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General Science
For Class VI
Written by
Dr. A. K. M. Shamsudduha
Dr. Md. Golam Rosul Miah
Prof. Dr. Md. Abdul Wahab
Zohurul Islam Khan
Translated by
S. M. Haider
Rukhsana Shaheen
A. S. M. Lukman
M. Rafiqual Islam
Mrs. Irene Parveen
Cover
Ahmed Ullah
Computer Compose
Mars Solutions Ltd.
Illustration
Ranjit Das
Maniruzzaman Shipu
Nasir Biswas
Design
NCTB, Dhaka
For free distribution from academic year 2010 by the Government of Bangladesh
PREFACE
Education is the key to development. A progressively improved education system
largely determines the pace and the quality of national development. To reflect the
hopes and aspirations of the people and the socio-economic and cultural reality in the
context of the post independent Bangladesh, new textbooks were introduced in the
beginning of the 1980s following the recommendations of the National Curriculum
and Textbook Committee.
In 1994, in accordance with the need for change and development, the textbooks of
lower secondary, secondary and higher secondary were revised and modified. The
textbooks from classes VI to IX were written in 1995. In 2000, almost all the
textbooks were rationally evaluated and necessary revision were made. In 2008, the
Ministry of Education formed a Task Force for Education. According to the advice
and guidance of the Task Force, the cover, spelling and information in the textbooks
were updated and corrected.
The aims & objectives of the study of General Science is to make the learners curious
and observant about nature and its environment science teaches a person to have
clear and logical thinking ability. It also makes a person able to do things on his/her
own. The General Science book has been prepared according to the general objectives
and learning outcomes of the curriculum. Topics of physics, chemistry, botany,
zoology, geography and population study have been included in this book. It is hoped
that learners will be able to gain both theoretical and practical skills on these topics
from study of this book.
We know that curriculum development is a continuous process on which textbooks
are written. Any logical and formative suggestions for improvement will be
considered with care. On the event of the golden jubilee of the Independence of
Bangladesh in 2021, we want to be a part of the ceaseless effort to build a prosperous
Bangladesh. In order to develop learners interest in science, some modifications have
been made in this book.
This book of General Science for class VI is the English Version of the original
textbook entitled Sadharan Bijnan written in Bangla.
In spite of sincere efforts in translation, editing and printing some inadvertent errors
and omissions may be found in the book. However, our efforts to make it more
refined and impeccable will continue. Any constructive suggestion towards its further
improvement will be gratefully considered.
I thank those who have assisted us with their intellect and efforts in the writing,
editing and rational evaluation of this book. We hope that the book will be useful for
the students for whom it is written.
Prof. Md. Mostafa Kamaluddin
Chairman
National Curriculum and Textbook Board
Dhaka
CONTENTS
Measurement
What is your height? To answer this question it is necessary to measure
your height with the help of a measuring tape or a measuring stick. What
is your weight? It is necessary to weight your body with a weighing
machine to answer this question also. What is the time now? Its answer is
to be given by looking at a clock. What you have done to answer these
three questions is measurement. At first your height, secondly your
weight and thirdly time. The three answers may be as follows: the height
1
is 12 metre, the weight is 40 kg and the time is 11 am. If you observe you
will find that the three answers have been expressed in some numbers.
This kind of scaling something and its expression in number is called
measurement. Measurement is very essential and an important topic in
learning science. In this chapter we will learn about measurement of
length, mass and time.
Necessity of measurement
It is questioned, whether a football is bigger or a cricket ball? You will
immediately answer a football. But if it is questioned whether a cricket
ball is bigger or a volleyball, or
whether a cricket ball or a tennis
ball and how big? You cannot
answer then and there. Here you
need measurement. In figure 1.1
there are two straight lines A and
B, If it is asked which one is
2 General Science
longer, you will answer either lines A or B is longer. Now you measure
them with any device. You will see your finding is not correct. Length of
both the lines is equal.
Units of Measurements
Measure the length of a bench in you school by your forearm. Suppose,
the length is equal to four forearms. What does this mean? It means that
the length of the bench is four times the length of your forearm. The
length of your fore arm is known. Here the unit of length is forearm a
(cubit). Therefore a known length in comparison to which an unknown
length is measured is called a unit of length.
Historical Background
Various units of measurement were used in different countries in different
ages. About 5000 years ago the Egyptians used to measure length by
forearm. The length of the arm from elbow to the tip of the middle finger
was taken as one cubit. This procedure is still in practice in some places.
Occasionally this is used in our country also.
For measuring rice, paddy etc. cane bowls of a certain size are sometimes
used in our country. Again coins of various denominations are used to
weigh gold and silver. Such as a coin of one taka is taken as weight of
one tola, in ancient times shadows of things were used for measuring
time. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. For that, in the
morning the shadow of a tree or a pole falls on to the west. As the
daytime grows the length of the shadows becomes shorter and shorter.
After mid-noon as the sun leans towards west the shadows fall on to the
east. Thus an approximate calculation of time can be made from the
observation of the position and length of a shadow. But this is not very
accurate especially during night and cloudy days time cannot be
measured by this process. Therefore for accurate measurement, unit
should be such that it does not depend upon any particular person or time.
Its value should be the same in all times.
Few days ago mainly two systems of measurement were in practice in the
world. These are (i) British system and (ii) Metric system. In the British
system the unit of length is foot, unit of mass is pound and the unit of
time is second. For that this system is also called the foot, pound, second,
(F.P.S) system.
Again the metric system is of two kinds - the centimeter, gram, second
system or the CGS system and the metre, kilogram, second system or the
M.K. S. system. Centimeter and metre are the units of length: gram and
kilogram are units of mass and second is the unit of time.
person asks for 20 pounds of rice. In this situation the shopkeeper has to
have two sets of weights. The prices have to be set in two ways. The
shopkeeper should know the relation between a kilogram and a pound.
Again say a businessman wants to import cloth from a foreign country.
He wants to buy in yards. The foreigners say that they do not know yard.
They sell cloth in metres. If only a single system of units is used in all the
countries, there will be no such convenience. All the scientists of the
world who met in a session in the city of Paris, in France in 1968, agreed
to introduce a single system for all countries. It is known as system
international or briefly S.I system. In S.I system units resembles MKS
system. Now-a-days system international is used all over the world. It is
specifically used in scientific works. This system has also been
introduced in Bangladesh.
Units of length, mass and time does not depend on other units. Units of
these are called fundamental units. In the system international there are
seven fundamental units. These are:
(1) unit of length
(2) unit of mass
(3) unit of time
(4) unit of electric current
(5) unit of temperature
(6) unit of luminosity of light and
(7) unit of measurement of a body.
We will discuss only about the units of length, mass and time in this
chapter. Multiplying or dividing one fundamental unit by another obtains
all other units except fundamental units. These units are derived units.
6 General Science
Units of area and volume are examples or derived units. The area of the
floor of a room is obtained by multiplying the lengthy of the room by its
breadth. Units of both length and breadth in S.I. system are metre.
Therefore unit of area = unit of length unit of breath= metre metre or
square metre which is a derived unit.
Unit of mass
In System International unit of mass is kilogram (k.gm. or kg.) Mass of a
solid metal funnel made of platinum-iridium has been taken as one
kilogram and is preserved along with the standard metre bar in the same
office near Paris. You may have seen one-kilogram weights in grocers
shop while purchasing commodities. These are made of the same weight
as that of the standard kilogram. The unit of mass in C.G.S system is
gram. One gram is equal to one thousandth part of a kilogram. Decimals
and multiples of a kilogram and a gram are given below :
8 General Science
Gram, kilogram, quintal and metric ton are the most commonly used units
in our day-to-day life. Gram is used to measure small quantities of things
such as gold, silver etc. whereas kilogram is used to measure things like
rice, pulse, vegetables etc. Again when rice, paddy, cement, rod etc. are
to be loaded in gunny bags or trucks then quintal or metric ton is used as
the unit. Thus, depending on the bulk and quantity of material to be
measured, decimals or multiples of fundamental units are used.
Unit of time
Unit of time in both system International and C.G.S system is second.
Time can neither be seen nor be touched. Hence unit of time is
determined in a different way.
You know that the earth rotates on its own axis. As a result day and night
occur. The time taken by the earth to make a single rotation on its own
axis is called a solar day. The duration of each solar day is not equal. As
such mean solar day is calculated from the mean of all the solar days in a
1
year. About 3654 solar days make a year. During this time the earth
moves round the sun. The time obtained by dividing mean solar day by
24 is called one hour. One-sixtieth part of an hour is one-minute and one-
sixtieth part of a minute is one second, that is to say
1 mean solar day = 24 hours.
= 24 60 minutes
= 24 60 60 Second
= 86,400 seconds
In all the systems
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1hour
24 hours = 1 day = 86,400 seconds
7 days = 1 week
30 days = 1 month
1
12 months = 1 year = 3654 days
10 General Science
Unit of volume
a brick is larger than the volume of a matchbox. A water jug contains six
glass of water. Volume of the jug is six times the volume of a glass.
Experiment
Take three matchboxes of same size. Keep a matchbox on a table and
place another (match box) on the first one. Volume of two matchboxes is
double the third matchbox. Keep the third matchbox over the two boxes.
What is the increase in height? What is the increase in volume? Both
have increased three times. The bottom area of each of the matchboxes is
the same. Number of times the volume has increased is the same as that
of the height. Therefore, volume is obtained by multiplying, the area by
height. Thus
Volume = area height
[area = length breadth]
= length breadth height.
In the System International unit
of volume is cubic metre. The
space occupied by a cube of 1 m.
length, 1m breadth and 1m height
is called 1 cubic metre.
1 cubic metre = 1m. 1m 1m.
In the CGS system unit of
volume is cubic centimeter.
1cubic cm = 1cm 1cm 1cm
purpose simply their lengths breadth and heights are measured and
multiplied. But how can we determine the volume of an irregular shaped
body, such as a piece of stone? A measuring cylinder is used for the
purpose. Measuring cylinders have graduation in units of volume. As
such volumes can be measured with them, directly.
Experiment
Take a small piece of heavy wood of regular in shape. Measure, its
length, breadth and height and determine its volume. Now take a
measuring cylinder. Pour some water into it and take a reading. Tie the
piece of wood with a thread and dip it into
the measuring cylinder. Take reading of
the height of water after the piece has
completely been immersed. What is the
volume of the piece of wood? Is this
volume equal to the volume obtained by
multiplying its length, breadth and height?
Unit of Density
Ask your friend a puzzling question. Of one kilogram of iron and one
kilogram of cotton, which one has a greater mass?
If he answers iron, he is befooled. Again, if he answers cotton then also
he is befooled. Because masses of both are the same. But equal volume of
iron is heavier than cotton. Hence masses of one-kilogram iron and one
14 General Science
of the body coincides is the length of the body. If for any reason it becomes
difficult to make one end of the body coincide with zero mark on the scale,
then it should be coincided with any other mark on the scale. Difference
between higher and lower reading is the length of the body. In figure 1.6
length of the line AB is 5 cm. While taking reading it should be noticed
that the eye is placed at a perpendicular position to the end at which
reading is taken. If reading is not taken in this way or readings of both the
ends are taken keeping eyes at one place, then the readings with be
wrong. Again say, you want to measure length of your reading table. You
will have to take measurement by placing the scale along the table in such
a way that it remains by the edge or parallel to the edge of the table. If
you place the scale in an oblique manner correct reading will not be
obtained.
So, for accurate measurement with a metre scale you will have to
remember:
(a) Eye should be placed perpendicularly at the point on the scale
whose reading is to be taken.
(b) The scale should be placed along the length of the body or parallel
to that whose length is to be measured.
Ordinary Balance
Balance is used to measure mass of any substance. The balance that the
shopkeepers use for measuring rice, pulse etc. is an ordinary balance. You
all have seen this balance. Some of you may have used it also.
There is a wooden or an iron rod in this balance. Two dishes or bowls are
hung from the two ends of the rod by means of cords which are called
pans. Pan may be of iron, brass or cane also. A cord or an iron hook is
fixed just at the middle of the rod.
Measurement 17
(b) The cord or the hook holding by which measurement is made, must
remain just at the middle of the rod. If the distance of either end of the
rod from the hook is less or more than the other end, exact measurement
of the mass cannot be obtained.
Clock
Clock is used to measure time. You all have seen a clock and used it.
Looking at a clock you get up from bed in the morning and you go to
school. At bedtime also perhaps you look at the clock and then go to bed.
There are various kinds of clocks. Such as a wristwatch, a wall clock, a
18 General Science
table clock etc. Again these clocks are of two kinds, - a clock with hands
and a digital clock. The former has hands for hours and minutes. Time is
read by reading the positions of the hands on the graduation marks. There
is no hand in a digital clock. Time is directly seen in numbers. While you
want to observe time a glimpse at the clock gives you that in hours and
minutes. In some of the clock time can be seen up to second also. Say at a
certain time you observe a clock that reads 10:30:15. It means that the
time at the moment is 30 minutes 15 seconds passed 10. Number of
seconds changes at every second, number of minutes changes at every 60
seconds and that of the number of hours changes at every 60 minutes.
These clocks are run by batteries and are called electronic clocks. Now a
days most of the clocks with hand are also electronic clocks.
One type of watch is used in the laboratory for measuring time. It is called
stopwatch or stop clock. Pressing a button this can be run or stopped as per
desire. The hand of the watch remains at zero position before starting. This
button should be pressed at the moment from which counting of time
should start. The watch starts running as soon as the button is pressed. As
Measurement 19
the counting of time is over the button is pressed again and the watch
stops. The position of hand of the watch shows the time for which the
watch ran. If the button is pressed once again the hand comes back to
zero position. A stopwatch is used to measure the time taken by a runner
in a race for fixed distance at the time of games and sports. A stopwatch
is comparatively smaller and is like a wristwatch. A stop clock is slightly
bigger and it looks like a table clock. It is kept on a table. Stop watch and
stop clock may also be digital.
EXERCISE
3.
Figure
What can be measured out with the help of the instrument shown in the
picture?
a. mass b. time
c. weight d. volume
4. The instrument of the figure - 3 is widely used -
a. in daily routine work
b. in sports
c. in research activities
Of the following, which is correct?
a. i and ii b. ii and iii
c. i and iii d. i, ii and iii
From the figure below, answer the questions 5 and 6
4
1 2
Figure
Measurement 21
cm
A
B
Figure
22 General Science
Matters
Many things are scattered around us; as for example, chair, table, book,
pen, brick, wood, trees and branches, rice, pulse, water, air etc. The
general name of these things is matter. Take your book in hand, it has
some weight. Keep it on the table, it occupies some space. Push your
reading table slightly. The table will move but it will not change its
position. This means, it has resisted the force you have applied. You cant
see air. But you can feel its existence. Thus all matters have more or less
weight. They occupy some space and resist any external force. Matters
can be seen, touched or felt with senses.
So in science, matter is defined as something that has weight, occupies
some space, can be sensed and resists forces applied to it.
Elements Compounds
1. The matter which when broken 1. Compounds are substances
into smallest parts does not produce which when broken produce more
any other matter than itself is called than one element. For example-
an element. For example- gold, water, sugar, oil, salt, soap, soda
silver, copper, iron, hydrogen, etc. are compounds
oxygen etc. are elements.
2. In free states elements can retain 2. The properties of the compounds
their respective properties or are totally different from the
characteristics. properties of its constituent
elements.
3. The smallest part of the elements 3. The smallest parts of compounds
is atoms. Atoms retain properties of are the molecules. Molecules retain
the element itself. properties of the compound itself.
4. Similar atoms constitute 4. Molecules of compounds are
molecules of the elements. constituted by different atom.
5. Total number of elements in this 5. Compounds are innumerable in
world is 109. this world (even more than 50 lacs)
Mixtures
You know that iron and sulphur are elements having different properties.
