CHILE: Icntrnn.

r and Elastic
DIANE: and Not-Elastic

Part of the concrete

on the Island of
UK Elsevier Science The
Oxford OX5 1 UK
USA Elsevier Science 665 Avenue of
NY 10010, USA
JAPAN

2000 IP. Harrison ond J.A. Hudson

first edition 2000

'1'1"',"'''''''''' hos been

for.

British in Publication Data

A (01(1100 British has been ODIOlill'ld for.

ISBN: 0 08 043010 .4

ony use or op-

instructions or ideas contained

Printed in The Netherlands

For all our
 in
pn<:'>l",pt1

to relevant
as a Fellow of the
 xi
Units and xiii

answers
1 Introduction 3
1.1 The " .... VI"'-' 3
1.2
1.3 8
2 13
2.1 13
2.2 19
2.3 26
3 Stress 27
3.1 stress 27
3.2 answers: stress 30
3.3 Additional 37
4 In situ stress 39
4.1 The nature of in situ rock stress 39
4.2 42
4.3 56
57
57
of 60
5.3 68
6 Intact 71
6.1 Intact rock 71
6.2 and answers: intact rock 74
6.3 Additional 87
viii Contents

7 Fractures and he:miiiipilerica 89

7.1 89
7.2 VUl2Sti'Ons
100
7.3 115
8 Rock masses: u'!:'j.U.l ...... v .. u 117
8.1 The nature 117
8.2 "-!u''''''"uvu" 122
8.3 ..,...........'<v...'u 138
141
141
144
157
159
159
161
172
175
175
176
192
12 Rock mass 193
12.1 Rock mass 193
12.2 V'-''''''''''V' 194
12.3 , ..... '\.4 . . . v. 212
13 Rock time ('IP1"lpn,('I 215
13.1 Strain rates 215
13.2 VUl2sn,ons and time
217
228
14 Rock mechanics interactions 231
14,1 Interactions 231
14.2
234
244
15 Excavation 247
15.1 Rock excavation 247
15.2 VUl2snons 250
262
16 Rock reinforcement and rock 265
16.1 265
16,2 . . . . U'C;;,,..VL and rock
267
16.3 281
 Contents IX

mechanisms 285
285

288
309
311
311
excavations 314
337
339
339
excavation
mechanisms 343
369
excavations 373
373
excavations 375
397

The revroaucf~a here without those

"",un,."" 1.1-1.5: ....Av'...u . n.'u 401

2.1-2.10: "'''.nu''' ........ 403
""''''',,'Am 3.1-3.10: stress 407
~UE!StllOl1IS 4.1-4.10: in situ rock stress 409
5.1-5.10: strain the 413
~Ut!StIIUIlllj 6.1-6.10: intact rock 417
eljIIUIlllj 7.1-7.10: fractures and 421
UiIt:~>lUHll:lO 8.1-8.10: rock masses 425
eSIIUIlIS 9.1-9.10: OetTneaDI 431
..""' ...,.,,, 10.1-10.10: "'and
" .......n ... 437
11.1-11.10: 441
""'''''''Al'' 12.1-12.10: mass classification 447
Uel,U{Jnlj 13.1-13.10: rock and time 451
Ue!iU(mS 14.1-14.10: rock mechanics interactions and rock
455
uelitl(mS 15.1-15.10: excavation r-"-'--r- 459
.. "",..",.. "" 16.1-16.10: rock reinforcement and 465
x Contents

111 ",<: ...."n<: 17.1-17.10: foundation and

mechanisms 469
18.1-18.10: of surface .. ",,-,nl':onnn 473
1"<1,., ..." ... ., 19.1-19.10: excavation ... 0 . . . . ." .. .

mechanisms 477
20.1-20.10: of excavations 481

References 487
A: 3-0 stress cube model 491
B: 493
c: Rock mass "A.."''''A,..'' ........' tables - RMR and Q 495
Index 503
Section 2.

Section 3. "''-''''''''.VA as-

XII

as an aide-memoire.
can be
C

Hudson
 I

to understand and use

used for rock "nCt1r,""',-,

an of units
is ne~:essaI
We have used standard "'u'..... h,ni

For rock we consider the mass and

Name of 51 wtit Dimensions

51 wtit of wtit
metre m L
Mass In M
Time second s T
xiv Units and syrnO'Ols

From base all units are

Some of the main derived units are listed below.
Name of 51 unit Dimensions
5I unit of unit
Area A U
Volume V m3 U
L~)M
p
v ms- 1 LT- 1
Acceleration a ms- 2 LT-2
W newton, N m
Force F newton,N m
Pressure p Pa N S2 V 1MT- 2
E J Nm,m2 UMT-2

lower case
case

Note that force is defined

eration. A N, is the force Ht::.~<::",,<u.
mass at a rate of one metre
narnic circumstances but the

sions
their
The most cornman used units in
rock mechanics are

micro milli kilo

~ m k

IWe follow the recommendations in Quantities, Units and the

SVlmbols Conunittee of the 1975,
The term 'dimensions' is used here to mean of the dimensions
and exponents, as in rather than just the
exponents, -1, 1, -2.
 used in this book xv

Name of 51 unit Dimensions

51 unit of unit
Ct radian, rad;

f3 dip

of a line
{iw orientation angle of radian, rad;
of weakness
y shear strain LO
y unit kg s-2 m- 2 L- 2MT- 2
(J (J a differential operator
az
!'!.1,8x, 8z increment of distance, m L

8 linear strain LO
(! angle radian, rad; 1

A fracture m- I L -I
II Poisson's
v kinematic m2 5- 1 L 2T- 1
p L-'M
a stress tensor Pa m- I S-2 L-IMT 2
a normal stress Pa m- I s-2 L-IMT 2
ai, al, ff] stress Pa N m- I s _0 L- I MT- 2
Oc compressive pascal, Pa N S-2 L -IMT-l

ah,OH horizontal stress Pa N m- 2 m- l S2 L- IMT 2

uniaxial tensile Pa N ,m- i 5- 2 L- 1MT2
variance
r shear stress Pa N m- l S-2 L -IMT- 2
of friction radian, rad;

w friction of of
weakness
A area m2 L2
c cohesion Pa N m- 2, m- I ,,-2 L- 1MT 2

C of a ms- I L T- I
fracture
E modulus Pa N m- 2, m- I kg S-2 L -IMT- 2
e m L
Em Pa Nm- 2, m- I S-2 LIMT- 2
mass
F force newton, N m 5- 2 LMT- 2
G shear modulus Pa m- 2 m- I S-2 L -IMT-- 2
Gm shear modulus of rock Pa N m- I s -2 L-IMT 2
mass
G51 index

radian, rad;

II, h, 13 stress invariants

k constant of
k number of events
k coefficient of m-0 U
xvi Units

Name of 5lunii Dimensions

51 unit of unit
K ms- I Lr- t
K 5- 2 Mr- 2
kn, k, fracture normal stiffness, m 2 S-2 L 2MT- 1
fracture shear stiffness,
L m L
l,m,11 Cartesian axes
m coefficient in Hoek-Brown

p Pa Nm m L- 1Mr-2
Ps, pressure, shut-in Pa Nm ,m L -lMT- 2
pressure
PL load index value Pa N L-1MT- 2
Q rate LJr- 1
Q rock mass
r m L
RMR
RQD %
RQD, for

S elastic Pa- t N-l m LM-1r1

S elastic matrix Pa- I N- 1 ,m LM- 1T2
s coefficient in Hoek-Brown
criterion
S standard deviation
value for RQD m L
thickness m L
u m L
UCS Pa N m-! L IMT-2

V m L
W m LMr- 2
z Cartesian axes
.. bar mean fracture m L
Xbar
m L
normal variable

The convention for is as

.. should be in sans bold italic

.. should be in bold italic e.g.F.

.. should be in italic x.


III
 I

mechanics to
circumstances. means
and motion of VV''-'L''''', which includes statics
of mechanics
mechanics' is this

there is
of a rock mass
if the

element to rock mechan-

because of The of the rock
mass behaviour and brain of the not in the
mechanics.

I It is not
title such as 'River Mechanics' is correct. 'rock
13, is part of 'rock mechanics',
4 Introduction

'Rock Mechanics' Fn,.... in'''''''''rin''' Design

1;
iff I
Boundary
conditions
\ I

1.1 The distinction behveen 'rock mechanics' itself (a) and

rock mechanics In are the forces
current tectonic (b) tunnel
 and answers: 5

fractures? Is the stiffness of the concrete

If the rock mass is to be

CHILE -
DIANE -

is
essential for this nr(~n'.nrn information about the orientation and
of the rock fractures. both have their
pn,,.in,,,,,,,r will utilize
to the circumstances.
should be based

as in Section
tions first without the answers, as in
Whichever method you choose for
that read the text for each
the

1 answers:
In this there are five QueStl0I1S
there
are t~n

Q i.i Define the Iftllft"'" terms:

rock ........"'h, ......,ill'c
............"...,.....
6 Introduction

aeot~!ct1ln

A r. r Rock mprnm.lI~s is the of the statics and of rocks

and rock masses.
mechanics is study of the statics and of
of the results to

with

of the structure
of rock masses.
of the results

of soils.
with rocks
soils 2.

the fundamental purposes of excavation in civil en'QUII-

and lI'II"'U'\Il,I<I'!IIJm lI!!nlniln<l'!<I'!rlinflL

in contrast

to International
did not go ahead with the
 I..JlJieSI'/orlS and answers: introduction 7

and excavation of such a cavern.

to be considered in excavation of such

the natural rock
the ",,,,,,,moh'u

cavern roof,
In after considerable
mass classification c:rlno,Y}Q
, the cavern was
installation of 6 m rockbolts and 12 m
forced increased to the 61 m

3 This refers to the year 2000, II that in the future this will be

Civ, December, 60-61.

8 Introduction

Ql.4 t!ll!!4~hl'lII!lIUI!;S used in rock mechanics

are not the same

some C"nnA,.t
in Al.3 can be used in rock masses.
In the two main

behaviour of oil reservoirs.

insurance to evaluate the hazard to
on or in rock masses, and
rock m~>('h'l'Inj{'"
such as ,-v,,,,,,,u

1
In excavation for civil eng:l!leerirlg:
is in the Indian state of Himachal in the
 Additional 9

EI Teniente

1.3 Location of the and El Teniente copper mines.

of the station and consists of four

siltation chambers with dimensions 525 m 16 m wide and 27 m
built to exclude sediment above 0.2 mm from the
and hence the turbines. The

mine is in
and is several kilometres and
foothills of the Andes is in
rock and 90,000

"'''''{''O." for rock mechanics is the International 50-

which was formed in 1963. The Sec-
Civil in

is a
news and technical articles.
The authors of the first textbook in rock
menta Is of Rock Mechanics', were C.

5 A discussion of some of the rock mechanics for the

is contained in the paper of the Lecture Dr. E. Hoek to the Ge,ological
of London in 1998: E. (1999) Numbers to
'"-''''J'u,a - An J. CeDI., 32, 1, 1-19.
10

rock mass behaviour.

are two main "" ... ".....'" in the en~~inl~erilng

J. C. and Cook N. G. W. (1979, 3rd ron.) Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics.

'-1\.~U"."Ul
and Hall, London, In 1998, a commemorative conference was held at
Orlando Lawrence National in California, USA, to honour
Neville Cook's contributions to mechanics. The Nevllle Cook Issue of the
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Sciences was in 2000.
This Issue contains contributions and 30 papers at the
conference on
 11

remains the same, etc.

common with

this
 I
I I
I

masses

rest on a rock mass; a tunnel or

a rock mass; a borehole can

cave
14
 Rock mosses 15

was removed
of the indicates scale.
",,-, ... n:,, are an inherent of rock masses. En-
<:n",...tv that the rock mass should be unfradured: the
to be established

of rock mechanics, the word was used to

fissures, etc., bt'Cause H'-"'"'''''''' in the rock
used
the
16

(b)

mine in 'Western Australia,

to alter the location of the road to suit the rock

the of the mine is to extract
in the mine in
and economics. The
the vehicles on the lowest

of on the roadside rock face shown in

was caused by uno-c"",
can also occur on a
 Rock mosses 17

two shear zones and mine wall have a rock

block which has slid downwards. The traces of dust in 2.4a and the
clouds dust in the unstable rock
block slid down under its own
the rock surfaces
fractures.
Natural fractures in can
also cause instabilities
may be in cavern
18

structure needs to be reinforcement or

different in and
the the rock mass is the

from the top of Yucca Mountain in

radioactive waste Notl'
and the at the
 (JlJresj'jorls and answers: QeoIC)Qi,eol 19

answers: at::~ol'oa

....."11' ..... below shows a limestone

hri,,,,,tllvon the
.. t",.hillifv at this location.

A2.' The rock strata are folded and there is of

in limestones there will be two sets
and to the it is

the text, we will refer to our earlier book Rock

Mechanics: An Introduction to the as ERM
20

more
contain shear zones, so the rock
instabilities

nietur'lI'.' below shows the surface a in a hard rock

occurred. 1I:XjI:JllI:un
that other

an adverse ae'DIGla
in a quarry than in a road "' ..,.....U,L
 lJI.Ip....,rlnl'.~ and answers: aeloloal(;a 21

The below shows tooth marks from the bucket of a

mechanical excavator in the rocks a near-surface
mine. What evidence is there here of
.....Dln'lOIn to the rock strata?

A2.3 The excavator tooth marks show that the rock is

is the evidence of
TTl-.rou'r bands across
near-surface strata are evidence of
of

was conducted in a rock mass

on next One side of fracture #300 in the core is
shown. What does this fracture indicate about the mass hie ........
nniti4~nru~e does this have for rock mechanics of

A2.4 The

over one another.

there has been shear movement on the
a connected rock fracture in which the rock
22

moved about. the rock blocks could be well and hence

more to be unstable.

ae,Olc,av for .. "', ... .-:"'. Fookes

(1 from GI~)ssop' Rankine Lecture: "What you
look for should be SU~ClaleSfea the natural environment and
Dr'ODlel11 to be solved:1
aUOf~l:IIflon is t:rifit:allv irnraorilarlt rock mechanics and rock

structure located on

3 Fookes P. G. (1997) '-''''J'U><1I the geo,loglcal model, and

".,.tr>rrrl'''''''P Q, Ceo/" 30, L."J-"!L."!,
 23

The QUlDfCllflo'n

Discuss this in

COlf'lsiderln,a the aeolelai.eal se1t1ln,a for a rock enaIl1e4~r-

enairlettr exa.ect infarITlQ,tio,n r.!!>lfttln,ft to all
hozolrds to be available?

should ensure that such information

as referenced in Fookes

'rocks and soils

'~U,,,,"~L~j I this as
cannot be

4 Bates R. L. and Jackson 1. A. (eds) (1980) of American Geological

Institute, USA,
24

a~ ~r
estimates that "Ieven ex-
DI(~rjf']ltia,n programs recover a miniscule drill core vOIIUfI!'II9.
less than 0.0005% of the excavated volume of the Do you
think that this of the rock mass is anauan

100 mm
",rn,"'t~.,.tunnel

5 Whittaker B. N. and Frith R. C. and Construction.

Institution of
"Parker H. W.
Bickel, T. R. Kuesel and E, H.
 25

model which is ,,'-'VA'-',,"'-"" and engulet:'nrlg rock mechanics

Q2.9 A cavern (165 m 22 m and 15 m is to be ex-

cavated In strata beneath the sea. The crown of cavern will
be 35 m below the What is the main geolc.gl,eal in'IflOII'I'nntilflOn
you would with the excavation?

will enter the cav-

should be directed to

directions, "
Given this ge'DlG1gl(:al inf'nrlrn:>tl
the cavern to

minor seE~ml2e
and a cavern inflow of

ftll',A_'lI!lfidinn stress state in a rock mass is caused

10CUCC:l1 processes and is a critical fador for rock en,ailrae,eri
do you think the rock stress is h'nftll'l,rt.;o,nil?

7 Warren C. and f',n<'mp,err~!" the Channel Tunnel (c. J.

Kirkland, 00). E and F N p.334.
26

that stress is a tensor \.ju""un..

to characterize
stress is a
rock is to orientate tunnels so that
reduces the

Su D. W. H. and Hasenfus G. J. (1995) l"ej2;lOnal Horizontal Stress and Its Effect

in the Northern Coal Field. of the 14th
lnt,!'rnlltional COllfeH:nce S.

Mill. Sci., Rock ",''',",,,,,,,,,,,,

of Structures. CaJmb:ridl~e
nlv,>,<>,I,,, Press, Calnbl'id~:e,
To become at all prC)tlclen rock it is essential
to understand not the same of
because stress is not a scalar
Since a tensor is a mathematical
it is not difficult to

a inside a rock
faces of a and six stress
in which these

transforma tion

stress is that humans deal with scalar

but not

I We -'''r ,, ___ ,__ rock mechanics principles that are

Once you understand the nr"nri"I"" can work with any units (such as the
or 'British', units used here) any Most of the time we will use 5I
International) units,
28 Stress

Feose
3.1 Resolution of a force.

to some stress
lack their
in Part B of the book. In
visible. If

When a is ""J'"'"~U'''''''
shear stress COlmClonlents
stress acts normal to the

In fact the stress components are defined as the values at a point when the
area on which the forces act is reduced to zero.
 JneJerSfOnoma stress 29

normal stress == force/area, FIA

normal stress ::
A/cosO

3.2 Resolution of a stress component, from the heavier arrow to the arrow
of unit

K".,.""",,,, the shear stress on the

there will stress COffi-
the normal stress and two stresses.
there could be a
5MPa

second normal stress is ...""......"'.... rI

fact that a circle with
30 Stress

answers: C'."AC:C 3

Ql.l Show how the solid can be described via

on an elemental cube
!li:h'~lI'lIll"l
ore listed in the stress
m~'Iinl!'l.ll'IIt!li: in 0 row of stress matrix have in
ml:'OI,ell1fs In 0 column of the stress motrix
hove in common?

Al.l The rr"..... n'C\n<:.n on an elemental cube are

azz
Nonnal stress
Shear stress

t
O'zz

The cOlnp'onen!ts are listed in the stress matrix as

COmlJO]nents in a row are the rn,rnr,nrlon

the row, the

column are the in one

the x direction.

3 Note: There are several conventions for We have

used the most common notation in
components and r for shear stress cornp<melnts,
is to un,der'stand
un,ierstrunding, any convention
can Hl"":.,,,,,,,,v one can learn to use the 51 units
1 MPa
 Questions and answers: stress 31

Q3.2 When is a matrix is the stress matrix sym-

metrical?

column of a matrix can be written as

Xi). A matrix is all the terms Xij and
Xji are
The cube shown in answer A3.1 is
moments about the axes shows that the
stresses must be
stress matrix

for a cube of side

Tx\' - Tyx
stresses are
the normal stresses on the
above the a XXt a yyt a~v TXYf Txu Tyz

differences between vector and tensor

is stress a tensor

a tensor is a "multilinear differential form invari-

of co-ordinate transformations in

Q3.4 How are normal and shear stress on

Mohr's circle?

A3.4 The
stresses are
notice the shear stresses.
circle and its use be found in ERM

4 Borowski E. J. and Borwein J. M. (1989) Dictionary of Mathematics. Harper Collins,

London,
32 Stress

Y'Lx Shear stress. r

stress, 0",

r--:::!t----'I;------1-=----'o> Normal stress, 0"

+r

What is a stress What is a nll'injEilllnl stress?

on which there are no shear

on a
stress written as 0"1, 0"2,
and 0"3, in order of the smallest
For any
stresses occur on the stress see where 0"1
on the Mohr circle above for the 2-D case.
16 of ERi\ll 1, we that all rock
excavation surfaces are ",,,U.',,,,", because there are no

shear stresses on them. the effects of excavation is

to define will
be "r"""pr the

surfaces is also zero.

When the ", ..inr''''''''
stress matrix perpenOllcu.Lar to the excavation
most of the terms have zero

excavation
-=::::::t::===~-.- surface
o
o excavation

This is for the case where there are no tensile stresses in the i.e.
the 0"3 value of zero is the lowest of the three stresses.

What are the lolllo'wilna stress states: uniaxial stress, biaxial

stress, triaxial stress, stress, pure shear stress,
stress?

A3.6 These terms are to the stress states

........... u"'''' to test

5 Do not use stress'! The correct term is stress'.

 LILlO.,,,.''''',,,, and answers: stress 33

Uniaxial stress. One stress is i.e. one stress

has a non-zero V! ::/= 0, 0'2 0'3 O.
Biaxial stress. Two stresses are i.e. two n1'"1n("'ln::.
stresses have non-zero Vi ::/= 0, 0'2 ::/= 0, 0'3 = O.
Triaxial Three but two have the same

used to denote a stress state where

there is no normal stress on
when and

stress~es, as
Pure shear on -1'

ai
-"--._---+-----41------ a

+1'

Show how to add two tensors and how to calculate

the mean of n stress states. How mean
of n ditfalralrli
stresses and the associclted prinlciJ)at stress directions?

stress states A and are aV1era,gea

a'"".... u.,); their ('{),r,.",C.ru"n,"11t'l

+
34 Stress

where

and soon.
when n stress tensors have been the
stresses, ali, a2i, a3i, for i = 1 to n,
stress values their
one stress state has the maximum pnmClp,U
of 5 MPa and a stress state
due west with a value of 10
maximum

how to average ann1,rt,.nt for data

reduction in stress measurement COlmr:;lonlents for
tensor must be first ;:>1..l't:'Ll.HCU
then the
n
the mean stress tensor can

Q3.B second and

A3.8 eXIJresse>d with reference to sets of axes

of the tensor

invariants are:
II + U yy + U zz
a xx

h UxxU yy +

eX1JrE:ssllon for first 11, a

stress state, whatever the orientation of the x, y and z axes, i.e. whatever
orientation the cube shown in values of the
three normal stresses will up to the same value II_
When stresses to
of the stress tensor, a cubic
UJ, a2, and U3' This is

or
h =0
Because the values of the stresses must
VUlll.... 1V':U of
the choice axes, the the
must be invariant with to the
 I#>~tinr'<: and answers: stress 35

Note that the cornpc)neonts of first stress

II is
normal it is times the mean normal stress.
invariance indicates that is a constant mean normal stress as the
axes are

of the stress COlma:'011el,ts

in the answer to , establish force ibr'iulin in the x, rand
hence write down in dltlt""'I""".'IItl'rIIl form the three
for an elemental cube.

oz ox
ox
The net stress in the x direction due to this across the elemental
for a to one side of the cube minus
stress

{
and mul-

infinitesimal cube is in
the absence of
the sum of the force increments to zero,
forces such as
of

-ax+ ax +-=0
ax
6 The mathematical operator, a/ax, represents differentiation with respect to .~, all other
variables treated as constants.
 Stress

similar considerations in the y and dilrecticlns we also have

8y + o

+ o

two stress on its

to find a cube orientation such that the
appear on all
remain. Is it po,sslible Dlf!men'uu'V orientation
such that the normal stresses on all faces and shear
stresses shear ~tr'I!>!Il!ill!>jd &xI!)lclin the reason
for your answer.

answer is
invariant II in
As orientation of the
cube shear stresses on the cube faces but

so,for non-zero it is not I-'V;""l,I.)U:: to

01 02 = 03 O.
There is the ov,~"'r.hr.n
stress case, as = 0,
there is an orientation no
"VJUU,:U ~"L~.,~~~, Le. when the is rotated 45" Note that this can
centred at the of 0 - r axes, so
is the r axis where the
stresses are zero.

