocampus, & formix.
- Produce and regulate human emotional responses

* Positive emotions such as feelings of affection, bonding, love, pleasure, and happiness arise from electrical and
chemical activity in the limbic system in response to external cues such as proximity of potential mates, food, or
satisfaction of higher drives.

* Negative emotions (such as fear, anger, envy, disgust, & depression) arise in response to events or situations
that threaten our survival, well-being, or sense of fair play. (These emotion are also learned)

- The limbic system is connected to the neocortex (gives us our sense of self-awareness, as well as
higher attributes of consciousness such as morals, beliefs, intentions, goals, & aspirations).
- More nerve fibers run from the limbic system up to the cortex than from the cortex back to the
limbic system (if neural activity were water, the limbic system would have a fire hose connection to
the cortex. The cortex has a straw to the limbic system).

This fundamental imbalance in connectivity means that emotion can easily overwhelm & overrule
thinking, deliberating parts of our brain.
o This basic brain imbalance between our reason & our emotions leads to all sorts of trouble.
The amygdala is the brain structure that is essential in decoding emotions, and in particular, stimuli that
are threatening.
Many of our alarm circuits are grouped together in the amygdala.
The amygdalae are positioned to intercept sensory information streaming from our eyes, ears, & noses; if
that information contains a potential threat, the amygdalae immediately fire off volleys of impulses that
can change our behavior even before the signals have been fully processed & interpreted by the
neocortex.
Brains are as unique as faces. This is the same with brain structures. Some people have very reactive,
sensitive amygdalae (the startle easily, are hot tempered, or feel intense bodily reactions to frightening
situations. Others have relatively quiet amygdalae).
 2. Cerebral Cortex : Our New Brain
Consist of a mass deeply folded, rippled, convoluted tissue.
Only about 1/12 of an inch thick, but when flattened out would cover an area more than 2 sq. ft.
Cerebral cortex contains the lobes

Cerebral Cortex

Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem
solving
Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli
Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing
Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech

Right and Left Brain Hemisphere

Brain is dual structure. It is connected by a broadband neural link called the corpus callosum.
The natures solution to the problem for specialized brain processing areas was to use division of labor.
Our brain has no known limit for memory storage.
Experience rearranges the connections between brain cells, allowing a given neural net to remember a
vast number of different firing patterns.
Our brains never lose the ability to learn by forming new synapses, dendrites, and even entirely new brain