Iron filings look somewhat black and the sulphur dust is yellowish in
colour. Take some iron filings and some sulphur dust on a piece of paper
26 General Science
Spread the mixture of iron and sulphur over a piece of paper now and
draw a piece of bar magnet over the
mixture several times. What do you
see? Iron filings got stuck to the
magnet due to its attraction. Draw the
magnet over the mixture repeatedly
until the iron filings are completely
separated. A time will reach when no
iron filings will stick to the magnet any
more. Then you may be sure that iron
filings have been completely separated
from the mixture. Now if you observe well, you will see that only yellow
coloured sulphur granules are lying on the paper. Thus you can easily
separate the constituents of iron sulphur mixture.
Matters 27
been formed. The name of this substance is iron sulphide. This new
substance has colour and properties completely different form those of
iron or sulphur. Can the constituents of the new substance, called iron
sulphide, be separate easily? Let us try to do this with the following
experiment.
Sedimentation
Take some water in a glass jar or
beaker. Mix some sands in the
water and stir it for sometime. The
sand-mixed water looks muddy,
isnt it? Let this muddy mixture of
sand and water stand for
sometime. Now observe, what do
you see? The sand particles have
settled at the bottom of the jar and
water above looks clear and
transparent. This method of separating heavy, insoluble, solid particles
from a mixture in a liquid is called sedimentation. After sedimentation of
insoluble, heavy solid substances separating the clear and transparent
liquid from the top by slanting the jar and pouring it into another
container is called decantation. The heavy solid substance that settles at
the bottom is called sediment.
Filtration
Have you seen making a cup of tea at home? Tea-liquor is prepared by
adding tea leaves to the hot water. Tea leaves do not dissolve in water.
Isnt it? Liquor is separated by straining the insoluble parts of the leaves.
Often the dirty particles remain suspended in the water and sometimes
they settle at the bottom of the pitcher if it is kept undisturbed. Dirty
particles can be separated from water by filtering.
Matters 31
pouring on the filter paper. In this experiment you have separated sand
and water from their mixture by the method of filtration.
Vaporisation :
In summer, canals, marshy lands, ponds etc. are dried up due to the heat
of the sun. Wet cloths become dry in the sun by evaporation of water in
it. A few drops of water on a plate kept in open air disappear within a
short time. This vaporisation of water at normal temperature is called
evaporation. Sea water is saline, as it contains lot of common salt
dissolved in it. In the tropical zones of the world salt is easily produced
by evaporation of seawater.
You have seen cooking of rice and curry at home. For cooking, pots of
rice or curry are placed on the hearth and heated. Water soon starts
escaping as vapour due to heat. In this way, with the application of heat,
transforming any liquid into vapour is called vaporisation.
You have seen that insoluble solid solutes can be separated from a
solution by the process of filtration or decantation. But solids such sugar,
common salt, copper sulphate etc. are soluble in water. Hence straining
cant separate these soluble solid substances. Then how do you get back
the soluble solids from a solution of water? Yes, vaporisation is the
method by which you can separate the soluble solids from a solution of
water? Let us do the following experiment to get back the solid solutes
from a solution.
Matters 33
EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. Classify the matters according to their composition.
a. one b. two
c. three d. four
2. What is the name of the substance when no other properties are found
if it is broken?
a. fundamental substance b. liquid substance
c. compound substance d. mixed substance
3. From which of the following, both the solute and the solvent are
obtained ?
a. distillation b. filtration
c. volatilization d. sublimation
6. The 2-4 drops of water when kept on the table becomes dry after a
while. The process is -
a. evaporation
b. vaporisation
c. sublimation
Of the following, which is correct?
a. i b. ii
c. iii d. i, ii and iii
A B
Figure
a. What is the ingredients of container `A called together?
b. Show two differences of osmosis with the process of separation of
copper sulphate from the container `A.
c. Describe how the ingredients of the container A can be separated?
d. Explain whether the separation of the ingredients of container `B is
possible as it in the case of the container `B.
Pice of tin
2. Sand
Suger
Figure
According to the figure above, answer the following questions:
a. What is the substances in the beaker called together?
b. Explain what will happen if water is poured in the beaker.
c. How the components in the mixture are separated?
d. Explain how such type of separation is used in daily life.
Chapter - 3
Air
Existence of Air
Air exists surrounding the earth. We are sunk into this air. We cannot
survive even for two or three minutes in absence of air. It is not only the
human beings, but also other living creatures and trees and plants also
cannot exist without air. For this reason air is also called life. There is no
living being on the moon as there is no air on it.
We cannot see air. But we can easily feel the movement of air. The leaves
of trees move when air flows. In summer the cool air refreshes our body.
Flow of air at a violent speed is called a storm. Storm uproots big trees
and overturns houses. You observe festivals by filling in air into coloured
ballons. You fill air into the tyre of a bicycle and ride it. Again you inflate
football and volley balls with air and play with them. From all these we
can easily realise the existence of air, although we cannot see it. Now the
question is, whether the sea of air in which we are sunk is a matter or not.
Air is a matter
You have learnt earlier what is called a matter. Can you remember the
three main characteristics of matter? Matter has weight, volume and it
occupies space and it resists forces applied to it. Knowing these
properties of matter, naturally you may ask whether air possesses these
properties like matter. In a word, is air a matter?
You have learnt the answers to these questions in former classes. You
have observed that when air is pumped into balloons, footballs, bicycle,
tyres, etc they swell up. Do you know why they swell up? It is because, air
38 General Science
occupies space inside them. You can do an experiment by filling air into a
balloon. Air not only occupies space, but it has weight also. You inflate
two balloons and fasten at the two ends of a stick. Then fasten a thread
just at the middle of the stick and make it like a balance. Now perforate
one of the balloons with a pin and you see that the other end of the stick
leans down. Can you say why does it lean? Air goes out from the
perforated balloon and it becomes lighter. The other balloon being
heavier the stick at that end leans down.
Air resists any external force. Take a bucket of water and try to immerse
in it an empty glass upside down. The more you try to dip it down into
the water; you will see that water does not get into it. The reason is that
the space inside the glass is already occupied by air, which resists water
to rise up in the glass. This testifies that air resists any external force to
act upon.
So from the discussion above we can conclude that air occupies space, it
has weight and it offers resistance to any external force. Therefore, air is
a matter.
Air is a mixture
In chapter two you have studied matters and their classification. Air is
neither an element nor a compound. It is a mixture. Do you remember
what a mixture is?
A mixture is a substance, which is formed of two or more elements of
compounds, mixed together in any proportion; the components lie side by
side and can be separated by easy mechanical means. The following
arguments testify that air is a mixture.
1. The components of a mixture can be easily separated. As air is a
mixture, its components can be separated easily.
Air 39
Constituents of air
We have learnt that air is a mixture. The two main ingredients of air are
oxygen and nitrogen. Besides, air contains carbon dioxide, moisture, very
little amount of inert gases like helium, neon, argon, etc and dust
particles. The amount of different ingredients present in air, in
approximate percentage by weight and by volume, is given below.
perform the following experiment in the class. You need a wide mouthed
bottle or conical flask, two glass tubes and a quantity of limewater for
doing the experiment.
Take some clear limewater in the bottle or in a conical flask fitted into the
mouth. One of the tubes should reach the bottom of the flask and the
other should just enter inside. Now start sucking air with your mouth
through the short tube.
You see that air enters into limewater
through the longer tube and bubbles
up. After sucking air for sometime in
this way, you will see that the clear
limewater is getting turbid. This
proves that there is carbon dioxide in
air.
Observe carefully the sunlight that enters into the house through gaps in a
window, you will see that lots of dust particles are floating on the air.
This means that there are dust particles in air.
We are sunk into the sea of air. We cannot live without air. So another
name of air is life. At every moment we inhale and exhale air. The air we
inhale contains more oxygen (20 per cent) and the air we exhale contains
comparatively less oxygen (16 percent) and more carbon dioxide (4 per
cent). Amount of nitrogen remains the same in both cases. A portion of
oxygen that take while inhaling goes to our lungs and get mixes with
blood and purifies blood. As a result
1. Energy is produced in our body.
2. Heat is produced and this heat maintains the temperature.
3. As carbon dioxide comes out of the blood to enter into the lungs,
the amount of carbon dioxide increases and that of oxygen
decreases in the air we exhale.
Do the following experiment to test the presence of carbon dioxide in air.
Experiment:
Take some clear limewater in a jar. Take a cup of limewater from the jar
and keep it in the air. Slowly the limewater in the cup turns muddy and a
Air 45
Sun-light
Human beings and other animals receive their food from the trees. Carbon
and oxygen combine together to form carbon dioxide. Plants use carbon
46 General Science
dioxide of the air for producing food and leave oxygen in the atmosphere.
We, the human beings and other animals, use this additional oxygen and
leave additional carbon dioxide in the air again through respiration. In
this way a wonderful balance is maintained in the kingdom of nature.
5. The sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide gases produced due to the
combustion of kerosene oil, pit coal etc, and the smoke from cooking
pollute air.
6. Germs of various airborne diseases such as pox, TB, etc mix with air
through sneezing, coughing and spitting of the patients and pollute it.
7. Gases that are given out from the brickfields, smoking of cigarettes,
tannery, fish drying fields, cremation ground etc. pollute air.
A. By the rays of the sun: The ultra violet rays and heat of the rays of
the sun destroy the floating germs of diseases and other harmful
germs in the air and purify it. Besides this, the sunshine dries up all
moist things and checks their decay. Thus it helps keep the air fresh.
C. By rainfall: Gases and floating substances in the air drop down with
the rain and get mixed with the soil. This purifies air.
2. Artificial process:
Air in homesteads, industries and their surroundings become polluted due
to various reasons. By arranging artificial circulation of air in these areas
such pollution can be removed. This method is more suitable for town
areas than rural areas.
A. By circulating air: To remove the stagnant air from a closed space
and to bring dry, cool and blowing air in that place is called
circulation of air.
B. By propulsion method: An electric fan is fitted in an opening made
in wall on any side of the house. With the help of this fan fresh air is
drawn in from outside and polluted air is driven out from inside.
C. By air conditioning: The air inside of a house may be kept fresh by
air conditioning. Nowadays this method is widely used in railway
carriages, motorcars, cinema halls, hotels, offices, residences, etc.
Besides these, for prevention of air pollution, the waste materials should
be collected at a particular place and kept covered, they should not be
thrown here and there, the premises should be kept neat and clean, the
drains should be kept clean, and smoke should not be created
unnecessarily by burning things.
EXERCISE
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. In which place is the amount of oxygen high?
a. in the air of town area b. in the air of industrial area
c. in the air of forest and crop fields d. in the air of marshy lands
air
soil
nitrogen
soil
animal
Plant
Figure
Sun
Figure
a. Which component of air is taken by the plant in presence of the sun light?
b. Why is the sun light required as shown in the figure?
c. Explain, with the help of a diagram, how the plants prepare their food.
d. Explain what will happen if there is no carbon dioxide in that
environment.
Air 53
2.
Figure
a. Which side in the diagram is force applied?
b. Why is force applied to that side?
c. According to the diagram, explain the condition of the paper inside the glass.
d. From the above experiment, give your opinion regarding air.
3.
1 2 3
Figure
a. Which candle as shown in the figure will go out at first?
b. Why will the candle go out at first?
c. Explain what will happen in case of figure -3 if a long burning candle
is covered with a second glass.
d. In the light of experiment no. 1 and 2, write down the amount of
carbon dioxide in the air
Chapter - 4
In chapter two you have learnt about the matters and its classifications.
Try to remember what is called matter? What are the types of matter and
what are these? We know there are 111 elements discovered so far. Out
of these 92 elements occur in nature. Rest of them are man-made
elements. These elements are classified into two groups on the basis on
their properties. These are metals and non-metals. Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur etc are the examples of non-metals. On the
other hand, iron, copper, gold, zinc, aluminium, tin etc are the examples
of metals. Now let us discuss what are metals and non-metals and uses of
some of our known metals and non-metals.
Metal
The element which at ordinary condition, is hard, durable, bright, lustrous
and can reflect light, heavy, conduct heat and electricity and when struck
emit a sound clink is called metal. Iron, copper, gold, silver, zinc, tin,
aluminum are the examples of some metal.
Non-metal
The element which at ordinary condition, is solid, liquid or gaseous, light
in mass, not bright or lustrous and do not reflect light, non-conductor of
heat and electricity and does not emit clink sound when struck is called a
non-metal. Such as- hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, carbon, helium, neon,
iodine etc are the examples of non-metal.
Metal and Non-metal 55
statues and propeller of ships. Alloys such as, bronze, brass and many
metal are made of copper. The bell of your school is also made of copper.
The main copper manufacturing countries of the world are America,
Canada, Chilli, Mexico, Belgium, Rhodeshia, Spain, Germany, Russia,
Japan and India.
Aluminium
Aluminium is a bluish-white light metal. It is a very good conductor of
heat and electricity. Aluminium is used in making cooking utensils.
Aluminium alloys are used for manufacturing aeroplane bodies, motor
cars, bridges etc. Bright and lustrous frames of doors and windows are
now made by mixing linseed oil with aluminium. Duralumin is an alloy
of aluminium which is made mixing 95% aluminium, 4% copper, 0.5%
magnesium and 0.5% manganese. Duralumin is used for making
aeroplanes.
Silver
From very ancient period of time people are using silver. Silver occurs in
nature as a mineral ore. It occurs as ore in mine in South America,
Canada, Peru, Mexico, Australia etc. Silver is a bright white metal. Very
thin sheets and thin wires can be made of silver due to its malleable
properties. Silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity. It is used
for making ornaments and coins. Many household substances are made
by mixing pure silver with copper. It is also used to make the coating on
the back of the mirror.
Tin
People are using tin from ancient period. People of Egypt and China used
to be use bronze; which is an alloy of tin and copper. Large amount of tin
occur in Burma (Mayanmer). 80% of the total tin contain of the world
Metal and Non-metal 57
Gold
Gold is a precious metal. Almost all of you are familiar with gold. It is
lustrous and of golden colour. The women in our country use gold
ornaments. Not only in our country, women in abroad also use gold
ornaments. The value of currency of a country is determined on the basis
of gold deposits.
crowbar, plough blade etc are all used in agriculture and they are made
of iron.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the lightest of all the elements. The British scientist
Cavendish first discovered it in 1756. Hydro means water and gen
means producer. Hence, hydrogen means water producer. Small amount
of elementary hydrogen occurs in air, oil mine and in volcanoes. In
laboratory hydrogen is prepared by the action of metals with acids.
Oxygen
Oxygen discovered by British scientist Priestly in 1774. Swedish scientist
Schell and French scientist Lavisher discovered it independently at the
same time. Oxy means acid and gen means producer. That is oxygen
means acid producer. Oxygen is one of the components almost of all the
acids. Air contains 1 part by volume of oxygen and 4 parts by volume of
nitrogen of its per 5 parts. Oxygen can be prepared in the laboratory.
Oxygen is very essential for the survival of plants and animal kingdom.
We take oxygen in respiration. Oxygen is used to help respiration of
dying patients. Space travelers, mountaineers and divers use oxygen for
respiration. Large quantity of oxygen is used for the production of oxy-
hydrogen flame. Liquid oxygen is used as rocket fuel. Large quantity of
oxygen is also used in iron and steel industries.
Nitrogen
In 1772 Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen. Air contains large amount
of nitrogen. 4 parts are nitrogen in air out of its 5 parts. Nitrogen is
60 General Science
essential for the nutrition of plant and animals. Nitrogen gas can be
prepared in laboratory.
Sulphur
Sulphur occurs in nature as elementary sulphur ore. Egg, mustard seed,
onion, garlic, hair, wool etc contain sulphur. Sulphur is a light yellow
crystalline solid. It is used in the manufacture of matches. Sulphur is also
used in production of ointments, medicines, insecticides, dyes and paper.
