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PEKKAKAUPPI,JUHAzuiMARI,MAXIMILIANPOSCH,
LEAKAUPPI
Internstionalltrstilutefor Applied SyslemiAnalysis,A-2361bxenburg (Austria)
ABSTRACT
Kauppi, P., Kiirniid, J., Posch,M., Kauppi, L. and Matzner,E., 1986.Acidification of forest
soils: model development and applicarion for arallzing impacts of acidic deposition in
Europe. Ecol Modelling,33: 23L-253.
INTRODUCTION
SOILACIDIFICATION
Acid stress
Acid stressis defined as the input of hydrogen ions into the top-soil. Acid
stress can result from acidic deposition of air pollutants, from biomass
utilization, and from the natural biological activity of ecosystems (Ulrich,
1983a; Van Breemen et al., 1984). Any one of these sources can dominate
the stream of protons entering the soil. The acid stress due to air pollution
can result from the direct deposition of hydrogen ions or from the indirect
effect of acid-producing substancessuch as the dry deposition of SOr.
Acid stresshas two important aspects.One is the accumulative load of the
stress and the other is the instantaneous rate of the stress. The variable
amount of slress refers to the load, and involves accumulation over several
233
years.The unit for the amount of stressis kilomolesof acidity per hectare
(kmol ha-r). The variable stressrate refers, in principle, to the time
derivativeof the amount of stressalthoughin practiceit is given as annual
hydrogenion input. The unit for the stressrate is kilomoles of acidity per
hectareper year (kmol ha-l year 1).
Buffering processes
TABLE 1
in forestsoils(Ulrich,1981,1983b)
of theacidbufferingreactions
Classification
into the silicatebuffer range(6.2 > pH > 5.0). In this range the only buffer
processacting in the soils is the weatheringof silicatesand the associated
releaseof basecations,sincethe dissolutionof aluminouscompoundsis not
significant until a pH of less than 5.0 is reached.The buffer rate is often
quite low, but the buffer capacity is high, as it is formed by the massive
storageof the silicatematedal.The weatheringof silicatesoccursthroughout
all buffer ranges. The switch to lower buffer ranges implies that the
weatheringrate of silicatesis not sufficient to buffer the acid stresscom-
pletely.
Cation exchangebuffer range. The soils are classified into the cation
exchangebuffer range when the cation exchangereactionsplay the major
role in acid buffering: the silicatebuffer range is inadequateto buffer the
acid stresscompletely.The excessstress,not bufferedby the reactionsof the
silicate buffer range, is adsorbedin the form of H*- or Al-ions at the
exchangesites,thus displacingthe basecations.The cation exchangereac-
tions are fast and, therefore,the buffer rate of soils in this rangeeffectively
counteractsany occurring rates of acid stress.The total buffer capacity
(: cation exchangecapacity, CEC,.,) is generally rather low, depending
mainly on the soil texture.The remainingbuffer capacityat any given time
is quantified by basesaturation,the percentageof basecations of the total
CEC. As long as the basesaturationstaysabove5-107o,the excessstressis
buffered by the cation exchangereactionsand the soil pH takes a value
between5.0 and 4.2, the actualvalue dependingon the basesaturation.
MODEL DEVELOPMENT
Basic assumptions
MODELSTRUCTURE
stress' = siress-brsi
BC'6p = BCgg- slress
cE ) 0.7 CECb!
5.0<pHs5.6
BC'cE> o.o ?
pH = e(stress.,P,E,o)
4,Aapll <4.2
3.8<pH<4.0
MODEL DEMONSTRATION
TABLE 2
andparameter
Initial conditions (Soiltpe: DystricCambi-
valuesfor modeldemonstration
sol. Bd)
T I I l E ( Y E A R S]
study period. When fixing these values the thicknessof the reacting soil
layer was assumedto be 50 cm. Bcca being zero indicates that Dystdc
Cambisolis free of lime. The input for this model demonstrationconsistsof
two hypotheticaltime patternsof the acid stressfor the period of 100 years.
The output is the time pattern of the soil pH, correspondingto the mean
hydrogenion concentrationin the 50-cmsoil layer.
Figure 2 indicatesthat for this soil the pH graduallydeclinesfrom 4.6 to
4.0 in 100yearswhile the soil is subjectto a growing stressfrom 1 to 8 kmol
ha-r year 1.The silicatebuffer rangeaccountsfor the buffering of 1 kmol
ha-r year-1of the acid stress.The excess stressis bufferedby the processes
of the cation exchangerange.After 60 yearsthe buffer capacityof the cation
exchangerangeis decreasedto a basesaturationlevel of 5Vo.At this point,
none of the higher buffer rangesis capableof buffering the stress,and the
soil pH declinesto the level which correspondsto the pH range of the
aluminium buffer system.The acid stress,partly bufferedwithin the silicate
buffer range,finally determinesa new equilibrium pH in the soil solution
according to the aluminium solubility assumed.This processresults in a
slowly decreasingsoil pH due to the growingstressrate.