-7:

No normal
stresses on
+7:
the of
this square
 37

stresses in rock mass

to the surface. The

in a direction
stresses. It is much easier to understand
excavation-induced if
Remember
as
 the stress state
stress
1-',,'dU,,",\,< X I Y and z reference

Righi-handed <1z;
co-ordinate
system

or in stress form
40 In situ rock stress

In the first case, the six rn1mr,.-.r,pn

rr.l'Y\r1,r.n""n~" of the stress tensor

indicates a stress state

16 north-

east-

is a stress state in we must

F.""v''-'F.''" .... circumstances. The stress state is ,,0. ...='-'

a cube of rock 1 ft x 1 ft
. Assume that

to a
or about 615 m the vertical
t

or 15 MPa. This is to the

of or the of 1500 cars

the

between the line and the horizontaL

the whereas the orientation
of the normal 10 a fracture, or a axis or a stress, will be spe,cifiE:d
Ihe trend and
 nature in situ stress 41

Tensile stress
in

Section through car windscreen Section rock

4.1 The concept of locked-in stresses, in a car windscreen and in a rock mass.

stress is a rAnh",,<>TC.,
stress COlnr>on

of the main causes " H.. " ' - ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

stress state at a in a rock mass. In

the stress state, as erosion which
cOlnponent more than the horizontal
42 In situ stress

4.2 Perturbation of in situ rock stress slale caused a fracture.

excavations.

answers:
de-

Gravitational stress NII'~II'lII~-IIIII'Uli stress

Tectonic stress
KeSU:IUClIl stress

A4.1
Natural stress: in situ stress exists
2
natural stress state as
;ral'Jitt<ttionai stress: caused

It:l:tUJ'HI,; stress:

Ke,SlaUQI stress:
Thermal stress:
Palaeostress:
hnv._,",n'''' stress:

1-n1'-M.!YlfJ stress: the stress state n",,,nn{"1

2 Some use 'induced stress' to mean the actual stress after pn<"n<,prin,,..
",no"np"'ri"" It sure
which definition is context.
 VLJt:1:!>liIOllS and answers: in situ rock stress 43

Q4.2 Add the 2-D rock stress states; and find the
stresses and directions of the resultant stress state.

MPa

and 1m axes for the first stress state, and then the
Mohr circle.
y

MPa
10MPa

Shear -r
10.0

-5.0

30.0 Nonna) slress, Cf

5.0 20.0,5.0

10.0

21.83 -1
The stresses t,.,;,ncl' .....r,...,<'1'I to the xy axes are
1.83

Draw and 1m axes for the stress state, and the corres-
Mohr
44 In situ stress

Shear stress, -i:

o
Normal stress, cr

5.0.

14.52 1.
The stresses transltOl'Jme'd to the xy axes are
1.17 20.48

the two stress states

14.52 36.35
[ -1.17

the combined stress state and

the
values.
Shear stress, -'I"

-10.0

-5.0
a"t"," 36.35, -3.00
0',=27.62 0', " 37.38
o
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 Normal stress, (J

5.0

10.0

The pnnClpal
and Uz
x-direction.

How many
the 3-D state of stress in a
ard stress measurement mf!!fll'llCfllS
USBM gauge and CSIRO
constant in the the test

These stress measurement methods are described in Section 4.3 ERM

 and answers: in situ rock stress 45

measures one normal stress; so,

six

so six
orientation,
r!iffa,..,o"t
The USBM /\7""""".""" in a so two
orientations,
r!iff"T',ont
at least six so one

Q4.4 Three been made close to each other in

the wall of a the axis of which at 7. The
measurement is 250 m the
surface and it is assumed that the are in the same stress
The slots for the were cut normal to the wall of the
and were oriented relative to the tunnel axis
The cancellation pressure each of the
was 7.56 6.72 MPa and 7.50
stresses and their dill""".~ti.~n'!L
accord with worldwide trends.

A4.4 way of this is to use the stress

i.e,
e+ sine cose
and e is the

we have the
46 In situ rock stress

measures the normal stress r,an

t''''IYlY"...

we add 90 to each these directions

the normal stress on each

Jack A aA 7.56 43
Jack B aB 6.72 +90", 83
JackC ac 7.50 90'"
the stress translrorma for all into
matrix form
2 sin cos
2 sin cos or

2 sin cos
upon
0.465
0.985
0.500 -I
this matrix =R- and this evaluates as
1.093 -0.952
-0.134 1.021
[
0.479 0.034

from which we find

vertical stress based on

for the rock:
Ymck = 27 250 m, av = Yrock X av 6.75 MPa.
This well with the value for a y above.

measurements have been made in the

at 20 0 and 900
relative to the tunnel cancellation pressures of
7.38 MPa and 7.86 the best estimate of
the stresses.
 Ut.,eS1r'OllS and answers: in situ rock stress 47

we determine the stress directions

= +

and direction the normal stress on each are

JackA (1A = 7.56 + 43

Jack B (18 6.72 +90, 83"
JackC (1c 7.50 +90", 135
Jack D (1D = 7.38 +90,
JackE (1E 7.86 MPa, +90",
As in where
2sin cos
2 sin cos
= , R 2sin cos and
2 sin cos
2sin cos

, which

To

C I 7.45 MPa
2'
and radius the circle is
I
=0.55
2

(11 = C + r = 9.00 MPa and (12 = C r 6.90 MPa.

methods in books from the series

H;:U"")jU"~.V S. A. and W. T.
48 In situ rock stress

The "'VT,,,,,..t,,,rI stresses, a e , are by

which evaluates as MPa:

aA = 7.56 as = 6.94 ac = 7.37 aD = 7.19 MPa, and

aE = 7.96 MPa.
These are not the same as the measured values and so a u::a.,.-=,\.j
solution should of the errors
described in u U::ALlJV\.''''",
C> ....... C> .......

rock mass has been measured

tec:hnliaIJe. Two tests were conducted in a
vertical borehole: one test at a of 500 m, and the other test at
a of 1000 m. The results were as follows:

Breakdown pressure, PH Shut-in pressure,

500 14.0 8.0

1000 24.5 16.0

Given that the tensile a" of the rock is 1 0

and list the values of a" 0'2 and 0'3 at the two n ... n'lfIMl'1:.
of the you have to make in order to these
estimates. Are any of them doubtful? State whether the two sets of
results are consistent with each and your reasons for
the statement. Are the results in with trends exhibited
collated worldwide data?

A4.6 the
stress measurement
tion of a
sealed off. Water in

unless in

a reasonable appn)Xlm<!ti()I areas

 and answers; in situ rock stress 49

of thrust faults where the stress is transmitted

in

on
in

is as in
concentrations around a circular hole in an
for the breakdown is found to be:

H(1lw~>v~r. because the maximum

the breakdown ''c,
j./L'O"'''' ....

and

Test 1 8.0 500 m, vertical

stress, (1z shut-in
= 8.0MPa
(1t 3 x 8.0 14.0 + and hence (1H = 20 MPa.
20 MPa > (1z = 13.5 MPa > (1h 8 which would
fracture as assumed V"'~<H'''''' the fracture
pel:-pelrldICul,ar to the
stresses and
k = 1.04.

Test 2 24.5 16.0 z = 1000 m, vertical

stress, (1< YZ 0.027 x 1000 27 the shut-in
= 16.0 MPa.
+ (1t = 3 x 16.0 24.5 + 10.0 = 33.5 MPa.
(11i

a vertical as
For this test, we have k =
k = 0.92.

5 Note that for this the

vertical and
fractures are available in which the {)ri,,'nt:>ltion
from the measurements.
 50 In situ stress

tensors transformed so
stress can be callculal'edl?

A4.7 The to conduct stress is as

unit vector

eXlpr~SSlOn for

a stress on the I in
m

z
xyz and
stress tensor in the xyz
co-ordinate we can stress tensor.
On occasions it will be convenient to refer to the orientation of
on which the to be known

6 There are many systems of co-ordinate axes used in rock mechanics and it is import-
ant to become fluent in the use of all of them, as with the stress and units.
Three-dimensional co-ordinate axes may be either these are
visualized the thwnb, index and middle of one's hand. If these
three are held at to other, then the thumb represents the x-axis,
 answers: in situ stress 51

direction n as to the u=... ",'U then

nx = cos a" cos

cos a, cos fil sin al cos fil sin fil

am cos sin am cos
a"cos sin a" cos
I to
relations between

a[ 90+a"
am = 180 +a"
we use we must ensure that al
am lie between ~ and 360, sut'tracmk236~ifnec~sa~
the matrix

cos a"
cos a" sin sin
cos a" cos sina" cos

we the stress state

some means and that the results are as ' ... 111 .........,
IT 1. mc:sall1il,ude 15 35 Ift....n'l'lI'IlII
IT 21 10 43 I .......... ,.... c
IT 3,mc:agll1il,ude 8 tft'lOlInlFd!l: 3350
Find 3-D stress tensor in riaht-hall1dE~d xyz
SYS:teln with Righl-
X, hlli.rill':flIlrtfld handed
" hlll.rill'flIll'llfll'd co-ordinate
system
%, l.r'UI'~~~!I:

and the middle the z-axis, A r.uht-h:u,(!,"'(!

of the hand, a left-handed
The use of a left-handed axes is convenient for
rock mechanics: the x-axis represents East, the y-axis is and the z-axis is down.
nI<Jn-I1<11IU~!U systems are used for mathematical work, and in order to
coh,erencp with other mathematical work (as well as the mathematical functions
,.",nrTurt>rs and calculators) we recommend the use of
rock There are two obvious choices for a
x East, y North and or x North, y East and z down.
Glsa(1'VaTltal!es to both these and so
Ac,'or,1.n,,,lv. we will use both in book.
52 In situ rock stress

M.B stress are

(1t 11'11 mx yx ly lz
(1m my (1y my

m" m z

which can be written as (1lmn =

This means if we know stresses relative to
and the orientation of the lmn axes to the xyz axes
the stresses relative to the lmn axes
this we been
stress state relative to some Imn <:.v~:t"'ln
C01~re~;po,"a to the ""Mr.""

a l
The

0
al = 85 am 2170 all 3350

fJl 35 = 43
the matrix R is as

cos al cos fJl cos fJl sin fJl 0.071 0.816

R= am cos cos sin = -0.440
cos a" cos cos sin 0.808 -0.377

and the matrix aim" is

0
al mll = 0 10 MPa
0 0

(1xyZ is

8.70 LOI
(1xyZ 1.01 13.06 2.65 MPa.
2.65 11.23

of the calculations involved in stress transfonnation is

stress invariants. The first and third invari-
standard matrix For
 ...<:i""".u and answers: in situ rock stress 53

matrix. invariant is as the de~telltnilrtallt of the stress

matrix.
=33.0 and II = 33.0 MPa.
and h
axes used above have been rounded to the
__ ,., ___ , and so the axes are not
errors in the
seen in invariant Here we can use orientations
are correct to two decimal
Trly"\rn""",, and hence a more accurate answer is

data will not be field

The orientations correct to two decimal are

all 334.81

the matrix R is
0.064 0.816
-0.435
0.808 0.380

from which we find

8.71 0.88
<7x ),z = 0.88 13.04 2.69 MPa.
2.69 11.24
invariants

invariants now

field.

A4.9 Here we use the in A4.B to find the 3-D stress

tensor in an lmn co-ordinate the n axis the
to the and I axis C01TIClO'S with the strike of
We need to determine <7/mnf where lmn are the orientation of the
fault.
54 In situ stress

With the I axis and the n axis normal

to the the m axis is the line of of the
trend and of each of the axes are then as follows:

al 205 0 am 2950 an 1150

fJl = 50 40"
matrix as shown in is

-0.423
0.272 -0.583
0.694
and the matrix uxyz is
8,70 1.01
1.01 13.06 2.65
2.65 11.23

Asa the matrix (Tlmn = or

10.26 0.94
0.94 8.80
0.32
If we use the matrix orientation
data of A4.8 to LUHLLJU

8.71 0.88 10.16 0.93 -2.

Ulmn = R 0.88 13.04 = 0.93 8.76 0.29 MPa.
2.69 11.24 12 0.29 14.07
It is from calculations the stress invariants
Uttle between the two sets of the same is not
true for the values of the stress COlnp'onents calculated for the
the 'f is ditfer,ent
mnJ

YU'''''''<'''' pn~cis;ioIlS Le. MPa to 0.29 MPa.

>,..~.,.,"" it is
' n .... stress field would be
pn'~seI"lCe of the fault and so would differ this ~ ....",r....",.~,
 .""cit"""c and answers: in situ rock stress 55

JO The (:iIJIQCIWClra and 1999 7 ) shows a ho-

rizontal section mass. Stress measurements were
made from the the borehole line Ox the
DtIIln9~:9 CCHO stresses in the
horizontal are nl .... tt'Aot1 What are the main conclu-
sions that you can draw the stress variations?

A4.JO An follows.
rock mass,
stresses
Ox.
The stress is as the
to the excavated rock
to excavation at

fault further into the rock mass.

The fault appears to
the maximum nr.ol".'n

consist-

stress
excavation and
measurement tech-

destressed
or excavation in the location.

7 This is from the ISRM Draft Su~:ge5,ted and Obara Y.

(1999) III situ stress measurement the ,.Cln,n""t C(Jn!(:al-en(led
Int. J. Rock Mech.
56 In situ rock stress

TIn-TrW'L we would have to

and obtain more
on

Stress and Its

Rock Stress . ...,tU,,,,",, ..

An idea of the in situ stress state the continental
Earth's crust can be obtained from The World Stress

Kim K. and Franklin J. A. (1987) methods for rock stress determination.Int.

I Rack Mech. Min. Sci. Gromech. Allstr., 24, 1, 53-73.
 I

are

the strain
structures built on
U<::,::>L)::.H and back

The nature stress as tensor is <::AIV''',H

see that the stress state can be either as the six

stress matrix or as the

unslrained slate

strained slate
strained state

5.1 Normal strains and shear strains,

tIn 5.1, the normal strain shown is but the shear strain is negative.
ERM 1 contains a detailed discussion of the of the shear strain.
58 Strain the

Table 5.1 COlmDonE~nts of the stress and strain tensors

Components stress and strain Components of the stress and strain

matrices relative to matrices - relative 10 the three principal
x, y and z reference axes slress and strain directions.

r au f"]
Stress
l symm cr~

Strain

to

between the stress and strain tensors

is with the
normal and shear c:rrpc:<;pc:
with the pnnClpal

Hooke's
a wire is the strain is
himself stated 3, "ut tensio sic
can extend this to the Hooke's Law lClau.U)<,

the of the strain matrix to all the cOlno'onenlts

rnr,tln,n is that each cmnponent
a
cOinoonent can be
make to
ex:< 811)
relation between
re-
of

2 The word 'infinitesimal' means HH'lHH,'IV

3 This was first Dul)lLSltle<l
in anagram in 1676.
 Stress and strain are both tensor 59
The six strains are therefore as

Exx SlIaxx + + + +
+ + +
t: n + + + +
ex}, + + + + +
t:yz + + + + +
ezx + + + +

a
can be written in matrix form as
Ii: Sa
21 mdepen.ctent
elastic
constants
where e and a and S ==

constants.
if we assume that some
For all
shear u n...."'I,"'''
that
in directions are
.e),;,H),;,iUJ,e - causes to become zero. The
matrix then reduces to one with
materiaL
o o o
o o o
o o o
o 0
o

where E is a )J is a Poisson's and G is a shear

60 Strain the af ela!ificity

Table 5.2 Number of elastic constants ,pumn"" to characterize different forms of rock
mass SV!lun!~trv

Generall1t.1l'~'l:N'II;"'{, rock 21 elastic constants:

all the in the S matrix.
sVl1runetncal, there

Unthotro,vtc rock 9 elastic constants:

(three axes of ""[lUII,eLl as in the matrix above 3
rock mass
sets)
5 elastic constants:
similar to a 2 moduli,2 Poisson's ratios, and
lanrunatU)ns or 1 shear modulus

Pe,'fec'ttll iSOtrODic rock 2 elastic constants:

1 modulus, 1 Poisson's ratio

what extent it
are in Table 5.2.

answers: !Il:.tll'niin

QS.l What is the of the first stress invariant and the first
strain invariant?

AS.' The
in 5.1: II = an + ayy + a zz . It
can be considered as to the mean normal stress, and
the mean at a
The first strain invariant is sum of the terms
the strain matrix illustrated in Table 5.1: Le. En + + Ezz . Normal strain
in one dimension is a measure of \.<I.<U"I">'" and so this invariant
is a measure
 ...",hr..,., and answers: strain and the of ...,."dj,-ifv 61

Ib"IUlITII were the ::tuu.,=...

ClU;Dlacenlel,t and strain are
AaUallC,ns ensure that the normal
and shear strains are ~c,mrlicttib!la_ so that no tears or other
appear Show that the
f!!IlIUI:n'I,[Jn is yalid.

AS.2 The strain is the rate of of the dH;plaC,emlel1lt, u, so

+ ax'
Double with

= and

+
The term in is the definition of YXYI and hence the
we arrive at

QS.3 Draw a in~"ir'f!!ti'nn what are

a 2-D strain state, and the location of
DriinC:'iDCEIII s'trCllln:s. 6, and 62.

AS. 3
the 1" """'1'"' strains
occur where the shear
strains are zero

I-----.::-+-------'I,;-----+-.!..---'? e, nonnal strain

/\
I ----- the two ends of a Mohr's
circle diameter represent
a 2D strain state
shear strain

Show mC)CI'unlS. ""............... modulus and Poisson's

ratio are related as G :::: + v) an material. This
""""'0" holds for an "...,.o.-o,u material but not for an
62 Strain and

material - five elastic constants are re-

for a IrCln!'VEtrS,elV itl:~.tll"I'lIDli~ material rather than six.

pure

is in
stress and strain states.

The two Mohr's circle

the

the shear modulus

0"2 H<;;;''-'''''''' are the same, i.e. an IS()tr()PlIC

same nr,'>n,,,, ..
t"QC in all If this were not
strain e 1 could not be av'.... r""carl
 answers: strain and the 63

Circled values are

in Ir",n~vp~"lv

lsotromc rock

j
How can strain in a direction be from
strain matrix and hence how can a strain gauge
roseHe be used to estimate the state of strain at a and
the state stress at a
Assume that strains measured a strain gauge roseHe are
e,. = 43.0 x 1 eel 7.8 )( 1 and ell = 17.0 x 1 and that
the gauges make the to the x-direction:
= 80 and _140. Determine the strains and their
orientations and values for the elastic constants of
E = 150 GPa and \I determine the stresses and their
orientations.

AS.S direction can be fOWld

the Mohr's circle " ....'..".r'"

order to use the strain transformation "'''I,c<a.lVl.''

2-D state of strain from measurements made
determine the each
and
Q and tn-
strains Sp, and n to the strains B" Sy and Yxy are
+ Yu sin cos
+ Yxy sin
+ Yxy sin eR cos
or, in matrix
cos
sinOQ cos
sin cos
64 Strain and the of ",/nldi,-itv

We invert these to find the strains sx, Sy and Yxy as

-I
sin tJp cos
sin cos
sin tJ R cos

the matrix
and = 140, and so the
matrix

~:~~: [~~O : 10
6
0.117
] -1 . ]
0.970
0.413 -0.492 17.0 x 10- 6

0.884 -0.293
0.449 ]
= -0.177 0.960 0.218 .
[
0.857 0.456 -1.313
PrllnC1P,U strains and their orientations are then
case we find C'l = 43.7 x and S2 = 1.52 x
n",,-uu,pn the x-direction and the strain
To the stress state from the strain state we use the stress-
strain relations for an isotropic Le.

[::] ~ [~v
-J)

1 o ].
Yxy 0 0 2(1+v)
which when inverted
-1
J
-J) 0 Sx
=_E_ -v 0 C'y
J)2 - I

fo 0 ~ (1
From these we find that ax 7.04 a y = 2.65 MPa and
1.04 MPa. the stresses and their orientations
and a2 = 2.41 with the
stress 12.7".
the orientations of the
strains are identical. Note also that
of this i.e. determine the
 Questions ond onswers: stroin ond the of elo:.ticify 65

strains from the measured and then aetermlne

stresses from the strains: the results will be
as a useful the calculations.

rock has two ill'u'l""'.lI""'.'IO"'.!>nt

tll'.rln~tV<ll'II'<II.""lv
I<IIO!'I,I'II'.'!III'lllr rock has five inl:iellleI1d4!!!nt
Inlteiller,a~~nt constants

nb~atralillic case where there are twll'!n,tv-

AS.6 the answers.

un.. J"'''UU,'', one Poisson's ratio.

a rock mass one main fracture set

but different nOlm.::."

a
there is no
shear
this leaves nine elastic constants: three
Poisson's ratios three shear moduli.
matrix is <::vrnrn'<"t-
constants to 21. No
are 21 elastic constants: all the
in the matrix.

QS.7 Each of the t81'ft""",,1 four masses is to be modelled us-

elcJstlicity tt,,,,,,r.lI'V_ State whether you think that an rock
or whether one assump-
nn'lI'IlI'anll'illltll'! .. Assume that the fractures have a

A limestone with three fradure sets, i.e. the bedCiuna

mean strata thicknesses of 1 m, fracture set 1 rll'l'~lI'n'lI'!n
dicular to the with two and fracture set 2
to both the and fracture set 1) with five

A welded volcanic tuff with five fracture sets.

Fracture set 1 : direction
Fradure set 2: direction
Fracture set 3: direction
Fracture set 4: direction 1
Fracture set 5: direction 11
66 Strain and the

A sandstone with almost no .-Ll''''....-...".. Drel;er1t

A with three .-I:IIIL ..........

Fracture set 1:
Fracture set 2:
Fracture set 3:

intact rock and fracture

elastic an,ah(SE!S
ne,erina desigln purposes
Delrfll!!i~tlv with two elostic

Conver!;el'V'. no elastic rock mechanics has been

that the rock mass Is with 21
Is
In this context, what do you think will in future ana-
 and answers: strain and 67

convenient to assume that the rock is

to measure and

that there will be a move towards

ortholtrolPic characterization
mass will be estimated
back

continue.

How if a material Is elastic?

ihftCry of elClIsUcihr1

material can be recovered.

TIme is not into account in the
and

Q5.JO When a

strain.

Cristescu N. D. and Hunsche U. (1998) Time in Rock Mechanics. New

York,
68 Strain and the of elarstj(:jfy

Foree transducer

Servo-valve

be-

a certain amount of on,,,,.o',,

be that the
 69

occurs.

