ECG 417

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

By:
Dr Haryati Awang
T1-A17-2C
SYLLABUS

Chapter 1 Introduction to Geology

Chapter 2 Introduction to Mineralogy
Chapter 3 The Study of Rocks
Chapter 4 Weathering of Rocks
Chapter 5 Introduction to Structural Geology
Chapter 6 Introduction to Hydrogeology
Chapter 7 Engineering Geology
COURSE OUTCOMES

Understand principles of engineering geology as

applied to civil engineering works
Acquire methods of identification, classification,
interpretation of rock materials for rock mass
assessment and geological mapping
Understand rock behaviour and its engineering
characteristics
Carry out laboratory tests for engineering
classification
COURSE CONTENT

Topics Week Area of Coverage for Lectures Remarks

1.1 Principle Divisions of the

Earth.
1.1.1 Introduction to the
Solar System.
CHAPTER 1: 1.1.2 Physical Features
INTRODUCTION 1-2 of the Earth.
TO GEOLOGY 1.2 Geological Processes.
1.2.1 Plate Tectonics
1.2.2 Process of Gradation
1.2.3 Process of Volcanism
1.3 Geological Time Scale
 Topics Week Area of Coverage for Lectures Remarks

2.1 Physical properties of

minerals.
2.2 Rock Forming Minerals.
CHAPTER 2: 2.2.1 Silicate Minerals.
INTRODUCTION TO 3-4 2.2.2 Non Silicate Minerals.
MINERALOGY 2.3 Significance of Minerals in
Civil Engineering Works.
2.3.1 Minerals in Sand.
2.3.2 Clay Minerals.
 Topics Week Area of Coverage for Lectures Remarks

3.1 Geological Cycle of Rock.

3.2 Introduction to Igneous Rock.
3.2.1 Formation and Types of Igneous Rock.
3.2.2 Classification of Igneous Rock.
3.3 Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks.
CHAPTER 3:
3.3.1 Formation and Types of Sedimentary
THE STUDY
5-7 Rocks.
OF ROCKS
3.3.2 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks.
3.4 Introduction to Metamorphic Rocks.
3.4.1 Formation and Types of Metamorphic
Rocks.
3.4.2 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks.
3.5 Rocks in Civil Engineering
 Topics Week Area of Coverage for Lectures Remarks

4.1 Physical Weathering of Rocks.

4.2 Chemical Weathering of Rocks.
CHAPTER 4:
4.3 Formation of Soil.
WEATHERING OF 8-9
4.4 Weathering Grade in Accordance to
ROCKS
BS 5930: Code of Practice for Site
Investigations.

5.1 Plane of Weaknesses in Rocks.

5.1.1 Strike and Dip.
CHAPTER 5: 5.1.2 Folds, Fault and Joints.
INTRODUCTION TO 5.2 Introduction to Two-dimensional
10 - 11
STRUCTURAL Structural Mapping.
GEOLOGY 5.3 Structural Interpretation of Geologic
Maps and Introduction to Stereo net
plot.
 Topics Week Area of Coverage for Lectures Remarks

6.1 Nature of Groundwater and its

Occurrence.
6.1.1 Introduction to the Properties of
CHAPTER 6:
Aquifer, Aquicludes and
INTRODUCTION TO 11 - 12
Aquitards.
HYDROGEOLOGY
6.1.2 Principles of Groundwater Flow
6.2 Introduction to Groundwater Extraction
and Determination.

7.1 Engineering Properties of Rocks:

CHAPTER 7: Physical and Mechanical Properties.
ENGINEERING 13 - 14 7.2 Rock Classification: Rock Material and
GEOLOGY Rock Mass Properties e.g. Bieniawski
Classification System
ASSESSMENT

Lectures - 2 hours per week

Laboratory Sessions - 2 hours per week
Site Visit/Technical Talk - 4 hours per semester

Tests (At least 2) 20 %

Laboratory Reports 10 %
Soft Skills 10 %
Total Continuous Assessment 40 %
Final Examination 60 %
Total 100 %
REFERENCES

Monroe, J. S. and Wicander, R. (2006), The Changing Earth:

Exploring Geology and Evolution, Fourth Edition, Thomson
Brookes/Cole.

Blyth, F. G. H and de Freitas M. H. (2001), A Geology for Engineers,

Seventh Edition, BH.

Goodman, R. E. (1993). Engineering Geology. John Wiley and Sons.