Coal
Carbon occupies an important position among all the elements on the
earth. Diamond, graphite etc are the varieties of carbon. Proteins,
carbohydrates and fats are also carbon compounds. In nature the
existence of carbon is mostly found in the plant and animal kingdoms.
The primary and essential components of plant and animal bodies is
carbon. Every portion of plant and animal bodies is made of carbon
compounds. Charcoal, animal coal, lamp black coke and gas carbon are
the different forms of carbon. Carbon is used as fuel. It is also used for
making of shoe-polish, antiseptics, gunpowder, printing ink etc.
Metals Non-metals
1. Metals are generally bright 1. Non-metals are not generally
bright
2. Metals are hard and heavy in 2. Normally non-metals are soft
mass and light.
3. Metals emit clink when struck 3. Non-metals do not emit clink
with hammer. when struck with hammer.
4. Heat and electricity can pass 4. Heat and electricity cannot
through metals. pass through non-metals.
5. Metals can be hammered to 5. Non-metals cannot be
thin sheets and can be drawn hammered to thin sheets and
into very thin wire. cannot be drawn into thin wire.
6. The melting points of metals 6. Non-metals melts at low
are very high. temperature.
7. Metals are solid at normal 7. At normal temperature non-
temperature. metals are generally solid or
gaseous.
8. Metals can reflect light 8. Non-metals can not reflect
light
9. Metals usually dissolve in 9. Non-metals do not usually
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. dissolve in hydrochloric or
sulphuric acid.
Alloys
For what purposes the alloys are used? Let us discuss about the uses of
alloys. What is the meaning of alloy? The terms alloy means mixture.
When two or more metals are mixed together by melting and the solid
mass that is obtained on cooling it is called Alloy. Steels, brass, bell
62 General Science
metals and duralumin etc are alloys. Alloys are stronger than the
constituent metals. Alloys do not rust or not errode if they are exposed to
air for a long period of time. The properties and uses of some alloys are
given in the table below:
Table of Alloys
Name Main Other elements Special
Uses
of alloy metal in the mixture properties
element
Steel Iron 0.25-1.5% hard, not
Used in making
carbon and a brittle, doesrailway line, wheels
little chromium not rust of railway train, ship
crane, frames of
buildings, war
equipment, medical
equipment, engine,
utensils spoon etc.
Brass Copper Copper 60-80% does not Cartidge of bullet,
Zinc 40-20% rust screw, ornaments,
utensils etc are made
of brass.
Bell Copper Copper 75-90% attractive Used in making coins,
metal Tin 25-10% colour utensils, metalic
statues, bell, propeller,
equipment etc.
Duralum Alumi Aluminium 95% very light Used in building
in nium Copper 4% motorcars, and
Manganese 0.5% aeroplanes.
Magnesium 0.5%
Metal and Non-metal 63
Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. Which is a metal?
a. carbon b. sulphur
c. graphite d. mercury
2. Which is a non-metal?
a. sodium b. iodine
c. copper d. zinc
3. Though nonmetal, which is conductor?
a. graphite b. diamond
c. sulphur d. carbon
2. In an alloy, there is
aluminium . 95 %
copper 04 %
magnesium 0.5 %
manganese 0.5 %
Water is a compound
Water is a liquid. It has no definite shape, it takes the shape of the
container in which it is kept. You have learnt about the elements.
Compounds and mixtures in chapter number two. Now, the question is
raised what class of substance is water? An element, a compound or a
mixture?
In ancient period, water was considered to be an element to the people. In
1781 a scientist, Cavendish proved that water is a compound and he was
produced water by the chemical reaction between oxygen and hydrogen.
Water is a compound; this can be proved by the following arguments.
You will also observe that gases deposited in the test tubes are not equal.
The amount of gas in one tube is one half the amount of gas in the other
tube. After filling both the test tube with gases, bring them out, closing
their mouths with your fingers. Now enter a lighted jute stick into tube in
which gas will be deposited quickly. The stick extinguishes and the gas
burns at the mouth of the tube with a blue flame. This proves that the gas
is hydrogen. Similarly insert another lighted stick without flame in the
other tube, in which gas will be deposited slowly. You see that the stick
kindles and burn brightly. This proves that the gas in the rube is oxygen.
From this experiment, it is understood that water dissociates to produce
two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen, when electricity is
passed into it. This means that water is a compound and it is composed of
two elements as hydrogen and oxygen.
Electric
Hydrogen Oxygen
Water +
2 vol 1 vol
analysis
68 General Science
Importance of water for saving the animals and plants and in our
daily life
Another name of water is life. No life can exist without water. Plants and
animals need water for different purposes. Some of its requirement of
water for plants and animals are discuss below:
Water is required to build the cells of a body. The water secreting from
mouth helps to swallowing food. The food components dissolve in water
and then absorb in body. The fluid of blood transports food items to
different organs and then it produces energy and builds body. Similarly,
the toxic substances are leaving out through this water.
Sources of water
From the following four sources we get water in nature.
(1) Rain water
(2) Fountain water
(3) River water
(4) Sea water.
1. Rain water
Rainwater is the purest form of natural
water. Water in the sea, river canal,
lake, pond etc vaporise due to sunshine
and go into the air. In contact with the
upper cold air this vapour condenses
into cloud and make rainfalls from the
cloud. As a result, the rivers, ponds,
canals, lakes, swamps etc fill with
water. In the hill track area there is Fig: 5.2 Water cycle
more rainfall. This rainwater goes into the river and sea. This cycle of
water is called water cycle. This water cycle is shown in figure.
2. Fountain water
Rainwater enters into the soil after rain. Sand, clays and stones filter
when it passes water through them. After a long storage in the ground this
water comes up on the surface as fountain. This water is also obtained
from wells and tube-wells. Various substances present in the soil get
dissolved in this water. For this reason, fountain water is not always pure.
But as it comes out through the layers of sand and stone, it looks almost
clear.
3. River water
Molten snow from mountains, rain and fountain water flow into the river.
There are floating and dissolved material present in river water waste
70 General Science
materials from surroundings also fall in to the river water. For this river
water looks muddy and un-clean in rainy season. The river-flow carries
various materials with it. Some of these materials are soluble and some
are insoluble. Soluble materials contain different salts and insoluble
materials contain sand, clay etc. In rainy season river water looks turbid
due to the presence of clay and mud.
4. Sea water
Sea is the main source of water. River flow into the sea. Seawater looks
clear. But it contains the largest amount of dissolved impurities. Excess
amount of different salts contain in seawater. For this seawater is
undrinkable and salty.
Besides these, we get water from wells, tube-wells, ponds, lake. Water
from these sources is used for drinking and other domestic purposes. Now
a days water is supplied to the city areas and in cultivating land from
deep tube-wells.
We should be very careful about the purity of our drinking water. Water
is polluted in various ways. The water which contains germs of diseases,
waste materials, darts etc. and which by drinking causes diseases in our
body is called impure water. Pure water cannot be obtained except
rainwater. Rain water generally pure. But rainwater at the beginning of
rain remains dirty due to the presence of dust particles in the air. The
rainwater in industrial areas is not pure. Water in ponds, ditches, canals
and rivers become polluted in different ways. Some of the common
causes of pollution of water are mentioned here.
Water 71
These weeds use dissolved oxygen in water. Due to this fishes die for
oxygen deficiency. Dead fishes make water polluted. This polluted water
is harmful to use. Production of masses and weeds in water are decreased
due to shortage of oxygen.
72 General Science
Pure water
The water which is transparent, colourless, odourless, there is no floating
organic or inorganic matter and is free from any germs is called pure
water. There is no risk to drink pure water. We should always drink pure
water. Tube-well water is usually pure.
Water is the most valuable natural asset. Excessive use of any asset
ended once upon a time. Deposit of water is not also unlimited. So
never misuse water. To avoid wastage of water carefully close the water
tap. You have observed that there is much difference between the water
in the rural area and town. You will astonish to know that the layer
underground water in our country is gradually going down. That is why
the rivers, and canals of our country become dry in summer. For that
74 General Science
In this chapter you have known about the various information of water.
You should use pure water for different activities such as cooking,
washing, bathing, drinking etc. You must drink boiled water after
cooling. In the big cities the water is first purified with chlorine and other
chemicals and then it is supplied. Bacteria may form in the water tanks in
the city if it is not cleaned periodically. For that water should be boiled to
drink.
Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. Which is the stage of water cycle ?
a. river rain vapour sea cloud
b. sea cloud vapour rain water
c. water river cloud rain vapour sea
d. water vapour cloud rain river sea
2. Why do the fishes die when water of the pond is polluted by chemical
fertilizer?
a. the fish takes polluted water
b. the food of the fish becomes poisonous
c. there is scarcity of oxygen in water
d. the amount of oxygen in water increases
4.
Cloud
Vapour
Rain
Pond
Diagram
The diagram above indicates -
a. water cycle
b. the relation between vapour and cloud
c. the relation between vapour and rain
d. the relation between cloud and rain
Growth
Living beings take food. This food is
digested and helps in the growth and
80 General Science
repair of the body. Trees, humans, birds, insects are all seen to slowly
grow bigger from a very small size. There is increase in size and weight.
This increase in size and weight comes from within through the increase
in number of cells and thus of protoplasm, and is called growth. The
diagram shows the growth of a seed sapling tree.
Nonliving do not grow from within. Things may be added from outside
but that is not growth.
Respiration
All living bodies take in oxygen during
inspiration and give out carbon dioxide
during expiration. The oxygen is needed
to carry out the metabolic functions of
the living cells. The nonliving things do
not need oxygen and so do not respire.
Fig 6.5: Reproduction of living
organisms
Reproduction
Reproduction is a process whereby all living organisms produce
offspring. Trees produce seeds, these seeds then grow into saplings and
then trees again. The hens lay eggs from which a chicken comes out.
Humans, cow, goat, cat and so on give birth to babies. Reproduction is
one of the essential functions of plants, animals, and single celled
organisms, for the preservation of the species.
Death
Plants and animals do not live forever. The life of living beings have
three stages childhood, youth or adulthood, and old age. Both plants and
animals grow rapidly in childhood, reproduce in adulthood, and then still
later all life processes end, that is, death occurs. Nonliving things have no
death.
Living World 81
Plants and animals have few features in common, while other do not
match.
Differences between Plants and Animals
Plants Animals
1. Have chlorophyll, a green 1. Cannot manufacture their own
pigment, with the help of which food, as they do not have
plant manufacture their own chlorophyll. So animals depend
food. on plants for food.
2. Most plants cannot move. 2. Almost all animals can move.
3. Plants cannot take solid food. 3. Animals can take solid, liquid
and other forms of food.
4. During photosynthesis plants 4. Animals take in oxygen and give
take in carbon dioxide and give out carbon dioxide during
out oxygen. During respiration respiration. It never takes in
it takes in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide as
carbon dioxide. photosynthesis does not occur in
animals.
5. Plants have a definite structure 5. Animals have a definite size,
and shape, but the branches are shape and structure.
not well defined.
6. Plants do not have specific 6. Animals have specific organ
organ system. systems.
7. Most plants are food producers. 7. Most animals are food
consumers.
8. Plants grow till before they die. 8. Animals grow up to a certain age.
9. Plant cells have cell wall. 9. Animal cells do not have cell wall.
Living World 83
Animal Kingdom
Animal kingdom may be divided into invertebrates and vertebrates.
Invertebrates: Animals that do not have vertebral column or spinal cord
are called invertebrates. For example: earthworm, spider, crab, scorpion,
cockroach, prawn, snail, fly, mosquito, and so on.
Features of invertebrates: Like humans the invertebrates have certain
features, such as
1. No vertebral column
2. No endoskeleton
3. Have simple or compound eyes Earthworm
4. Heart is not well developed
5. Usually have no tail Cockroach
b. Amphibia: Vertebrates that can live in both water and land are called
amphibians. For example, toad, golden frog, tree frog, and so on. The
eggs and larvae of the amphibians do not survive without water.
Living World 85
Ruhi
6.8: Pisces or fish
Features
1. Skin is bare, that is, hairless, featherless, scaleless.
2. Has four legs but no nail
3. Gills present when young. In adult,
the gills are replaced by lungs
4. Are cold-blooded animals
Golden frog Toad
6.9: Amphibia
c. Reptiles: Vertebrates that move on the ventral aspect of the body are
called reptiles. For example, lizard, snake, crocodile, and so on.
Features
1. Body is covered by scales or by some other hard material.
2. Move on their ventral aspect.
3. Have nails on their fingers.
4. Lay eggs.
5. Gills present, with which
respiration is carried out.
6. Cold-blooded animal. 6.10: Reptiles
d. Aves or birds: Vertebrates that have feathers are called birds. For
example, crow, cuckoo, myna, duck, hen, pigeon, sparrow, weaver bird,
parrot, kite, vulture, and so on.
86 General Science
Features
1. Almost all birds can fly.
2. Body is covered with
feathers.
3. Have a pair of wings, and
a pair of legs.
4. Have strong beaks but no
teeth.
5. To have a lighter body
weight the big bones are
hollow.
6. Lungs and air sacs
6.11: Aves or birds
present.
7. Warm-blooded animal.
e. Mammals: Vertebrates that give birth to live young ones or babies that
feed on mothers' milk are called mammals. For example, human, cat,
cow, buffalo, dog, goat, horse, tiger, monkey, donkey, and so on.
Features
1. Body is covered with hairs
2. Have external ears
3. Mothers give birth to young ones that feed on breast milk
4. Warm-blooded animal
Difference between Vertebrates and Invertebrates
Invertebrates Vertebrates
1. No vertebral column. 1. Vertebral column present.
2. Usually have no tail. 2. Except for humans, most have tail.
3. Heart is not well developed. 3. Heart is well developed.
4. Eyes are either simple or 4. Eyes are simple.
compound.
5. Usually do not have 5. Have endoskeleton.
endoskeleton.
Living World 87
Exercise
Figure
4. The A marked portion of the above diagram is-
a. rostrum b. compound eye
c. taleson d. carapas
5. Applicable in case of the animal shown in the figure-
i. They have no internal skeleton
ii. Their tale is segmented
iii. They have no leg
Of the following, which is correct?
a. i b. ii
c. iii d. i, ii and iii
6. They have gills at minor stage but they are converted to lung in
matured stage
i. catfish
ii. frog
iii. crocodile
Of the following which is correct?
a. i b. ii
c. iii d. i, ii and iii
Living World 89
Figure A Figure B
a. What is plant?
b. Explain the function of the portion marked - A
c. What are the characteristics for which the animal in fig B is different
from the crocodile ?
d. Write the difference between A and B.
Chapter 7
Structure of a cell
Plant and animal cells are very small. They cannot be seen with
unaided eyes. But it can be observed under a microscope. Now a days
with the help of an electron microscope fine structures of the cell can
also be observed well. As a result few small organelles were
discovered in the cell. Let us discuss the structures and functions of
different parts of a cell.
A. Cell wall
Only plant cells have cell walls. The animal cells do not have any wall.
The wall is made of nonliving materials. It gives shape of the cell. It
also regulates movement of fluid between outside and inside of a cell.
Mitochondria
It is called the power house of the cell. Most of the energy producing
reactions take place inside it. Its shape may be rod like, globular, star
like etc. each mitochondrion is bounded by double membrane: the
outer one is smooth while the inner one has many foldings towards the
cavity of mitochondrion. Main function of mitochondrion is to help
respiration. It is the major site of respiratory activities in the cell. So it
helps releasing energy through respiration. It is also called the reservoir
of energy.
Vacuole
The open space inside a cell is the vacuole. In plant cells the size of
vacuoles is bigger while in animal cell the vacuoles are usually absent;
when it is present; it is very small in size. The fluid present inside the
vacuole is called the cell sap. To bear cell sap is the main function of
vacuoles.
