MMAE 541

Advanced Dynamics
Understanding rotations

1
Outline

Passive vs. Active Interpretation of Rotations

Infinitesimal vs. Finite Rotations

Angular acceleration

2
Recap

Last class we learned how to compute time derivatives of vectors

with respect to one frame, even if they were written in coordi-
nates of another frame. We noted that angular velocities add,
and used this fact when computing time derivatives, as needed.

Today we investigate properties of rotations further.

3
Active vs passive interpretation

Transformation matrices can be thought of as transforming the

components of a vector from one coordinate system to another
(passive meaning), or as rotating a vector into another vector in
the same coordinate system (active meaning).

4
Active vs passive illustration
To illustrate the difference between an active and a passive interpretation of
the matrix R, consider a vector ~ r and two reference frames A and B with
bases eAi and eBj , respectively.

Initially when 0 the vector ~

r lies on the x-axis of A frame.

Passive interpretation: R operates on the components ~r{B to express

them in A.

Active interpretation: R operates directly on the components ~r{A of ~r in

r1)
the initial position to obtain those in the rotated position (denoted ~

5
Passive rotation

A passive rotation is one for which one basis is expressed in terms

of another. For example, when you fill in a direction cosine table
A RB , you are expressing the A basis vectors in terms of the

B basis. The first row of the table expresses eA1 in terms of

eB1, eB2, eB3.

For the Figure above,

fi
cos sin 0
A RB sin cos 0fl (1)
0 0 1

6
Passive rotation of the vector

In the passive interpretation, we apply ARB to the vector ~

r ex-
pressed in B and it tells us the components of ~ r expressed in
A.

r{A ARB~
~ r{B (2)
fi fi
cos sin 0 r
sin cos 0fl 0fl (3)
0 0 1 0
fi
r cos
r sin fl (4)
0

The passive interpretation is useful for thinking about the same

vector expressed in different coordinate systems (and their asso-
ciated reference frames).

7
Active rotation of the vector

An active rotation is one in which a vector is being moved to a

different location within the same coordinate system. The in-
terpretation of a rotation as an active process is one in which
the vector has an original orientation ~r rr, 0, 0sT and is rotated
through an angle to become a new vector in the same coordi-
nate system. In this situation, the new vector ~ r 1 is obtained by
applying the same matrix R ARB as above:
fi fi fi
cos sin 0 r r cos
~r 1 R~r sin cos 0fl 0fl r sin fl (5)
0 0 1 0 0

The active interpretation is useful for thinking about a change

of the vector in the mathematical sense: that the process trans-
forms your vector into a different one.

Either interpretation, you get the same result.

8
Rotation of the coordinate axes

Finally, there is one other way to interpret a rotation. Notice in

the active interpretation above, we can consider the vector ~ r as
being rotated through an angle .

Another point of view of this process is that the basis vectors

were rotated through a negative angle, i.e., through . That is,
the basis vectors start out as eBi, and then the transformation
rotates them to become eAi by rotating through a negative angle.
The angle is defined as negative because the direction of rotation
makes your right-hand thumb point in the eB3 direction.

9
When the rotation of the coordinate system is through a negative
angle, the minus sign goes down and to the left, cyclically, of the
1 in the matrix. This takes a coordinate system B and turns
it into the system A. The matrix that represents this transform
is, as above:
fi
cos sin 0
R sin cos 0fl ARB (6)
0 0 1
In this interpretation, we can say that what the transform is doing
is rotating the B coordinates through an angle to become
the A coordinates. This last interpretation, as a rotation of the
coordinate system, is one that we will use when talking about
Euler angles, a sequence of rotations that describe the attitude
of a rigid body.

10
Positive rotation rule

When the rotation of the coordinate system is a positive rotation,

then the minus sign goes up and to the right of the 1 in the
matrix. An example of a positive rotation is one in which we
were to convert our coordinate system A into the one of B, in
the left Figure above. We would need to swing the axes eA1, eA2
through a positive angle to make them eB1, eB2. The transform
that represents this is:
fi
cos sin 0
R sin cos 0fl (7)
0 0 1
pARBqT BRA (8)

For use with Euler angles, it will be handy to use the convention
of the minus sign going up and to the right for a positive rotation
of the axes.
11
Summary

All the interpretations are consistent, and the figure is correct:

a passive rotation re-expresses a vector from B coordinates

to A coordinates

an active rotation rotates the vector through a positive angle

a rotation of the coordinates through a negative angle

converts the B coordinates into the A coordinates.

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Example of finite vs infinitesimal rotation

In the next sections, we use rotation matrices in the active sense

(i.e., rotating a vector), but keep in mind that active or passive is
just a matter of interpretation (the matrix is exactly the same).