Kehew, A. E. (1988), General Geology for Engineers, Prentice Hall.

Rahn, P. H. (1986), Engineering Geology: An Environmental

Approach, Prentice Hall.

West, T. R. (1995), Geology Applied to Engineering, Prentice Hall.

 CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION TO
GEOLOGY
WEEK 1
Lesson Outcomes
Student should be able to:

Explain the Big Bang theory of the

origin of the universe and the main
evidence of it

Distinguish the formation and

differentiation of the Earth
 What is geology?

It is concerned with the Earth and rocks of

which it is composed, the processes by which
they were formed during geological time and
the modelling of the Earths surface in the
past and at present day.
The term Geology was derived from the
Greek words of Geo which means Earth and
logos which means study or science.
Geology is therefore the study of the Earth,
which describes about the origin, structure
and history of the earth, its environment, and
its habitants, as recorded in the rock
 It is generally divided into two broad areas:
- physical geology: the study of earth materials, such as minerals
and rocks, as well as the process operating within Earth and on its
surface
- historical geology: examine the origin and evolution of the earth, its
continents, oceans, atmosphere and life.
The Earth is not a static body but is constantly subject to changes
both on its surface and deep within the Earth itself.
study of Earth Engineering geology is a subfield of geological study
concerning the geological inputs and the use of information to solve
engineering problems.
It exists solely to serve the art and science of engineering through
description of the structure and attributes of rocks connected with
engineering works (Goodman,1993).
 Water Resource
Engineering

Environmental Construction
Engineering Engineering

CIVIL
ENGINEERING
Geomorphology
Surveying and
Mapping
Geotechnical
Engineering
Paleontology Transportation
Engineering Engineering
Geology
GEOLOGY Structural
Engineering
Petrology

Geophysics and
Seismology
Economic
Geology
Why geology is important to civil engineers?

The science and nature of soils are derived from the gradation
processes of rocks and as the Earth is in motion, the tectonic and
volcanic processes must be fully understood and how the Earth
has shaped itself.
In addition, time has played a major role in the formation of
rocks, mountain ranges, deep trenches of the ocean and tectonic
plates which give rise to earthquakes, volcanoes and earth
hazards such as tsunami.
Geologist presents the geological data and interpretations for the
use by civil engineers.
The role of geology, begins during planning stage, where the
geological data are required in order to understand the nature of
the formation and to achieve accuracy.
 Rockfall at Bukit Lanjan

Earthfill Dam, Kielder,

Newcastle
Some engineering works that are related to
geological aspect include:
Construction of dams
(embankment/concrete),
waste-disposal sites, power plants.
Design earthquake-resistance buildings
Landslides, stability of rock slopes,
earthwork
purposes.
Rock as aggregates & construction
material.
Hydrogeology and the formation of
aquifers.
Tunneling and underground space Sandstone and Coal
Foundation and etc Formation at Seaton Sluice,
Newcastle
 The Universe and The Solar System

Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun,

the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.
It includes: satellites of the planets; numerous comets,
asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium.
The Sun is the richest source of electromagnetic energy
(mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system.
The eight major planets including our earth and their moons
are revolving around the Sun.
The Solar System

Neptune

Pluto

Uranus

Jupiter

Saturn
Mars

Earth
Venus
Mercury
 Distance Radius Mass Rotation # Moons Orbital Orbital Obliquity Density
(AU) (Earth's) (Earth's) (Earth's) Inclination Eccentricity (g/cm3)

Sun 0 109 332,800 25-36* 9 --- --- --- 1.410

Mercury 0.39 0.38 0.05 58.8 0 7 0.2056 0.1 5.43

Venus 0.72 0.95 0.89 244 0 3.394 0.0068 177.4 5.25

Earth 1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 0.000 0.0167 23.45 5.52

Mars 1.5 0.53 0.11 1.029 2 1.850 0.0934 25.19 3.95

Jupiter 5.2 11 318 0.411 16 1.308 0.0483 3.12 1.33

Saturn 9.5 9 95 0.428 18 2.488 0.0560 26.73 0.69

Uranus 19.2 4 17 0.748 15 0.774 0.0461 97.86 1.29

Neptune 30.1 4 17 0.802 8 1.774 0.0097 29.56 1.64

Pluto 39.5 0.18 0.002 0.267 1 17.15 0.2482 119.6 2.03

The Terrestrial Planets
The terrestrial planets are the four innermost planets in the solar
system, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
They are called terrestrial because they have a compact
(composed of metallic core and silicate mantle-crust), rocky
surface like the Earth's.
The planets; Venus, Earth, and Mars have significant
atmospheres while Mercury has almost none.