Ribosome
It is a very small globular structure. Its number is high in every cell. Its
main function is to participate in protein synthesis.
Centrosome
There is a small structure beside the nucleus called centrosome. It is
absent in plant cell. It helps and participates in animal cell division.
3. Nucleus
Comparatively dark and spherical body surrounded by cytoplasm is the
nucleus. It is the most important structure of the cell. In absence of
nucleus normally a cell cannot function. A nucleus has following parts:
Cell: Unit of Living Body 95
a) nuclear membrane
b) nucleoplasm Nuclear membrane
c) chromosome
Nucleolus
d) nucleolus
Nucleoplasm
Nucleus controls all
physiologic activities of
a cell. It is the life chromosome
centre of the cell.
Exercise
A
5. The A-marked portion -
B
a. What is the picture about?
b. Explain the characteristics of the A marked portion.
c. Explain what would happen if the C marked portion would not be in the cell.
d. The B marked portion shown in the picture bears a special
characteristics of the above cell. Discuss.
Chapter 8
Plant Kingdom
The world of Biology includes plant and animal kingdoms. According to
the botanists at present there are about four and a half lakh plants in the
world. You know that some plants produce flower while others do not.
Some plants are very big and some are small. Few others are so small that
they are not visible without a microscope. Mango, Black berry, Jack fruit
etc. have root, stem, branches leaves, flowers and fruits. There are plants
that have no root, stem and leaves. These plants do not bear flowers and
fruits. We take Rice, Wheat, Pulses, Brinjal, Cabbage etc. as our food.
We get fibre from Jute, Cotton etc. Clothes are made from these fibres.
We make furniture and houses by using these timbers. Arjun, Sacred basil
(Tulshi), Akanda, Thankuni, Asparagus, Malabar nut (Bashak). Create
(Kalomegh) are medicinal plants. We get life saving drugs also from
some of the plants. If we want to use the plants for the benefit of the
humanity we must get perfect knowledge about plants.
thing of every plant individually. Some plants are used as medicine, while
some are used as manure for the crop field. There are plants which are
helpful for fish culture. It is easier for some plants to produce improved
variety. Few plants can grow in dry condition while others require saline
water. Few plants grow faster than the others. There are plants which are
suitable for plantation in the forests. To get all these information
accurately and easily, with less effort in a short span of time, it is
necessary to classify all the plants known.
Classification of plants
Scientist proposed a name for every plant known and divided them into
different groups. Now let us discuss the classification of plants based on
flowering ability.
a) Protophyta
Plants of this group are microscopic. Some of them are so small that one
needs an electron microscope to
see them. They are usually non-
green heterophytes. Body is simple
and composed of primitive type of
cells. Virus, bacteria etc are
included in this group. They are
responsible for causing most of the
diseases.
b) Thallophyte
It is a group of plants whose body is not divisible into root, stem and leaf.
It is of two types; such as - Algae and Fungi.
d) Pteridophyta: Pteridophyta
are the most advanced type of
Cryptogamic (non flowering),
plants. Its distribution is world
wide. They grow profusely near
houses on damp or wet soil or
walls of old buildings. It is
popularly known as fern plants.
Dryopteris and Pteris are most
common ferns found in every
where. It can manufacture its
own food because it contains chlorophylls. Ferns are planted in earthen
pots as ornamental plants. Dryopteris is taken as vegetables.
102 General Science
a) Gymnosperms
There are plants where ovary is
absent. Here fruits are not formed,
so seeds remain open. These plants
are Gymnospermic plants such as
Pinus, Cycas etc
b) Angiosperms
These plants have ovary. A mature
ovary forms a fruit. Seeds are
borne within the fruit. So seeds are
covered. Plant with seeds
borne inside fruit are called angiosperm plants; such as Litchi, Mango,
Guava etc. Angiospermic plants are divided on the basis of cotyledon in
their seeds into two groups; such as 1) Monocotyledons and 2) Dicotyledons
1) Monocotyledons:
These plants bear one cotyledon in the seeds; such as Rice, Wheat,
Sugarcane, Maize, Coconut etc. Usually stems of these plants are hollow
at inter nodal regions. Venation is parallel. Stigma is feather like and
Plant Kingdom 103
Cryptogams Phanerogams
(Non flowering) (Flowering)
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
(Fruits not formed and seeds (Fruits formed and seeds
not covered in fruits.) covered in fruits)
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
(Only one cotyledon (Two cotyledons
in the seed) in the seed)
104 General Science
Observe few plants around you. Now write down their names and note nature
of their stems. Try to separate three categories of plants into herbs, Shrubs and
trees.
Prepare carbohydrate food with water taken from soil and carbon dioxide from
environment, in presence of light with the help of chloroplasts. This food is
carbohydrate or sugar. A portion of this is used by the plants for their own
purpose. Rest portion is left for man, other animals and heterophytic plants.
2. Heterophytes: Non green plants cannot manufacture their own food. So
they are dependent on other plants for food. They are called heterophytes.
These plants are of two types; such as (a) Parasites and (b) Saprophytes.
a) Parasites: These plants are not green and
cannot prepare their own food. The plants
live on or inside other organisms. They
collect food from the host organism by
various mechanisms. They sometimes
develop special sucking roots. Example
Dodder. They sometimes cause diseases of
the host plant or animal. Black band disease
of jute, late blight of potato and blast disease
of rice are caused by parasitic fungi.
b) Saprophytes: These are plants that collect food from dead remains of
plants and animals. These are saprophyhtes. Have you seen white powdery
things on rotten bread? These white dot like things soon turn black. It is a type
of fungus. Mucor is a saprophytic plant.
Saprophytes decompose dead remain of plant and animal and mix it up with
soil as organic matter. This process is of great help to us. They act as natural
scavengers.
Plant Kingdom 107
Some Saprophytes
There are many saprophytes around us. But we do not recognize them as
plants. Yeast, mushroom, Penicillium etc. are examples of saprophytes.
1. Yeast
Some of you must have heard about
yeasts which are used in bakery. It is a
fungus (Plural-fungi) and saprophyte.
They release carbon dioxide during
respiration. This carbon dioxide is
used in bread for raising of it. This
plants can ferment alcohol from sugar.
It is very rich in vitamin B. So they are valued as good food. Yeasts are
used in making bread and biscuits, wine and medicines.
Yeast is a group of unicellular plants. Its cells may be arranged in a line. Thus
it forms a filament or band like structure. Each cell produce buds. These buds
when get separated, new yeast plant is produced. It is a process of reproduction.
Yeast cells may divide by direct cell division. Each cell become separate yeast
plant. It is also a process of reproduction.
1. Mushroom
Frogs umbrella is an incidental
remark. Frogs do not use umbrella.
When talk about frogs umbrellayou
may think about some white and soft
umbrella like things. In English they are
called mushrooms. In rainy season, they
grow on the soil with decomposed
leaves, straw and other organic matter.
108 General Science
3. Penicillium
Many of you have taken penicillin as medicine. Penicillin tablets are taken
by many to cure common cough and
cold, throat pain etc. It is the first
discovered antibiotic medicine.
Alexander Fleming discovered this
life saving drug from Penicillium
fungus. With its help blue cheese is
prepared.
Gradually scar become whitish at the middle point. When spikelet is affected at
its base, it breaks down. The disease is caused by one type of parasitic fungus.
Spraying of Brodeux mixture controls the disease. Control of weeds and
burning of debris are effective preventive measures.
leaves on diseased plants. Gradually all leaves and branches are affected. The
plants soon droop down. On large scale attack of the disease, the field spread
bad smell all around. Potato tubers show brown scars. A kind of parasitic
fungus is responsible for the disease.
Use of healthy seeds (tubers) and early variety are good preventive measures.
Use of appropriate fungicide minimizes the attack of the disease.
Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
3. Perinnial (plant) is
a. ginger b. carrot
c. pea d. mustard
112 General Science
figure
5. What kind of plant is shown in the picture?
i. dying
ii. heterotrophic
iii. autotrophs
Of the following, which is correct?
a. i and ii b. ii and iii
c. i and iii d. i, ii and iii
6. Applicable in case of plant shown in the picture-
i. There is vitamin in their body
ii. Blue cheese is made with its help
iii. is used in bread making industry
Of the following which is correct?
a. i and ii b. i and iii
c. ii and iii d. i, ii and iii
Plant Kingdom 113
figure 1 figure 2
Figure 1 Figure 2
Of which order is the plant in Figure 1?
a. Why is their stem soft?
b. Which of the above plants is called annual, herb and dicot? Explain.
c. Discuss the comparative studies regarding two characteristics of the plants
above.
Chapter-9
Morphology of Plants
Flowering Plant
We find innumerable plants around us. One finds variations in there size
and structure. Some plants do not bear flowers or fruits; such as algae,
mushroom, moss, fern etc. Some other plants bear flowers and fruits;
such as Paddy, wheat, Mango, Mustard etc. We have already learned a bit
about nonflowering and flowering plants. Now we shall learn about
different parts of a typical flowering plant.
The Shoot
The portion of the plant that remains above the ground level is called the
shoot. The shoot includes stem, branches, branchlets, leaves, flowers and
fruits. In chilli plant a single flower grows at leaf axil. The flower has
calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
Root
The part of a plant that have
no apical bud, nodes and inter
nodes; is called root.
Normally root is formed from
the first root called the
radicle. It does not bear
leaves, flowers and fruits.
Normal roots grow down-
wards. Of course it is not true
that at all times the underground parts are the roots. Prop roots of Banyan
and aerial roots of Orchid remain above the ground level. While stems of
Zinger, Turmeric, Onion etc grow under the soil level. The radical grows
as main root. It is the primary root. Branches of main root is called branch
roots or secondary roots. Branches from secondary roots are the tertiary
roots. The main roots is also known as tap root. A root can be divided
into few regions. At root tip there is a cap like structure, known as root
cap. This is the root cap region. Root cap protects the smooth apical
region from any probable injury caused by friction with hard soil
particles.
Behind this, there lies a soft region, called growth region. In this area cell
division and cell elongation occurs. The region behind this is the root hair
region. Very fine hairy growth appears around the root. Above this region
is the permanent region. From the permanent region the branch roots are
developed.
116 General Science
Classification of roots
Different plants have different types of roots. On the basis of origin and
position: roots are classified into two major types; such as 1) Tap root and
2) Adventitious root.
1. Tap root: This root originates from the radicle of the embryo. It goes
down inside the soil. It gives rise to branches. It is also called main root.
In Mango, Basella, Spinach,
Neem, Gram etc. we find this
type of roots.
2. Adventitious root: Roots
developed from stem, branches,
leaves or any part other than the
radical, are called adventitious
roots. It is of two kinds; such as
(a) Fibrous roots and (b) non
fibrous roots.
a) Fibrous roots: When the radical is lost and a group of fibre like roots
grow from the same place, it is called fibrous root; such as Paddy. It is the
characteristics of monocotyledonous plants.
b) Non Fibrous roots: When adventitious roots grow separately from
one another; it is called non fibrous roots. Example-stilt roots of Screw
pine, roots of Bryophyllum.
Morphology of Plants 117
Modified roots
When roots are modified, are called modified roots. Both tap root and
adventitious roots are modified. The roots are modified to perform the
function of storage of food, giving mechanical support and physiological
functions. Now let us discuss about modification of roots for food
storage.
We all have seen Radish, Turnip and Carrot. We also have taken them as
vegetables. Do you find any node, inter node, leaf or bud in them? No,
there is nothing of the sort. The crown of leaves you see arise from a very
small and compressed stem. A normal root does not have any node inter-
node, leaf or bud. These structures are very fleshy and juicy. Why it is
so? These roots store food. So they are fleshy and juicy. The main root
(tap root) swells up due to storage of food and can not be identified as
roots.
Based on shape, modified tap roots are of four types: such as 1. Fusiform.
2. Conical, 3. Napiform and 4. Tuberculer.
118 General Science
4. Tubercular: When a tap root store foods and swells up irregularly and
does not have any definite shape: it is called Tubercular root. Example-
Sweet potato, Four oclock plant (Sandhya malati) etc.
Functions of a root:
Roots usually perform two types of work, such as-
a) Normal functions
i) Fixing the plant to the soil
ii) Absorbing water and mineral salts
iii) Transportation of water and mineral salts absorbed by the root to the stem.
Morphology of Plants 119
b) Special function:
i) Bear weight of branch and branch lets. Example-Prop roots of
Banyan (Bot).
ii) Keep a plant erect. Example-stilt root of Screw pine (Keya).
iii) Help climbing of a climber. Example-climbing root of Betel leaf
(Pan)
iv) Store food for the plant. Example-Fusiform root of Radish.
v) Help plant to float. Example-Floating root of jussiaea (Keshor dam)
vi) Help plants in reproduction. Example-Tubercular root of sweet
potato.
vii) Help plants in respiration. Example-breathing roots of Sundary.
Stem
The part of a plant, that bears branches, leaves, flowers and fruits is called
stem. Normally a stem remains above the soil. But there are stems that
grows beneath the soil surface, such as Zinger, Garlic etc.
Structure of stem:
Various kinds of stems are found in
plants around us. Some are strong
while others are weak. Stems of
Jackfruit, Litchi are example of strong stems. Bottle gourd, Cucumber,
Gourd are plants with soft and weak stems. Among these stems some are
round or quadrangular, while flat and triangular stems are also found. In
Sacred basil (Tulshi), Bottle gourd (Lau), Cucumber (Shosha) stems are
found. Opuntia (Phonimonsha), Shama etc. have flat stems. Stem of
Eucalyptus is round and smooth. All trees have round stem.
On the basis of stem nature, it is classified into two groups, a) Erect
(strong) stems and b) Weak stems.
1. Erect (strong) stems: Erect stems are on four types. Such as-
a) Caudex: The stem is erect, strong and has a crown of leaves at the top.
Example-Coconut, Pamyra palm, Betel nut.
b) Culm: Erect, unbranched stems with hollow inter nodes are called
culm. Example-Bamboo, Sugarcane etc.
Morphology of Plants 121
c) Climbing stem or Climbers: Weak stems that grow upward with the
help of any support is called climbers: such as-Betel leaf (Pan),
Cucumber (Shosha) etc.
Functions of stems:
1. It bears branches, leaves, flowers and fruits.
2. It keeps the branches and leaves in proper position for getting
maximum sunlight.
3. It transports water and mineral salts to branches and leaves, flowers
and fruits.
4. Foods prepared in leaves are carried by the stem to different parts of
the plant.
5. Stems, when young and green, manufacture food.
6. Some stems store foods.
7. Stems gives mechanical support to the plant.
8. Stem helps in storage of food, self defense, help surviving in
unfavourable season and conditions and vegetative reproduction.
Leaf
Lateral flattened green outgrowth of stem and branches at nodal region is
called a leaf. Older leaves remain at the base of stem while the younger
ones grow at the upper level. In algae and fungi there is no leaf at all. In
moss plants leaf like flat structures are found. These are not actual leaves.
Leaves of flowering plants are the true leaves.
1) Leaf base: The part of leaf which is attached to the stem, is called leaf
base. In Mango, Krishna chura, Gold mohor etc. the leaf base is swollen.
Swollen leaf base is called pulvinus. In Coconut, Betel nut and Pamyra
palm the leaf base is flat and surrounds the stem. It is called a sheathing
leaf base. In some plants flat leaf like small growth arise from the leaf
base. It is called stipule. Example-pea.
2) Petiole: Petiole connects leaf blade or lamina with leaf base. It is the
stalk of the leaf; such as Mango, Jack Fruit, Betel leaf etc. When petiole
is absent the leaf is called sessile leaf; such as Ulat chandal, Rangan etc.
3) Leaf blade or lamina: Thin and flat
part of leaf is the leaf blade or lamina.