J. G. and Huber M.I. (1983) The Tedlnit;rues Structural Vol.

Academic Press, London,
Numerical of MOIDements Around Mine VP'''W'X''. PhD
 t

The two main mechanical of a rock mass are (a) the intact
the e.g. the shear zones,
This is concerned with the mechanical

Samples of the intact rock can be obtained from surface

from borehole cores obtained a site a
drill a intact rock can be obtained from
boreholes as
The from the 1960s

are interested in the

under different conditions.
A r"",~"_.rI curve obtained the uniaxial ,.."rru''''''<OCl
of an intact rock of
72 Intact

6.1 Rock core obtained from a site

intact rock for Note also the fractures inhpr,,"prtiin<>

"C~~Lu,~v,a'-'''WC'H curve obtained from strain-controlled

division
axis is to strain

This test was

that strain was
so that
the ri o'nonri

curve for the rock

effective torce-,tr2lnSmlttll ~nl'rllmp'n reduces
accounted for in the
 Intact rock 73

linear elastic zone, to the

and then downwards as the sp~=Clm!n
and the load can no
trusrypeof,..nrnn,a~atorce-di~;Pl<lcelnel~t
curve occurs for intact rock under any of
tension and shear any combination of
stress states can be to a rock
cases, different stress-strain curves will be nhlr"n""r1

on the stress or strain states

obtained if the tests are n,.{~ar"rn
or some other of '-V.LUlV!.
The linear

indicates the nature of

on how the test
r1",n.,nr1

sandstone with a siliceous matrix wruch

able to resist 5000 years of British weather.
At the surface of the there is a
within which rocks are
mechanical and ,.. ....3,.,.,',-. is
used to describe the effect of these n,.{~r""':""": on the intact rock as it
with its
environment. prc,c~;ses and
will retain its mechanical
Dn)cE~sses, such as the .... r~""lh" ,..,:>',,,nO' stones

Dr<)CeSSE~s also ,-,n,>,."I'" rocks

and on the fractures witrun
the and associated energy rh,UHYOC cannot occur as
as on the surface. the have had
of years in wruch to rocks can
often be of fractures
74 Intact rock: rt""t"rm~lhll'ifv "Tn.. ,,,,,,, and failure

6.3 The trilithons at

fluids have

excavation surfaces in stress

rock mass. the intact rock is in a state
on the rock and the
on

answers:
J Predict how the volume of a a
uniaxial and sketch the variation of volumetric
strain versus axial strain. What in
the as the curve manifests lI>U1nlllflt~nll"lf nrn,dll~nt ~nnn,nl!'lI>

A6. J We consider the volume

versus
 UlJlesJ'iOflS and answers: intact rock 75

Volume
Changes
Cracks Cracks "."..... 5.
I ~ structural breakdown
of 01'''''''''''''

to continues to dilate at an increas-

which allow the to break
with the result that the rate is

What causes a rock to break when it is

to failure? Is it when the stress reaches a certain value or when the
strain reaches a certain value? Or is it when some other
reaches a critical such as the energy per unit
the microcrack per unit volume?

failure criteria have been pr'DP,os(~d,

''''-'A''',," in the have been

microstructure is a
is the correct ,-,ULU'U"

in a failure criterion. is that no one

knows the answer. As a used failure criteria are
criteria based on the stress the Mohr-
and Hoek-Brown failure

Q6.3 The of the linear Mohr-Coulomb envellollie

that a number of useful relations between slr'eFllatlh a,aranne'lel'S can
76 Intact rock: riAlrn,.,nnlhlllllV. sf',.enoth

be drawn from it. Derive an for the uniaxial LOlmflreSSlive

rock in terms of the cohesion and of internal

A6.3 of the Mohr in we are nh'T;:>~t""Cl is shown

Shear
stress

of friction

Cohesion c

I..-_ _ _ _ _ _.l...-_ _ _ Normal stress

Mohr circle and

The linear Mohr-Coulomb with a tensile cut-off sets

a definite limit on the maximal uniaxial tensile of a ma-
terial. the uniaxial tensile Mohr that
can be determine this tensile limit in terms of CT.
and

to,rPtl'PT with
uniaxial
tensile ctr"'n,CYt~'"
 answers: intact rock 77

If we now draw a line

to shear failure criterion

A B

for the the

A B
78 Intad de:tormclhility, C:frIQ,nnlrn and

14.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0 +---...,----,---.......--.-,---.,.....----,
o 10 20 30 40 50 60

Friction
This shows that => 00 for q, = 90.
we can case of q, 55,
and that for the more we have = 3.7.
The with arises because rock failure modes in
tension and shear are different 3.

whose has been .....,.....It ..........,...

occasion has been entrusted with
a site in"e!itil:llcJ"tlo.n lli,rlli'leC::I. Llurlna
test, the to measure the
technician did record that the lineC:limen
inclined at 20 to the
....""I[;U ......

triaxial test, as the rnlnot"rlIl pressure was

of the stress, the
pressure in the Hoek cell was 85 MPa. On
rei5UliT5, propose a failure criterion of the form
0'1 = a0'3 + b for the rock.

pertorm,ea, do
tion about

Cohesion is the resistance to failure in shear; adhesion is the resistance to failure in

tension. Under uniaxial rocks break to the least stress -
oprnP11dirul;ar to the
we see that both cohesion and adhe!'1ion
rock.
 (.}1.'I'!<,.;lt'Oll"; and answers; intact rock 79

perpendicular to
..",.- failure envelope
0
140

is
criterion in the
failure criterion when written in its
au) + b, so we that
1 + sin
----(J"., + (J"c with a
1 sin
= 7.55 and b = (J"c = 85 MPa.

Determine an elastic ca,nsltarlt althe

the (1 CI - P curve.
the M()hl'-~;ou'IOITIb criterion is al(.'ltpliicQlbl,e. de-
termine (1 u c: and
80 Intad rock: rI.. 't" ..,rnn and failure

confining pressure

in a
the axial
dimensions for an

v +
and substitute el = ea, a, = aa and a2 = a3 = P to obtain
1
- [aa - 2vpJ.
E

Y2-Yl 39.1-0
m = -- = = 0.46 = 2v
X2 - Xl 85 - 0
and hence v 0.23.
from the first of the curve we find that we can
Poisson's ratio.

a
with aa == a3 and p == ai- Thus we
have
2c cos </> 1 + sin </> 1 + sin </>
p= +~ =~+~ .
1 - sin</> 1 - sin</> 1 - sin</>
the curve with aa on the horizontal axis. if
we criterion back to au 0, then the
it intersects the p axis is the ac
a~'~~~h~'thecolnplre!;Sn/e

Y2 - Yl 85 - a c
m= :::::>tan61o= 9 :::::>ac 85-39.1tan61,
X2 XI 3.1 0
a c = 14.5 MPa.
 answers: intact rock 81

axial stress

The stress the Mohr-Coulomb tells us that

---or

from we obtain
5AMPa.

es-
timate the stress at for two biaxial tests
in which 0'2 = 20 MPa and 0'2 = 40 MPa. Which of
would best under these "'... ,....tiili...."".,7

A6.7 We are that a c = 80 MPa and at -10 MPa that our

convention is COI:IltJre:ssi,ou-o()si

If we substitute 0'3 and 0'1 o into the Hoek-Brown

0'1 = 0'3 + + ,and we find

m = -'---"-

with intact and so s = I. we

For tests, we have been for 0'2 and asked to find

values for 0'1 As the tests are ~._J"U", O. '-W''''''''''''T
the Hoek-Brown criterion 'Jf".L'.vn:"
stress.
We could estimate the of the
failure o
these '{')resell ts
82 Intad rock: dej~o"'Tlolbilij~ d ..",nnth

Shear stress, T Effect of inlennediate

_--_j: notlaken into account

Nonnal stre~s,

and so it is worthwhile m\reS'tlglitlI

al 20+ 157,8 MPa

and for a2 a3 = 40 MPa we find that

at 40+ = 217.8 MPa

that these will both be over-estimates of

criterion
are two ext)reSSllDI for Griffith criterion in co:m1=)re:ssl,on:

+ when a] + >0
a3 = when at + <0
and in and -at is also

'0711"....><: the
intermediate and so neither of
is valid for biaxial we
aSSUITlptllon that the conditions in the tests
conditions in the Griffith criterion.
us

from on substitution of apprcJplrlalte value of
a3, we can determine the
for a2 a3 = 20
at = 20 + 4 x 10 = 129.3 MPa

al = 40 + 4 x 10 169.4 MPa.

Assessment
of criteria is the best I-'''';;\,U,'-''''
neither of the criteria are
 (JlireslriorJs and answers: intact rock 83

but the Hoek-Brown criterion is for ;:>"':;:u)<.u

appllitallllli'ly of each of the C;rIIHlt!h Mohr-

Hoek-Brown criteria for triaxial test

-6.65 100 135 160 200 298 435 MPa

6.65 100 130 150 180 248 335 MPa

A6.8 The is to convert the data into stress

-6.65 100 135 160 200 298 435

6.65 100 130 150 180 248 335
al 0 200 265 310 380 546 770
a3 -13.3 0 5 10 20 50 100
From the two rows of the table we can see a, 13.3 MPa
and a c 200 MPa. The values of at a3 are a t the end of this
answer.

the criterion in is
= +
and values
13.3 MPa.

a3 -13.3 a 5 10 20 50 100
at 39.9 106.4 120.6 133.6 157.4 219.3 308.5

lVlcmr,-LOUJIOn10 criterion is
linear. As a not be a fit to
the at least not over their entire ,",",,,nIL'" if we wish to fit a
line to the the results are

o 5 10 20 50 100
at 118.6 201.0 232.0 263.0 324.9 510.9 820.7
84 Intact rock: rI.."n,...... "'h'I'.rv d,.",nnifh failure

Hoek-Brown
We can either in the
criterion from a or criterion to the
data. the former rn"th"nrl 1 and m = and with
we obtain:
13.3 o 5 10 20 50 100
al -3.3 200.0 239.5 274.6 336.2 485.9 683.1
the latter rn~'thnrl we the criterion to
a3
=m-+s
ac
COlrre:SD()n(lS to the linear form y = mx + c, and obtain values for
In case, we know that s I, and so we

The result is a
stress values of
a3 -13.3 0 5 10 20 50 100
al lOA 200.0 251.0 294.6 369.3 545.1 770.9
The data o-"''''''T"t",rl the three failure criteria are
below.
900 beslfil Mohr-Coulomb
III
a.. 800
;:l; bestfit HoekBrown
original data
iii
rn
700
<ll
~ 600
iii
,g.
u 500
c
'is.
<.; 400
'iii
;:l;

minor principal stress, MPa

--r------,,-----~.~---~--~

-20
-100
6
c
20 40 60 80 100

Assessment
As the above the statistical fit of the Hoek-Brown criterion is
the best of the three criteria. The curvilinear nature of the results means
that the criterion will never be a fit over the entire
stress range, and the fundamental behaviour rock over stress
means that this is a conclusion.
 UlJlesl'/orIS and answers: intoct 85

in a paper on tensile tests for coHon yarns fJli""r,~",,_

Pierce "it is a which mathematical
II'lIU<I'l'lI'liftll'll";: are of no I'Hle that the of a chain is
that of its weakest link". What Is the relevance
the tensile of intact

A6.9 The statement is relevant because intact failure is initiated by

flaws in the rock microstructure. There is a distribution of such flaws
(mlCf(:>crac.locs and and so a
a
flaw.

140

120 Pre,tilelllo 27"

Dh.",,,,,,,,, length
100

80

60

40

20

0
120 200 360

In terms of the chain Crr,Q,."Yl-h

The left-hand one
the number
cfr,On,:'Yl-h results two UHl<::.,I::"<
to the tensile
intact rock.
We note that
sp,eClmEms under the same
i.e. a within-test

Le.

the tensile on the

because there different
Le. a between-test
variation. In the direct tension test, the is
to the same tensile and so the whole volume is
stressed. In the the zones above and below
hole are stress.

4 Pierce p, T. (1926) Tensile tests for colton V. The weakest link, theorems on the
of and J. Illst., 17, 355-368.
86 Intact

Centrally
~~f-r:T71 loaded
f.L-L.LL.LLL! beam

Prism
test

7"7"';""77-7 Indentation

The sketch above shows the direct tension test followed

stn:nel:h test methods.

as determined
'H~"";A,A<U nr,"In,pri-iA<: because
of the test: a uw""".<u nrr\,..,<>,Tnr

r 0 The two mtllritlA DOnAII!!! illustrated below are from .he Greek
Parthenon the of the
'Great Pana.henaia'. under the
diredion of around 450 Be. One
is from the north of the Parthenon and one is from
the south side. Which is which?

frieze.

5 Howard Staunton used these as the source for his 19th century of
the in the classic Staunton chess pieces.
 Additional 87

rnr"""n a failure criterion based on the

this has not
88 Intact

Hoek-Brown criterion has become the most

p""'-"'-<'" use. The criterion to the
we will discuss it
DUOl1<CatlOfIS that review the use
of
estimates are as
Hoek E. and Brown E. T.
Int. J. Rock Mech.
E.
erties

An
case would have been a function of the
ductile rock UH'l-'l,aU::IH'C:l

t t
induced by tectonic stresses. (a) tensile failure; (b) cornpr'essive
shear failure,
90 Fractures and hi!l'ml:~nl'i!l"'lcn

dolomite at Lannon, Wisconsin, USA, with clear horizontal

,pn.'t-"''''':iJli'' vertical fractures. Note that the is

as illustrated
7.2a case, the ~~A~'''''.''''
occurs because
7.2b case, the

because are
 91

7.2 (b) The Mountsorrel D'Y'>nl'orI,,'r"'" Leicestershire, UK, with fractur-

Note the vertical and the presence of sub-vertical and transverse
fractures.

the mechanical
92 Fractures

not

DnJ~CII"eS oj all

The numbers
indicate Ihe
number oj sides oj
Scanllne example polygons

C'nl'Tlnarf'CIto the number of

intersected by the scan line than

a"""""", .....,, associated

20

di!K:o:ntiJnui:ty' are both used to denote the pre--existing

and fissures in a rock mass, We use the term
connotations, to indicate
has little or no tensile
natural
 93
40 S8
35
01
C SO
(/
26
i
'0 20
25

11E 15
:::I
Z 10

5
o
0
3 4 5 6 8
Number of sides of polygon

7.4 of in

mean sides of the nnHT<YrU";: is

(3 38 + 4 x 26 + 5 x 15 + 6 x 5 + 8 x 1) 331
3.9 sides.
+ 26 + 15 + 5 + 1) 85
The theoretical answer is
1964 2) of 'Poisson

2 Miles R.E. (1964) Random determined random lines in a Proc.

Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 52,
) This was corlJ!KllUn~u for certain cases,
1973 book, A First Course in .Hnnlusrlf" Processes, p. 221, nm,vmmv
for the existence of distributions of rock masses. For
a more advanced treatment of and ""~'ill"'''lilll<
occurrence, the reader is referred to
(2000), the of
94 Fractures

0.0-1.0 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.0 3.0-4.0

Length,Jt

Prclbabililtv density,
f(x)

Negative exponential curve

7.5 Distribution of between fracture intersections the scanline in

7.3.

where A is the mean Ut::"IU't;:l the mean and standard

deviation values rock
definition of the mean, X,
tributions

as
we

, a, is This means that for the

distribution the mean and standard deviation are

4 Note that the used here for the mean and standard deviation of a (.JUIYW'lUUH
(J is used in this book for both a stress r"Tnncm""nt

(.Ju~'w<mun. Because (J

statistical context, there should be no cor,rus,lOn - we will not

deviation of stress components.
 .,,,,i,d.,,,. fradures 95

linear 6 < ,1.< 16

100

RQD= I A (0.1 A. + I)

50

RQD -3.68..1. + 110.4

t=O.1 m

o 10 20 30 40

7.6 Theoretical relation between RQD and fracture

a scanline in the
are often found to have
fractures have been intersected.
We that the distribution is not
it characterizes a or Poisson occurrence of frac-
tures, but because it is the distribution to which a series of " .... 11-'''''''.. '1-''>''''''''
distributions Because most rock masses contain sets of
..n~'~~.~~, and these sets
distribution

a fractured borehole core or

a scanline such as that in 7.3 is defined as 100
where = intact core
the core, and L is the

and fracture
linear relation for A =
ofthis is = -3.68), + 1l0.4.
with a threshold value of 0.1 m can be
t. Then the relation between

characteristics of rock mass fractures that are

rock mechanics. The International for
Mechanics recommended the measurement of
ture characteristics illustrated in 7.7. These are:
"'M'L"'''"'''', wall <:tr,<'>n,,.th

5 Barton N. 1978. Methods for the Quantitative Ue,;cripti()n of Discontinuities

96 Fractures and

7.7 rr",,"r'~n' fracture characteristics for pn<>in,pprinp' rock mechanics.

One of the most characteristics is the extent or n ...."."t~.... (" ..

of the fractures because this whether the rock mass can act as
a series of discrete blocks the
can be

scanline will miss

should take the errors into account 6.
In this we will concentrate on the
2:eOnlelTH:al :>""n<>,rT'" of

in Rock Masses. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. Abstr., 15, 6, 319-368. The
of the ten fracture characteristics in 7.7 was first in Hudson J. A.
Rock Mechanics in Practice'. CIRlA Butterworths, London,
72 pp.
6 References to software for this are included in Section 7.3.
 97

fractures are more to be intersected a scanline, borehole or

mderPTOtlnd excavation than shorter fractures.

Distribution of

7.9 Actual and distributions of fracture "1e"S'S''''',1-'

and

swer as an aide-memoire to
pr()le(:t10In sheet included at the back

answer
boreli1olles are drilled from face of a quarry, one at
an orientation and the other at an orientation of
On a sheet of paper over a
the to these hn ..... IMinll.....
the of the
the acute and between the two boreilloies
the orientation of a borehole which bisects the acute and
the orientation of a borehole which is to the two
holes on'ealav ... - l
. " _ ...

Answer In order to show the

The orientation is as
98 Fradures

The orientation LUf.LLU' flU. Y the two fJm"eh(lleS

N N 055172

055172

298138
+

paper so that
I, is on
and Count in 38", mark
055, and write down the borehole and a cross for this borehole
orienta hons. as BH1.

298138

1< x BH2 055172

t,."rrn,et paper so that Rotate the so that

E-W the crosses for BH2 lie
line. in on the same circle. Draw
a cross for BH2. the circle and a cross at its
Place a tick on the

the
 fradures 99

298/38

BH1

(b) Acute and obtuse between the nlJl'pnrJ/p.<;

298/38

BH1
N

017n6
BH2

055n2

(c) Orientation borehole which bisects the acute

298/38 055n2
017176

31" N
BH2
-\- 017n6 166 ')(
BH2
BH1
298138
055n2

The acute bisector is Rotate the

between BHl and BH2
mark a
ro- write the
tated as mark a cross 31 it.
from either BH1 or BH2.
 100 Fractures

N 017176

321/66
bisector. The orientation
is fOWld to

Orientation lJOr,ehO.le which is npr'l'lpl1t11'~111,f1Y to two holes

drilled
298138 N 017176

055172
298/38

BH1

114 , -\-
90
BH2

055172
BH3

197114

We the orientation back to

on which BHl and BH2 the nor-
is write it next to the
to BHl and BH2 is ori- The orientation
ented such it is nonnal to this
the normal to the
the

max-
the nor-
a tick and write
of the normal.

QT. J The overall RQD for 134 m of borehole core was found to be
58%
....omKJlUl'e estimates for the total number of of core, and
the total of those of core that could be eXl~e~c'ea
to be
", ..... nil"", .. than 0.1 m
 (JlleSltio'1S and answers: fractures and helmi!.nl1lerircol eJl(""'"'''''' 101

eXlDe'cte'd to have a ...n ....tln

is their mean larlnl'h-!'

0.1 m, we
we calculate the total number
as
= AL 14344 . 134 1922.2
as a a cannot this result be
to 1922.
The definition of is "the ratio of the total
than 0.1 m to
npr.."'nt;;j(>~>". In

=1

If we are
is
between 0 and some value b we

< =
if we are interested in <:n;,,',nu values than bl then
> = I
In case under consideration we have b = 0.2 ffi,

> =
102 Frodures

and this we find that than 0.2 m is

= 0.057 = 0.0571922 =

O.2m,
14.344 .
and then
. 134 = 29.4 m.
The mean
29.4
= 109 = 0.27 m.

uuce:SI(101lU we rn.nn'~'"

1000 . , . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - 0.900

0,800

0.700
B 100
E
:::I
c:
0.600 I
-g 0.500 ~
t1l 10+---' c:
II)

I 0.400 ;::
<Il
III
g> 0.300 ::::E
III
-'
0,200
- Number 01 pieces Overall length of pieces 0,100
Computed mean length - Theoretical mean length
0,1 - i - - - , - - - - r - - - - , - - - - , - - r - - - r - - - - r " " ' - - , - - - - \ 0,000
0,10 0.15 0.20 0,25 0,30 0,35 0,40 0.45 0,50 0,55
Threshold (m)

Q7.2 Based on a of 128 fracture values which gave

a mean of 0.215 m, estimate the range of the PCiplJllation
mean fracture and at the 80% level.
How many fractures should be in the for an error of :l: 10% at
the 90% and 95% levels?
 answers: 103

tJ> 0.90 => z 1.645

and
N = Z = 270.6.

we
tJ> = 0.95 => Z 1.960
and hence
N= = = 384.2 or 385 fractures.
increases as
level rises.

The mean fracture In a direction In a sand-

stone rock mass Is 1.22 and a total 500 vertical 3 m
rockbolts are to be Installed to stabilize the of an unldelrUl'OUlnd
excavation in this rock mass. How many rockbolts would you AYII'IIA,rt
to:
intersect no Tr".....'"r....
intersect less than 3
Intersect more than 4 fractures?
104 Fractures

What should the rockbolts be if 95% of them are to

intersect at least 3 i.e. extend to the rock block back
into the rock mass?

A7.3 If we assume that fracture occurrence is a stochastic

we can use the Poisson states that the IJL\JV~'VAJ'H
x) = In
A = 1.22
oU.

Intersect
Here we have k = 0 no fractures over the and
so P 3) 1.22 x 3) 10! 0.026 (O! is
The number of is then 500 x 0.026
12 bolts. We round down because we cannot have a fractional

0, 1 and 2 and so we have

3, 3) = P (0, 3) + P (1, 3) + P (2, 3) 0.026 + 0.094 + 0.172 0.292.
The number of bolts is 500 x 0.292 = 146.1, rounds down to 146
bolts.

Intersect more than

4,3) 4,3) as
1- 3)+ P (1, 3) + P 3) + P (3, 3) + P (4,
= 1- + 0.094 + 0.172 + 0.210 + O.
1 - 0.695 = 0.305
The number of bolts = 500 x 0.305 = which rounds down to 152
bolts.

to the 0.95 = 3,

0.95 = P
1- P -P

e- W
=1----
1!