The Jovian Planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian
(Jupiter- like) planets, because they are all gigantic compared
with Earth, and they have low density with liquid interiors
surrounded by thick atmosphere like Jupiter's.
 Satellites or Moons: are those celestial
bodies, each of which are revolving
around any of these nine planets.
Asteroids are the minor planets generally
situated between orbits of Mars and
Jupiter.
Comets are the heavenly bodies having
along tail pointing approximately away
from the sun and a brighter head section
(coma) that contains a small bright
Nucleus.
Meteors are smaller solid bodies moving
through the space, and getting illuminated
while entering Earths atmosphere.
There are 17 bodies in the solar system with radius greater than 1000
km.

The composite above shows the Sun and the nine planets surrounding
the Sun given in scale.
The Origin of the Universe
Based on observational facts, cosmologist have developed classes of
hypothesis which try to explain the origin of the earth. One of them is:

The Big Bang Theory

13.7 billion years ago, the entirety of our universe was compressed into
the confines of an atomic nucleus. Known as a singularity, this is the
moment before creation when space and time did not exist. According to
the prevailing cosmological models that explain our universe, an
ineffable explosion, trillions of degrees in temperature on any
measurement scale, that was infinitely dense, created not only
fundamental subatomic particles and thus matter and energy but space
and time itself. Cosmology theorists combined with the observations of
their astronomy colleagues have been able to reconstruct the primordial
chronology of events known as the big bang.
The Earth

Viewed from the distance of the moon

The Earth
The Earth (Tellus), is one of eight planets in a solar system
with the sun as the central body. The Earth rotates around
the sun on a slightly elliptical path, with one orbit taking just
over 365 days, while spinning around its own axis once every
24 hours.
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest:
i) orbit: 149,600,000 km (1.00 AU) from Sun
ii) radius: 6378 km (polar radius is 22 km shorter)
iii) density: 5.5 g/cm3
iv) surface area: 510, 000, 000 km2

v) Shape: spherical
Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air, the atmosphere, of
which 77 % is nitrogen, 21 % oxygen and 2 % of other gases.
Only 29 % of the Earth's surface is covered by land.
 Principal Division of the Earth
http://marymount.scdsb.edu.on.ca/grassroots/
a) Atmosphere basic_weather_knowledge.html

Gaseous portion of the Earth containing 77 % of

nitrogen, 21 % of oxygen and 2 % of other gases.
This portion extends upwards for hundreds of
miles above sea level.
Divided into many different layers but only two (2)
are discussed here, which are:
i) Troposphere - approximately 13 km
from the surface and
contains all of the water
vapour, clouds and storms.
ii) Stratosphere - approximately 55 km from
the Earths surface which
contains the ozone layer.
- acts as an insulating agent
protecting people from heat
and ultra violet radiation.
- responsible for the process
of weathering.
b) Hydrosphere

Is the liquid water component of the Earth.

This includes 98 % of the ocean seas and 2 %
in lakes, ponds, rivers, streams as well as
groundwater.
Depth of the ocean is about 4 km which
covers 71 % of the Earth.

c) Lithosphere

From Greek word Lithos for rocky sphere is

the solid outermost shell of the Earth.
This include the crust and the uppermost layer
of the mantle.
Thickness varies from around 1.6 km at the
ocean ridge to approximately 130 km beneath
older oceanic crust.
Thickness of the continental lithospheric
plates is probably 150 km.
 Physical Features of the Earth

The Earth is divided into four

(4) main layers which are:
i) Crust iii) Outer core
ii) Mantle iv) Inner core
The core is mostly composed
of iron (Fe) which is so hot that
the outer core is molten with
about 10 % of sulphur (S).
The thickness of the outer core
is about 2250 km with an
average density of 10.7 g/cm3.
The thickness of the inner core is about 1300 km with an average density of
17 g/cm3 but since it is under intense pressure it remains solid.
The Earths mass is the mantle which covers almost 68 % of the mass and
82 % of the volume composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al),
silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) silicate compounds.
 The average density is 4.5 g/cm3 and goes down up to 2900 km from the
Earths surface.
At 1000o C the mantle is solid but it can slowly deform in a plastic manner
due to the convection.
The crust and the upper mantle float on the more plastic asthenosphere by
the change in chemical composition at the Mohorovicic discontinuity.
The crust is divided into two (2) which are:

i) Oceanic Crust
Thickness range between 7 km which have dense rock known as basalt
and an average density of 2.9 g/cm3.