It is broad at the base and tapering at
the apex. This tapered cone like part of
lamina is called the leaf apex. Marginal
line of lamina is called leaf margin. At
the middle of the blade a rib like
structure runs from the petiole to the
apex It is called the mid rib or main
vein. Midrib of religious tree (Aswatha)
is very prominent. Branches from main
vein or mid rib are the veins. Branches
from the veins are called veinlets.
Shape of leaf blade may be
of various types. Base on the shape of leaf blade, leaves are classified into
some types. Let us discuss some common types. When the lamina is long
and thin like a needle it is called acicular; such as Casuarina. In paddy
and Wheat, leaves are linear. In Bamboo, Mango etc. the leaves are like a
lens (ballam). So they are called lenceolate leaf. Bettle leaf,
124 General Science
Religious tree etc. bear leaves like heart. So they are cordate. Arum
leaves are arrow shaped.
So they are called sagittate. Likewise we get ovate in China rose, rotund
in Lotus. Cucurbita leaf is irregularly lobed like ducks foot.
Kinds of leaves
We see various types of leaves in plants. Few of them with only one
lamina, while others may have more than one lamina which are smaller in
size. This small lamina is actually the part of the main lamina. It is called
leaflet. Based on lamina or presence of leaflet; leaves are classified into
(1) Simple leaves and (2) Compound leaves.
(1) Simple leaf: Leaf that contains only one leaflet is called a simple leaf.
Example: Black berry, Mango, Jackfruit, Banyan, etc. the margin of a
simple leaf is entire or may be incompletely incised. It is also divided into
two types; (a) Leaf with entire lamina and (b) leaf with lobed lamina.
(a) Leaves with entire lamina: When the lamina is not lobed the margin
is entire. Litchi, Mango, Banyan, Jackfruit etc.
Morphology of Plants 125
(b) Leaves with lobed lamina: In some leaves the margins are lobed.
The incision of the lamina is such that is does not reach the mid rib.
Example;Mustard, Papaya, Arun etc.
(2) Compound leaf: A leaf composed of more than one leaflet is called
compound leaf. Rose, Wood apple and Tamarind leaves are compound
leaves. Each small leaf blade of a compound leaf is called a leaflet. The
branch like structure bearing the leaflets is called the rachis or axis. It is
of two kinds such as (a) Pinnate compound and (b) Palmate compound.
(a) Pinnate compound: When a compound leaf bears leaflets on its two
sides it is called a pinnate compound leaf. It is of four types.
1. Unipinnate compound: When the rachis is unbranched and leaflets
are directly attached to the rachis, it is called unipinnate compound leaf. It
is again grouped into two types. (i) Paripinnate and (ii) Imparipinnate.
(i) Paripinnate: In this type leaflets are in pairs and there is no apical
leaflet. Example: Shonalu, Goldmohor etc.
(ii) Imparipinnate: Here the leaflets are present in even number and the
single leaflet is borne at the apex of the rachis. Example: Rose, Clitoria
etc.
2. Bipinnate compound: In this case the rachis is branched. Leaflets are
arranged on this branches. Example: Sensitive plant (Lajjabati).
3. Tri Pinnate compound: When the branches of rachis again produce
branches and leaflets are arranged on the branchlets, it is called tri
pinnate. Example: Nim, Moringa (sajina) etc.
4. Decompound: Here the incision of leaf blade is of higher order than
that is found in tripinnate. Example: Carrot, Coriandrum (Dhoney) etc.
126 General Science
Multifoliate
Functions of leaf:
1. Green leaves manufacture food for the plant.
2. During photosynthesis leaf takes carbon dioxide and oxygen is
released. During respiration oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide
is released. So gaseous exchange is another important function of
leaf. This exchange of gases occur through small pores, called
stomata.
3. Plants release excess water in the environment in the form of vapour
during transpiration.
4. Leaves store food and water. Example: Basella (Puin), Bryophyllum
(Pathar kuchi) etc.
5. When leaves modified into tendril it helps plant in climbing.
Example-Garden pea.
6. It takes part in vegetative reproductions. Example: Bryophyllum
(Pathar kuchi.)
128 General Science
Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. Which is a sessile leaf?
a. shial Kata b. mango
c. lotus d. pumpkin
2. The shape of trunk of jhao tree is
a. branchless b. runner
c. temple shaped d. tomb shaped
3. What is the root called that originates from the basic root?
a. Adventitious root b. main root
c. fibrous root d. shandhamalati
4. Which root is of elongated shape?
a. radish b. turnip
c. Shandhamalati d. beet
5. In case of stem-
i. medicine is available from cinconna and arjun
ii. valuable wood is obtained from gewa and garam
iii. partex and match are made from black berry and jackfruit
Of the following, which is correct?
a. i b. i and ii
c. ii and iii d. i, ii and iii
130 General Science
What do you do to open a door? You push or pull. A cart man pushes a
cart from the back or pulls it from the front to move it on. Again in order
to stop the cart, he pulls it from the back or pushes it backward from the
front. This push or pull is called force.
The beginning of the football game, the football is kept at middle of the
field. It remains then motionless until any player displaces that. Again
suppose, a player changes the course of a football passing over his head
towards the goal, by heading. Both the speed and direction of the football
are changed. Goalkeeper catches the football. The football is stopped.
Force has been applied to hit, head and catch (stop) the football.
Force can neither be seen with eyes, nor can be touched or felt. But the
change of a body can be seen when the force is applied on it. Hence to
understand what is force, you have to observe and understand the changes
a body undergoes on application of force. You have seen that a football at
rest, can be put into motion, direction of that motion can be changed, the
motion can be speeded up or slowed down and the football can be
stopped, by the application of force. Again suppose, you push a pushcart
loaded with bricks, but do not succeed. So it is not that a body at rest,
always moves, on application of force, but it tends to move. If one of
your friends join you and you push together the cart may start moving. So
it can be said in short, that which acting on a body changes or tends to
change its state of rest or of motion is called force.
Force may be of many kinds such as, frictional force, gravitational force,
magnetic force, static electrical force etc.
You know that force cannot be seen but its effect can be seen. For that
force cannot be measured directly and it is measured by measuring the
effect caused by it. What does
happen when a rubber tape or a
spring is pulled? It becomes
longer. The greater is the pull the
longer it becomes. In other words
the greater is the force applied,
the more is the increase in length
of the rubber tape or spring. This
amount of increase in length can
be seen and measured. Thus an
easy way of measurement of
force is to measure amount of
increase in length of a spring on
application of force.
For measurement of any thing we need to know its unit. Thus a standard
force or unit of force needs to be known, in comparison to which other
forces can be measured. In the System International unit of force is
Newton.
Now how much force is equal to one Newton? To have an idea of this,
keep in mind that a mass of one kilogram weighs about 10 Newton.
Force, Pressure and Motion 135
What is Pressure?
We use the word pressure in various meanings. Such as, the pressure of
study, mental pressure, social pressure, political pressure etc. But in the
language of science the
word pressure has a special
meaning, which is different
from the ordinary meaning.
When force is applied on a
body, then many things
depend on how much area
this force is applied on. The
same force applied on a
small area and on a larger area makes a lot of difference. You take a board
pin or a flat-headed nail. Put the sharp end of the pin vertically on your
exercise book and press it with your thumb. You will see that the pin has
pierced through the pages of the exercise book. Turn the nail or the pin up
sided own and place the flat end on the exercise book. Now try to press
the pin with your finger. You can't press it hard, as it will pierce through
your finger. What is the reason for it? The reason for it is that the area of
136 General Science
the sharp end of the pin is very small. It is almost a dot. While the other
end is flat and its area is many times larger than the sharp end. When force
is applied on the flat head, it gets concentrated on a small dot like area of
the sharp end. As a result, its influence increases. On the other hand when
the force is applied on the sharp end it gets spread over a larger area. As a
result its influence decreases. That is to say the pressure decreases.
Unit of force is Newton and unit of area is square metre. So, unit of
pressure is Newton/square metre. This unit has been named as Pascal.
Therefore, 1 Pascal = 1 Newton per sq. metre.
You can now surely understand why, the point of a pin or a nail is made
so sharp. The sharper the knives, scissors, axes, fish knives are easier to
work with them. That is to say, more work can be done with the
application of less force. Here pressure has been increased by decreasing
area. Again, you have surely noticed that in the construction of a building
the lowermost wall is made wider. Here the amount of pressure has been
Force, Pressure and Motion 137
decreased by increasing the area. It is for this reason that the wheel of a
truck is much wider than the wheel of a rickshaw. The rear wheels of
buses and trucks are also used in pairs. Some of you may have seen
physical feats demonstrated by some men. They lie down on the points of
nails, placed in rows. They lie down bare bodied. This is possible as the
weight of the man that is the force gets distributed over a number of nails.
As a result the pressure becomes much less. Otherwise it would not be
possible to lie down over a single nail.
Rest
Your school building is at the same place today as it was yesterday. And
it will remain at the same place until it is broken or removed for some
reason. Similarly other houses or trees will be seen to be at the same
place, as they are now, after one hour, one day or one month also. These
are called static bodies and this state of the bodies is called rest.
Therefore, if a body does not change its position with the change of time,
with respect to surrounding bodies, the body is said to be a static body
and the state of the body is called rest.
Motion
While a bus or a train remains standing at a station, then they are static.
But as soon as they begin to move their positions also go on changing.
138 General Science
They will be seen at some places after ten minutes and at some other
places after one hour. Therefore their positions change with the change of
time. These are called bodies in motion or moving bodies. And this
moving condition of the body is called motion. Therefore, when a body
changes its position, with the change of time, with respect to surrounding
bodies, then the body is said to be a moving body and the state of the
body is called motion. By now you have noticed that whether a body is at
rest or in motion that can be understood by comparing it with the
surrounding bodies. Suppose, you are going from one place to another by
a train. The train has started to move. Will there be any change in your
position with respect to door, window or passengers of the train? There
will be no change, and everything within the compartment will appear to
you to be at rest, although the train is in motion. Again houses and trees
are at rest, with respect to the earth. But you know that the earth rotates
about its own axis at a mean speed of about 1200 kilometers per hour. As
a result of this day and night occur. The earth revolves round the sun also.
So, all bodies on earth are in motion. In real sense, nothing in this
universe is at rest. The earth, the moon, the sun, the stars all are moving.
Thus there is nothing like absolute motion or absolute rest. Whether a
body is at rest or in motion can only be understood by comparing it with
other bodies. Therefore, all motions and rests are only relative.
Linear Motion
You lift a body up and let it fall. The body will fall down straight. If a
body moves along a straight line in this way, the motion of the body is
said to be linear motion. The motion of a bullet fired from a gun is linear
motion.
Curvilinear Motion
While coming to school from home you come along a zigzag way and do
not come straight, your motion will be curvilinear motion. Therefore, if
140 General Science
Rotational Motion
Take a rope of one metre length. Tie a
piece of brick or stone at one end. Wind
other end of rope with your finger and
revolve the stone. Motion acquired by
the stone is called rotational motion.
Therefore, when a body rotates about a
point or an axis, then the motion of the
body is said to be rotational motion. The motion of the wheels of a
moving bi-cycle, motion of a moving electric fan, rotation of the earth
along its own orbit etc. is all rotational motion.
Periodic Motion
At the time of revolving the stone with a
rope, if you revolve it in such a way that
time of each revolving always be the
same, then that motion is called periodic
motion. Sometimes a bi-cycle moves
faster and sometimes it moves slower.
Thus the time taken by the wheel of a bi-
cycle to revolve once is sometime less
and sometimes more. So the motion of
Force, Pressure and Motion 141
the wheel of a bi-cycle is not periodic motion. Time taken by the earth to
make one complete rotation about its own axis is always 24 hours. So the
motion of the earth is periodic motion. Therefore, if a body moves in such
a way that after a specific interval of time, it moves through the same
point along its path of motion in the same direction, then the motion of
the body is said to be periodic motion. Motion of the hands of a clock,
motion of a electric fan, motion of a gramophone record etc. are periodic
motion.
Oscillatory Motion
Hold the rope to which a stone is tied in such a way that it hangs
downwards. Holding the rope with
right hand, pull the stone with your
left hand slightly and let it go. You
will observe that the stone will have a
pause after moving a distance from
left to right, then again it will go to
left moving in opposite direction. The
stone will be oscillating in this way.
That is to say, at a specific interval of
time, the motion of the stone will be
reversed. This motion of the stone is
called oscillatory motion. The motion
of pendulum of a clock and the motion
of a cradle are also oscillatory motion.
Oscillatory motion is a kind of periodic motion. Difference is that the
motion of a body, having oscillatory motion, is reversed at a specific
interval of time. All oscillatory motions are periodic motions but all
periodic motions are not oscillatory motions. The motion of the pendulum
of a clock is oscillatory as well as periodic motion. But the motion of the
hands of a clock is not oscillatory it is only periodic motion.
142 General Science
Complex Motion
Displacement
You keep your book on the table, a
distance apart. The position of book is
changed. The change of position of a
body is called displacement. But this
change of position should be in a definite direction. The linear distance
between first and second positions of the object is the magnitude of
displacement. Suppose a body moves from position A to position B. The
body may move directly along a straight line, or it may go along a zigzag
and upward or downward paths. But whichever path it follows, its
displacement will be the linear or least distance AB, between the first
position A and last position B. Displacement does not depend upon path
along which the body traverses. The direction of displacement will be
from A to B.
displacement is the linear or least distance between first and last positions
of the body. Displacement is a distance, so units of displacement and
length are the same. Therefore unit of displacement is metre.
Speed
Suppose the distance of your school from your house is 1000 metres. You
take 20 minutes to go there on foot. That is to say, you can walk a 50-
metre path in a minute. Thus your speed is 50 metres per minute. Speed
does not depend on traversing straight or curved path. It depends upon the
total distance traversed and the time taken to traverse it. In a word,
distance traversed by a body in unit time is called speed. Unit of speed is
metre per second.
Distance
Therefore, Speed = Time
Velocity
Force Speed
Rest Pressure
Newton metre Oscillatory Motion
Pascal Periodic Motion
Displacement, Complex Motion
Velocity Motion
Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
2. In B-marked fig, the pressure of the brick per square metre is-
a. 1000 Newton b. 2000 Newton
c. 3000 Newton d. 4000 Newton
146 General Science
1.
You take a book from the table and lift it up on your head. What work do
you have to do for this? You have to apply a force against the weight of
the book. In this way the displacement of a body from one place to
another, with the application of force is called work in the scientific
language. Here there are two things that need to be noticed. Firstly force
and secondly motion of the body or displacement. When the body
changes its position on being in motion by application of force, only then
work is done. You push a wall with all your strength. The wall does not
move even a bit. Have you done any work? No, because although force
has been applied there is no displacement. A cart driver drives his cart.
He does work. Because, as a result of application of force, the cart moves
from one place to another. Therefore, there is displacement of the cart. A
porter lifts up a load from the ground to his head. He does some work.
But when he remains standing with the load on his head, no work is done.
So, the displacement of a body from one place to another, with the
application of force is called work. The product of force and displacement
148 General Science
will surely say, 'I am'. You are right. But how is it so? You both have
done work during running. Your friend could not run further after he had
run one kilometre. That means he has lost his capacity for doing work.
But your capacity still remained. Hence you could run one kilometre
further. But after that your capacity was also exhausted.
This capacity for doing work is called energy. Therefore energy is
necessary for doing work. The more the energy a person has, the more the
amount of work he can perform. None can do any work without energy.
A man or a machine can perform that amount of work, which his energy
permits. Hence energy is measured by work. So unit of work is the unit of
energy. Therefore unit of energy is also joule.
We cannot live even a moment without energy. In fact, this universe also
cannot survive without energy. Nothing is static in the universe. The earth
revolves round the sun, and the moon revolves round the earth. Always
something or the other is happening, therefore, work is done. For
performing any work you may think, energy is necessary. Energy is
necessary for production of food, cooking, movement of cars and carts,
running mills and factories, playing games, and even when you read
books.