A dramaticpattern of acid stresswas selectedto summarizethe dynamic
behaviourof the model (Fig. 3). The pattern includesa constantstressof 8
kmol ha I year I for 30 years,a linear declineto zero in the subsequent40
years,and a constantzero stressover the remaining30 years.The soil with
initial conditionsas in Table 2 reactsin the following way: First, there is a
gradual but acceleratingdeclinein pH from 4.6 to 4.2, and then there is a
rapid decline of pH to the aluminium buffer range, near to pH 3.7. The
buffer capacityof the cation exchangerangeis exhaustedand the buffer rate
of the aluminium rangecannot keepthe pacewith the acid stressrate. Next,
there is an increaseof the soil pH to 4.0. Bv that time the acid stresshas
240
I I ] ' 1 E ( Y E F F S]
declinedso that the joint buffering of the silicateand the aluminium ranges
is capable of increasingthe pH. Finally, a recovery starts from pH 4.0
upwards.This is possiblebecausethe acid stressdeclinesto the level where
the silicatebuffer rate alone is capableof buffering the stress.During the
gradual recoveryin the soil, weatheringslowly replaceshydrogen ions by
basecationson the exchangesites.The cation exchangecapacityis refilled,
startingat pH 4.0, at a rate equalto the differencebetweenthe buffer rate of
the silicaterange and the rate of the acid stress.A basesaturationlevel of
4Vowlllbe reachedby the end of the 100-yearperiod.
MODEL APPLICATION
Fig. 4. The IIASA acid rain framework and procedure for using the model.
Specific assumptions
For the time being, the acid stresswas estimatedon the basis of sulfur
depositiononly, simply by assumingacid stressto be proportional to sulfate
ion equivalentsin the water enteringthe soil. The actual acid stressassoci-
ated with sulfur depositiondependson the neutralizationintensity of e.g.
atmosphericdust and canopy.The spatial variation of theseprocesseswas
not taken into account.A singlerelationshipwas assumed,as the first step
for the whole of Europe.This acid stresscoefficient,o, seemsto havevalues
between0.5 and 0.75 in some Europeanforests(Wright and Johannessen,
1980).Internal proton production,i.e. proton production resultingfrom the
excessaccumulationof cationsin the biomassand humus,was not included
in the estimatesof acid stress.
The EMEP model assumesconstant deposition velocity over all land
surfaces(Eliassenand Saltbones,1983).This assumptionis necessaryas the
modelcoversthe whole of Europe;it would be an enormoustask to describe
the spatial variability of the depositionvelocity in detail. Model validation
suggeststhat, in general,the assumptionof constantdepositionvelocity can
be supportedwhen aiming at modelling the concentrationsof sulfur com-
poundson a large spatialscale.From local experiments,however.it appears
that forestshavea rather strong filtering effect on air pollutants,so that the
depositionvelocity over forestsis larger than that of open land by a factor
of two to three, dependingon the tree species.As forests were the main
target ecosystemfor our model, we consideredit necessaryto include the
filterine effect in the model.
242
Based on the validation experiments of the EMEP model the average total
deposition of a grid square, d,o,, was assumedcorrect. The deposition on the
forest within this grid, d,, was then assumed to be 0 times larger than the
deposition on open land, d" (1)
dr: Qd" (1)
Since
! nitializationof bulferinguariables
TABLE 3
Buffer capacities of the carbonate and the cation exchangebuffer ranges estimated for the
year 1960 for soil types oJ the FAO-Unesco Soil Map of the World (1974). Soil thickness of
50 cm is assumed.
class
buffer rate 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
245
Resultsof modelruns
R E F E R E N C EY E F F S
Fig. 5. Total sulfur emitted in Europe accordingto the 'high' and 'low' emissionscenario
from coal and oil sectors.
246
A 7lCF
I Fi+FE
4 -i*":4.
T I N E ( Y E F F SJ
Fig. 8. Time evolution of the total forest area with soils in aluminium and iron buffer range
(pH less than 4-2) in Europe assumingthe two emission scenarios.
248
Fig. 9. A comparisonof the area at risk in 2010,aluminium and iron being the dominaat
bufler ranges, resulting from the high emission scenario (light shading) and from the low
emissionscenario(dark shadiog).
DISCUSSION
The model developedin this study can be used for quantifying some
aspectsof the acidification problem of forest soils previously discussedin
only qualitative terms. The soil acidification model and the application to
the Europeanovervieware simplifications,which necessarilyinclude uncer-
249
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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APPENDIX