ii) Continental Crust

The continental layer
averages up to 35 km thick
consisting of lower dense rock
known as granite and
andesite which have an
average density of 2.8 g/cm3.
 Structure of the Earth

The continental crust and

the oceanic crust are the
principle surface features
of the Earth with distinctly
different in composition,
density, rock type,
structure and origin.
The Earth's crust is primarily composed of Oxygen (49.2 %), Silicon (25.7
%), Aluminum (7.5 %), Iron (4.7 %), Calcium (3.4 %), Sodium (2.6 %),
Potassium (2.4 %) and Magnesium (1.9 %).
It is made up of two distinct layers, the sial layer, composed of the igneous
rock granite, and the sima layer, composed of the igneous rock basalt.
Continental crust consists of both the sial and sima type crust. The crust
beneath the continents averages 35 kilometers thick.
The highest peak is Mount Everest at 8, 850 m above sea level sitting on
the Himalayan Mountain range.
 The crust beneath the ocean is
made up of only the sima type crust
and its thickness averages only
about 7 kilometers.

The ocean floor is irregular similar to

the mountains build up on the
continental crust and the deepest
trench on the oceanic crust is the
Mariana Trench at 11, 033 m deep.
Mount Everest Standing at 8, 850 m

The formation of mountain ranges and deep

trenches and ridges are due to the
movement of plates known as plate
tectonics.
The internal forces that drives these plates
into their position is govern by convection
currents speculated by Arthur Holmes in
1930s.
A simple model providing the concept of
convection currents is the convection cells
which is commonly seen in a boiling hot
soup or water.
Mantle
The mantle of the earth is the layer between the core_of_the_earth and the
crust_of_the earth.
S-waves can move through the upper part of the mantle generating earthquake.
The depth is approximately 2,900 kilometers and makes up about 85 percent of the
Earth by volume.
The mantle of the earth shields us from the intense heat at the core_of_the_earth
and is composed mostly of iron-magnesium silicate.
The rock is at temperatures of order 1000 to 2000 C and creeps like a very viscous
fluid which is about 20 orders of magnitude greater than that of water, so velocity is
only centimeters per year, and the time interval of this animation is of order 10 million
years.
The Earth's mantle is a heavy layer of rock lying under the Earth's crust and in places
where the crust is broken, part of the upper mantle can melt and form a substance
called magma, or molten rock.
Magma can be forced through the Earths crust flowing out of volcanoes as lava.
The mantle of the Earth is composed mostly of Silicon, Oxygen, Aluminum and Iron.
The temperature increases the deeper you go into the mantle.
At the top the temperature is about 870 oC and at the bottom the temperature rise to
about 2200 oC.
 The mantle has a property called "plasticity" (where
a solid has the ability to flow like a liquid).
The difference in temperature causes CONVECTION
CURRENTS to form and it forms when hot things
rise and cooler things sink.
These convection currents tumble throughout the
mantle causing the Lithospheric plates floating on
the mantle to move around.
The currents are the driving force for Plate
Tectonics or Continental Drift.

The hot rock, which boils up at mid-ocean ridges, comes from the upper mantle
and spreads out forming new oceanic plates.
When these meet the opposite continents they plunge back down into the mantle,
sometimes going down as far as the outer core.
In addition there are hot spots, which start at the outer core and rise up through
the mantle to form islands such as Hawaii or Iceland.
 Sketch
showing
convection
cells
commonly
seen in boiling
water or soup.
This analogy,
however, does
not take into
account the
huge
differences in
the size and
the flow rates
of these cells.
Convection Currents
Large convection systems in the mantle may carry along the plates of the
lithosphere like a conveyor belt
Outer Core
The core of the Earth is like a ball of very
hot metals (4000 oF to 9000 oF).
The outer core is so hot that the metals in it
are all in the liquid state.
The outer core is located about 1800 miles
beneath the crust and is about 1400 miles
thick.
The outer core is composed of the melted
metals nickel and iron.