Mechanical Energy
Movement means work. Therefore, any moving body has capacity for
doing work. That is to say, they have energy. You are walking, a car is
Work, Power, Energy 151
moving, you or the car has a kind of energy. This energy is called kinetic
energy. Because, capacity for doing work has developed due to motion.
Therefore, capacity for doing work is generated by a moving body by
virtue of motion is called kinetic energy.
You lift up a brick from the ground. You do some work. Has the brick
any energy while you hold it up? It has; because if you now let the brick
fall, it will fall on the ground on its own, and hence it will perform some
work. If there is no energy how this work can be performed? So while
you are holding up the brick, although it has no motion, it possesses a
kind of energy. This energy is called potential energy. Therefore, energy
that is generated by a body by virtue of its special position or
configuration is called potential energy.
Chemical energy
Energy stored in food or fuel is called chemical energy. We get energy
from food. Petrol, gas, wood, coal as they all have chemical energy. The
batteries that you use in the torch and radio also have chemical energy.
Heat energy
Energy used in cooking, driving of motorcars or railway engines is called
heat energy. This energy is obtained by burning coal, gas, wood, petrol or
diesel. Again heat comes directly from the sun also. This heat energy
152 General Science
keeps the earth warm. No animal or tree can survive without heat
energy.
Magnetic energy
Another form of energy is magnetic energy. A magnet attracts articles
made of iron with this energy from a distance. We will discuss about the
magnetic energy in the next chapter.
Light energy
The other energy, which comes along with heat energy from the sun
directly, is light energy. We could not see anything in absence of light
energy.
Sound energy
While you speak, sing or play on a flute, you generate a kind of energy.
This is called sound energy. We can hear the voice of one another with
the help of sound. Sound energy is used in telephone, radio and
television. The vibration of substances produces sound.
Electrical energy
A very well known and useful form of energy is electrical energy. We
light lamp, turn the fan on, run mills and factories by electrical energy.
Trains are also run by electrical energy in many countries. Electrical
energy can be transmitted from one place to another with the help of wire.
Solar energy
Energy received from the sun in the form of heat and light is called solar
energy. In fact the sun is one of the main sources of our energy. We use
solar energy for drying of clothes, jute and paddy everyday.
Work, Power, Energy 153
Wind energy
Energy generated by the flow of air is called wind energy. Boats with
lifted sails move with help of air energy. Windmills are run by the use of
air energy. These mills produce electricity and also grind wheat, maize,
etc. This energy is not used much as the generation and uses of electrical
energy by other processes are much easier and cheaper.
Atomic energy
You know that matter is composed of atoms. The inner content of this
atom is bound together by a very powerful force. If this binding can be
broken by any means, then a very powerful energy called atomic energy
is obtained. This energy can be transformed into electrical energy and is
used in our work. It can also be used for destruction of world by making
atom bomb.
Transformation of energy
When using some energy one performs some work, then what does
happen to that energy? Is that energy destroyed? No energy is neither lost
nor destroyed. It is only transformed from one form into another. You rub
your palms several times by pressing them together. You will observe
that your hands become warm. You will also hear sound during rubbing.
Rubbing of palms is a kind of work. For this you have to use your muscle
energy or mechanical energy. This energy you have received from the
chemical energy of your food. So here at first chemical energy has been
transformed into mechanical energy and then mechanical energy has been
transformed into heat energy and sound energy. Many examples can be
cited in respect of such transformation of energy from one form into
another. When coal or oil burns, its chemical energy is transformed into
heat energy. This heat energy is transformed into mechanical energy while
154 General Science
Conservation of energy
Is some energy consumed during its transformation from one form into
another? No, though it may appear surprising, energy is neither lost nor is
destroyed. Total amount of energy before and after transformation
remains the same in one form or the other. In fact, the scientists have
shown that total amount of energy in this universe is constant. No more
amount of energy than this can be created also. Amount of energy that
remains cannot be destroyed also. Only it can be transformed from one
form into another form, or into more than one form. This is called
conservation of energy.
Sources of energy
Where do we get energy?
How essential the energy is! Now where do we get this energy? You or
any man receives his energy from food. Energy, which is needed for the
mills and factories or vehicles, comes from fuel. Then where do these
foods or fuels come from? Source of most of energy of the earth is the
sun. Energy comes in the form of light and heat from the sun. This light
of the sun is utilized for production of food. Again, coal, oil, gas or petrol
has been produced from remains of the trees and animals of thousands
and thousands years ago. Trees or animals are converted into coal, gas or
oil after they remained under pressure inside earth for thousands and
thousands of years after their death. Again by burning this coal, oil or gas
most of the electrical energy is being produced.
Energy is also obtained from air. The power of air can be understood
during cyclone. Energy of air can uproot trees and houses and blow them
all away. Air energy actually causes destruction during storms, and it is
not utilized in any work. But during other times air energy can be
utilized. Boats with lifted sails move with the help of air energy, with the
lifted sails. Fan can be rotated by air, which in turn can rotate grindstones
for crushing rice, or wheat. There was a kind of wind driven mill in many
countries of Europe, about two or three hundred years ago, by which
people used to grind wheat. The name of this machine or mill is windmill.
The windmills can also generate electricity. Burning coal or oil can
generate electricity more easily and cheaply. Hence windmills are not
used as before.
Another main source of energy is water. Water current can also be
utilized to rotate fan or wheel. Water can be increased to a great extent by
constructing dams in the river. Water rushes out downward with a
156 General Science
tremendous speed when gates of the dam are opened. Electricity can be
generated from this. Electricity generated in this way is called
hydroelectricity. In Bangladesh, there is a hydroelectric generation centre
at Kaptai, in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
many days that will be possible. For this reason we must be careful and
should not waste energy. Hardly there is any coal or oil in our country.
There is some gas. This gas is used in many of your houses for cooking.
You must see that gas is not wasted by burning gas-ovens without any
purpose. You will not keep electric lamps lighted or put electric fans on
unnecessarily.
EXERCISE
3. The weight of you and one of your friends is almost same. It took 20
second for you to run for 100 metre distance. Your friend took 25
seconds. Which is correct?
a. your force is more b. your power is more
c. your energy is more d. the amount of your work is more
158 General Science
ELECTRIC ENERGY
We all know electricity. Application of electricity is seen in almost every
area of our daily life. Lamps are lighted and fans rotate in the houses,
offices and shops with the help of electricity. Mills and factories are run
by electricity. It has become possible for us to hear songs on radio, see
pictures on television and speak to any body at distant places over
telephone, by the use of electricity. Trams and trains are run by electricity
in many countries for communication. All these are various kinds of
work. Therefore, electricity has the capacity for doing work. So,
electricity is a kind of energy.
Gilbert was the first to name this property of the substance as electricity
whose Bengali synonym is biddut. Scientists started to carry on
researches on electricity after Gilbert had discovered it.
Thus, rubbing some special kinds of substances with each other produces
statical electricity. Statical electricity can be produced by rubbing glass,
rubber, plastic, gutta-percha, sealing wax, ebonite etc. with wool, silk etc.
To observe the attractive power of statical electricity, light substances
such as, cork or small piece of sponge wood, dry hair, piece of paper,
parched rice (muri) parched paddy (khoi) etc. can be used.
rod due to its rubbing with wool as negative () charge. This name is in
use till today. Whether an unknown charge is positive or negative, can be
known by comparing it with a charged glass rod or charged rubber rod.
We cannot see charges but we can observe their influences. We can
observe that the two charged bodies attract or repel each other. We can
understand the existence of charge by observing this influence.
Lightning, Thunder
It is rainy season. The sky is overcast with dense black clouds. Suddenly
you see a flash of glaring light in the sky. Terrible deafening sound is
heard after a little while. You all have this experience. This flash of
glaring light is called lightning and terrible sound you hear is called
rumbling of clouds or thunderclaps.
What is lightning?
There are particles of water, dust and various gases in air. Statical
electricity is generated among these particles due to friction. Therefore,
the particles are charged. Clouds are produced from the accumulation of
such crores and crores of charged water particles. A cloud may either be
positively or negatively charged. Electricity produced in air due to
various natural reasons is also deposit over the particles of water in the
clouds.
168 General Science
cloud to come very close to earth for occurrence of thunder. There may
be thunder from a cloud lying at a distance of four to five kilometres.
Sound heard along with thunder is called thunderclap. Benjamin Franklin
discovered first that electricity in cloud is the cause of thunder.
Lightning conductor
In order to protect high buildings from ravages of lightning discharge, a
metallic rod is fitted at the highest place of the building. Sharp and
tapering upper end of this rod remains high above the roof. Other end,
connected to a thick metal wire, is buried under the earth. This rod is
called lightning conductor. This rod remains closer to cloud than other
parts of building. As a result, while there is thunder, it strikes this rod.
The rod is a metallic substance; therefore, it is a conductor. So electricity
contained in thunder passes directly to the earth through the rod. As a
result there is no harm to the building.
EXERCISE
5. Why do the glass rod and the rubber rod attract each other?
a. There are charges of similar properties (similar charges) in
glass rod and rubber rod
b. The glass rod is charged and the rubber rod is not charged
c. There are charges of opposite properties (opposite charges)
in the glass rod and rubber rod.
Electric Energy 171
Fig: 1 Fig: 2
In the light of the above figures, answer the following questions:
1. What is called the system of fig-1?
2. Why is the bulb not lightning in fig-2?
3. Explain the flow of electricity of the circuit.
4. Give your opinion regarding suitable of such sort of electric flow in
a house.
Chapter 13
MAGNETIC ENERGY
1. Bar magnet
When a rectangular steel bar is converted into a magnet, it is called a bar
magnet. This kind of magnet is used in laboratory.
2. Magnetic needle
It is made of very light steel sheet. Its two ends are tapering. Middle point
of this sheet is pivoted on a pin. For that the needle can move freely in a
horizontal plane. As a result, a magnetic needle at rest always points
174 General Science
3. Horseshoe magnet
This magnet looks bent, as
that of a horse's hoop and the
English letter U, hence its
name is such. Generally it is
made of steel bar. Its two
poles remain side by side.
Strong magnetic field can be
produced between two poles.
Properties of magnet :
Magnetic pole
Experiment: Sprinkle
some iron fillings over a
white paper, placed on a
table. If iron fillings are
not available, a box of
pins will also serve the
purpose. Keep a bar
magnet over the sprinkled iron fillings or the pins, and lift it up after
moving it a few times. You will observe that iron fillings or pins remain
stuck to the body of the magnet. It is understood from this that the magnet
has power of attraction. This power of attraction of a magnet is called its
attractive property.
Magnetic Energy 175
It will be seen by careful observation that most of the iron fillings or pins
remain stuck to the two ends of the magnet. Amount of iron fillings stuck
to the magnet gradually decreases from the end to its middle. Iron fillings
or pins do not stick to its middle place at all. It is understood from this,
that the power of attraction of the magnet is not the same at all places.
Power of attraction is maximum at two points near the two ends of the
magnet. These two points are called two poles of the magnet.
Remove iron fillings or pins from the magnet by shaking and rubbing
them off. Touch the magnet with your plastic ball pen, wood pencil and
erasing rubber one by one. You will observe that there is no attraction
between them. It will be seen that if the magnet is brought near to silver,
copper or piece of glass, these also do not stick to the body of the magnet.
It is understood from this, that a magnet does not attract all kinds of
substances. Magnet attracts ferrous substances such as, steel, cobalt and
nickel. But it does not attract plastic, wood, rubber, glass, silver or
copper.
Substances attracted by a magnet are called magnetic substances. And the
substances which are not attracted by a magnet are called non-magnetic
substances. Property by virtue of which a magnet attracts a magnetic
substance is called attractive property of a magnet.
Now suspend the bar magnet by tying it with a thread at the middle. The
magnet will come to rest after swinging from one side to the another. It
will be seen that the magnet will
practically lie pointing north and
south. Again rotate the magnet and let
it go. When it will come to rest after
swinging from one side to the another,
it will remain
176 General Science
pole of the suspended magnet. And there will be attraction if north pole of
other magnet is brought near the south pole of the suspended magnet.
Now bring an iron bar, or a bar of any magnetic substance, at first near
north pole and then near south pole of the suspended magnet. It will be
seen that there is attraction in each case. So it is understood that
Like poles of magnets repel each other.
Unlike poles of magnets attract each other.
Both the poles of a magnet attract a magnetic substance.
Methods of Magnetisation
You have learnt earlier that magnets are of two kinds natural magnet
and artificial magnet. Artificial magnet can only be prepared by magnetic
substances. Method of conversion of a magnetic substance into an
artificial magnet is called magnetisation. You will learn now two easy
methods of preparing artificial magnets.
Method of rubbing
A steel bar can be converted into a
magnet by rubbing it with a
magnet. AB is a steel bar (Fig.
13.5a). Keeping the bar on a table
it is rubbed from end A to end B, in
the same direction several times,
by means of a powerful bar magnet. Each time the bar magnet is to be
lifted up, after rubbing the steel bar with it upto end B. Again rubbing
should be started from the end A. The steel bar is then turned upside
down. It is rubbed from end A to end B in a similar way several times.
178 General Science
Now it will be seen that the steel bar attracts pins or pieces of iron. Thus,
it has been converted into a magnet. End A of the steel bar acquires
polarity of the same kind as that of the bar magnet end B acquires the
polarity of opposite kind to that of the bar magnet pole.
Electrical method
A long iron nail is coiled with
ordinary electrical wire,
covered with plastic (that is,
covered with an insulating
material), available in market.
Electric current is passed
through the wire by
connecting its two ends to a
battery. Now it is seen that the nail can attract a pin or a piece of iron.
Thus, the nail has been converted into a magnet. Again on disconnecting
the battery, it is seen that the nail has no attractive power. Therefore
magnetism of the nail remains so long electric current flows, through the
wire. Any soft iron bar can be converted into a temporary magnet by
coiling wire like this and passing electric current through it. This kind of
magnet is called an electromagnet. Strength of electromagnet depends on
the flow of electric current through it. Strength of magnet increases with
increase in flow of electric current.
Uses of magnet
Perhaps many of you use magnet in
your everyday life, some knowingly
and
Magnetic Energy 179
In ancient times sailors used to find out direction in the seas by utilising
the directive property of a magnet. That is done still today. Name of the
instrument used for this purpose is direction finding instrument or the
compass. Compass needle is made of magnets. Aeroplanes also determine
direction with the help of compass while flying through the vast sky.
So you have learnt that magnet is used in our everyday life in the electric
fan, electric bell and compass. You will learn about many other uses of
magnet later.
EXCERCISE
1.
The earth, our living place was initially in a hot gaseous state. Later it
became gradually cool and then liquid. After cooling further more it
became solid. In this way a hard crust was created on the surface of the
earth. During the time of solidification, the crust became uneven in some
places due to the contraction of rust of the earth. The upper portion of the
earth crust is called land mass and water containing lower portions are
called water body.
Five (71%) of seven parts of the earth crust is covered by water and rest
of two (29%) builds the landmass. That is, the area of land mass is
smaller. This land mass is further divided into several biggest parts. Each
such biggest part of land mass is called continent. There are seven
continents covering the different areas of the earth crust. These are (i)
Asia, (2) Africa, (3) Europe, (4) South America, (5) North America, (6)
Australia and (7) Antarctica.
Barisal division are low land. The land deformating natural energies are
earth quakes, volcanic eruptions, heat, winds, rains, snow, glaciers, river,
seas etc. The change of earth crust is the result of their single or
combined effect. In such ways land deformation occurs. On the basis of
land deformation, the earth crust is divided into three categories. These
are (a) Mountains (b) Plateaus and (c) Plains.
(a) Mountain
Very high and far-flung rocky mounds with sharp inclines are called
mountains. Such as the Himalayas.