+w+ 2
 answers: and 105

cannot be solved <::"'IJ11'.H1,(,

isw ,we obtain

is a ""'''J''''':U of3m.

Q7.4 A been dilliCClive,red

shows that it has sur-
lineations which have a 78 measured the north-
west strike line. What Is the trend and of these lineations?

A7.4 illustration below shows

line of
maximum
nf"lT"tt1IlAr.;:,ct 255/54 dip of plane

circles as a scale and mark a cross

the lineation.
is on the east-west
read off and mark next

The line of intersedion between two trends aaarl~X'lm-

northwest at 38. orientation of one of
DIC3nt~S is and the strike of the other is 132. What Is the
trend of the line of intersedlon what Is the of the lIlA.'nn,n

A7.S

1 and the
106 Fradures and """,mil:nl1,,,,,rl'rnl nrl119c"fltiln

in
38. This
and trend in the

arc

222180 of
NWplane unknown plane

orientation of the
line of intersection
The ~'''''F..,~...
the circular locus and the
has an orientation
in the SW not the NW

l&r!II'lII!" of the

rre~q~,el1lcYvalues determined ......'... ,..".

that would be encountered in this rock mass
cu~;talmclrv threshold value of 0.1 m. a threshold

,.. 2
-----In
 answers: nncc'ur...." 107

will maximize the range of How do the values

l!;Ulm~'U1eo with this threshold compare to the 1IIilnlrli"'r ",'on.,es

we can either use the n'OO,uu,,,v,

To find the

Fora
The the calculation AI cosOI

Set A. A.I cos BI

direction
1 7.72 23 7.106
3.07 58 1.627
3 5.34 75 1.382
Sum 10.115

8 The method of ", ... "",,\r,C!' value of the RQD threshold value for
in J. P. (1999), Selection of the RQD I.un,,,,,,,,,-,
/. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 36, 5, 673-685.
108 Fradures

of this is the mean

X= Le. 0.10 m.

Fora north
Set A AI cosOI
direction
1 7.72 68 2.892
2 3.07 48 2.054
3 5.34 80 0.927
Sum 5.873

The is then 5.873 I and the mean of the

is 0.17 m.

For a borehole trending 280/35

Set A Alcos81
direction
1 7.72 47 5.265
2 3.07 92 0.107
3 5.34 20 5.018
Sum 10.390

and the mean

I

similar to the
the results are

are known.
in a vertical borehole will
in a horizontal tunnel
of the fracture sets .... r".c,oy't

(b) In order to use the for the threshold value that maximizes
the we need to know the maximum and minimum values
of fracture in the rock mass for the On
the basis of the obtained and
Alliin 5.87 , from which we find
2
t* _2_1n(_) -----In O.25m.
10.39 5.87
We can now construct a table of
the relation
follows:

5.87 88.2 56.9

10.39 72.1 26.8
16.1 30.1
 answers; 109

Extreme values
o local minimum
minimum: 1.42
(> maximum
Global maximum:12.48

Contour values

Set normals
+ with sel number

3-D variation of fracture

Extreme values
local minimum
Global minimum: 64.52

Contour values

Set normals
+ with set number

3-D variation of for threshold of 0.10 m.

1 10 Fradures

Extreme values
o Local minimum
Global minimum:4.37
o
89.19

Contour values

Set normals
+ with set number

m.

A rock mass is known to contain two sets the

orientations of which are and What borehole orient-
ations will allow one to drill the rock mass and intersect all
the t ........I." .."'.... between the borelrtolle
is
intersected at?

mark for set 1 to the east-west

count in 42 and mark a
cross for the maximum of
set 1. across the east-
west line 90" and mark and D1
bel of the normal X

to set 1. the tick mark

for set 2 to the east-west
count in 69 and a cross
for the maximum of set 2.
Count across the east-west line
90 and mark and label the
ition of the to set 2.

count in
of 45. Rotate the i'r",r'n..,,,
another
Continue in this way until sufficient
the circular around the normal
small circles on the r\n\1Ar'f",
if the sheet is
 1.. ~rln'l<: and answers: fractures and 111

the normal to set 2, sketch those circle at

of 45 from this normal
normal 1. Label the two intersection
and rotate the so that
line in tum, and read off orientation of the lines. are the
orientations of the two boreholes which will subtend an of 45 to
both fracture sets, and are and
(4) Rotate the
circle. Measure
2, the bisector. Rotate
on the east-west and then read off its orientation:
the orientation of the borehole that makes the minimum to each
fracture set, and this

reservoir is known to contain numerous fractures

conductive. These fractures almost "'... ' ' '.1 ... 11'''''
a direction. To maximize from the
the wells are to be deviated to run
that intersect the fractures as close to as
In order to determine the orientation of the IOI"-''''IOI'UII:.
two test holes have been drilled to orientate the fractures.
The orientations of these test holes within the reservoir are 011
and and which were run down these
holes show that in both holes the between the normal to the
fractures and the hole axis is 40. Determine the orientation of the
and the trend of the holes.

A7.B To find the orientation of the normal to the we draw

distance 40 from each of the two hr",,,h.("\1
the intersections of these circles. one of
these two intersections will be at the but this
will be once we have found them.
for the two

to the east-west line in tum, and

mark the of the bore- incorrect
on normal
For each
sketch as much
a circle at an distance 087103
of 40; the intersection of these
two circles is in the northeast
of the Ro-
so that the
intersection is on east-west
draw a tick mark on the and write next to it the of
the 24,
(3) Rotate the back to north and read off the trend of the
051,
112 Fractures and hp.I'11j~:nhp.riclll

measured a
orientation of

of the

the of the
. Two orientations

a clod(1lNisie
trieval. What will
emerges from the ftftrAI'ftlA

A7.9 To
 and answers: and n"",....":nnl,,,rrrru nrc)le~'"fi(lln 113

ents axis of the core, rather

the

204/47
fracture

""'''''"'''''' is on the east-west

This means that N' moves 22
centre of the IT;>"""O'
its small 22 to
pf()je<:t1Cln back to vertical.
so is on the east-west count
and mark a cross. Mark a on
81,

or{)ce~;s is useful determ-

measurements made on core
inclinations and rotations can be
core box and it in
itself.

intersected six be-

lorlaina to the same sub-ll)alral set, the orientations of which were
21 21 CftlTlftlutA the

mean orientation of the set,

- n,uTQ~~U!~ninnQforsalm~lunlg and
l!:OIMl'liliriiO bias

A7.IO This is an we the

mean orientation as the mean of the normals to
the fractures. Problems such as these are solved a

various formulae used are:

= anD X
114 Fradures

I = .m =
n = The mod function is a 'remainder'
that the result lies between 0 and 360. Notice that all
as these are the units for
most V"".""":"'-"''' The calculations are

Borehole:
Radians
f3s I, Tn,

136 55 2.374 0.960 0.398 -0.413 0.819

Fracture data:

201 39 21 51 0.367 0.890 0.226 0.588 0.484 2.066 0.466 1.606

213 50 33 40 0.576 0.698 0.417 0.642 0.428 2.338 0.975 1.502 1.503
215 63 35 27 0.611 0.471 0.511 0.730 0.454 0.274 3.645 1.863 2.660 1.655
230 52 50 38 0.873 0.663 0.604 0.507 0.616 0.536 1.866 1.127 0.945 1.149
247 42 67 48 1.169 0.838 0.616 0.261 0.743 0.746 1.340 0.825 0.350 0.996
253 28 73 62 1.274 1.082 0.449 0.137 0.883 0.846 1.183 0.531 0.162 1.044
Sum 5.787 6.834 7.952
0.964 1.139 1.325

as calculated is not an orientation vector,

as its = 0.959.
The row normalizes the mean 0.959
so thatthe to

the corrected mean, we fracture orientation

to the cosine of the to the borehole axis.
as the scalar vector and the
borehole vector, Le. for fracture i it is cos (Jj = Ii / s +mj m s +ni 'n s , the
of this is the Le. w 1/ cos (J. The
of this factor and the
the mean of these has to be HUll"",","L,,,,U

before it can be used to calculate the but once this has been
done we find that the corrected mean normal has an orientation of
= 40.20 and f3n = = 41.6. In terms of
this is an orientation of or more
 115

error that would exist if correction were not

the the uncorrected vector
of the two
as
0.483+0.4980.571 +0.715 5.1.
on the relative orientations of the fractures and
errors than this can be and
so we recommend to fracture
orientation data.

Structures. C"r"brio
UIllV..""" Press,
10 Priest S. D. (1993) LJ"",m,,,,u,,, and
London,
II Panda and Kulatilake P H. S. W. (1999) Effect of geometry and trans-
rock f. Mecil., 41-50.

, t
il

masses
In 6 and 7, we have
and answered
the ~w,~"r"
the

and mechanical

can consider a a normal stress and two

shear as shown in
The of the fracture due to the normal stress
It is awkward to convert this
over which the

between azz and

ulus as are
the units of modulus which are stress
From the shear we can define shear

co-ordinate illustrated in 8.2, the two

shear fracture stifnesses and denoted as
118
 The nature of rock masses 119

S.l (left and above) of fractured rock masses. (a) Folded rock mass in
Crete that the mechanical behaviour will be a function of both the intact
rock and the fracture (b) Fractured limestone rock mass, unaffected
machine. (c) Jointed granitic rock mass with
chalk rock mass, with joint dilation

i "Y

Lx
Rock fracture

1L.----~rzx

S.2 Normal and shear stresses applied to a fracture.

kxXl kYYI and The of these are the fracture ... v,........ ~..... ... "'1
SXXI SYYI and Szz' also be interactions between the axes; for
a shear stress in the x-direction can cause a in the
a or Sx;: term. This leads to nine stiffnesses or
the relations

8, = Sxx T zx + Syx i Zy + szxazz

8)' = SxyTzx + SyyTzy + szyazz
0' [~] [", Sxy
Syx

Syy x
[,,,]
T Zy

8z = Sxz Tzx + Syz TZy + szzazz Sxz Syz a zz

these nine are red Hced to two: a

120 Rock masses: d"'I't'Jrmt'llhilitv .;;u,,nnlfn and failure

8.3 The presence of a fracture in a stressed rock spe'cirrlen.

kn and a shear

I
2 + +4 cos

I The term 'deformation modulus', is used in rock mechanics to indicate the apparen
elastic modulus of an in situ rock mass.
2 Bieniawski Z. T. Rock Mass Chichester,
 The nature 01 masses 121

Failure of intact rock

failure
,I of fracture

~ -.

10 30 50 70 90
Inclination of dl!IContinlllty normal to mllJor principal
IIlmllllxlll

8.4 Effect of a fracture on the

and the shear stress on the fracture

11'1! sin
these values in the Mohr-Coulomb f'rl~"''''ln...
Cw and are the cohesion and of
2-D case

due to the
to

terioration due to "''''''''''011''",

not be included here.
water flow rock masses in the next rh"nit"'r
15.

J We have used the word 'failure' here to mean that some kind of limit state has been
reached.
<I Hoek E. and Brown E. T. (1997) Practical estimates of rock mass Int, J.
Mech. Min. Sci, 34, 8, 1165-1186.
122 Rock masses: NP>rnrmr,nll!lfV d,.."nt"Yth and

answers: masses

an
mass in a direction normal to the strata
hence of the total thickness the rock
mass due to the stress. Write the in terms of E,
and t,.
and assume that the interfaces between units have
no mechanical effect.
Strata with bedcrina
stratum rock contains a set
aile. to the stratum boundaries. The T ..."""'. . Ir.... tll'".ftIJIPI'IMI

and hence the

The overall strain is & = we have derived here for

then the overall strain as

the eXlpn~SJlOn for the rock mass is

Note that the ti cannot in numerator and denominator

of the of this as is evident when the eXlpr!SSI.on
 \,,(1J't:'l>lflUrll> and answers: rock masses 123

is written out,
II + 12 + t3 + ...

the rock mass is the sum of thickness

ti, because the fractures are now
a tenn to account for the 2
3
4

(1
Ii + (1

strain is thus

and the rock mass modulus is

(1

below.

that it is critical to make an

in order to be to
 124 Rock masses: """Pnrrnr,h and failure

ro 20.0 "',~~_
fu 18.0
6.0

IJJ
~ 8.0
E
6.0
4.0
E 2.0
W O.Oil_~~~=~lo~G~pa~w:-==:;====~==~~~~~~;;~;;;;;;~~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
A

For the unfractured and fractured stratified rock mass geo-

metries described in the
shear modulus of a rock mass,
II"'IInrnlm"",t"".'<:. tj, and

If we consider
---=::.. 1: under the action of a shear we can "A.,,,,,1,,,,.
1 8 as in the sketch below.
2
3
4 IL
I

"
n
t~

these for small 0, the

each unit can be written as y
of a unit of intact rock is

shear strain is

and as a rock mass shear modulus is

r
 answers: rock masses 125

Note that is uu ........ , . . "."",-,,,,v,",,,, to the result nn!r"IT'Pt1 in

first of A8.l,

2
3
4

=r

strain is

and so the rock mass shear modulus is

t;
r
y 1 ,A.. ) .
I; ( -+-'

Once
is essential if the behaviour
'
U H U.....

understood,

it is necessary to trll':lns.loll'm the

establish rock mass .....toll'm,otiio
lIrlillClIlJre stl1ffn,eS!ieS or cOlrnp,lia,ncles.

5 This is for 1'11'10 ortJ10g;Oniil sets of fractures in 2-D. The method

the for n sets in 3-D can be is in Wei Z. Q. and
A. (1986) The influence of Proc. Int.
Rock Formations (T. K. Tan, pp. 54-62.
126 Rock masses: N",:tnrrnrU,,',fV dr,~n'"'1th and failure

al'1lalvsiis with uniaxialloc:U:liin;l.

is for two frac-
ture sets, where E is the modulus of the
and are the fracture fre-
i~,
QUenCIElIS of the two sets,
are the normal and shear ,"nlnn,lio
and I I,
I
the fractures in each set, and (It is the
between the normal stress
and the normal to the first set.
The reduces for one set
= to
1 1 c----
-=-+
E
+

and if we s~
rearrange, we
and then !
1 1
- == - +ls +
E
from which we

-=1-
E +
and s = 0.05 the shown
to the In Ulll:IOlrOITi 1 result.
= 1 = sand = == the
basic reduces to

-=1-
E + +

and 5 == 0.05 the in

appear in the formula and

comment on any ... "'.",. ...n l ." ... il.".r';nll",c: that are from these
illustrative

A8.3 In Section we saw that a term is for

stresses - both the force and the area have to resolved
this leads to Mohr's circle of a 2-D stress state. Terms
such as above because four resolutions
two to account for the stress one to
and one to resolve the fracture

in 1 and 2 have been calculated for

we can note the
modulus will rock
outer circle in the
fJ<1La.",:> to the fractures in a rock mass '-~"""'L<'.u. one set.
 UlJresjfjorls and answers; rock masses 127

U!<I.I<rdHl lone fracture set.

in the modulus of rock masses

of a rock

is more

the
to understand the

Mass is
is 50. Estimate the in

to answer this
and 4 in this
128 Rock masses:

The 2RMR- 100 = 124 100 24 CPa.

The = 20 CPa.

9 CPa.

In the last
and Brown
of the intact rock as it becomes weaker.
These

assists in
circumstances. We include
in 12.

the eRect of a fracture on the

VS. the
 YliieSlrlorlS and answers: rack masses 129

and that the intact rock Sfr'8t'1lC1th

the form of the

AS.S The is shown below, is increased from OOf i.e.

from when the stress

Failure of intacl rock

140
'i'
c..
~ 120
.c
iii 100
I:

i. 80

..
IQ
60
E 40
...:
u
0
a: 20 =62,5'
0
0 30 90
Inclination of discontinuity normal to major principal
streS!l axis

as
O'IArp\i'PT normal and shear
stresses on the
of

,;:ul'Y1r.tC'lirp.;: at
= Both horizontal
= 62S.
curve occur when the intact rock fails before the fracture

QS.6 If a rock mass contains more than one set. we can

the of weakness to each set, and
a lowest-bound of str'8t'1lC1th

!drAnnttl!ll of which

str'8r1loth is

stress were reduced to zero?

For

"''''''''",H the

both sets of
130 Rock masses;

140
I
Il.
120
~
ic: 100
1:
<II
80
<II
<II
!II
60
e
.II: 40
g
IX 20
0
0 30 60 90
Inclination of discontinuity normal to major principal .....tr'on'O"th locus of
stress axis set A

140
I
Il.
~ 120
s:;
& 100
c
! 80
;;
:I<'II 60
e
.II!
<.)
40
0
IX
20
0
0 30 90
Inclination of discontinuity normal to major principal
stress axis

OV\.TP"\J'PT in the rock mass, the two fracture sets are

so, when we two curves to determine

of the rock mass, we must an offset + 90
for fracture set as

-.,..
F
 I...IUleSI'IOfIS and answers: masses 131

the heavier line in the 00 to 1800 below.

Fracture set A Fracture sel B
140 ~

.c 120,
'5! 100
I:
! 80
11
I 60
~ 40
..:w: 20
a:8 0
o 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Inclination of di!ll:cnlrltirmi1v to nril'lcln,,1 stress axis

= 55.
as two blocks and without any
to effect of the

80
t:
!-
70
60
i
II:: 50
!:
IJl 40
:II 30
E
~
0
20
0
a: 10
0 "- ./

0 30 60 90
Inclination of discontinuity normal to major principal
stress axis fracture set A

the rock mass heavier is

at these orientations are too narrow to have any ':>,.,-01 ..''''',..'
the rock mass to almost zero
the two sets of fractures. This demonstrates
of that occurs when fractures dissect rock mass.
132 masses:

80
Ii
0.. 70
2!.
:S 60
m
c 50
I:1/1
1/1
40
1/1
"I 30
E
.Ii:
() 20
(I
a: 10
0
0 10 30 50 70 90
Inclination of discontinuity normal to major principal of
stress axis

Fracture set A Fracture sct B

_ 80
<II
~ 70
:i;'60
g; 50
~ 40
Sl 30
'"E 20
! 10
to?:~~~~~~~'"2:2s--~ 360
I I , Inclination of discontinuity to major principal stress axis
Locus of rock mass

QB.7 When a rock mass contains a TnllCl!UI"e sets

each set has
weakness
criterion.
such a criterion mass
sets of at shear
!IItrAn ... tt'!II of which are a Mohr-Coulomb criterion
with c 100 kPa and = 30. The intact rock ",tw.,.",.t'lth
a 1 = 75 + Assume that the minor
10 MPa.
 CJu!esJ'iorls and answers; rock masses 133
'iii' 140
Il.
~ 120
:5 100
m
r::: 80 = (90 +
~
III
60
III
III
40
E 20
.:0<
8
a:
0
a 10 30 50 70 90
Inclination of discontinuity normal to
major principal stress axis

the n",,,,,,,,,,r line the LV!Hj.lV"1 mass

120.0

co 100.0
a..
::a:
80.0

60.0

40.0

0.0
o 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

The

ISOtropIC and
mean rock mass decreases an
of fracture sets. Here we have assumed that the four

How the eHect of on the rock mass

frclctllJrE!S
indicate some of the
stll"I!!!I"IIClIth between
and soil mechanics?

A8.8 Rock is a
a similar size to
material with sizes much smaller than the structure.
Rock failure is often initiated weaknesses in the rock mass as
has been seen the answers to in this the
1 34 Rock masses: failure

270 9{) 270-~-

180 lail

One fracture set Two fracture sets

180 '00

Three fracture sets Four fracture sets

fractures has a effect on the rock mass

the fractures determine the location and orientation
failure surfaces. In a there are weaknesses at
all locations and at so the failure location and orientation
the soil but the of the
stress
Rock mechanics - intact rock plus
l140 fractures, anisotropic, failure
location and orientation governed by
~ 120 pre-existing weakness in the rock
.c 100
g, mass
c 80
l'! Soil mechanics- more and
;; 60

.
:I
E
40
20
weaker malerial, failure and
orientation govemed by stress field
"'..,0" 0
a: 0 30 60 90
Inclination of discontinuity normal to
major principal atress axis

It is useful to bear ideas in mind when with a weak

rock or such as shale and or
 ''''l:1'inru: and answers: masses 135

transitional

a f ..""ri _
normal stresses up to 1 0 MPa.
nC)elot-ltlrC)WT1 criterion is to used of
......" ...... " ..,... rii ..r"oIl'I'" silollles cut in the rock mass. Determine of
instantaneous COIt1eISiOn normal stresses up to
10 MPa.

AB.9 In order to .-101,0 ....""

e -
3
+ arctan

tPi arctan

muc (1 sin
8 tantP,
aell:rel~S then Q = 90, and if

into the linear

as
r a

6 Hoek E. and Brown E. T. (1980) Excavations in l~ock. Institution of

and London, See Hoek E.
friction and values the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. J. Rock Meell.
Min. Sci., 27, 3, 227-229, and Hoek E. and Brown E. T. Hoek-Brown failure
criterion a 1988 Proc. 15th Canadian Rock Mech. Symp. of Toronto,
ON, pp. 31-38.
 25.0

Inlacl granile
20.0

III
!l..
:::! 15.0
$
~
.,:;;
.c;
10.0
Weathered granite

--- ---
(/)

---- ---
--- --- --- --- Fractures

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

Normal stress, MPa

For

use of linear ' . . Fo ...'.::1.""".

the Hoek-Brown criterion to
for the Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
in Hoek
 masses 137

90 T 9.00
I
III Weathered granite: dashed lines
ID 80 8.00
e Intact granite: sclid lines
rf.
Ol
ID 70 7 ,00 !
_______J~
"0 1
.;
0, 60 ;!...
... ~~-=:;:::::::~-;;;;;;:::::::~L 6,00 .~
'"'"
, J::

'"
0 50 5.00 8
U
:E 40 . .. ... 4,00 g'"
i'"'"
III
::>
0
<l>
C
30 friction angle ... ... .... ,. .. ........... 3.00
l!l 1ii
c: 20 2,00 !E:
l!l
til
-_ .. -
!E: 10 1.00
,,,,,- - -

1-------4''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''--~-'''-'''''''''''-_l___ _ _ _ + 0.00
0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10.0
Normal stress, MPa

sets, A and inclined at

Fracture set A is continuous and contains
fracture set B is .-"",...... ,-
with a 'two-dimensional nll"lonaritiann
the exa:,eC1rea
orientation of the stresses to the .....,........ ""
for a minor stress of 5 MPa and
sh'al'llath characteristics:
Intact rock: <Tl 75 +
Fracture set A: c == 100
Fracture set B: c = tP

AB.' 0 The to >In<:'''''''r;nIO'

fracture set B with an
of the intact rock and

+ (l - tan
constant. In case,

in

we see that
43 and

- - - - - = 16.3 MPa

the intermittent fracture

combine <Pi with the
138 Rock masses: l"I .. l""'.... nnlllrv <:I',..."nth

for the of fracture set B to find

x 0.0 + (I x = 8.15MPa
and
= 0.8164 => =

Ii 120
Do
~ 100
J:::
til 80
c:
g
., 60
..
.,'" 40
~
E
-" 20
g
a:
30 60 90
Inclination of dl&con:tinility normal to major set A:
principal CA 100 kPa and 20
Ii 120
Do
!.100
J:::
til 80
~
..,
'Iii 60
011 40
E
-" 20
~ a
0 30 90
Inclination dl"""",tlmJitv normal to major Fracture set B:
C 8.15 MPa and = 39.2
mass we
a -450

setA.

feature

of rock mass fracture <:lv,:tl'>,m

be taken into account in direct of
 Additional 139

Fracture set A
set B
120
'iii'
Q. 100
!.
ic 80

i 60
.::I
E 40
,;os.
<.I
0 20
II:
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Inclination of discontinuity nonnal to major principlllsiress axis

8.5 Load to a rock mass.

7 Amadei B. of a mass under biaxial and

Mech.
140 Rock mosses: de:tor.mll!hilifv.
 iii

masses
is a measure of the ease with which a fluid will flow
rock. Fluids do not flow solid so intact
rock masses are fractured
it is easier fluids to

a rock mass is considered as a scalar

i.e. it can be characterized one value which is therefore inde-
of the flow direction.

to eliminate internal moments in the

it is assumed that not all the shear stresses are and this
reduces the number of stress

---
Fluid in Fluid oul
---+
Fluid
in

Intact rock: small scale Rock mass: scale

9.1 Fluid flow intact rock and fractured rock.
142

z qz
Cross
qxz
x to z Z tox

1 Cross permeability flows

of the shear stresses and the cro!ss-pelm(?abilit:ies.

x

is not are nine ,n(i<>Y,<>r.rlt:.nt

as in the Cosserat continuum
In the case of the

Table 9.1 The components of stress, strain and per'meability

x, and z axes

Stress

Strain
 intad rock and masses 143

the rock mass is However, in the central

wet and there are several from the rock mass, e.g. at the
indicated by the white arrow.
144

answers:
sulblecte!d to a 10m head

IrllldlJred limestone with an ."............. i; ...