Inner Core
The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and pressures so great that
the metals are squeezed together and are not able to move about like a
liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place as a solid.
The inner core begins about 4000 miles beneath the crust and is about 800
miles thick and the temperatures may reach 9000 oF where the pressures are
45,000,000 pounds per square inch which is 3,000,000 times the air pressure
on you at sea level!!!
WEEK 2
Lesson Outcomes

Student should be able to:

Relate Earths internal structure with

plate tectonic theory

Distinguish the gradation process and

volcanism process

Describe geological time scale

 Geological Processes Changing the Earths Structure

The Earth has undergone great changes over millions of

years and since then the changes of the surface and
interior has played so many roles in the formation of
plates, volcanoes, ocean ridges and weathering of rocks
to a more finer materials such as sands and clays.
These processes are known as:
i) Gradation degradation and aggradation.
ii) Tectonism from the continental drift theory to seafloor
spreading, hence to the theory of plate tectonics.
iii) Volcanism the formation of volcanoes from
accumulation of their own eruptive products.
i) GRADATION
Gradation is the set of processes that work on surface rocks to
break,loosen, move, and finally deposit the smaller pieces.
The processes are: weathering (the chemical decay or mechanical
break-up of rocks), erosion, transportation (the removal of weathered
rocks by moving water, wind, ice, or gravity), and deposition.
The presence of water and atmosphere drive the chemical decay of
rock. Gravity moves landslides. Moving water, wind, and ice create
landforms such as river channels, deltas, beaches, sand dunes, glacial
deposits and valleys.
Process of erosion and deposition is driven by gravity and is strongly
influenced by environmental factors such as atmospheric pressure and
density and surface temperature and composition.
The primary means of moving materials by gradation come from the
actions of liquid water, ice, wind, and mass wasting (the downslope
movement of rock and debris).
 Gradation

Divided into two (2) types which

are:
a) Degradation
- erosion and transportation
result in the wearing of
rocks by water, wind and ice
to sediments either coarse
or fine.
b) Aggradation
- deposition results in
accumulation of sediments
and ultimate building up of Gradation of the Cliff
rock strata. Section at Hartley Steps
ii) TECTONISM
The theory of plate tectonics is a dynamic process of the
lithospheric plate which moves over a weak plastic layer in the
upper mantle known as asthenosphere.
This gives an indication to crustal instability producing faults,
folds, subduction and uplift of mountain ranges.
Four (4) types of plate movements are shown below:
Plate Tectonics
In geologic terms, a plate is a large, rigid slab of solid rock
and the word tectonics comes from the Greek root "to build."
which refers to how the Earth's surface is built of plates.
The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's outermost
layer is fragmented into a dozen or more large and small
plates that are moving relative to one another as they ride
atop; hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics, however, some people
already believed that the present-day continents were the
fragmented pieces of preexisting larger landmasses
("supercontinents").
 Plate tectonics is a relatively new scientific concept,
introduced some 30 years ago, but it has revolutionized our
understanding of the dynamic planet upon which we live.
The theory has unified the study of the Earth by drawing
together many branches of the earth sciences, from
paleontology (the study of fossils) to seismology (the study of
earthquakes).
It has provided explanations to questions that scientists had
speculated upon for centuries such as why earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions occur in very specific areas around the
world, and how and why great mountain ranges like the Alps
and Himalayas formed.
The diagrams show the break-up of the supercontinent
Pangaea (meaning "all lands" in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of continental drift.
 Earth's crust is not one entire unbroken layer of rock
where it is fractured in many places.
The crust resembles the shell of a cracked hard-boiled
egg which is broken into about 21 different pieces,
called Lithospheric Plates or crust plates.
There are seven major lithospheric plates with each of
these plates moves constantly in its own direction.