Rocky mounds comparatively lower and smaller than the mountains are
called the hills. Such as- Sitakund hill of Chittagong. Another landform is
found between two hills is called valley.
Classification of mountains
Mountains are found in many countries of the world in different shapes
and sizes. These mountains have been formed in different ways. The
mountains are classified into four groups depending upon their structure
and characteristics. On the other hand these mountain after erosion, can
be formed another mountain. This mountain is called Erosional mountain.
Fold Mountain
Certain places of the earths crust may subside or gain attitude due to
earthquake or land upheaval or shaking. Fold Mountains are created when
the layers of rocks get folded and gain attitude.
These mountains are called Fold Mountains as they are created with folds
(fig 14.3). The Himalayas of Asia, the Alps of Europe, the Atlas of Africa,
Surface of the Earth 185
the Rocky of North America, the Andes of South America etc. are fold
mountains.
2. Block Mountain
Sometimes the earths crust gets
cracked vertically and on side of the
crack subsides. Such subsidence of
the earths crust is called fault.
Sometimes the layers of rocks
between two faults create mountain
Fig 14.4: Block Mountain
by uplifting the land due to side or
low pressure. The type of mountain is
called Block Mountain.
186 General Science
Again if the land mass is dropped down and as a result a low land mass is
formed then it is called as Rift valley. The salt mountain of the Punjab in
Pakistan and the western mountain of the Deccan in India are the
examples of Block Mountain.
3.Volcanic Mountain
The mountains which are
created by the cooled and solid
state of lava, ashes, gas etc
erupted by the volcanoes are
called volcanic mountains (fig
14.5). The Fujiama of Japan,
the visuvias of Italy, the
Kilimanjaro of Africa etc. are
volcanic mountains. Fig14.5: Volcanic mountain
4. Laccoliths Mountain
The high hooted liquid in the inner side of the landmass is called
Magma. Sometimes magma tries to come out from the centre of the
earth by gaseous pressure. But these when encounter abstraction make
solidification under the earth crust
and take the shape of dome. The
mountain is formed in such way is
called Laccoliths mountain (fig 14.6).
The Henry Mountain in Utah State of
the America is the example of
Laccoliths Mountain.
Fig 14.6: Laccoliths Mountain
Surface of the Earth 187
Erosional Mountain
The soft mounds of rocks of the mountain may be eroded by the sun, rain,
wind etc. Then the unevoded mound of hard rock remains as a small
mountain. This hard rock mountain is called Erosional mountain. The
Bindhya mountain of India and the kong mountain of Africa are the
examples of Erosional mountain.
Valley
The low land in between two hills or two mountains is called valley. The
valleys are formed by four ways.
1. Mountain valley
Lowland between the two mountains is called mountain valley. The
mountain valleys are seen between the folds of the Fold Mountains.
2. Glacial valley
Valley in the mountainous area takes the shape of glacial valley due to
rubbing action of the glaciers. The hard ice of the glacier moves straight.
As such the inclines of their two sides stand very steep like U.
3. Rift valley
The valley created by the depressions between two parallel of the earths
crust due to earthquakes are called rift valleys (fig 14.4).
4. River valley
The intense flows of the river create deep gorges in their path. Such
gorges are called river valleys. Over a long time, the river flows erodes
land of both sides. As a result river gorges gradually become wide and
shallow.
188 General Science
B. Plateau or Tableland
Extensive elevated plain land above the sea level is called the plateau or
tableland. Usually Tableland is created by land upheaval, weathering and
deposition of lava. Such as- the Decan plateau.
Classification of plateaus
Depending upon the location, the plateaus are divided into three
categories, such as (1) Intermountain (2) Piedmont and (3) Continental
plateaus.
(1) Intermountain plateaus
The plateaus, which are surrounded by mountains, are known as
intermountain plateaus. The palmer plateaus in Tibet are one of the
examples. The palmer is the highest plateau of the world. The attitude of
palmer plateau is 4877 metre. For this the palmer is called the roof of the
world.
(2) Piedmont plateau
The mountain is eroded by rain, river flow, glacier etc. The plateau,
which is created by this eroded material deposited at the base of the
mountain, is known as piedmont plateau. The Colorado of North America
is a piedmont plateau.
Environments of plateau
Trees grow and cultivation of land is carried out in the plateau, which has
sufficient rainfall. The people of dry plateau live by rearing livestock.
The plateaus are suitable for rearing lambs. Now the cultivation is done
by irrigation in the plateaus.
C. Plains
The vast landmasses, which have almost same level of the sea surface, are
called plains. The surface of the plains could be plain or gently sloping or
slightly uneven. The plains on the crust of the earth were formed in
different ways. Such as-
(1) Coastal plain
The coastal plain was created due to deposit of sands, stones and various
tinny matters from the landmass, which were brought in different ways.
Chittagong of Bangladesh and Chenni of India are the examples of
coastal plains.
Influence of plains
Cultivation can easily be done and production of crops also abundant in
the fertile plains produced by alluvial deposits. Living is easier and
scopes of development of culture and civilization are more in the plain.
Men can travel from one place to another easily.
Various products such as agricultural products can be transported to other
places.
From ancients times human living place establish in the plains. It is easier
to build up roads, market, ports, cities and industrial plants in the plains.
The ancient Egypt civilizations were established in the bank of the river
Neil due to its much drinking water and vast alluvial deposits. As such
90% population of the world live in the plains.
Surface of the Earth 191
Water area
You have already known that 71% of the total area of the Earths crust is
contained with water. The whole water area of the world has been divided
into five bigger parts on the basis of their location; each part of these is
called the ocean. Water areas smaller than the ocean are called the seas.
The large water areas surrounded land on three sides is called the bays.
Water areas surrounded by land on all sides are called lakes.
Ocean
There are five oceans in the world. These are (1) The Pacific Ocean it
is the largest in size and depth. (2) The Atlantic Ocean this Ocean is
second in size and third in depth. (3) The Indian Ocean it is third in size
but second in depth. (4) The Northern Ocean fourth in both size and
depth and (5) The Southern Ocean fifth in both size and depth.
The area beyond the edges of the continental shelf, which suddenly
becomes steeply deep and stretches up to the bottom of the ocean are
known as the continental slopes (fig-14.7). The depth of the continental
slopes varies between 183 meters to 3600 meters.
(3) The plains in the deep sea
The area where the continental slope gradually runs to the deep ocean
bottom is called the plains of the ocean (fig 14.7). The depth of ranges of
this area from 3,660 to 5,490 meters.
Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. The large portion of water body surrounded by land on the three sides is
called-
a. gulf b. peninsula
c. lake d. delta
2. Which is broken mountain?
a. Rocky b. kong
c. Bindha d. West Ghat
3. What is the name of the extensive elevated plain land of the sea level?
a. Kong b. Plateau
c. Glacial plain d. Mountain Henry
4. The prairie of Canada is a-
a. plain land b. glacial plain
c. erosional pain land d. coastal plain land
5. What sort of valley are Sindha and Ganga?
a. mountain valley b. rift valley
c. glacial valley d. river valley
Creative Questions (CQ)
1.
There are various types of animal in this world. The cow, goat, elephant,
horse, humans walk on their legs. Again, robin, crow, stork, kite, fly in
the air with their wings spread out. Still other animals like, duck, fish, and
so on swim in the water; and snake, crocodile, lizard move on their
ventral surface. Some animals, like that of malarial parasite, are so small
that they can not only be seen by naked eye. Again, some animals are
very big, like the blue whale, which may even weigh 150 tons. On the
other hand, some animals do not have a skeleton or vertebral column,
while other have skeleton and a vertebral column or notochord. Based on
the presence of the vertebral column, the animal kingdom is divided into
invertebrates and vertebrates.
Chapter six dealt with what are invertebrates and vertebrates. This
chapter deals with the invertebrates in greater details. Animals that do not
have vertebral column or spinal cord are called invertebrates. For
example: earthworm, spider, crab, scorpion, cockroach, prawn, snail, fly,
mosquito, and so on. There are more invertebrates than vertebrates in this
world. Based on the various characteristics, the animal kingdom is
divided into ten phyla, nine of which are invertebrates.
Common features of invertebrates
Like vertebrates, the invertebrates have some common features, which
are enumerated below.
1. Invertebrates do not have vertebral column or spinal cord.
2. They range from unicellular to multicellular organisms
3. Usually their organ of respiration is skin
4. Their alimentary canal is simple
Features of Invertebrate Animals 195
5. Some invertebrates do not have blood, or else have blood that is red
and have blood vessels
Brief description of the invertebrates: Nine out of the ten phyla, into
which the animal kingdom is divided, are the invertebrates. The names of
the phyla along with a brief description of their main features is given
below.
Though prawn is commonly called a fish, it is not a fish. The prawns vary
in size. They live in the fresh waters of pond, rivers, canals and lake, and
also in the salty sea waters. It has a long, serrated rostrum, or beak, that
projects from the shell. A exoskeleton that is segmented only from the
outside, covers the body. The body is divided into two partsa fused head
and thorax the cephalothorax, and abdomen. A hard covering called
carapace covers the head and thorax part. The shrimps have thirteen pairs
of appendages on the cephalothorax. The abdomen contains six pairs of
appendages. Some of the appendages may have pincers. These
appendages have various function, like sensory, swimming, feeding, and
walking. It has a long, serrated rostrum, or beak, that projects from the
head in the midline. This is used as a defence organ. The appendages in
the head is called antennae, which works as sensory organ. On either side
of the rostrum, the head usually has a pair of compound eyes.
198 General Science
Exercise
3. The name of saw-like organ at the front of the head of the shrimp is
a. carapas b. telson
c. rostrum d. Appendage
figure
The human body consists of head, neck, trunk, upper limbs and lower
limbs. The trunk can be divided into three parts: the thorax or chest, the
abdomen, and the pelvis or lower end of trunk associated with hip. Hairs
cover the external surface of the body. The major organs, seen from
and shape. The muscles are in turn covered by skin. All these together
give the external structure of the human body. Besides, cartilage, blood,
nerves all contribute to the buildup of the body.
Skin
The skin forms a continuous
layer over the surface of the
body. The skin consists of two
main layers, an outer epidermis,
and an inner dermis.
and the body is kept warm. In fact, the skin helps to maintain a uniform
temperature in the body, whatever is the temperature of the surrounding.
Muscle
The bones of the skeleton are covered by the muscles, which in turn is
covered by fatty tissue and skin. Muscle characterised by the ability to
contract, usually in response to a stimulus from the nervous system. The
muscle covering the bones is the skeletal muscle or flesh. It is reddish in
colour, the muscle cells are arranged in layers. The end of the muscle
form thick white bundles before attaching to the bones. There is about 75
percent water in the muscles.
In general, the muscles contract as required and then return to its original
state. This contraction and relaxation of muscles help the body to move
from one place to another, and also to carry out the function of
respiration.
Types of Muscular Tissue: Some of the muscles in the body can be
brought into action at one's will or consciously. For example, muscles of
the limbs. There are some muscles that are not under one's voluntary
control. These muscles work on their own, for example, the muscles in
the intestine and stomach. Basically,
muscles are of two kind-voluntary
and involuntary.
and strong they are. Those who are sedentary workers, do not have to do
physically exhaustive work, should exercise to keep themselves fit and
strong. Swimming is a very good exercise. It brings all the muscles of the
body into action and thus keep all parts active.
Skeleton
Children frequently play with dolls. These dolls may be made of clay,
cotton, jute fibre. To these
dolls, first two strong sticks
are tied together such that they
cross each other. This forms
the framework over which
clay, cotton or jute are
moulded to give the required
shape of a doll. It is then
coloured and made attractive
for children. Similarly, human
body has a framework too,
which is formed by the bones
joined together as the skeleton.
Muscles, fat and skin cover
this skeleton.
208 General Science
Trunk: The middle part consisting of the vertebral column, and the ribs
and their cartilagethe thorax. The vertebral column consists of thirty-
Human Body: External Structere, Skin, Muscles, Bones (Skeleton) 209
bone. In the central hollow of the long bones is the bone marrow.
Between the spongy bone and the cartilage is the cortex. It is the hardest
part of bone.
Exercise
figure
5. The diagram is -
a. a bone of upper part
b. a bone of lower part
c. of an ordinary bone
Of the following which is correct?
a. i and ii b . i and iii
c. ii and iii d. i, ii and iii
6. Applicable in case of diagram above
i. composed of innumerable bone cell
ii. there are calcium and salt in it
iii. there is bone marrow in it
Of the following, which is correct?
a. i and ii b. i and iii
c. ii and iii d. i, ii and iii
fig: A fig: B
212 General Science
Fig: Skin
Treatment:
1. The patient should be scrubbed and bathed with warm soap water.
2. After drying the body, a solution of 25 percent benzyl benzoate mixed
with two parts of water is applied all over the body from neck down to
the toes. This solution is to be applied on three consecutive days. On
the fourth day, the patient is scrubbed and bathed with soap water. At
the same time, all articles used by the patient should be washed with
soda, and dried in sunlight.
3. To reduce the itching, chlorpheneramine tablets may be taken orally
thrice a day. If there is secondary bacterial infection then penicillin
or ampicillin group of medicine, in appropriate dose for the age of the
patient, should be taken.
4. Physician's advice should be taken.
B. Ringworm
Ringworm is a infection of the skin, hair, or nails caused by various kinds
of fungi. The infection spreads from one person to another by close
contact. it is a contagious disease. It is more common among children.
Cause of ringworm: Ringworm is caused by parasitic fungi that belong
to the genera Trichophyton, Epidermophyton, and Microsporum.
Symptoms: Ringworm tends to infect moist areas of the body, such as
the groin, between the toes, and under the arms. The affected area usually
becomes inflamed and itchy, because of sensitivity to the fungus, or a
secondary infection by bacteria. Ringworm on the limbs, trunk, and face
causes raised circular patches, which heal in the centres out as the patches
widen. The condition derives its name from this circular pattern.
216 General Science
Prevention:
1. The articles if daily use of the patients should be washed everyday
with soda water
2. After drying up the body, 25% Benzyl benzoate lotion with 2 portion
of water should be applid from just below the throat to the whole body
consecutively. After three days, a fresh bath is to be taken with soap.
With this, the used clothes of the patient must be washed with soda
and dried in the sun
3. In case of itching, Chlorpheneramine tabled should be taken thrice in
a day. And if the germ is infected then tablets from penicillin or
Ampicillin group have to be taken according to age.
4. To follow the physicianss advice for treatment.
Treatment:
1. If the ringworm is on the scalp, the hairs should be shaved and salicylic
acid applied on the skin twice a day till the hairs re-grow.
2. To apply iodine, or ointment containing salicylic acid, benzoic acid
should be applied on the skin in case of ringworm on other parts of
the body.
3. If the ringworm is in the nail, then the dead part of the nail should be
removed and tincture iodine applied regularly. The modern drug
griseofulvin may be taken orally to cure the disease.
Health Rules: Skin Diseases 217
C. Leprosy
Causes of Leprosy: Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by the
bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. Leprosy has two main forms, known as
tuberculoid and lepromatous disease. In tuberculoid leprosy, the skin
lesions are few and small, with only a few bacteria present in each, and is
less infectious. In lepromatous leprosy, which is the more infectious and
severe form of the disease, the lesions may be much more widespread and
contain many leprosy bacteria. Leprosy is neither caused by curse, nor is
a genetic disease.
Mode of spread: Nasal droplets released when a person with untreated
lepromatous disease sneezes may contain large numbers of leprosy
bacteria. These released bacteria could infect a new person who inhales
the droplets, or the bacteria could invade through a cut or abrasion on the
persons skin. Scientists now know that leprosy is not easily transmitted,
but they are still not sure how it is spread from person to person.