K
rock area in

for the conditions assumed

water a 10 m
mass for 17 m in all

and
 ..... U'<:I'llIIIVII and answers: n~,rm,"'nihili'tv 145

21) where 1 is the

fracture

has ten per metre and 1 mm?

What is the main factor to the diHerence in the
of the two rock masses?

A9.2 Aand e, so
K 8.3 x 10- 10

which is a ten million fold increase from the value for the first rock mass.

t ..O,n,,,"nr'u has increased a

a fractured rock mass.

we of rock excavation
lC""Ul.CU. the normal stress to zero on the excavation surfaces. This en-
to and the

fracture with and is the perpen-

distance between the two
!iXIPIC:lin the of fracture when the fracture
surfaces are
Do you think that the mechanical ""&:I'... r ... ,....
.....,.....h ...... of a fracture have the same value? If which Is I'IIr'~nt"" ..'?

A9.3

water flow will occur,

146

,
e
A

channels formed between the

will be
in

What is meant

Mechanics on rock fractures

on Fracture Characterization and Fluid
 147

For this reason, the term

The two sets of rock ....."'" ..........".

in a On the left-hand
the

17

head of3 m head of 1 m

on this side ,-_....:-_..,18 on this side

3 16

The co-ordinates of the fracture Int'fl!rJ~fl!I~tlll.n!l:

numbered relative
In the
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
0.000.000.002.102.745.166.61 B.06 5.16 6.13 3.06 5.Bl 6.61 7.42 B.71 10.0010.0010.00
6.944.191.295.164.522.421.130.005.32 2.5B 10.006.61 5.65 4.B4 3.23 1.45 6.94 5.00

that all the fractures have the same 0.12 mm,

and that there is no variation in flow of the
determine the nodal heads and hence the direction and
of flow In each fracture Se41:11mle

3 Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow, US National Committee

for Rock Mechanics, Fractures and Fluid Flow. Press,
DC.
based Analysis Rock
S. U. Priest, with the numerical values
148

A9.S

for network
as

in
We now determine an head in the interior of
the the <tUII<t,-'=UL nodes. The fundamental
 I...ILJeSI'IOn and answers: lJermeajbilifv 149

for head at an interior node is

=----
cI,].

Section 9.4 of ERM I, where we show

the for net flow at a
in

CI,4 + C2,4 + CS.4 + C12,4

all of the known heads on the left-hand

+
relations
Node 5
6
Node 7
Node 9
10

12
13

Node 14
Node 15
These
150

matrix below is illustrative rows

columns based on

C5,4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0

0 . C7,6 0
0 o C6,7 B o clO.7 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0
x
0 C7,10 0
0 0 -CIL

0 0 0 -CI7.13

0 0 C15, -CI8,

0 0 0 0 o clO, 0 o C14.15 C -CI6,15

A=
B=
c=
we

1.3 16,6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.6 0,0 0.0 0,0
16.6 -26.6 4,3 0.0 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 4.3 -29.1 7.2 0.0 14.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 7.2 -23.9 0.0 8.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0,0 5.6 0.0 0.0 -20.3 5.0 0.0 9.7 0.0 0.0
x
0.0 0.0 14.9 8.8 5.0 -34.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.5
3.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -18.1 11.3 0.0 0,0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.7 0.0 11.3 10.9 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.9 -23.1 7.1
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.5 0.0 0.0 7.1 19.0

2.507 2.339 2.229 2.223 1.930 2.062 1.759 1.626 1.438 1.472
 and answers: ,.",,,ern,,,,.,I,,, 151

we illustrate these heads in the

to the various flow channels in the network.

we can see how the head values decrease

side of the the water flow
with the
the circumstances
of the fracture sets are not the same,

Determine the nodal heads and hence the direction and mag-
nitude of flow in each rock mass fracture for the same case
as but with different fracture ......'... r .... ... '" in the matrix
below.

Note that this matrix is and we have the

values in the lower left of the matrix. The units are millimetres.
152

A9.6 We can use the same solution as in A9.5 to determine

the nodal head values and the The values
in

0.0 0.0 8.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 H4

19.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Hs
0.0 0.9 142.4 I 0.0 118.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Ho
0.0 0.0 1.4 -6.7 0.0 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 H7
0.0 19.1 0.0 0.0 -54.0 2.1 0.0 32.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 118.8 3.7 2.1 168.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 44.3 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -10.3 .4 0.0 0.0 -0.6
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 32.8 0.0 -48.7 1.4 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 -8.9 0.9 -6.6
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 44.3 0.0 0.0 0.9 -46.0 -0.8

And from we find the values for unknown nodal

2.704 1.864 2.730 2.631 1.680 2.689 2.489 1.509 1.240 2.632

These nodal head values are illustrated in the

 and answers; oel'me!aD,lIItv 153

Inc:relt1St!d. so
the tests, so there are fewer data for the

Data for test size 01 ,

2.122 1.156 3.696 1.165 1.649 2.886 1.652 2.876 1.197
2.593 2.114 2.771 16.214 2.529 1.700 7.658 10.928 0.627
9.854 0.847 0.670 1.623 2.274 5.163 2.209
Data lor test size 01 5
1.630 1.981 2.436 3.700 1.215 1.767 0.909 0.450 3.512
1.314
Data test size 01 '0
1.369 1.188 2.037 1.688
Data for test size 01 r5
1.487 1.343 1.473 1.738
aD'OV4!. estimate the REV value 5 for the "v........... II.'
frClI~hlr4F!d rock mass tested.

with the mean value

t.,,,,,,,tl't> .. each
Y.A"'Fo",",ULbelow, We can see that there
and that the mean value
size increases from 3,53 x
to 1.5l x
20

. r - - - - Mean value

14
0
" 10 12 16

Size of test

Visual
value for

5 The REV definition is in Section

154

Ivltles in a dolomitic
nll'l,n.,"JlitIJlit of InC;luc;:ea

cause

N
o

180
K max 1.596E-4 mls
II K min 3.042E-6 mls
K int 5.927E-6 mls

in networks of
 and answers: oe.rmeaibllltv 155

A9.8

ina
and the minimum value is
The maximum value is about 52 times
than the minimum but the intermediate value is about twice

transmissivities
contacts varied between 0.01 and 0.001

term 'effective stress'.

contains water under pressure and
fll'flldlJII'A

"""""""'1: are what

on the normal stress

from the normal stress com-

Ina

'-C'C'''''''>'', as shown

Rock block 1

Rock block 2

See the h,"',,)"r"rlh Goodman R. E. (1998) The Artist.

156

across the

it is not ....'-". . u.,

success or failure in rock

DeIO'liV. the water pressure in a ItlIcrel'Cle

in marble In to the normal
pressure """"I'Ari

as in
under servo-controlled "",."riI,,'f,
nAtrrltAri the crack but also the intact rrU'lIrrUA
nv,Ari'Ari V visible in the How do we
 157

A9.ro In view of the ~~'HIJ''''-<X

the

From the information in 9.1 and the answers in

the fact that mechanisms in "'nO-IT''''''''''

..
. fracture

.. nnnrt"'tc'rI

.. rei'UlStlC
..

Measurement of in situ stress, in Methods of Exper-

Sarrunis and T. L. (eds), Academic Press, New

pOIuellasttcity. Int. f. Rock Mech.

158

L and Andersson J. (1999) DECOVA

to n'lI,""'flru and task 4. SKI
 I

1 masses:
tests to the reaction of a massif
and inter-related obstacles. The first of these is
and the

it is not necessary to nature of

rock mass in order to which mechanisms left their

I Judd W. R (1965) Some rock mechanics in

with prototype reactions. InL J. Rock Meek Min. Sci., 2, 197-218.
160 ... n.<:nTrnnv and tnl'110n10(lerleIiV

and mechanical
of structural a""r.I""""

CHILE: (a model

DIANE:

terms in these rt'>'1"1,""""":: have the

Continuous
there are no

Discontinuous zero

values at

directions.

Not Elastic on can be recovered

and strains may be time {1p'npl,{'I'~'I"It

These domains can be

and based on ge!)techltlical

Greek homos == same, groas kind, isos tropas == way.

 answers: i ...nt'rnrlv and 161

e.g. the value

Bias mean and the true

lation mean.
the of n:"Ull,,,,, L"n~L~k~"v whether are accurate
or not.

answers:

QIO.I On
tures that tnellelIte
162

AIO.1 limestone beds have been to a

form and there is a
the rock mass Discontinuous.
has been
shear

in directions are
~'-.~ . '-~ fractures will also have a

to the

shows four strata with dllttererlt

erties: within
and

to
different rock prop-
 answers: 163

of
uniaxial values for a 0"" ....1:. .
52.460.744.666.647.656.361.548.249.647.256.748.4 61.5 52.9
2.512.872.143.042.312.642.902.21 2.252.182.552.232.752.55
We wish to correlate these and can do so either in
the form PL =aO' c + b or in the form 0' c = cPL + d. On the basis of the
best which of these is DrloDII"Drl.lI'illtA,-f
DrlODII"ftrlOll'illtA constants
ore and

1
O'c = 0.046532 PL or ere
2L49 PL.

of the form U c cPL + d to the

21.48. In this case the difference ht:>i""\M<'t:>n

new index test for d""tAlrrniniinn

sp,ecimEms of intad rock is under de'veloIClmler.t
Rock Mechanics at 1ft'll..... ,..;,.,
bo,nc:Jlln'g a steel rod to the surface of a slilllecimE!n
aaine~llm'e. and then the tensile load to
tftt:llellhll!!" with a small of rock away from the main block of
rock. Four test are under and for each
of these a theoretical relation between rock and
force has been Test results for the
164

nn,nrl~nll"iftt'A theoretical are below.

measured in the new test.
rock as

l'ftlr1fIIIllUlrntinn in terms of accuracy and prE!ciS;iorl.

t:nlltic2ul'atiiollllsl should be retained

strftno'th = 0.049 x load

67.3 76.8 83.9 104.8 153.7 168.9 191.2 194.7237.5258.3
4.2 4.8 5.2 6.5 9.6 10.6 11.7 12.2 14.6 16.1
~Olm~III"'tm()n 2: 0.066 x load
68.9105.3106.2120.1 148.5 164.8 197.4220.5232.8236.9
4.7 2.4 3.3 7.4 6.7 10.9 6.3 7.8 8.2 7.6
COll1fi"III"rmc)" 3: = 0.074 x load
Load 83.5 95.0 111.7151.6170.0189.5190.2193.9201.1 205.3
6.1 7.1 8.3 11.4 12.7 13.8 14.3 14.3 14.9 15.3
COll1fi'rlln~tI(J," 4: 0.094 x load
68.9 105.3 106.2 120.1 148.5 164.8 197.4220.5232.8236.9
5.5 10.1 10.5 11.6 14.4 12.3 20.1 22.9 20.9 21.8

to aeltenmlI
The test results are
ret)reSerlt the test results and

test is

test is

test is
accurate but not
3 is the best because it is accurate and jJ."::''-'''C'
ore'cisle.but its means that an
 and answers: and 165

1 (inaccurate and precise) Cn,1fitlur,,'linn 2 (inaccurate and im~lrecisel

250 GG
e
G
200
150
N N 100 ee

50
50
0 0
0 10 15 20 0 10 15

MPa

Configuration 3 (accurate and precise) Configuration 4 (accurate and imprecise)

250 250
200 200
Load, 150 150
N 100 N 100
50 50
o +---+--+---!---1 0+---+---+---1
o 10 15 20 o 10 20 30
Strength, MPa Strength, MPa

be abandoned.
too to be

Q J 0.5 A vertical site nVd'!'s1liootiian borehole intersects a stratum of

sandstone which is dir'llninn 17. A of intact core from
this borehole was taken to the lolillalro1ra for conduct-
and two small-diameter drilled from it: one
These
meameter, and the values of the hVldrc:Jul
to be 1.728 x 1 and 1.557 xl
dial

AJO.5
directions. is a tensor
can determine the in any directions and the r-,r,n!""",
the transformation We know the
to the tested
in
normal and ,","''''"''.''-'
For the axial and an orientation of
eu = 90 + 17 =
kr = 1.557 x
these values k n

anticlockwise ,",VOl"V"', zero horizontal to the

166 and

to we obtain
ka kp . cos 2
eo + k" . eo
in matrix

for kn and kl' as the values kp 1.7 x 10 ()

and k n = 3.008 x
Note that > a feature which is common in such rocks.
""c"""~"r'" index in terms of the ratio of these
k" and hence p = 56.5. The
of the
and this is shown below.

270

This illustrates
in this sandstone.

of the vari-

is there a cusp in the locus on the line .."",,,, ..,,,,o:.,,,n'un,n the

direction normal to the

A10.6 The occurrence of cusps in rock mechanics loci is not

In the As = Ai I COS ()i II used
there are cusps caused the absolute
that is not the case here.
 and answers: 167

Parallel to

minimal
must have the same

the three

tensor are in the ratios 2: 1, 4: 1,

in the case at

Linear radial scale radial scale

168 "nrrnrlv and

the location of the minimum value. r./I,.,r~'''''f''''''

which accentuates the ... ..., .... u""

What does the term 'structural domain' mean in the context

rock mechanics?
... .,'.... n ..... '.nd'l

A10.7 Because of the

basis of site
4

a site
ILILlrllrlllll for quarry rl ...vs.IoI'I,n,noll!,nt
of the fractures on a
1::1III',ollll!ertif!'s surface rock exposure
were measured. squares, each 100 m x 100 m, were
established on the rock exposure. One of the set of statistics pro-
duced the site was the number of fractures with
a mean square. These
results were as follows:
1 234 5 6 7 8
461 397 453 362 389 421 382 423
On the basis of these data is there sufficient evidence to
conclude that the squares should be as ditFtelFell'lt
structural domains?

AIO.S The is to
hazards domains for
issues 5 are the

4 The of data, but

a fonn of statistics location of
the are because can indicate when
different should be used. A good introduction to this concept is found in Davis
(1973), see Footnote 6.
5 The question of whether such variations in data do reflect causes or are a
result of the much of science and 1999, a crime
prevention officer in and Somerset pOlice in the UK claimed that the of the
zodiac under which a person was born indicates how their car is to be This
 ''''~Tlnin'' and answers; 169

QrO.9 The in is
of a borehole core which transects a
between two units

8.1 9.1
11.421, 11.541, 12.1
13.430
Use the COlncEtDt of mc,vlna averages to

was based on the records of 8698 who had their car stolen in the area from
1998 to March 1999. The number data were

May 21-Jun 21 Apr 21-May 20 Jun 22-JuI23 Jul24-Aug 23 Mar 21-Apr 20 Feb 20-Mar 20
Gemini 811 Taurus 794 Cancer 785 Leo 756 7S4 Pisces 730
Aug 24-Sep 23
719

in the car, whereas "';'HYiTt,~r"m'" dream car and then that it is secure.
do you think? [s the ad()ption model based on the data
alone?
170

a structural domain
14
0.45

0.40
E
t:il
,S
lilc.
035
'"c
o:!
<ll
E

0,30 -0- 9 values .,0" 10 values

-<if- 11 values --x, 12 values
--0- 13 values .,+,. 14values
0.25 + - - - - - - ! - - - - - I - - - - - I - - - - 4 - - - - - - - - - 1
6.50 7.50 8.50 9.50 10.50 11.50 12,50
location along borehole core, m

11 m, the mean value m;

11 m, the mean value reduces to about 0.26 m. As a we can
that there is some in the data at about the

6 Davis J. c. (1973) Statistics and Data ill New York,

 and answers: .",.,t,.,.,,,,v and intlnnnnt'Ypr,,,,iirv 171

structural it should be utilized where Io-',.",,,nn<=, and is the basis

of the next

Q JO. J0 The lI:ut'lli"".rt of ae'ostatisti~:s deals with

space, and so and
aUlCImritativ'2N studied.
as

y -p +
is the statistic for
distance h
is the rock arjDa'~rlrv
is the value at laeation J[ + h.
can be constructed of versus h
the variation in rock of
distance between

Case 0)

Ii h Ii h

In the there are four

ogram curves for 0 rock mass. In each case, the liIuuu'n
r""I'IIrd'!'lI:",",ntll: 50 m.
or

'::P'TI' ..''''Irll''''r''I", statistic y

the form

will increase
amount over
h distances.
~HL';;.A"U,'u.,- of y increases is thus
an indication of the in the rock mass.

7 Borehole information ,pnrc";"'n information from within the rock mass; we

have to m,p',nc"" bOT'ph"i...,; to estimate the between them.
172 4ni"n,tr".nv and

~ .. ~",.~ .. statistic is obtained for different dir-

can also be
studied.

across the site.

model assumed in conventional statistics.
There is some basic variation with
at h 0). Correlation then
distance.
less than the
h, for which there
there is some correlation between the values:
of correlation. The correlation as h
increases.
Case (iv): Similar to Case but the of
better ... "'LL"'U....V.

Case (0: not at all; Case about 25 m; Case about 10 m; Case

(iv): about 25 m.
The co.,,,,,,, .. "" from known locations

data: it is a tool

1
In terms of the DIANE nature of real rock masses, almost all rock
masses are fractured and hence Discontinuous. The fractures are critical
because mechanical failure occurs the presence of a
such as reactivation of movement on a
or the influence of water in the fractures.

unless there is some evidence that the u<::~ ..::'"

for the rock
Additional 173
 1/

11

is

is

Table 11.1 measured in a site programme

In situ stress Intact rock Fractures Rock mass

and Deformation, Geometrical
directions of the and occurrence and How
three failure mechanical failure the intact rock
stresses mass
176

and information will be

this

a dir-
it is a direct test. On the other
an index value which is used
via a correlation the

is a '-''-''''"''<11.-'''''
or not there is any bias in the values. To make decisions about
of test to use, one has to recall the rock are
and the resources and hence whether direct
or a mix of the two are best suited to the project in

we
and how some of the are
is the first where we link the rock mechanics with

is

11 answers:
Q J J. J The section of site borehole core shown in the
Dtllot,DorOIDh on the next page is from a vertical borehole and con-
tains three stress-induced fractures. The of the core is a stress
fracture of the same kind. The bottom end is a break. As-
that the of translucent
written on the core in the Direction of
is on the northern side of
the core, in which horizontal dir-
ections do you think the and
minor stresses act?

A II. I The three

and the
East West
tion are
rr",r<>ntr",t'"rl at

Maximum
stress j to b/h axis

I Haimson B. (1997) Borehole Breakouts and Core

Situ Stress in Holes, in Pmc. Rock Stress r""r,,,,'nrl'
eds). Balkema, Rotterdam, pp.
 VIJ'eS)'IOrlS and answers: 177

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15 the relation be-

tween core thickness

2 Bankwitz P. and Bankwitz E. (1995) Ff2.ctO."f,mhic Features on Joints of KTB Drill

Cores (Bavaria, as a Tool in Fracture Mech-
anics and Stress Publication No. 92,
pp.39-58.
178

r.2 With r9If9r'9111~9 to .......,.............................rttv measurements made

a site
on borehole
- on the borehole
- on rock exposures.
COI'llllftlrlll""t .... the of how well you

measurements cover a wide

intact rock and

Core B/H wall

G G

p
 and answers: 179

some of the measurements are more

of site than another.
p

Q r 1.3 The results of a series of scanline surveys at a site

are as follows:
000 355 085 153 216 271
90 35 28 51 05 12
Fracture 5.54 7.93 6.02 7.00 6.99 7.65

of intersected the scanlines has

shown that the mass contains
tions 1 1 021 and
What is the best estimate of the Il"tl~g"ltn1ll;Y
set?