http://www.moorlandschool.co.uk/earth/tectonic.htm
Theory of Continental Drift
"Uniformitarian Principle" is proposed in 1785 by James
Hutton, a Scottish geologist and its principle is commonly
stated as follows: The present is the key to the past.
Those holding this viewpoint assume that the geologic forces
and processes, gradual as well as catastrophic, acting on the
Earth today are the same as those that have acted in the
geologic past.
The idea of moving continents was seriously considered as a
full-blown scientific theory known as Continental Drift,
which was introduced in two articles published by a 32-year-
old German meteorologist named Alfred Lothar Wegener.
 Wegener contended that, around 200 million years ago, the
supercontinent Pangaea began to split apart.
He then proposed that Pangaea first broke into two large
continental landmasses, Laurasia in the northern hemisphere
and Gondwanaland in the southern hemisphere.
Laurasia consists of North America, Europe and Asia and
Gondwanaland Consists of South America, Africa, Antartica,
Australia with India.
Laurasia and Gondwanaland then continued to break apart
into the various smaller continents that exist today which are
North America, Asia, South America, Africa, Antarctica, India
and Australia.
Evidence to Plate Tectonics Theory
1. Marine and non-marine rock sequences
of the same age are found on widely
separated continents;
2. Mountain ranges and glacial deposits
match up when continents are united
into a single landmass;
3. The shorelines of continents fit together,
forming a supercontinent; and
4. Many extinct fossil organisms are found
today on widely separated continents.
Plate Movements and Boundaries
1. Divergent Boundaries
Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are
moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the
mantle.
Oceans are born and grow wider where plates diverge or pull apart.
The heat from underlying magma wells up from deep within the earth,
weakening and stretching the overlying continental crust. The brittle crust
then fractures on each side of the stressed area, allowing sections to drop.
The result is a rugged terrestrial rift valley.
Example of divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This
submerged mountain range, which extends from the Arctic Ocean to
beyond the southern tip of Africa, one segment of the global mid-ocean
ridge system that encircles the Earth.
The rate of spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge averages about 2.5
centimeters per year (cm/yr), or 25 km in a million years.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which splits nearly the entire
Atlantic Ocean north to south, is probably the best-known
and most-studied example of a divergent-plate boundary.
(Illustration adapted from the map This Dynamic Planet.)
 Aerial view of
the area around
Thingvellir,
Iceland, showing
a fissure zone (in
shadow) that is
an on-land
exposure of the
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge. Left of the
fissure, the North
American Plate
is pulling
westward away
from the
Eurasian Plate
(right of fissure).
Map of East Africa showing some of the historically active
volcanoes (red triangles) and the Afar Triangle (shaded, center)
a so-called triple junction (or triple point), where three plates are
pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two
parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting
along the East African Rift Zone.
2. Convergent Boundaries

The Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust must be destroyed at
about the same rate as it is being created, as Harry Hess surmised.
Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes place along convergent
boundaries where plates are moving toward each other, and sometimes
one plate sinks (is subducted) under another. The location where
sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.
The type of convergence -- called by some a very slow "collision" -- that
takes place between plates depends on the kind of lithosphere
involved, where the denser plate subducted downwards to the upper
mantle.
The collision can occur between:
oceanic - continental plate,
oceanic oceanic plates
continental-continental plates.
Oceanic-continental Convergence

When an oceanic plate pushes into

and subducts under a continental
plate, the overriding continental
plate is lifted up and a mountain
range is created. Even though the
oceanic plate as a whole sinks
smoothly and continuously into the
subduction trench, the deepest
part of the subducting plate breaks
into smaller pieces. These smaller
pieces become locked in place for
long periods of time before moving
suddenly and generating large
earthquakes. Such earthquakes are
often accompanied by uplift of the
land by as much as a few meters.
Oceanic-continental convergence

This phenomena occurs in the collisions of continental to

oceanic crust, where the continental crust and the collection of
sediments at its trailing margins will be compressed and elevated
to form mountain ranges. The rocks in this zone will be deformed
and undergo folding, faulting and shearing.
The oceanic plate which is heavier will be subducted together with
with deep sea sediments and part of the sediments will fill up the
deep sea trenches.
Off the coast of South America along the Peru-Chile trench, the
oceanic Nazca Plate is pushing into and being subducted under
the continental part of the South American Plate. In turn, the
overriding South American Plate is being lifted up, creating the
towering Andes mountains, the backbone of the continent. Strong,
destructive earthquakes and the rapid uplift of mountain ranges
are common in this region.
 Convergent boundaries (cont)

Oceanic-oceanic convergence
When two oceanic plates converge one
is usually subducted under the other and
in the process a deep oceanic trench is
formed. The Marianas Trench, for
example, is a deep trench created as
the result of the Phillipine Plate
subducting under the Pacific Plate.

Oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also

results in the formation of undersea
volcanoes. Over millions of years,
however, the erupted lava and volcanic
debris pile up on the ocean floor until a
submarine volcano rises above sea level
to form an island volcano. Such
volcanoes are typically strung out in
chains called island arcs.
 Convergent boundaries (cont)

Oceanic-oceanic convergence

The collision of two oceanic crust, one is usually subducted under the other,
and in the process a trench is formed.
The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), for example, marks
where the fast-moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower moving
Philippine Plate.
The Challenger Deep, at the southern end of the Marianas Trench, plunges
deeper into the Earth's interior (nearly 11,000 m) than Mount Everest, the
world's tallest mountain, rises above sea level (about 8,854 m).
Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the
formation of volcanoes. Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic
debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level
to form an island volcano. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains
called island arcs. As the name implies, volcanic island arcs, which closely
parallel the trenches, are generally curved.
Magmas that form island arcs are produced by the partial melting of the
descending plate and/or the overlying oceanic lithosphere. The descending
plate also provides a source of stress as the two plates interact, leading to
frequent moderate to strong earthquakes.
Continental-continental Convergence
When two continents meet head-on,
neither is subducted because the
continental rocks are relatively light
and, like two colliding icebergs, resist
downward motion. Instead, the crust
tends to buckle and be pushed upward
or sideways. The collision of India into
Asia 50 million years ago caused the
Eurasian Plate to crumple up and
override the Indian Plate. After the
collision, the slow continuous
convergence of the two plates over
millions of years pushed up the
Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau to
their present heights. Most of this
growth occurred during the past 10
million years.
Continental-continental Convergence

When two tectonic plates of continents meet head-on (collides),

neither is subducted because the continental rocks are relatively light and,
like two colliding icebergs, resist downward motion.
The Himalayan mountain range dramatically demonstrates one of the
most visible and spectacular consequences of plate tectonics.
Instead, the crust tends to buckle and be pushed upward or sideways.
The collision of India into Asia 50 million years ago caused the Eurasian
Plate to crumple up and override the Indian Plate. After the collision, the
slow continuous convergence of the two plates over millions of years
pushed up the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau to their present
heights.
Most of this growth occurred during the past 10 million years. The
Himalayas, towering as high as 8,854 m above sea level, form the highest
continental mountains in the world. Moreover, the neighboring Tibetan
Plateau, at an average elevation of about 4,600 m, is higher than all the
peaks in the Alps except for Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa, and is well
above the summits of most mountains in the United States.
Left: The collision between the Indian
and Eurasian plates has pushed up the
Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau.
Below: Cartoon cross sections
showing the meeting of these two plates
before and after their collision. The
reference points (small squares) show
the amount of uplift of an imaginary
point in the Earth's crust during this
mountain-building process
 3. Transform Boundaries

The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one

another is called a transform-fault boundary, or simply a
transform boundary. The concept of transform faults
proposed that these large faults or fracture zones connect
two spreading centers (divergent plate boundaries) or, less
commonly, trenches (convergent plate boundaries).
Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor. They
commonly offset the active spreading ridges, producing zig-
zag plate margins, and are generally defined by shallow
earthquakes. However, a few occur on land, for example the
San Andreas fault zone in California. This transform fault
connects the East Pacific Rise, a divergent boundary to the
south, with the South Gorda to Juan de Fuca to Explorer
Ridge, another divergent boundary to the north.
 The San Andreas fault zone, which is about
1,300 km long and in places tens of
kilometers wide, slices through two thirds of
the length of California. Along it, the Pacific
Plate has been grinding horizontally past the
North American Plate for 10 million years, at
an average rate of about 5 cm/yr. Land on
the west side of the fault zone (on the Pacific
Plate) is moving in a northwesterly direction
relative to the land on the east side of the fault
zone (North American Plate).
Oceanic fracture zones are ocean-floor valleys
that horizontally offset spreading ridges; some of
these zones are hundreds to thousands of km
long and as much as 8 km deep. Examples
include the Clarion, Molokai, and Pioneer
fracture zones in the Northeast Pacific off the
coast of California and Mexico. These zones
are presently inactive, but the offsets of the
patterns of magnetic striping provide evidence
of their previous transform-fault activity.
Aerial view of the San
Andreas fault slicing
through the Carrizo Plain
in the Temblor Range east
of the city of San Luis
Obispo. (Photograph by
Robert E. Wallace, USGS.)
 Internal Forces
From seismic and other geophysical evidence and laboratory experiments,
scientists generally agree with Harry Hess' theory that the plate-driving force is
the slow movement of hot, softened mantle that lies below the rigid plates. This
idea was first considered in the 1930s by Arthur Holmes, the English geologist
who later influenced Harry Hess' thinking about seafloor spreading. Holmes
speculated that the circular motion of the mantle carried the continents along in
much the same way as a conveyor belt. However, at the time that Wegener
proposed his theory of continental drift, most scientists still believed the Earth was
a solid, motionless body. We now know better. As J. Tuzo Wilson eloquently
stated in 1968, "The earth, instead of appearing as an inert statue, is a living,
mobile thing." Both the Earth's surface and its interior are in motion. Below the
lithospheric plates, at some depth the mantle is partially molten and can flow,
albeit slowly, in response to steady forces applied for long periods of time. Just as
a solid metal like steel, when exposed to heat and pressure, can be softened and
take different shapes, so too can solid rock in the mantle when subjected to heat
and pressure in the Earth's interior over millions of years.
Left: Conceptual drawing of assumed
convection cells in the mantle. Below a depth
of about 700 km, the descending slab begins to
soften and flow, losing its form.
 Convection cannot take place without a source of heat. Heat
within the Earth comes from two main sources: radioactive decay
and residual heat.
Radioactive decay, a spontaneous process that is the basis of
"isotopic clocks" used to date rocks, involves the loss of particles
from the nucleus of an isotope (the parent) to form an isotope of a
new element (the daughter). The radioactive decay of naturally
occurring chemical elements, most notably uranium, thorium,
and potassium, releases energy in the form of heat, which slowly
migrates toward the Earth's surface.
Residual heat is gravitational energy left over from the
formation of the Earth 4.6 billion years ago by the "falling
together" and compression of cosmic debris.
iii) VOLCANISM