Consider the cube in the figure, and compare the effects of ap-
plying the following rotations:

I) finite rotations
a) first 90 about e1 then 90 about e2
b) first 90 about e2 then 90 about e1

II) infinitesimal rotations

a) first 5 about e1 then 5 about e2
b) first 5 about e2 then 5 about e1

From the picture, notice the non-commutativity of finite rota-

tions and the commutativity of the infinitesimal rotations.
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Sequence of finite rotations of dice

14
Sequence of infinitesimal rotations of dice

Note: although 5 is not really infinitesimal, its reasonable to

use here simply for illustration.

15
Finite vs Infinitesimal rotations

There is a fundamental difference between finite and infinites-

imal rotations. Understanding the difference can give a better
understanding of the concept of angular velocity, through geom-
etry.

Consider a reference frame (rigid body) B rotating about a unit

vector k that is fixed in reference frame A.

16
Finite rotation

After a rotation of angle q about the k axis, vector ~

r, which is
fixed in B, will undergo a displacement ~
r in A (and none in B).
Hence in A
~
rpq q ~
r ` ~
r (9)

We next express ~ r in terms of q, k, ~

r to obtain an explicit ex-
pression of the rotated vector ~rpq q. To do this, we introduce a
tangent coordinate system pn, t, kq and decompose r into nor-
mal and parallel components:

~
r rnn ` rtt (10)

The components rn and rt are given by

rn ||~
r||p1 cos q q (11)
rt ||~
r|| sin q (12)
17
Finite rotation, contd

Thus ~
r can be expressed as
~
r ||~
r||p1 cos q qn ` ||~
r|| sin q t (13)

Taking advantage of the fact that ||~

r||n ~
r and t k n, the
expression for ~
r becomes
~
r sin q pk ~
rq p1 cos q q~
r (14)
18
Expansion of the finite rotation

By using the following trigonometric identity

q
1 cos q 2 sin2 (15)
2
and expanding the sin q function to first order (i.e., sin q q)
gives
q2
r q pk rq ~
~ r (16)
2

Notice that this expression is not linear in q. This expression can

be used to show that finite rotations do not commute (i.e., are
order-dependent).

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Sequential finite rotations

Lets apply two successive rotations of angle q1 and q2 about

axes k1 and k2 respectively. We will show that the resulting
displacement ~ r12 is not the same as ~
r21 obtained by reversing
the order of rotations.

Apply rotation q1 about k1 first to get

q12
~ rq ~
r1 q1pk ~ r (17)
2
Applying then q2 to ~
r1 ~
r ` ~ r1 we get for ~
r2:
q22
~
r2 q2pk2 ~
r1q ~ r1 (18)
2

Combining these expressions leads to the following result for

~
r12:
q12 q22
~
r12 q1pk1 ~
rq ~ r ` q2pk2 ~
r1q ~ r1 (19)
2 2
20
Sequential finite rotations, contd
Plugging in ~
r1 ~
r ` ~
r1 and simplifying, we get:
q22 q12
r12 q1p1 qpk1 ~
~ rq ` q2p1 pk2 ~ rq (20)
2 2
1 2 1
`q1q2 k2 pk1 ~rqq pq1 ` q22 q12q22 ~r (21)
2 2

Similarly for ~
r21 (just switch the indices!) we get
q12 q22
~ r21 q2p1 qpk2 ~ rq ` q1p1 pk1 ~
rq (22)
2 2
1 2 2 1 2 2
`q1q2 k1 pk2 ~rqq pq1 ` q2 q1 q2 ~r (23)
2 2
The difference ~
r12 ~ r21 is
`
~
r12 ~
r21 q1q2 k2 pk1 ~
rq k1 pk2 ~
rq

In the special case where k1 and k2 are parallel the rotations

permute. Otherwise the difference is nonzero.
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Infinitesimal rotation

When the rotation angles q1 and q2 are infinitesimal (i.e., they

are replaced by dq1 and dq2), all higher order terms vanish and
~r becomes d~r .

Thus,
r12 dq1pk1 ~
d~ rq ` dq2pk2 ~
rq (24)

Similarly for d~
r21

r21 dq2pk2 ~
d~ rq ` dq1pk1 ~
rq (25)
which shows that d~ r12 d~
r21 infinitesimal rotations always
commute. They follow the same addition rules as standard vec-
tors (which is not the case for finite rotation!)

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Eulers Theorem

Any change of orientation between a reference frame A and a

rigid body (i.e., frame) B can be obtained by a rotation q of B
around an axis k fixed in RA.

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Eigensystem of a rotation matrix

Given two reference frames A and B with a common origin O,

and a vector ~
r. The components of ~
r in bj as a function of its
components in ai are given by:
r{B B RA~
~ r{A (26)

Question: Are there vectors ~s such that ~s{B ~s{A? Meaning,

B RA~
s{A ~s{A (27)
eigenvector problem. For rotations such eigenvectors always
exist.