AI'.3 For the situation when we know fracture

= All cos I cos (1,41

where e, I is the between the normal to Set 1 and the direction in
which we are and the other defined.
If we write out this the results
in matrix we obtain

I cosBll1 , cos I cos

I cos I cos I cos
or A=Ul

Icos (161 I I cos I cos

for the case when the vector A is known the scanline
the fracture set
for l.
has more rows than
best estimate for l is
. A).
In order we determine the
between the individual and the normals to the fracture sets.
can either be vector or measured
former method leads to the
180

Set 1 Set2 Set 3 Set4

1 8.0 88.0 69.0
Scanline 2 48.2 41.5 125.1
3 66.2 105.2 131.0
4 46.9 126.8 53.4 87.7
Scanline 5 87.6 111.7 17.3 51.9
6 73.4 57.3 68.0 9.8

and from this we obtain matrix of I cos

0.035
0.749 0.576
0.384 0.262
0.599 0.597
0.370 0.955
0.540 0.375
Asa of the fracture sets are to
1
-I
138 1.268 1.283
1.498 1.454
x
1.454 1.867
108 1.222 1.374
of
orientation in a rock mass, as
treiqUl~nCles have

a mass was found 10

direction and as

In order 10 establish in which directions the rock mass an

excavation will encounter the minimal and maximal numbers of
lI"II"IlIClI"lJlII"I!l);!L the fracture the
",1
Dr~eSE!nted
below on D hemi-
cOlrresD~Dn4c1inia to the frac-
trll!!!DlJlel1ll!V values in the diHerent directions.
tx,Ualln from first the directions of the minimal and
maximal do.
 and answers: 181

Direction of
maximal

Extreme values
o Local minimum
lit Global minimum:3.36
<> Local maximum
Global maximum:8.86

Contour values
8.00
TOO
6.00
5.00
4.00

Set normals
+ with set number

Direction of
minimal

AJJ.4 Minimal value. In minimum fracture

the intersection of
is because no fractures from the relevant
such a

follows:
Sets 1 and 2 Sets 1 and 3 Sets 1 and 4 Sets 2 and 3 Sets 2 and 4 Sets 3 and 4
058/00 174/07 064/71
5.42 m- 1 5.68 m- 1 6.65 m- I 3.44 m- I 3.36m l 3.38 m- I

The minimum is in the of the intersection of

Sets 2 and 4, and has a of 3.36 . Notice that mInIma in
the of the intersections of Sets 2 and 3, Sets 2 and 4, and Sets 3
and 4 are all similar in This is because the directions of these
intersections are all similar.
Maximal value.
182

the vector-like nature of fracture

the

set

a f3 all nx nz
145 08 325 82 -0.080 0.114 -0.990
148 88 328 02 0.848 -0.035
021 76 201 14 -0.348 -0.906 -0.242
087 69 267 21 -0.932 -0.358

to convert

Candidate s] Resultant

1 1 1 1 1 -6.633 0.308 -5.617 8.697

2 1 1 1 -1 -0.554 0.627 -3.280 3.385
3 1 1 -1 1 -4.143 6.794 -3.885 8.855
4 1 1 -1 -1 1.936 7.113 -1.548 7.532
5 1 -1 1 1 -2.491 -6.319 -5.344 8.643
6 1 1 -1 3.587 -6.001 -3.007 7.611
7 1 -1 -1 1 -0.002 0.167 -3.612 3,616
8 1 -1 -1 6.077 0.485 -1.275 6.228

The Cartesian of candidate are found

each resultant in the table above to a of
 \"iUfeSl'lorlS and answers: 183

these Cartesian are used in the usual

formula of

Ai I cos (11;) I

in the direction
of the resultant

Candidate my m, A!lCOS(I9 I ) 1A2Icos(h) 1A31cos 1;\.41 COS (194 ) 1A" rn-I Resultant
1 -0.763 0.035 -0.646 2.452 1.785 1.394 3.067 8.697 8.697
2 -0.164 0.185 -0.969 3.458 1.085 0.442 1.600 6.585 3.385
3 -0.468 0.767 -0.439 1.946 3.571 1.526 1.812 8.855 8.855
4 0.257 0.944 -0.206 1.012 2.625 3.204 0.691 7.532 7.532
5 -0.288 -0.731 -0.618 1.921 1.742 3.265 1.715 8.643 8.643
6 0.471 -0.788 -0.395 0.918 3.535 2.312 0.845 7.611 7.611
7 0.000 0.046 -0.999 3.461 0.290 0.716 1.161 5.628 3.616
8 0.976 0.078 -0.205 0.465 1.734 1.290 2.739 6.228 6.228

This shows that candidates 2 and 7 do not

their orientations are
329/26,
maximum is at
This answer illustrates an

to the extreme
strain and

QJl.S When defor-mabil-

Local unloading modulus
tests are conducted on rock (j)

masses, the force-dis- ~

Local reloading modulus
LL

manifests dif-
and reload-
....u ...... _ ne'rlTlnIU!!I!1t defor-

J Schneider 13. (1967) Nouveaux de Reconnaissance des Massifs Rocheux.

10 Allllales de nllsl. Tech. Baliment et des Travaux Publics, 20, 235-236, 1055-1093
iIIuslrdl~d in Goodman R. E. (1989) introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd edn., John
and Sons, New York,
184

behaviour of a rock mass is dominated the

the from the intact
value.
tenth that of the intact
of the tor'ce-dlisolac:en1.eIlt curve above are caused
fractures. have a n"n_I'n~'"
behaviour as the
the

QU.6 The
to ensure that
structural elements of a pe'cle!stl~ian brldin~

in
Mean value Standard deviation

Dired tension test 8.4 3.2

Point load test 9.6 3.8
Beam test 10.4 4.5
test 12.9 6.7
with what you know about
would you use for the ""nu""r ... l'"u

AU.6 We
npl'"Wf'pn tests.

,hi,,,,..t,,,,-t to the

We note that the UALA""""

IOll"''':O characteristics.

Direct tension test. whole test

stress and there is no tensile stress "U'~"""'

of the
is
stress
Beam test. It is of the beam
the where there
is a
 lJlJieS!"OflS and answers; 185

IO'lllflna table shows data obtained from a Sll1lale-!;taae

at zero pore pressure.

Total axial load

0.00 100.84 50.20

19.89 100.80 50.20
39.60 100.77 50.20
63.40 100.74 50.20
88.67 100.71 50.21
116.18 100.68 50.21
144.68 100.65 50.22
162.38 100.63 50.22
185.23 100.58 50.24
190.62 100.56 50.25
191.99 100.54 50.25
180.22 100.52 50.26
137.56 100.49 50.26
115.79 100.46 50.27
101.93 100.43 50.28
97.97 100.40 50.28
96.98 100.37 50.28

Estimate values for the

ar ;
axial and

A J J.7 From the test data we the axial stress, axial

strain and diametral strain in order to axial stress-axial strain
strain curves and to estimate the
The stress and strain values are in
that the axial strain values are the
but the diametral strain
186
120,0 -1.8

-1.6
100,0
-1.4 c:
g
ao.o
'"
Il.
::!:
-1.2
t
gi 1,0 ,~
.,
l! 60,0
.(),a
'iii
Ii!
~
'" 40,0 -0,6
~
'"
i5
-0.4
20.0
-{),2

0,0 0,0

Dlamelral
strain
0,00 0,000 0.000
10,05 0.397
20m 0,694
32,03 0,992 -0.100
44,79 -0,159
58.67 -0.239
n05 1.884 -0.319
81.97 2,083 -0,438
93,45 2.578
%,13 2.777 -0,916
%,80 2.975 -1,056
90.85 3,173 -Ll55
69.32 3,471 -1.295
value is 58,34 3,768 -1.414
51.34 4,066
49.34 4.363 -1.653
13.9 = 5000GP . 48,84 -1.653
0.278 . a

ation.
ratio Vtan at 50% axial
'-V."'~/UI,"U.
from the diametral and axial strain values
above and below 50% of the axial stress, It is
0.159 - 0,100 = 0.059 == 0.2L
1.171 0.893 0.278
QIl.S the introduction of servcll_l~on'rroned
1970s revolutionized rock mechanics
we are now able to test rocks under
conditions.

All.S The
feedback some experinrtelrtta
 ... ",tin" .. and answers: 187

control

Closed loop

desired value:
time. This

of curve in order to
exhibit

4 Fairhurst C. E. and Hudson J. A. (1999) Draft ISRM 5ug;ges,ted method for the
corrlnl"',, stress-strain curve for intact rock in uniaxial 1111. f. Rock Mech.
36, 279-289.
188

or a machine with
''''W~~''Mto uncontrolled failure - and so

QII.9 below rel~reser1f

fracture in slate. shear range was

mm as shown in the table below. The normal stress the test
was 0.34 MPa.
Shear dilS.pI4:Jce,miltnl 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Shear stress 0 281 344 344 328 281 281 297
Shear dis;ph:Jcelm4tnt 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Shear stress 281 281 266 266 266 281 281 281
8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5
297 297 297 313 313 313 313 313
Shear dil!;pI4:Jcelmiltnt 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0
Shear stress 313 313 313 313 313 313 313
Use these to determine the residual shear of the
fracture.
A series of direct shear tests was undertaken at
normal stress on from the and the
shear stress encountered as shown
in the table Denn".
Normal stress 336 648 961 1273 1586
Peak shear stress 344 516 719 953 1156
results to determine the basic Trl4Mrltl.n 0 ... 0 .... _

the Also comment on

rOJrimlotiion for the
 IP<:lfIlUl<: and answers: 189

such values from test results - which is sometimes and

sometimes to

Schematic cross-section
of the direct shear test

There is a well-

as that reached at
if the fracture has failed at
the

more than 8 mm is sufficient to cause

it is of no value to know what the
values.
400

350

If 300
r'\
-'" I
~
:i 250
~
~ 200
<Il
<ll
fii 150

100

50

o
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
shear displacement, mm

the normal stress and shear stress values a

failure and the values lie close to a line, as shown below.
The basic friction is the 33.4.
190

The asperity

to the failure locus that the initial

emanates from the origin. However, there is no way
where this initial intersects the measured failure
locus we assumed it to be where the locus intersects the normal
stress used in the first test. The dashed extension of the measured failure
locus is fictitious, and is sometimes used to determine an
cohesion'. To the i, we take the
the initial of the <p + i, which has a value
subtract from it the basic friction to an
44 - 33.4 10.6.
All five of the test results lie close to a and hence indicate
that bi-Iinear behaviour would occur at a normal stress value lower
than smallest one used here. We have assumed that the initial
of the bi-linear extends between the and the
test this on the basis of the

o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

normal stress, kPa

the elastic
of distinct rock blocks
excavated. The shows the

rnl"""lrtill"C:; that you think would be

to such a mlul.'!'111
 Questions and answers: 191

of these are to be nll",nr1~i"f'lhllv measure-

able.

and directions of the in situ

. and ratio of the intact
.

interest. The

measure or "'".<u ..,.....o,

shear stiffness and
much more difficult.
Thus we see that a
the

mechanisms
in detail. is better to use numerical
the overall rock mass rather than
" .... "''-J,U'- values at in the rock mass.
192

11

who takes an
measurement site. He is
the normal rock stress
measured the

giving the
The client asks
You that

six six normal stresses

can be to the three normal stresses and three shear stresses
of the rock stress matrix. OWUU.'t:l
it would be better and more to measure the three normal stresses
rather than .u.... ,,"',.....
idea no
to measure a stress directly.
to have on how to estab-
for Rock Mech-
1

to be commensurate with the

For if we

as shown in
On the basis of this all rock masses must then be one
B2. We could call this a Rock Index
'Good' to AI, 'Fair' to A2 and and 'Poor' to B2. But what is the
purpose this the Rock Index would indicate
the If so,

mass

" decide on the

Table 12.1 Illustrative rock mass classification scheme

Uniaxial cnrnnr'"""ivp
Fracture
194 Rock mass r/n' .... ;'tirtlt;..1n

1 answers:
Rock mass classification schemes are
but it is to them in the of
as

are
and have an orientation of 1

I Vervoort A. and de Wit K. (1997) Use of rock mass classifications for In/. f.
Rack Mech. Min. Sci., 34, 5, 859-864.
2 To answer Q12.1-12.5, it is np("p"-~,,rv to use the RMR and Q rock mass classification
tables in 3 of this book. of these tables is in
Bieniawski (1989) Rack Mass Wiley, New 251pp.
 Questions and answers: rock mass dn'....i,fir-cltil'ln 195

third set is also the

and
of the

Use the RMR to ~1~1!!:.!!:.itv this rock mass, and assess the
!!:.t~lhillitv
of a 10m wide excavation driven from east to west.

A12.1 In order to

set in tum, and hence

excavation. Of course,
"tr"'l'H)"th and
rather than to "V~;'-U''-

mass
of the intact aSS;~SSE!d as 55 and so a
the

These with
values for these .:>"",","-H,'''-
1, 3 and 0, An assessment of can be
basis of the in situ stress state at the location of the excavation: a stress
of 5 MPa will mean that the and so a reasonable
value is 5. We have no as there is no
evidence to the "'U"<:,cC"'"'t> we can assume a value of
6. The total value 3+0+5+6 15.
The direction of the
196 moss rln'~~itlirnl~inn

This is considered to result in 'fair'

-5.
50 to

Classification Set 2
We know that this

Overall assessment

stabilization measures
fonn of

Q12.2 A 7-m-diameter tunnel is to be driven a sequence

of shale and basalt rock at a maximum of 61 m. The shales
towards the east, and the basalts form sub-vertical The
between 1501 and the between 7001 and
in the shale are and most of them are thin and
calCllre, but overall the rock is described as and
nrnnru1!_f~t<ll!,r level is about 50 m above the invert of the
tunnel. The average uniaxial of the shale is 53
of the basalt it is 71 MPa. The vertical stress is about 1.0
and the horizontal stress is about 3.4 MPa. The nature of
 ~.II,le!l:lrln'I!l: and answers; rock mass cla:ssi:'iC(JtiCln 197

the tunnel's route means that at some its Ipn,nth It will

In all directions 090 and 180.
Use RMR how

assessments to these values.

is as

Persistence Total
o 5 1 5 4 15
5 5 5 5 4 24
198 Rock mass classification

is
no more than 200 , this is considered to in 'fair' so
for orientation will be -5. Note that if we consider
when the tunnel is south these features will
a of -12.
the fracture assessment and the for the
a value of 15 - 5 = 10, and for the
24 - 12 = 12. This shows that the as we surmised
but there is little between the and

of the shale is 53
is

Groundwater Fracture Condition Total

5 7 10 8 15 45

for orientation into account reduces this

to 40.

data the basalt

are need to turn to our
in order to make an assessment of this rock
we can assume that these will be of limited
no more than 5 m. As the in a run across the
the - rather than to it - this will set a maximum
value of 2. The of these

3+3+6+5
is difficult to assess but,
an effect
the will
arOlmd 15 will be suitable.
order of 0.5 m, and the
the basalt is 71 and the COl:re~;POifid
The basic RMR value for the

Groundwater Fracture condition Total

7 7 15 10 19 58
for orientation into account reduces this
to 53.
We must bear in mind that the as conduits
for flow for a weathered.
 lJIJIP'!<j'IOfl!< and answers: rock mass 199

If there is then another assessment

should be into account.

Overall assessment
The overall RMR values for the two rock are 40 for the shale and
53 for the basalt For a 7-m-diameter we find that the shale
will suffer immediate whereas the basalt will be able to stand
for around 1 week. We can now that the tunnel
some form of shield or tunnel
the installation

use of a 1..1.111<::1'<::1
shotcrete or rockbolts.

Q r 2.3 Use the Q !I:V~:td!>lm to assess the ..:Irllhillitv of the rock mass as
described in Q12.1.

A r 2.3 In order to determine the Q value for a rock mass, we need

values for each of six set
alteration

value is and hence the value is 60.

As are three sets of the value for this

is 9.

as a

two calculations and use both of these

values in tum, it is to use the one that the
most critical fracture set. we should take
account of the continuous and hence
use the value of 1.5.

alteration number
we know that the
is
200 Rock moss clo:ssitifcation

of the
fracture surfaces are
the fact that the rock

the most " ........ ..,.....,,;,,1''''

in mind
value.

water reduction

200 m in a rock with a

will be

of 0.5 to 2.0. An initial assessment can be

but we should be to the effect

mass is now as
1, 60 1.5 1.0
Q = -- x - x -- = - x x - ~ 2.5
1a SRF 9 4.0 1.0
in-

to

60 1.5 1.0 6
- x x ~O.
9 8.0 2.0
which is H;;~~(U'UC'U.
In of these assess-
we now need to of the
excavation, This is the actual size of the excavation scaled to account
for of we in our assessment
 and answers: mass clo'ssific(Jtic,n 201

we have no
and so we take it as
able that show

Poor rock

too,.,H,.,r with
Scm
to 7.5 cm.
The between these schemes would allow us to a
such that the inevitable
construction could
shotcrete thickness

smaller
distances.

Q 12.4 Use the Q svs;telTil to assess the rock mass

dA;O;;~lribAd in 2.2.

AJ2.4

the values determined as

of 50 for the shale

the shale contains three fracture

9, and to assume that the "'V~}1lllc'"
can best be as .four or more
I

.', for which the value is 15.

I V ... " . . . . ." " " number

in the shale is
'''-HC'V''''' be the most
202 Rock moss rln'~"'f,'rnt,,,.,n

is 0.5.

Stress factor
The uniaxial and of
is 71 MPa.

two cases is then

both of them the stress ."'....'U.... '"V.

Q value assessment
The Q value for the shale is now as
Jr 50 1.5 0.5
x
SRF LO """ 5.6
for , and the Q value is
Jr 75 3 0.5
Q -- x x -- = - x x """ 3.8
Ja SRF 15 2 1.0
. We above that for the shale
and
which is on the VV'UH''''-'U

the excavation to be its

reference to charts and tables
uuemlents we find are

Fair rock Untensioned rockb()!ts at 1 m to 1.5 m <!n'''"'''lOC i-n~.otl,o ..

with mesh.
 'I"'i:l~in'l<': and answers: moss rI",,,,,,ifir,..til''''' 203

Poor to a thickness of 2.5 em to 7.5 em, or

roCKO()1tS at 1 m to 1.5 m ... r""'HHY"

rAa,Dtt,,,,,. with
5 cm
to 7.5 cm.
Note how the

these
h",I'lA1~''''n
such that the inevitable variations in rock mass
construction with

your assessments of RMR and Q

2.3 and the relation h"",""'...",,"
RMR values. Do your r ...,.ul1r"" II"jl'llll'l"eS:DO
RMR:::: 9InQ+44?

Al2.S answers we now have

tion:
RMR Q
Excavation in mudstone 44-47 0.6-25
Tunnel in shale 40 1-5.6
Tunnel in basalt 53 3.8

These RMR= 91n are

RMR = 9 In + 44 /'

80
I
I excavation in mudstone /'
/'
0::
60 t
:z
0::
40
/' tunnel in shale
/'
20 /
/'
/'
/'
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100 1000
Q

as we have a
we have a
so a line has been we have a
204 Rock mass rlrll<:<:itlrl..ti(~n

value for both Q and which means a is

shows that the values we have determined in

to the

of the various

The flIU:UlIIrflirn below

correlations for case studies in

+ Indian
80 o !':('~.nrlin"\li", U.S.A.
.UK
60

~
o
o
a::

1000
Rock Mass Quality (Q)

The SU~l:Ia,eS1rea RMR-Q correlation shown on the '",.tu..'' ' ' are
A RMR 91nQ+44
B RMR = 5.91nQ +43
C RMR = 5.41nQ + 55.2
D =
RMR 5InQ+60.8
E RMR = 1 0.5 In Q + 41.8
nr"",,,;o,lI"lI where a correlation between
:OUIIIP'IIr-J the which of the correla-
tions would you choose?

it is evident that the assessments of RMR and

the
at the site and to the pro-
to extract more information
assessment of and Q than to use the
if there are reasons a correlation

3 The information in this from pp. in B. and Goel R K (1999)

Elsevier, Oxford,
 and answers: mass clo!ssi:"Ccltio!n 205

then RMR 910 Q + 44 is the most well known

RMR = 5.910 Q + 43 has the correlation
used and Goel which include 34
how to the

Rock Mass Ouality (0)

RMR and Q values are on the

above. Line A is in A12.5.

QJ2.7 Imtlair.e

that you think would

rnlrn",t",."c most useful for such a
scheme.

AJ2.7 A that was

"'.A,"'i:1V''', 1996 4 ) included the

Folds Faults
Previous Fracture intact Number of Fracture
wall fracture sets orientation
Fracture Fracture Fracture Mechanical Rock mass

In situ stress
conditions orientation dimensions

a standard
extensive n,.,,,,,,,-,.,
conclusions drawn
case of a new classification for a new purpose - in
- this is not
we can inel ude all the

Mazzoccola D. F. and Hudson J. A. (1996). cornm"ph.?nsivp method of rock mass

characterization for natural Geol., 29,37-56.
206 Rock mass classification

made.
the exercise of is worthwhile
because it will indicate the of different sites.
In the case of the the

A rock mass is
the of different rock formations for
domestic gas in caverns the route of a main gas
transmission line. List the rock that you would use in
a rock mass-rock classification scheme for this
live.

con-

variable.
Fracture A, because will affect

Fracture e, the will also affect H::U"U~;C

 and answers: rock mass claSslltlC{Jtlc,n 207

stances,
Minimum 1-'11",-11-'''1 stress value (13 an increase is
of the (1c an increase is

v"'~~,~'''' at cavern pw an increase is

crown level

Stress anisotropv ratio ( 171 UR an increase is bad

Maximal stored gas pressure Pg an increase is bad
Fracture A. an increase is bad
Fracture e an increase is bad

Uc UJ Pw
GCTI X x-

individual can then be ,.,.,,.'0"<'" as

is related to the of the intact rock the cavern;

is related to the resistance to gas L'-Y"'~F>'-, and

is L"'L""~~ to of
Pg
The reader can no nn'1V4>mpnt<: to this initial index,

intention here is of the TlnTIr.nl

new rock mass I..LCl"",.U'-,:HUJL

range:

Sandstone 80 45 0.4
Mudstone 20 75 0.3
Svenlte intrusions 250 10 0.2
208 mass cla~isiticatjan

The fractures within each rock mass have the Or41:'104utiies

shown in the table:

Sondstone none none

Mudstone none
"'6 none none

these three

rock mass compore

behaviour in this way
earlier.
the RMRto

we can each rock

Sandstone
A

SUimnlaru we one rock

another that is weak but .."'v"' .... ne.
with the third somewhere in nPI""">"'"

values associated with the summaries for each

in the ,."'<:."'n~"'rl in the
between parerHneSE~S).
 answers: rock mass CIO!ssitic(lticln 209

Total

Sandstone

Sandstone 8 19 27
Mudstone 3 24 27
12 27
210 mass

15

12

Cl
c:
.~ 9
.c:
'6l
~ 6
W

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ROD rating + discontinuity rating

QJ2. JO The measurements of mean fracture

have been made on core
.,....,tll"'=O<ll.\ 12 boreholes as

0.259 0.304 0.875 0.292 0.467 0.412 0.350 0.368 0.438 0.389 0.280 0.318
As the rock mass is to be characterized the Q the
m.e"9I'S have also been determined: 1
and = 1.
'II'1I"f'~nlJ~1I'11EV measurements to determine RQD values
and thence Q values with the additional
 Questions and answers: rock mass classification 21 1

nhll'llnr'lll'lljl'lll'lnll'itv of the rock mass in terms of

where are the extreme values of the fracture fre-

quency in the rock mass. Use this to
new values of and compare the results with those found in Part

Q we use the relation

and to determine values for
100 (At + 1)exp(-)~t), where A, the fracture
of the mean In this relation

culations are
Borehole 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

0.259 0.304 0.875 0.292 0.467 0.412 0.350 0.368 0.438 0.389 0.280 0.318
1) 3.861 3.289 1.1433.4252.141 2.427 2.857 2.717 2.283 2.571 3.571 3.145
94.2 95.6 99.4 95.3 98.0 97.5 96.6 96.9 97.8 97.2 95.0 96.0
Q 19.6 19.9 20.7 19.9 20.4 20.3 20.1 20.2 20.4 20.3 19.8 20.0

5.00
o ROD threshold=O.1 m frequency

1.00

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
borehole number

from the
that the rock mass is
(for these the
is 3.38), and that this
information is lost when we consider Q values ratio of maximal
Q to minimal Q is not sensitive to in
fracture fracture

On the basis of the site and

maximal values of fracture in the rock mass are
and 3.861 m- I , and we find that the
212 Rock mass classification

value of threshold is
2
t* ----In - - - ,2- - - - In (3.861)
-- O.90m.
3.861 I 143 1.143
The new val ues of and Q - called and to them
from the formulations are as shown in the table.