The term volcano refers to the opening or vent through which the molten
rock and associated gases are expelled.
A volcano is most commonly a conical hill or mountain built around a vent
that connects with reservoirs of molten rock below the surface of the
Earth.
Molten rock below the surface of the Earth that rises in volcanic vents is
known as magma, but after it erupts from a volcano it is called lava.
Majority of volcanoes are located along the margins of tectonic plates.
 Driven by buoyancy and gas pressure the molten rock, which is
lighter than the surrounding solid rock forces its way upward
and may ultimately break though zones of weaknesses in the
Earth's crust. If so, an eruption begins, and the molten rock may
pour from the vent as non-explosive lava flows, or if may shoot
violently into the air as dense clouds of lava fragments.

Larger fragments fall back around the vent and accumulations of

these fragments may move down slope as ash flows under the
force of gravity. Some of the finer ejected materiaIs may be
carried by the wind only to fall to the ground many miles away.
Molten rock below the surface of the
Earth that rises in volcanic vents is
known as magma, but after it erupts
from a volcano it is called lava.
Originating many tens of miles beneath
the ground, the ascending magma
commonly contains some crystals,
fragments of surrounding (unmelted)
rocks, and dissolved gases, but it is
primarily a liquid composed principally
of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
magnesium, calcium, sodium,
The diagram shows that heat concentrated in the
potassium, titanium, and manganese. Earth's upper mantle raises temperatures
Magmas also contain many other sufficiently to melt the rock locally by fusing the
chemical elements in trace quantities. materials with the lowest melting temperatures,
Upon cooling, the liquid magma may resulting in small, isolated blobs of magma. These
blobs then collect, rise through conduits and
precipitate crystals of various minerals fractures, and some ultimately may re-collect in
until solidification is complete to form larger pockets or reservoirs ("holding tanks") a few
an igneous or magmatic rock. miles beneath the Earth's surface.
Volcanic activity is linked to
plate-tectonic processes. Most
of the world's active above-
sea volcanoes are located near
convergent plate boundaries
where subduction is
occurring, particularly around
the Pacific basin. However,
much more volcanism,
producing about three
quarters of all lava erupted on
Earth takes place unseen
beneath the ocean, mostly
along the oceanic spreading
centers, such as the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge and the East
Pacific Rise.
 B) Low viscosity basaltic lava flow from an active volcano on one of the
Hawaiian Islands.

A) Mount St. Helens eruption on May 18, 1980. (Source: U.S. Geological
Survey, photograph by Austin Post).
Location of Volcanoes
Location of Volcanoes and the Ring of Fire
World Distribution of Volcanoes and Earthquake Zone
Geological Time Scale

The geologic time scale is the result of

work by many geologists worldwide who
used fossils, the rock record, and
radiometric dating techniques to determine
a chronology for the evolution of the Earth
and its life through time.
Geological Time Scale
Chronology of Life and Rocks