Symptoms: As the disease is slowly progressive, the symptoms develop
gradually. In the early stage there may be slight fever, body ache, and
weakness. As lepromatous leprosy progresses, hard nodules and folds of
skin may appear on the skin specially in the face, nose, ear lobule. In
some places the skin may be thickened. In places the skin becomes pale
or reddish, and there is lack of sensation in affected areas. Disfigurement
of various organs is one of they symptoms of leprosy. Such as, curved
fingers and toes, emaciated muscles of the hands, wounds on limbs or
other places, inability to close eye lids, weakness of limbs, paralysis of
specific parts of the body etc.
Signs: Patches of skin with lack of sensation, and the presence of hard
nodules may lead the physician to suspect leprosy. Presence of the
bacteria in tissue scraping and fluid, confirms the diagnosis.
218 General Science
Treatment:
With modern treatment leprosy is a curable disease. In Bangladesh, free
treatment for the disease is given at all Thana health facilities and leprosy
hospitals across the country. There are three leprosy hospitals in the
government sector. These are:
1. Institute and Hospital for Leprosy Control, Mohakhali, Dhaka
2. Leprosy Hospital, Nilphamari
3. Leprosy Hospital, Sylhet
Besides, eleven non-government organisations are working in the area of
leprosy control and treatment. Multi-drug therapy is currently used as
specific treatment. These drugs must be taken for a long periodsix
months to two years.
times a day. It is necessary to keep the towel and other articles as bed
linen and clothes clean too.
New Words Learned in this Chapter
Scabies Benzoic acid Microsporon
Vesicle Tissue Salicylic acid
Trichophyton Mycobacterium Iodine
Ampicillin Sarcoptis Ointment
Fungus Benzyl benzoate
Griseofulvin Chlorpheneramine
Exercise
2. Anis has been suffering from fever for about a month. Then he found
that there were black spots on different parts of his body. There were
somewhere ulcer on his skin and his body became weak. His
neighbours identified it as leprosy and prevented them from mixing
with him.
a. What is called leprosy?
b. Why leprosy is called infectious disease?
c. Explain the justification of the above symptoms of leprosy grown
on the skin of Anis.
d. Give your opinion on the behaviour of neighbours with Anis.
Chapter-18
Food and Nutrition
No living organism can survive without food. Food is indispensable for
any organism to remain alive. Taking food is an instinct nature of all
organisms. Food supplies energy for work to all organisms. In other
words it is the source of all energy. Food that we take is digested and
stored as energy. When we work a part of this stored energy is spent. We
compensate this loss by taking food. So we can say food is the secret of
keeping good, strong and disease free health. It also helps rebuilding and
growth of the body.
You learned in you previous class that whatever you take to keep the
body healthy and strong, is called food. Of course this statement is not
totally correct. Man cannot take everything. Whatever he takes is not
always digested properly. So materials taken and digested; compensate
loss or decay and help growth of the body; and that produce heat and
keep the body disease free, is called food.
From the above discussion we now understand that the main aim of
taking food is to keep the body strong and workable. Health of a body
depends on the process of nutrition. We may take nutritious food but it
will not help us keeping good health if the nutrition process is not proper.
So we must know what nutrition is. The process by which the food is
digested, transformed into energy and finally contribute in compensation
of loss or decay, growth, production of heat and keep the body disease
free is called nutrition.
Necessity of Food:
Food is necessary for continuing different activities in living body. In
short of these activities are mentioned below-
222 General Science
B) Protein
Fish, meat, egg, milk products such as cheese, card (doi), posset (sana),
beans, pulses etc.
Functions
1) Its functions are growth and
compensation of decay of the body.
2) To produce energy.
3) To produce antibody for disease
resistance.
Protein deficiency causes weakness of
muscles. So ultimately it results in fall
of working ability. It also causes anemia
and indigestion.
D) Vitamins
These are few constituents of food which are essential for the body in a
very small dose. These are called vitamins. Depending on the solubility, it
is of two kinds:-
1) Water soluble vitamins such as vitamin-B complex and vitamin-C.
2) Fat soluble vitamins-vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K.
Water soluble vitamins
Origin of vitamin B complex:
This complex includes:
Vitamin B1 : It is found in aleuronic layer of rice kernel, germinating
Gram seed and fresh flour. Vitamin B1 deficiency causes Beriberi disease.
Vitamin B2 : Milk, egg, liver, kidney, various cereals, vegetables etc.
contain vitamin B2. Its deficiency causes ulceration at the joining of two
lips, cataract, hair fall etc.
Vitamin B6 : Liver, kidney, egg, various cereals, vegetable etc. contain
vitamin B6. Its deficiency causes loss of weight, nervous breakdown and
anger
Vitamin B12 : Liver, egg, vegetable etc. are the source of vitamin B12. It
is now extracted from a particular mushroom. Its deficiency causes
anemia.
Vitamin C:
It is found in all citrus fruits (like Lemon, Orange, Shaddock etc),
Tomato, Mango, Guava, Amloki, Pine apple, Papaya, Cabbage,
Cauliflower, Lettuce, Spinach, germinating Gram seeds etc. Its deficiency
causes scurvy disease, bleeding from capillary below the skin. The gum
swells
Food and Nutrition 225
E) Mineral salts:
Mineral salts are indispensable for building
and regulating internal functions of the body.
Salts of
226 General Science
Water
Water is an important constituent of food. Every food contains some
water. Drinking is a method of fulfilling demand of water.
Activities like swallowing, digestion and absorption of food needs water.
It maintains fluidity of blood. It helps in excretion process to expel body
wastes. Two third of our body weight is water. Water deficiency causes
constipation and hampers metabolic activities of the body.
Any food fulfills the appetite. But if all the essential constituents in ideal
quantities are not found in the food it cannot help keeping healthy body.
If the food is deficient in any type of constituent, it may cause any of the
deficiency disease. The body will become nonfunctional. So for normal
growth and functioning of the body, balanced diet (food) is essential.
Food and Nutrition 227
Unbalanced diet:
The food where one or more essential constituent is missing totally or
partially is called unbalanced food. In our country most of the people take
unbalanced foods. The common mans food is almost totally
carbohydrates. This food is deficient in fat, protein, mineral salts and
vitamins in proper quantities. It causes the disease called anemia.
How to get cheap balanced foods
1. By acquiring common knowledge about food and nutrition.
2. By preparing a list of balanced foods affordable for the family.
3. By selecting less costly balanced foods from the list.
Bad effects of taking rotten, adulterated and staled food:
If the cooked foods are not properly covered dirt may fall on it. When
cockroach fly and rats feed upon any food; microbes get into it. And the
food is polluted. If cooked foods are not properly preserved it becomes
decomposed. When these foods are taken it may cause diseases like
diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery etc. Parasitic microbes come with dust and
agents like cockroaches, rate etc. Normally the food is spoiled by bacteria
or fungal type of microbes.
Dishonest businessmen add various low graded food or inconsumable
materials with food for more profit. This is called adulteration. When
consumed these foods may cause diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery,
constipation etc. It causes loss of health or even death.
Exercise
B
A
C D
a.
What sort of ingredients of food remains in vegetable?
b.
Explain the necessity of food marked-A.
c.
Explain how the body weight is increased by food marked-D.
d.
Give your opinion on the suitability of food as shown in the picture
as balance diet
2. Basus house is (situated) at Barisal. As people of the region, they eat
marine fish relatively more. One day Basu went to Rangpur with his
uncle. He saw some people whose side of the throat was somewhat
swollen. He cannot remember whether he has seen such type of people
in Barisal.
a. What is the name of the disease Basu saw?
b. Why do the people of the north generally suffer much from this
disease?
c. Explain how the people of this locality can be made free from such
disease.
d. Explain why Basu did not see such disease in Barisal.
Chapter 19
Population and Natural Environment
Table-1
Year Population
1941 4 crore 20 lakh
1951 4 crore 19 lakh
1961 5 crore 52 lakh
1974 7 crore 64 lakh
1981 8 crore 99 lakh
1991 12 crore 14 lakh
2001 12 crore 93 lakh
The above table shows that the population decreased between 1941 and
1951. This was because during the partition of the country in 1947, many
people migrated out. But from 1961 to 2001 the population has been
rapidly increasing, and has more than doubled in the last 40 years.
reason. As soon as the monsoons are over, the ponds and lake become
dry, thus hampering crop production. Again, increasingly deep tube-wells
are used to compensate for the dryness in winter season. This in turn is
decreasing the underground water table, so sometimes the tube-wells are
also unable to extract the underground water. Plants are not getting
enough water so their number is also decreasing.
The natural resource of Bangladesh is not being used efficiently.
Increasingly, trees are being cut indiscriminately to be used as fuel, for
housing and furniture making, and brick burning. To maintain a healthy
environment, enough trees are not being planted. A comprehensive
aforestation plan is also not in place. The insects and pests that usually
live in forests are increasingly turning to crops. The natural habitat of
wildlife is being destroyed gradually. Too much, or too little rain is
turning into a normal phenomenon. Crop cannot be produced in draught.
Food is less and people become under-nourished. Less crop means less
hay, that is less fodder and food for cattle. The cattle become weak and
cannot pull the plough, and milking cows give less milk.
Most of the people in Bangladesh live in the rural area, and most are
farmers. Population is increasing day by day, but the land is not. When
the father dies, the land is distributed among his children, thus the per
capita land is gradually decreasing. Similarly, the number of homestead is
also increasing and living quarters are becoming congested, resulting in
deterioration of social and natural environment. In congested living
conditions less air and light reach individual living quarter. It becomes
difficult to arrange for sanitary disposal of urine and faeces. People
practice open-air defecation and pollute the environment. In the rural area
pond water is used for all purpose including human bathing, cattle bathing
and all other agricultural and household activities. The water rapidly
234 General Science
becomes polluted and unsuitable for use. this polluted water also becomes
the source of many diseases.
B. Urban area: Because of increased population, there is scarcity of jobs
in the rural area. So many people move to urban areas in search of food
and job. As a result the rate of increase of population is much higher than
the national figures. Rapid increase in urban population compels people
to live in congested unhealthy slums. Non-availability of jobs also
compel people to look for alternate source of income and so all sorts of
unlawful activities like dacoity, thievery, highway robbery, and terrorism
are on the rise. Living in unhealthy conditions is giving rise to different
diseases.
The rate of increase in urban population over the last 40 years is shown in
table-2.
Table-2
Population Comment
City (times
Year1961 Year 1974 Year 1981 Year 1991 Year 2001
increase in
40 years)
Dhaka 5,21,941 16,79,972 34,40,178 61,05,160 99,12,908 19 times
Chittagong 3,54,206 8,89,760 13,90,680 20,40,663 32,02,710 10 times
Khulna 1,27,970 4,37,344 6,52,000 8,77,388 12,27,239 10 times
Rajshahi 56,885 90,909 2,53,726 5,17,136 6,46,716 12 times
over time through births, deaths, and migration; and the determinants and
consequences of such changes. Demographic information is important for
planning, particularly by governments, in fields such as health, education,
housing, social security, employment, and environmental preservation.
Such studies also provide information that is needed to formulate
government population policies, which aims to modify demographic
trends in order to achieve economic and social objectives.
Density of population:
The distribution of people in different areas is different. In some places
more people live compared to others. In order to understand how many
people live in a place, the number of people living in one square
kilometre area is used as a standard indicator. For example, if in a village
there are 4000 people living in an area of 4 square kilometre, then the
number of people living in each square kilometre will be how much? The
density of population will be (4000/4) 1000 per square kilometre. Again
if the same village has an area of 5 square kilometre then the density of
population will be (4000/5) 800 per square kilometre. Thus, the average
number of people living in a square kilometre of a country is termed the
population density for that country.
Total population of a country
Population density =
Total area of the country
Example: A population of 1,20,000 lives in an area of 150 square
kilometre (15 km in length and 10 km in breadth). What is the population
density in that area?
Total population of a country
Population density =
Total area of the country
1,20,000
= = 800 persons per square kilometre
150
236 General Science
Per capita income: All the persons in a family do not earn. One or two
members may earn, but it is consumed by all the members. In other word,
the income by one or two persons is considered the income of the family.
The family income when distributed evenly among all the members, then
the income allocated to each is the per capita income or average income
of the family. Similarly, when the same is considered for a larger
population, then the total income in one year when equally distributed
among the total population of the place will give the per capita income of
the place.
Total income in one year
Per capita income =
Total population
Suppose, the salary of a service holder of a family, added to the annual
profit from business or agricultural activity, all together amounts to Tk.
1,20,000. That family is composed of 10 members. Then the per capital
income of the family is
Total income in 1 year
Per capita income (average income) =
Total population
1,20,000
= = Tk. 12,000
10
The per capita income of every family can be thus calculated. As an
exercise, the students may ask about the income and family size of each
family in their locality, and thus calculate the per capita income of their
locality.
For convenience and uniformity the per capita income world-wide is
calculated in dollars. The per capita income in Bangladesh, as per 2001
census, is US dollar 377 . In 2001, US dollar 1 was equal to Tk. 57.33.
From this the per capita income in Bangladesh may be calculated in
Bangladeshi currency. Per capita income or average income is not
constant, it may increase or decrease. The total income of rich and poor
determines the average income.
Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. What is the cause of decreasing the population of the country in 1951?
a. partition of the country
b. war
c. epidemic
d. unawareness about the increase of population
2. The number of people who live in per square kilometre in any country
is called
a. population b. total population
b. density of population d. average population
3. One acre is equivalent to
i. 40 decimal
ii. 100 decimal
iii. 43560 square feet
Of the following, which is correct
a. i b. ii
c. i and iii d. ii and iii
Population and Natural Environment 239
a. What is population?
b. What is the cause of increase in population of town area?
c. Calculate how many times population of Bangladesh has been
increased in the last 40 years.
d. According to table -2, discuss the influence of increase in population
in the urban area.
2. The father of Shuva and father of Nafiz are govt employees in same
rank of the same office. Though Shuva has one sister yet the number of
brothers and sisters of Nafiz are six. Nafizs grandmother also stays
with them. The father of Shuva and father of Nafiz each receives taka
16,000/- per month as their salary. Yet the father of Nafiz faces
difficulties in payment of tuition fee of Nafizs school.
An Introduction to AIDS
Many of us have heard about some deadly diseases. For example,
tuberculosis (TB) is a deadly disease that causes death to many people.
However, a TB patient gets completely cured if treated timely. Besides,
there is a vaccine which prevents TB. But today we will know about a
new disease for which no vaccine or treatment has been discovered as
yet. This disease has created panic throughout the whole world. It is
called AIDS.
A virus named HIV, entering into human body, gradually destroys the
immune system of the body. When the immunity of an HIV infected
person is reduced too much, the person becomes an easy victim of
various types of diseases. This stage of HIV infection is called AIDS.
Since there is no cure of AIDS as yet, death is the only consequence. For
this reason, AIDS is termed as the fatal disease.
All of us should have ideas about how does AIDS spread, how it does not
spread and how can we be saved from this disease.
AIDS is not a contagious disease. It does not spread through air or water.
So people do not get AIDS from living with and caring for the AIDS
patients, talking to the patient, mixing and shaking hands with the patient
or sharing meals. Remember that adherence to religious and social
customs reduces the chances of being affected by AIDS.
We shall inform our friends, partners and associates, family members and
other persons about AIDS. We shall be careful about the ways through
which AIDS spreads and will also ask others to be careful.
Exercise
4. HIV
i. creates a few diseases
ii. destroys preventive power of the body
iii. creates AIDS disease
Of the following, which is correct?
a. i b. ii
c. ii and iii d. i, ii and iii
Fig
a) What is HIV?
b) Why is such type of indication / symbol given below the word
AIDS?
c) Explain whether there is any possibility of infection of HIV
(AIDS) to the healthy man in the figure.
d) Give your opinion regarding the suitability of the poster with the
AIDS patient.
244 General Science