Borehole 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12
0.259 0.304 0.875 0.292 0.467 0.412 0.350 0.368 0.438 0.389 0.280 0.318
1) 3.861 3.289 1.143 3.425 2.141 2.427 2.857 2.717 2.283 2.571 3.571 3.145
14.0 20.7 72.7 18.9 42.9 36.1 27.5 30.1 39.4 33.0 17.1 22.8
Q* 2.9 4.3 15.1 3.9 8.9 7.5 5.7 6.3 8.2 6.9 3.6 4.8

These results for<An",,.,,,,.. with the results from the earlier calcula-
below. We can see from this that has a
discrimination Q with to the hn~()a~'np,jt" at the
expense of much reduced values.
5.00
LJ ROD Ihreshold=0.1 m II ROD Ihreshold=0.90 m frequency

4.00
b
'"0 'I
C
ro E
3.00 :>.
a ()

15 c(j)
!/) :J
(j) 0-
:J 2.00 ~
~

1.00

0.00
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
borehole number

of the classific-
to Q show tha t
new classification
and as such we cannot use correlations between
Q and behaviour. this technique must be used to
of a classification scheme when the itself
used to delineate different zones of rock and not
for selection of and reinforcement.

1
A substantial extension to the RMR has been made Romana
(1993) 5 with his SMR for The SMR value

classification for
in Vol. 3, eh. 23 (J. /I.. Hudson, cd.), Press,
Oxford, pp. 575-599.
 213

can be written in
RMR +

are that
and continu-

.. continuous
tractors and
and
41

scientific-

the of
'"

R. (1999) Modifications 10 the gee.logical SrT<"""m

and their apl)IIC<lOlmy of Int. J. Rock
1

is reached at 0.5%
Ix ,the rock
, the rock SP,enm!n
strain rate would be
are four orders of
of these 'CA'UAlV>":;:>.
A of strain rates is shown in are the strain rates
per and above the strain rate scale some failure times for the
rock are shown.

Time clp,,)pn,rI.,,nrv

13.1 of strain rates

216 Rock rlvru'llTlif''I; time rlAlnAI1C1E~m::v

direction is zero when no

the sum
rates of

= mass x

stress waves
a

......".,,', ..... E = stress = E =

strain
this which shows that

relation corr~sponlds to a 1OlU!!:ItmlllIlal stress wave of

."".uu;u. stress waves are also "..,t<>r,..rI

waves.

occurs
occurs the strain is
 answers: time rlA," .... '... rI,""'..., 217

answers:

waves.

- - - - - - - - - - .. ~-Impulse

Is 27 time
wave to travel from one end of the core to other.
218

Given that marble has a

wave travels down core is at the

free end as a tensile wave.
Portion of tensile wave sufficient to reach
the tensile of the rock

Piece of
core flies'"
off

Once the absolute

the absolute

What is the ratio in terms of the elastic rock constants

and what is the .,"....''''...,''' .. value of the a rock with
v = 0.27?

Vs and elastic constants mean that rock masses

the values of and

rock ......" ... ,""".... is to be tested in uniaxial com-

machine.
compress-

test in about 10 minutes. What diliDI!acen1el1t

the machine program, and what is the
l't'IIll"lI'''''~II'I,nrl'''ill'll'll rock strain rate?

the rock Sp~eClm:n Qlsp'la(:errlen

 QUlesl'iarlS and answers: rack dvrlanlics and time deJen'del'lcv 219

is
is
ment in 10 minutes
0.00055 or 5.5 x
0.0000055 s-
rate used in nr",rfll'':>
Ql~;pl,aC~m~~nt faster
of 5.5 x
than 60 GPa
down' occurs, and near the
occurs.

The results in the table below show the axial

radial strain induced in a of
a uniaxial creep test. In this test. the was init!inl:l..
250 mm was to an axial stress of 55 MPa. After
3 the test was at creep had ceased and
dl!lpI4::1Ce!m4~nt had constant at 0.4545 mm.
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0.409 0.414 0.419 0.423 0.427 0.430 0.433 0.435

-451 -461 -471 -479 -487 -493 -499 -504

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0.4380.4400.441 0.4430.4440.445 0.4470.447

-509 -513 -516 -519 -522 -524 -526 -528

On the of these ....:Ii,un::Ii. select a ~inf'llnlll!> viscoelastic mC'lul'lle!>. for

the and determine values for the various viscoelastic constants.

axial strain from these

in to visualize the

Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.635 1.656 1.675 1.692 1.707 1.720 1.731 1.742
TIme 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 180
1.751 1.759 1.766 1.772 1.777 1.782 1.786 1.790 1.818

From this we see that the en",.,,,,,,, an immediate elastic

r.ocnr",co when the axial stress that the
we choose must have an
because the viscous creep of
the viscous element must be rr",,"""rt,'f1
220 I"hll"'t"Tljl"~ and time denendlencv

constant strain at time

1.80

"'0 1.75

c: strain increases with lime

'f!
tii 1.70

1.65
....,....-- instantaneous elastic strain

1.60 +---~--~-~--~--~-~............. ,
o 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time, minutes

ina

0'1 {2- + -1+ -1

3 3K

'IPchni,O!,,~ for such constitutive relations are

Fundamentals Rock Mechanics, Ch;ilpiinan
and Goodman R. E. Introduction to
 answers: rlvflnn1il"" and time deioelldE~n(V 221

At t 00 this reduces to

t = ~I {3K +
and so the difference between the strain and the strain de-
at time tis
6.8 at { 1 exp } .

this leads to

In

which is the and shows how we can

the data to and

60 120 180 240 300 360 420

In (6.8) -25.33 -25.45 -25.58 -25.70 -25.83 -25.95 -26.08 -26.20
480 540 600 660 720 780 840 900
In (il8) -26.33 -26.45 -26.58 -26.70 -26.83 -26.95 -27.08 -27.20

lime, seconds
25.0'
() 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

1,3_'
: 0'1
222 nu.... ,. ...... "-,, and time de,oe"dfmlV

and so

K = ---:------

2000 1
1750 ~I
I

500

radial strain. "

500 -450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

aU =0 constitutive for material ~'C\... u,~'C'" to

at {
:3
2
3K + }
and to

from values we obtain = 16.0

On a sketch of the stress-strain curve for rock in

il"ftlTlli",I",tA

uniaxial creep, relaxation and

a line of .oK
deSCf~n:lIn'i!lI sides of the curve, and
of your for rock mass
tinne-deDel'1ldE~nt deformations for a rock
of intact rock and for an abandoned chalk mine excavation
and 1993 2) as shown below.

Smith G. J. and Rosenbaum M. S. (1993) Recent un(1er~~ro\md inv'estigatiolls of

abandoned chalk mine beneath Norwich
 answers: rock CfVlnOITl/(:S time nl"nl"nriil"",rv 223

A' 3.6 is aetlne'a increase in strain at constant

relaxation is at constant strain.
in on

Stress

a
-K stiffness line
k ' - _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.. _ _ _ _.,. Strain

of
surrounding rock
zero,
if the

line.
224 Rock Nv,nn,'I"IU"C: ond time

.. and sudden if soft is

V""~<H~"'''' the - K line is above the

"

stress-strain curve

Loading through soft strata Loading through stiff strata

strala
AI{

Stress Stress

lr'C................................................................ - - - - - 1 1 > Strain -11> Strain

pr4::>g]ressiv'e chalk mass in an

Victorian times. Here there are
The more that
the rock mass will become.
the K value
the

QJ3.7 foiliouiI!!! til!!!!!l:tilno results et

Chunar sandstone from the lower Gondwana .,ftl~rn,n'll.ftn
follollll'in,o data.

3
T. N. Effect of and strain rate on
the sandstc)ne Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 36, 543-549.
 Questions and answers: rock Nv""...YlU'C: time rl ......."",,,rl.onrv 225

Number of Uniaxial COlnDreSisl,",'e

from 0 to 50 MPa
o 99.5
100 90.1
200 77.1
300 71.6
400 67.6
500 65.9
600 65.1

The were
the then tested for their uniaxial t'iI'IIlrr'lr."IR,!I:,!I:,iiVA

aivina the values In the "'l'lln'l'.n,.. n,1I'I

C'I'I" ......,... 'I'I"

Plot these results of and

comment on the trend.

AJ3.7 As

sandstone

o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Number of cycles

is sensitive to

Q r 3.8 How do fractures .....c'n ...,......

to stress waves? What do you think
are the influences of a
load on the

on

4 Giani G. P. (1992) Rock Balkema, Rotterdam,

226 Rock and time rl""n .. ,... rl,'nr'v

number of forward and reverse

to the results

with

contact area increases wi th

contact
the

Direction
extcnsile

to an
strain rate of
normal to the bed-
Assume that all the
strain accumulated in the rock Direction
of flow
mass is concentrated in
the How

ter
doubled?
of wa-
beClc:illna plarles is 1
AJ3.9 the cubic law for water
to the cube of the
of

increase in size from 1 unit to a value 1.26 units

the strain has to be 0.26 which will occur in
1x s 26000 7.2 h.

1 5 on the next page illustrates de-

in two mine rail tunnels
which are located at 430 m fractured

5 from Tan T. J.
revealed from
Vol. 3, Ch. 31,
 Ul.ifesj~iorls and answers: time np.nPlnn."n/"V 227

\
Horizontal fault

it is ... .." ........ "'...1,"'1'11

water. The horizontal .. were in
within 90-150 with an average rate of 5.4
the corner areas near the Do.lIc.m
so grlClauauy
..........," .... form ... Bottom UDneava
some 10(:al:lorIS 40 cm within 131 Serious l ... t",,.,,,1

these in terms of mechanisms

involved.

A' 3. J0 The observa tions are as

concentrations to in
ratio of rock stress to
228

so will not this water

the rock mass

corner areas near the bottom are

Wlvl"'"""'" were
been
observed."
The nnlttn'M was
V'l'U'-LV'" stress is and the
of the tunnels. If the tunnels had been

trans-
stress into the
and the comer at the floor

1
 229

German

Wittke W. (1999)
Rhine/Main Line.
Distributed and www.itasca.com
Panet M. (1993) Un,der:starldirlg Deformations in Tunnels, in COlll/JI'ehensilue
""",YTIrrv (J, A. Hudson, ed.). Vol. 27, pp. 663-690.
1
When a structure to be built on or in a rock mass, it is
to consider individual factors such as the intact
fractures, rock excavation and but also how
these all interact As a means of
to the

consider their we
need to ensure that all the relevant factors and their interactions will be
taken into account.
For it for a
the influence in rock stress on fracture
hence water flow does not need to be and that
and
in the rock mass
is that we should be
and

there are two interactions.

I Hudson J. A. (1992) Rock Theory and Practice. Ellis-Horwood,

Chichester,
2 Hudson J. A. and }iao Y. (2000) of Rock Projects.
Press, London (in
232 Rock "",.r,nrllr" interactions and rock .. nl"flf',,,,,,,",rlnl"f

Interaction
XV

water
stress rr.rn,-.r",,,u... tc
"''''''HUF. fractures. Interaction
2 x 2 interaction matrix can be ex- VX
tended to Factor, Y
or
all the interactions. Because Interaction X Y is not the same
as Interaction it is effect in
each case. For Interaction
factor

flow is not the same as the

will be of

mechanism
an interaction matrix with the :>nnr,r.nr.

included on the
means of

a ... "'''....
lfTl

a technical audit the content of an

be conducted to ensure that
technical audit.

First-level audit
The

Second-level audit
The second is to consider how the
either via the interaction matrix or as

in this

not eXI:eea
excavation overbreak
 Interactions 233

First level audit:

Variables and ,-t",rY'\''''Il'''InQnT<:

Internal operation

Third level audit:

and back 1""'11'"'1,1""'11\/<:.

rock mechanics and rock

234 interactions and rock ",",.u"",,,...,"

,..,""''''~.n~
a disaster. Both the audit and the
must be in that order.
on both the technical

or for
It is
and this can
into account.

blPIClIn with a one-sentence answer

the rock stress can water flow in ..."'."' .. JI ......,,.

Al4.1
and the
the frac-
tures.
on the ~1'",('h11""

or reduced water flow.

are ......'nr.n"

stresses can cause normal and shear fracture QU;plaOerrlen and

ualH~'):.<:: to

Draw an interaction matrix

Water Flow as the terms. Insert the leHers repres-
the six mechanisms in Q14.1 in the
boxes of interaction matrix.

rna trix is shown This is one ,,"y>uTIlnl of a

Questions answers: mechanics interactions rock .. n,n ..'1' ....nnn 235

indicates the mechanism listed in

14.1

Leiters indicate interaction between two

factors

factor

of the interaction
interactions located in different
this would not alter the information

Under what is a matrix will

almost all rock mechanics interadion matrices

Ar4.3 '~h~H'~A terms

are if
Interaction FS were to Intera:.::tion and
Interaction FW were to Interaction and
Interaction SW were to Interaction WS.
Most mechanics interaction
nr,nr,n," factor X on a

is au',"" c.n,..",,.,
in A14.1 and illustrated in

Q r4.4 In order to interadion of rock enaill1el~rina

activities with rock mechanics extend the 3 x 3 inter-
4.2 to a 4 x 4 matrix
term CONSTRUCTION. Write a

introduced
CONSTRUCTION.

4 x 4 interaction matrix is 'one-

in the boxes in

are vv,x.un.::;.
Note that the boxes in the fourth column that
the rock mechanics factors have on
the or the events that occur on site
236 Rock mechanics interactions and rock

Letter indicates the

!J!I[llO'!JU' factor ~...-.--
1.-.---:zr"......J

Letter indicates the

mechanism listed in __--T_ hence
Q14.1 construction

Letters indicate
interaction between
two principal
factors

Row: Effects of construction

on rock meehanics factors

excavation. The boxes the fourth row ....0""'''''0.0,.,

influences construction has on the factors.

Q J4.5 The use of the interaction matrix is

manifold factors. The DlI'lin,r'iDI~1 tl~etftll'!~_
are established first.
the are

interaction 0~r-~lIaac,nc3Iboxes
and hence show that the

3 The correct use of the terms and 'variable' is as follows. The term
refers to the a, band c in an such as ax by the
coefficients the relation The term 'variable' refers to the IIn,"nf'ciliprl
in the

is more <Inlnrr.nri" in some cases.

Questions ond answers; rock mechanics interactions and rock 237

Fr(lClureS io
dine,eol sels

QJ4.6 ol1t-Clnaac,ncu term in the interaction matrix 1I'"""'nll'".",c."nt~c.

two factors. If a mechanism involves
combined interaction is rep res-
interaction matrix. With to
the interaction matrix show the eX an1pl!e 1

way how Construction affects

around an which allows Fractures to open, to
increased Water Flow which then affects Construction.

is shown in the interaction matrix to the

the matrix to
238 Rock mechanics interactions rock .. n,n'r' ....',.'

and hence

Assume that you have been asked to undertake a technical

audit of a rock for a DIANE rock mass, where a
CHILE numerical code has been used to determine the elastic rock
stresses and di~.DlaC4emle around an un,tI""rnrnlllntl excavation. List
h .. ii ..illiv the

A J 4. 7 We recall the of the two acronyms, DIANE and CHILE:

DIANE:
CHILE: Elastic
The sources of error in a DIANE rock with a CHILE numerical
code will be the
influences fractures are not taken into account: the rock
been assumed to be continuous when it is not.
Variations in intact rock with location are not taken into
account, in bedded strata.
Variations of rock in different directions are not taken
into account.
(4) Differences between the
when it is are
not taken into account, nor are tmle-'C1E!O!nclen into
account, such as strain rate,
we can see that the stresses and are not
to be correct. There may well be other such as the influence
of water, which have not been into account and which will lead to
further errors.
The whether such CHILE solutions are of
Do information and un-
available resources and the
for
and Cook (1979) 4
and the associated al-ll,,"U\.a
in those excavations world
stresses have closed the fractures and the rock
and isotrolPic.
the rock stresses are
the strata more disturbed and
more concern about the of a CHILE model.
In in numerical codes should include the necessary
to the essence of the as

J. c. and Cook N. G. W. (1979) Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics. and

3rd edn.,
 answers: rock """,,.,,.,,,n.,,,-: interactions and rock 239

Q r4.8 Assume that the interactions In the matrix ..... ,"' .. ,.........
l....olhi ... h has factors
and have been considered for a speclltlc
and en,aill1e,&ri,na ... "".""'r1l ....""_ Each Interaction has ass~igrled a

4 - critical Interaction.

de-
co-
ordinates. are the sums
In the row and column

ates for __], __ ._. 1 c

C = 1 + 4 + 1 = 6 and
E = 1 + 1 + 2 = i.e.
in Interactive
Cause and
axes.

AJ4.8 are in

E C+E C E
interactive dominance
6 4 10 2
4 5 9 -1
6 9 15 -3
7 5 12 2

the interaction matrix

ture Cause, C

15.
E
240 Rock mechanics interactions and rock

the C + E value. The

dominant of the C = E as is the case
for F C.
The overall conclusion is that we a
structure in which Water Flow has the
Construction dominate the
of the C = E Rock Stress and Water are
the to the left of the C = E
These conclusions values "cc"rrr""" to the
in teractions.

QJ4.9 In il't1l'!'lfll'!loai a rock mass .e11ll1!!:Slitit:Ofllon _~;f@ln

in~:tnhilliiv of natural
1996 me!f@IF!!: were
chosen.

Pl. P2. Folds P3. Faults P4. Rainfall

P5. Freeze P6. Previous P7. Intact rock P8.
and thaw
P9. Number P12. Persistence
of sets
P13. Snclcil'llo P14. Mechanicnl P15. Rock mass P16. nYr:Jr'~IlIUI
conditions
P17. P19. In situ P20. Potential
orientation dimensions stress
The 20th ..nlm",.t"", ... 'Potential in..::tnli'loililiv', was added in a similar
way to the Construction term in 4.4 in order to consider the eHects
of the on nolt@l'!ltio
An interaction matrix was these 20
as the terms. The interactions in the
a value n.ej~or1I"II to the same scheme as

2-medium
4 - critical Interaction.
co-ordinates and values of C + E and C - E as follows.

Pl P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
C 24 34 52 17 21 22 15 9 24 28
E 5 4 3 4 17 42 8 27 13 12
C+E 29 38 55 21 38 64 23 36 37 40
C-E 19 30 49 13 4 -20 7 -18 11 16
Pll P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17 P18 P19 P20
C 27 26 18 9 9 21 21 8 18 0
E 22 19 20 26 40 29 17 19 16 60
C+E 49 45 38 35 49 50 38 27 44 60
C-E 5 7 -2 -17 -31 -8 4 -11 2 -60

5 Mazzoccola D. F. and Hudson J. A. (1996) A method of rock mass

characterization for natural Ceol., 29, 37-56.
VtJI:i'~iflt;'n:!ii and answers; rock rn~'rh!nn,jr" interactions and 241

C-E axes. and hence

DaralmE!lelrs are the most
three are

PARAMETERS
1. Geology
2. Folds
3. Faults
4. Rainfall
5. Freeze and thew

9. Number sets
10. Orientation
11 . Aperture
12. Persistence
13. Spacing
14. Mechanil:al properties
15. Rock mass strength
16. rondilions
1 7. orientation
18. Siopo dimensions
19. I n situ stress
20. Potential instability

cause
most interactive
ues. The three most interactive
C+E
Parameters
the direction

C - E values because C value

CTrt:."t.,r effect on the c""t."rYI

""YTl"t"," are:
meter was introduced
Mass with C - E
C- E Subordinate
will to the of the main uU'F,"""''''
242 Rock mechanics interactions and rock "'n,..... "'''''''',..n .... ,,,,cot,,,,.,..,,,

or eliminate
_iifi",.nf ...
mechanisms in the

can occur.
Questions and answers: rock mechanics interactions and rock 243

Waterllow..
starts '0 slide through a fracture

Rock block. as the block

surfaces tend to inhibit there
If, on the the block movement tends
and reduce the interface there is
block will accelerate.
Failure around an excavation. Assume that the stresses armmd an ex-
cavation are rock failure. If the rock failure causes a reduction
in the stress concentrations and the energy released is absorbed in the
rock failure then there is feedback and the is
the failure causes an increase in the
stress concentration and not all the released is absorbed in the
rock failure feedback which could lead to a
rockburst.
a fracture
over a sediment in the fracture
the water flow. This is an feedback.
action of the water could erode the
to flow the fracture. This is an

even further ....

Most rock mechanics mechanisms are of the
with feedback or a small
were not, the actions of rock
any of work would
The art in
feedbacks
244 rn~!t'f1,nn,it"<: interactions ond rock ......... i.-...."".-.", ... '''''" ..''''''

appn)plrialte to other circumstances

i.e. the interaction between two

all interactions are and
interactions are not

The used for this IK1:um~ut'

(1998) ",.,'u""" ...
3,319-335.
7 Hudson J. A. (1999) lecture: technical ",u~uml!'i of rock mechanics mo.c1plI",o
and rock in Pmc. 37th US Rock held at Vail,
1999 (8. Balkema, Rotterdam,
pp.3-12.
 245

(4) The TA known criteria and the

current is an based on

must
carry

numerical
variables and interactions and then winnow out
as relevant to the in hand is
and the for the
 i I

needs
created and
the rock itself is
248 Excavation nr,nr"n"'"

Civil Mining Petroleum

suited to different circumstances.

methods have been such as the
consists of a tunnel. In a similar way, there
can be in the and orientation of

Excavated
% - fragment size
(% below distri bution
Pre-existing, natural
size on
x-axis) block size distribution

1000
15.2 The process of rock excavation the natural, rock block
size distribution to the excavated size distribution.
 Rock excavation 249

in
r l ".. "tn,rl

to create the new fracture

for stress waves and heat.
Rock can be

15.3 (iI) Blasted rock at machine.

250 Excavation DnnCI'DIt~S

1 answers:

uniDlII[IDIl:Omr.r~'!!l!!ljiv1l'! !!lU'1I'!r1IDth is reached at

0.1 % strain and 200 MPa stress. When the curve reaches 0.2%
the rock microstructure has been and all that remains are
small crushed mineral
Calculate the energy un- Stress !
200
MPa

to be illuminated to use up the 0 0.1 0.2

same amount of
What is the energy of the i.e. the energy
unit volume to the rock?

stress-strain curve is
of the stress at and the strain at
the same area as the dashed square.
curve is the

C"LJCLI.U the same amount

 Questions and answers: excavation 251

hill'''':'';,'''''' in a quarry, it was that 48.5

rlll'l::IUllrl'!'O to break 125 of marble. Given that
nitlrn't~_.'u~1 oil with an
energy
nr'9nlt~r or less than the

AU.2 The amount of used is 48.5 x 3.92

rock removed is 125
1.52 which is about 8 times
I

value obtained in AlS.l.