The corresponding eigenvalues are all 1 (i.e., rotation does

not change the vector norm).

The eigenvectors are parallel to a unit vector k defining the

orientation of the rotation axis.

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Geometrical interpretation of angular velocity
When applying an infinitesimal rotation dq about axis k to a rigid
body B, the corresponding displacement of a vector ~ r fixed in
RB is given by
d~
r dq k r (28)
i.e., by taking only the terms that are linear in q from Eq. (16).

It represents the differential variation of ~

r in A as q is varied.
Thus the time derivative of ~ r in RA is given by
A d~
r dq
k ~r q9k ~r (29)
dt dt

By comparing this equation with

A d~
r
A
~B ~
r (30)
dt
we see that the angular velocity A
~ B is given by
A
~B q9k k
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Addition theorem for angular velocities

Given three frames A, B, C such that B moves in A with angular

velocity A
~ B , C moves in B with angular velocity B
~ C , and C
moves in A with angular velocity A
~ C.

The angular velocity of C in A can be expressed as:

A
~C A
~ B ` B
~C

One practical use of this relation is the decomposition of a com-

plicated angular velocity into the sum of simpler ones about
locally fixed axes.

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Proof of addition theorem

Claim:
A
~B A
~ A1 ` A1
~ A2 ` ...An
~B (31)
where A1, ...An are auxiliary reference frames.

Proof: For any ~b fixed in B, the Golden Rule for vector differen-
tiation tells us:

Ad
~b A
~ B ~b (32)
dt
A1 d
~b A1
~ B ~b (33)
dt
Ad A1 d
~b ~b ` A~ A1 ~b (34)
dt dt

27
Substitute to get:
A
~B ~b A1
~ B ~b ` A~ A1 ~b (35)
p A1
~ B ` A~ A1 q ~b (36)

A
~ B pA1
~ B ` A
~ A1 q ~b 0 (37)

But since this equation must be satisfied for all vectors ~b fixed
in B, then
A
~B A1
~B ` A
~ A1 (38)

Identical argument shows that

A1
~B A2
~B ~ A2
`A1 (39)
so that
A
~B A2
~B `A1
~ A2 `A
~ A1 (40)
So we have proven addition for n 2. Clearly we can repeat this
argument for arbitrary n.
Angular acceleration

The angular acceleration A~ B of a rigid body B with respect to

a reference frame A is defined by

Ad
A
~B A
~B
dt

i.e., it expresses the time rate of change of the angular velocity

of B with respect to A.

If we express A
~ B using the ai basis vectors, then A
~ B is expressed
as
3 3

A
~B 9 aiai aiai (41)
i1 i1

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Properties of angular acceleration
If on the other hand we express A ~ B using the bi base vectors,
then A~ B is expressed as
3 Ad

A
~B 9 bibbi ` bi bi (42)
i1
dt
3
3

bibi ` bi A
~ B bi (43)
i1 i 1
3

: 0
A
bibi `  B
~
 A

 B
~ (44)
i1
3

bibi (45)
i1

This last equation indicates that the time derivative of A

~ B is
the same if taken with respect to frame A or B:
Ad Bd
A
~B A
~B (46)
dt dt
29
Important remark

Saying that the time derivative of A ~ B is the same in A and B

does not mean that the components of this vector are the same
in the A or B basis. Instead it expresses that the components of

Ad
A
~B
dt

are the same as those of

Bd
A
~B
dt

in a given basis.

Unlike angular velocity, there is no counterpart for an addition

theorem for angular accelerations. In general, the addition the-
orem does not apply to angular accelerations.
A
~B A
~ A1 ` A1
~ A2 ` ...An1
~ An `An
~B (47)
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Geometrical interpretation

Let k denote the unit vector along the instantaneous rotation

axis of frame B in A. Then
Ad Bd Bd
A
~B A
~B A
~B 9 k ` pk q (48)
dt dt dt

The last term in this equation usually does not vanish and rep-
resents the rate of change of the rotation axis orientation.

However, in some special cases, it does vanish. When the rota-

tion axis k of B in A has an orientation fixed in time in both
frames, then

A
~B 9 k k

indicating that, in this case, only the magnitude of the angular

velocity can change, not its orientation. In this situation both
~
and ~ are parallel.
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Special cases of angular acceleration addition

When the unit vector k whose orientation in A and in B is inde-

pendent of time, then A~ B is a simple angular velocity.

If in auxiliary reference frames A1, A2,... An the orientation of

k is independent of time, then the addition theorem applies to
angular accelerations as well.

A common example is given by 2D or planar motion systems,

in which angular velocity is always normal to the plane of the
motion.

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