The difference in calculated in A15.l and in this
from the In

i.e.
tY',rnr,I<>lt'" stress-strain curve. For
and much of this <>n,pro'"

A 5-m-diameter tunnel is
.u_ .... "Atunnelh... r ."n
and a thrust.
Yor'OUl1ll'
Calculate the !l'.rif~ri'ir the rock in the
circumstances
For the case where the T8M has four 500 V electrical motors
.....,. .Vl' ... .,...... the to drive the head. Each motor
uses lOA when and 11 0 A when the head is
Ne~gl'ecl the thrust for this case and take the .............,...

For the same information in but with an ad-

ditional continuous thrust of 2.7 MN and an increased u ...,....,""
rate of 3.6

energy here to this

to the testing regime with the same rock
in energy is not an intrinsic
252 Excavation ......i.',.. ....' I ...,

Does the work associated with the thrust contribute to

energy ....'''' .. ,........

a I-m tunnel advance

s. The amount of used
over I-m advance is number of motors x
4 x 500 x 100 x 1200 W s 2.4 x W s. Since 1
pn,;>ro''(! used over the I-m advance is

surface.

machine?
 answers: excavation orincj'olE!S 253

is a and so it is va,~u~.~ that this will be a medium

rock.
machine: 10.33 . More
rock with a TBM than with

"""'0"'" of fracture
on>r,,,,,,' should be

QIS.S
continuous new fracture
become the final rock ""UIUUI.;;o,,. billstiina removes the
rock up to the IlIr4~-!;1lI111T

will indeed create a

that
have been has been created
then bulk has removed the rock up to the
as indicated in the sketch above. the Dhof,ar'allllhs
side the which

" ..""c ........." have aHected the

where one or more of the necessary Tnl''lfft'~;o::

above has not been controlled.
254 Excavation
 ULleSlrlorlS and answers: excavation DrlnCI'D'E~S 255

ize borehole interactions.

outcome.
Photo 3 illustrates an "r,'<>r,t"lhl face. The boreholes are

VA"~"'IJH'.UA"F.
is to reduce
and this will have been

Q J 5.6 In order to be able to estimate the energy for

hence the diHerent amounts of eXJDIC'Slve
Index has been pr,opos'ed
DII"1BD9rili9!. The 8. is shown in

405pp. The authors mention that "in

exe,losive is used in such a way as to the of the
"the final contour
rock nrai'tic''']
final statement is, ,,~.~,
jA., .. py""",.,>r;,!-ion but it describes
168 in Jimeno C. Jimeno L. and Carcedo F. J. A (1995)
Balkema, Rotterdam, (The in the also comes from
256 Excavation n,.,nrlnl~~

the table aeIOl. with the various related to the !!ID.9l1:11I1lI: rock
mass

10
...... '" .... I) .. " 11 " .. '" 1'1 ., ... " " ... 20
50

10
. . . . . . . . 20
50
Joint Plane Orientation
Horizontal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
out of face. . . . ... 20
normal to face. . . 30
into face .... 40
iljp4!Cltac c.:......v;t.. Influence
5G'= where 5G is in t ..............
Hardness
H= hnl"dlrt<9~=Aon scale 1-10

The value of the ~"-'''';'';'''''Index is as

8' :::::: .... w' _ +JPO+SGI+

shale

value in terms of cubic metres of

Because SGI value is 10 and we
the SG is 2.4 the SPE~CltIC ",.,aTO",

value is much lower than the 12.2

in and A1S.2 and discussed in
nn,<::pnt~C1
intact rock (a soft
the rock moss is
The al1:c'anta'Ze
a
excavation in a
process, and so some
 l.IuleSl'IOflS and answers; excavation OfIl1CI[1/e.'i: 257

method. The I1ISI1I1v,ant,aQ'e

have an increased number of cat:egl~nles

20 to 50 for both
The Hardness does not seem to have a
that this is the used to nO:J)n:selu

is a Oal"amf~tf!!'r \llirBIIIl"1UnO
the summation over the I
are evaluated the rock mass under ~ftln!ilif'l"'rftltift,n_
the value of mare the rock is to blast. The twelve
used in the 8D index are:

6. hardness of rock

7. f'lA,tnlrrn
8.

9. in situ block sizes .----

10. of rock mass Itra.:'lal
11. of rock mass
of field: lab P-wave v"'lftor'iti'~!iI_

(c(J'he.siC)n. c:, MPa and fridion

a table of these twelve
headinelS Intact Rock Fradure and Rock Mass
PII"<l'Ilo""II'1I1""'II:_ and then comment on how well the rock mass has been
characterized.

4 Latham J.-P. and Lu De',elc,orr,ent of an assessment system for the

of rock masses. Int.
Ul""''''JlIl':Y Sci., 36, 41-55,
258 Excavation

AIS.7 The table is as follows.

measurements of
 UUleSl'/orIS and answers: excavation 259

Q J S.B In relation to rock tunnel machines two pro-

gress rates can defined:
rate, C: the rate at which a tunnel is constructed when the
L"1J'ff'lrUlI
mtJ/:f.in& is
fU'Uu~'Unft and
Advance rate, A: the rate at which a tunnel is constructed.
These two rates are not the same because the TBM is not continu-
which is the amount
i.e.

there can be a
as indicated in the tlUlIftll"ftl!11

rata, C mlhr Advance rate, A

scale) m/hr (log scale)
~~~----~~~~~--~~--~~~~~~10
10

,1 ~~~~~ ......... ___ .~__~~~~~ __~~~~~~~~~'2".1

1 hr day 1 wk 1 mth 1 yr

The terms 'Excellent' thl'oUlfth refer to the rates,

and Barton noted that the of TBM tunnels between the
'Good' and 'Poor' lines. Give at least five reasons such lines
occur, i.e. the value of U decreases with time.

AIS.B Five reasons are as follows.

The machine for scheduled

machine to to
take

Barton (1999) at
on Rock Mechanics in Paris, and
is included in the article Barton N. (1999) TBM Performance Estimation in Using
QTBM. Tunnels and 1999.30-34.
260 Excavation

Adverse conditions can cause blocks to become un-

stable at and C'lv."rh,rp;:l
the
conditions.
rock machine encounters
will also cause the
is the of
intersected.
(5) events' such as de-
railments strikes by the work force will also to a
of the U and the chance of these
with tunnel

QIS.9 When an excavation is made in a rock mass,

there are three all three of which from New-
ton's 3rd i.e. for every and oppC1Si1'e
reaction. when new the res-
istance of the rock the space becomes zero,
forces cannot be transmitted from the rock into the space, and the
water pressure is reduced to pressure.
Draw a sketch of these three and cause a
so-called Excavation Disturbed Zone 6

AJS.9 The three effects of excavation are illustrated in the

1. There are
factors when an excavation is but
within the context of the three
effects when the of the rock stresses
then conduct more water into the excavation. A
effects and

on the size of the excavation. Other factors

the same, inward rock movement does on the
excavation size: if the size is the
rock movement will also tend to be UUUI.JIlt::U excavations in
the same host rock will have amounts of water inflow....... ,.,... """'r

6 The word 'Disturbed' is --~'~_~"" for the term EDZ because the rock is
indeed disturbed but not nec:ess:arily u.u,,,,,l'O"'''' """"~"horthere is damage or not U<::]--'<::Il<l"
on the .. noin".,r;"" nl,i"cnvp
 ,<>c:t,n,nc and answers: excavation 261

EIIKI I: DlsplaCltmen's and rock 'ailure

Intact rock
squeezed out

Principal stresses
rotaled 10 become
parallel and perpendicular
to an unsupported
exc;avation boundary

Elleel 3: Water 11001

the stress concentrations around the excavation do not on the

excavation size: for caverns a
with of 1 m, m and 100 m
will all have same stresses around them.

QIS.IO Can drill and blast excavation rates be

increased from those achieved?
Can tunnel machine DlI'!np.trflit rates be
increased?
Are new methods of excavation to be introduced?

A1S.10 (a) Drill and blast excavation rates

methods and are to be
because after decades of use the drill blast
nature of the drill

increased
of en-
262 Excavation

ill
advance rates not increase so much because the whole
thrust reaction the
tern, installation of
with the increased n<>n""rr::>

(c) New methods of excavation are not to be introduced in

tice. There has been over the into alternative
methods of HUh"''-' the rock and, whilst many of
and

1
The demands on surface
ness, and the technical and
excavations have led to considerable use
as evidenced by the list below.
aircraft emer-

stations

Radioactive waste and '.U"VV''';U

Rail

wind tunnels

minerals

excavation in the ahead

and mineral resources.
of rock mass. In a
100+ m spans, because
excavation size. In weaker,
of the need to the
with excavation size. caverns to
shallower than 1000 m. The cavern
 Addff~nol 263

from 10-30 m spans in the 50-400 m

in the 400-1000 m
with rock stress the main mechanical
constraint.
In this we have some of the issues
to the excavation of rock. The have tended to be
and in order to illustrate the

highly
techniques utilized. It is also critical to assess the
rock mass and to tailor the excavation to the circumstances
and the For a TBM is and

a combination
all of which are enhanced
1
When an excavation is made in a mass, there be a need
to stabilize the excavation to reduce inward movement of the rock
mass. The amount such movement will on the and
of the host rock mass, and the
U."I-'''.LlU. on the

are
mass. The term rock
loads or
so that the pn'O'1rlPprl excavation retains its
Dn~-cast concrete ""J;UL'"'' and cast in situ concrete
""1nn,nrt methods.
between the two terms. In the case of a thick
the shotcrete acts as a reinforcement in
sense that it inhibits block rotation and ",",~ .. ,>,

act as a structural element

from 1991

is
stabilization' refers to the use of either rn,'~hr\fi

I Wilson D. (1991) R,p,!1/d!m)" Random London,

266 Rock and rock

segments in the UK north landward tunnel of

Channel wagons on temporary tracks (from Wilson,
1991).

the rock excavation retains

to reinforce and

on two
 Questions answers: rock ,.",iinf""i,.r~.,....'''nf and rock .",,.,,.,n,.,. 267

answers:

Q16.1 When rockbolts are for surface or excav-

rock mass, the rockbolts will be sub-
I ......... h ......,n
lCftlmrU'A,lI:lI:iiVf!! forces. The below
of forces on rockbolts a to f.
to ftnAr.~tf!!
at:l'pl,leC:I, rate these rockbolt ur(Jflc,ns in terms

AJ6.J on the rockbolts are

a: tension and shear

tension e: shear

criterion shear force teo

Q J 6.2 A rock block of
lit: to the horizontal.

Z Windsor C. R. (1997) Rock Reinforcement In/. J. Rock Mech Mill, Sci, 34.
919-951.
268 rock

interface.
at which the bolt tension is

What is this such that the

tension in the rock bolt is
minimized?

Rockbolt

W sin ex - T cos f3 cA + (W cos ex + T sin tan

area of the
answer of

0, or - sin t3 + cos t3 tan O.

Q16.3 The ~k"",tth

:.........:: .... to a stcibillizi
interface between with
an of friction

Note that c is the cohesion per unit area, with units of stress.
 J"~'''''''''''' and answers: rock r""lnrr.rr,~m",nr rock 269

The t'ftlm~lnrl"II'I'l of
COlmll:IOrl,Ult or as

cases.
For the situation when W
36, what bolt tension is
each of the cases?
Examine the for of
as the bolt tension varies from 25 kN less to 25 kN more
force Which of
eXlrlrE~SSiiOrlS should we use purposes, when we a
in excess of 1 ?

the interface between the block and the

is
Ntan
F ------"'----"'- = - - -
S
where Nand S are and normal forces across the
interface.
The free

this we obtain
Wsin IjI
N = WcosJjt + TsinfJ
and
S W sin Jjt T cos
If we
to
cos Jjt + T sin tan
W sin Jjt - T cos fJ
270 Rock reinforcement and

If we consider cos fJ to be a n"'CU11"" Lcc.ucaHlU then we

have
N = W cos 1/1 + T sin and S W sin 1/1
to
tan + T cos
W sin 1/1

of 1, these eXI)re:SSl()ns to

factor of over a
in the table below.

87,0 97,0 117.0 127.0 137,0

F'
a' 0.951 0.970 1.010 1.032 1,054
F,: 0.957 0.974 1.009 1.026 1.043

1.06
Negative actuating component
1.04
Positive restraining component
.z:.
~
<f)
1,02
'0
B
u
1.00
ro
LL
0,96

0,96

0,94
60 90 100 110 120 130 140
Bolt tension, kN

those circumstances when we

one, we should use the for a
as this the lower

two rock surfaces shear one

ou,grune~;s means that dilation will tend to take
on either side of the ch"<1 ..i,"
then the will l"IlAl"v,>r in

be ,.... ,,"""" .... in the bolt. This indicates that

elements once some rock
No tensile force exists before
 Questions and answers: rock reinforcement and rock 271

and hence we must use tensioned

of 3, is then

Tli W--------
cosfJ

Q 16.4 A clrc::ulu

an Excavation Zone
the excavated tun-
nel on the basis of a
blast-disturbed zone where there
are loosened blocks which can
the action
n ...",vitv\ which extends 0.75 m
into the rock from the excavation
surface.
What pressure 4 is at the crown to stabilize the
loose blocks of the EDZ that the unit the Y I is
25

above a 1 area of tunnel

25 x (0.75 x I x I) 18.75 kN and
= 18.75 kPa.

Q16.5 If the EDZ in 6.4 is to

rOlckll)olts inserted into the as a

4 Note Ihal the words Ule:,,,U.'" and 'stress' have differenl ",~,cU""F>'" Pr",~q!lI''''
in a fluid, is a scalar and acts
solid (because a solid can sustain a shear stress), is a tensor
components in different directions. Here we use the word
conventional usage for tunnel support - to mean the at
the crown of the tunnel.
272 Rock and rock

what a rea of the roof will

any with this

in which directions and at which locations

bolts?

A16.S

with wire
 and answers: rock reinforcement and rock 273

(c) The calculation refers crown of the tunnel where the

rock is free to fall. The from
crown, because there is from lower bear
in mind the the blocks as discussed in Q and
A 16.2 and 16.3. As a
is a
circular tunnel. For the conditions
assumed in this
bolts are needed in the
is not as a comment as it
may seem: sometimes rockbolts are
installed in the floor to counteract
the of floor heave induced a
of stress and weak
to the left.

Q16.6 A chamber is
to be constructed in a rock mass with
fractures at 25 as shown. This

is
rical construction in two dimensions to
locate zones of nil'lltplntin distress around
the
= 20
to deterioration on
around the excavation.

A16.6 The of the construction is indicated

below.

-. Interface

is

to the excavation
the excavation surface.
This enables the construction below to be used in which the
slip can be identified - as those where
to the excavation surface and the normal
is than the of <pj.

5 Goodman R. E. (1989) Introduction to Rock Mechanics. Wiley, New York, 2nd cd.,
27.4 Rock reinforcement and

case for = 50, the left-hand below shows that

can occur over most of the roof and all the
value of j is reduced to
can occur at any location the tunnel
the extra

QJ6.7 In a paper u ....... u,,..... on fractures in the

rock around a tunnel or

the normal and shear stresses on the fractures.

Coulomb criterion to these stresses enables the I'lIO,t91"1tid~1 zones of
distress around the excavation to be established.
The :zones of distress shown in Daemen's below are for
an stress field and an of friction of = 20.

6Daernen J. J. K. (1983) zones for discontinuities to circular tunnels of

shafts. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Geomech. Abs. 20,
 and answers: rock rE!l,nt~lrCf~mEmt and 275

rlR

Show that the same result the zone of distress at the excavation
.bo!un!dClII'Y can also be obtnilno!!'d the

AJ6.7 The construction shown the indicates

zones at excavation "00''''7'''' ABC and

,,
,
276 Rock reinforcement and rock

DEF. These zones coincide with those determined also

shown in the ~"AhL'HL
The <Pj but indicates the
excavation there is the
To establish the zones of distress within
aooroach is

QI6.B response curve', A and are illustrated

in the ... "", .."""m below. The curves indicate the amount of

Support
Rock
displacement

L -__________~____________________ Rock
displacement

With reference to these curves, explC:un

the in situ condition before excavation cannot be
re-established after 0'11',..... '''... ,........
it is to insist that the rock
should be SUJ,pCllne;CI nc,en"uu,t what-
soever occurs.

AI6.B (a) The stresses of the in situ stress state before excava-
tion will have certain and directions. After excavation and
on the excavation these and directions will have
as indicated in A15.9 and in sketch below.
Before After
excavation excavation
___- - No normal stress
or shear stress at
excavation boundary

Principal
stresses

to the excavation
stresses, which is not
response curve, A or not
the in situ stress field by the of
 .JIIE!~"'ln~ and answers: rock reinforcement and rock "".-.nnrr 277

pressure, it is in
that there is zero radial
as indicated the circle on
sketch below. This could well involve
and would be av,~a.,"

line

Rock dislJlac:emlent

to insist on zero rock

In the case

Q 16.9 A tunnel of radius 1.85 m is excavated in rock

stress field of 20 MPa and ...........,'rII..'rII
concrete of internal radius 1.70 m. elastic behaviour
of the rock and calculate the radial pressure and the radial
di!;plac.errlern at the interface if:
is installed at the face before any DIII:I~emf!nt of the
and
a radial convergence of 1 mm.

characteristic we need to the two end

one is the in situ condition of zero
278 reinforcement and rock ~'''n'nnn

at a radial stress of 20 the other is the elastic

the radial stress is zero. We use the
radial for a

Ur =
2G
a is the radius the

not been
of 2 GPa. This
20 x 1.85
-0.0925 m.
2G 2 x 2000
If we assume that
to then

Pr
where Pr is the radial
the of the

to the concrete
and Vc as 30 GPa and
with a = 1.85 m and
1.85 - 1.70 = 0.15 m, we 2.78 GPa.
20 MPa and U o 0 mm, the
a 1.85
Ur = -Pc
k
+ Uo = -----,-'l.{
2.78 x
+0 0.013 m.

can now be found:

20
'"
Cl..
:::E
i!!::l
III
15
III
!!!
a.
1li 10
'6
2! __ ~~______ operating point:
u:5.5mm. p=8.2MPa
5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
radial displacement. mm

is installed after a radial OlSiplilCemtm

at the tunnel then we
 Questions and answers: rock r.,..,nf'",rr"~',....."nf rock " ....un'" 279

(I'j
20
a..
::2!
e
::I 15
<Il
<Il
2;1
a.
~ 10
"0
el operating point:
..~.~.. ~. u=5.9mm p=7.3MPa
5 + ................... ...
j
~ -~.-,~~~~~~~."

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
radial displacement, mm

1mm displacement of tunnel boundary

an the vertical stress, u ZI to

:5UllJlplllln pressure, p. in terms of the elastic constants of the
sDlrln,a ciliffne,cc. Use to show
for zero hDri~DntDI the ratio of vertical stress to
:5UllJlplllln pressure is (1 -
If the of the described the Hoek-
1 and m = 1 and the
rock are 75 GPa and
cn,... nn ct~iffl"U:u~c is if the is to

Al6.ro ISOtrOpIC material can

written
and
E
v +
that it is
ax = p

and then this in the first leads to

I
(1
280 Rock ..p,i"tnlrrP,lmP,lnt

If we use the usual ge()meCrlanlCS convention of ".,,,,m..,, ..O,,,,,

and then we can

p=
units of stress. Note that the minus
v"';;""""";; from an ",,,,,..,n . .,,

(l - v) E 1
p
I)
+- --
(l + v)
I)

ret:lre~;entea in this

which we see that the ratio of vertical stress to vu::;,,, .u<:: is

(l as

The Hoek-Brown criterion can be written as

here and assum-

0'3 p,
Ul 55
..."'--uu ...uIEJ.... 'b this to to
+ 1656 0
from which we find p
If we <::UI..<1Ll'Ul for the "UllIH~=""'J we can obtain
E
k
(I + I)

and hence substitution k = 11.3 CPa.

To the area of steel
we examine the
relation hpfVJt"pn
force

k or =
 281

From this we find that the area of steel bars

of 0.054 In terms
represE~ntS llO which

1
of rock

Rock

1. Areas of intact rock

2. Areas of
3. Areas of 3. Element
4. Areas of 4. External

A I..JUlvu\.a

Hoek E., Bawden W. F. and Kaiser P. K. (1995) of UnlrierlrrOlmd Excavations in

Hard Rack. Balkema, Rotterdam,
Windsor C. R. Rock Keinto:rceznen Int. T. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 34, 6,
919-951.
9 Villaescusa E., Wmdsor Thclmpson A. G.
282 Rock reinforcement rock

.HU"-<HiU; shear stresses around a

from
the excavation
Roberts, 1977),

of

stress
concentrations on their boundaries. In an
a circular tunnel cross-section reduces the maximal
a factor of 2. In stress
k, stress
cross-section in which

....0'"1'.,,... the and minor

E" Holl R. M" Horsrud P., Raaen A. M. and Risnes R. (1992) Petroleum
Rock Elsevier, Oxford,
II Roberts A. (1977) Press, Oxford,
 Additional 283

In new
excavation is we not that
new methods of stabilization will introduced. Failure of the rock mass
occurs because of the of increased rock stresses, Dn~-exlS;tln
water pressure and water flow, and rock deterioration over
time. It is that stabilization will be made because
the factors and the
of offer direct solutions to the
adverse effects.
 iii

case.

rock mass
movement than there is around an
286 Foundation and mechanisms

17.1 Hoover Dam on the Arizona~Nevada border, USA, and the abutment
rock (lower).
Near-surface 287

excavations
288 Foundation and ",,,<fnt,,lflv mechanisms

the intact material are

which the is rel'erlrea

andISf~rrlana 1998 2) shows six

basic mechanisms which failure can occur beneath a
foundation on a fractured rock mass .rftlrlltOl'llini
the fine
the letter

A17.'
Case a: failure occurs creation of new

Case b: as
Case c: as
area.

I Bromhead E. N, (1992) Blackie Academic, London, 2nd edn.

1 The from Serrano A. C (1998) Ultimate of an
rock mass, Part I. Basic modes of Min,
 and answers: and in<:tnrli/ilv mechanisms 289

Case d: as but with rock between failure intact

rock.
formed by
fracture.
These six mechanisms can be used to criteria for foundation
into account the both the

Q J7.2 Consider eXlren,a

failures
ABC in is restrained in three cases
nUlcofllon of load to the AB:
a horizontal force of n'u.. nl!"lit..lI1i~ T centroid
of the

a pressure distribution
of the face to q at the
290 Foundation and I""rnrllllfv mechanisms

B c

w s
a)

A _\-

eXDrlE!!SJ!;ion for the factor of for

an f!!XI:lIrf!!!!IOiion for T, p or q as

reaction
the are
the and hence we can moment
For the the volume of the
1
=-H--=---
H
2 tan 1{ff 2 tan 1{ff
and the the block is
y
W=yV=---
2 tan
the factor of for this block as

~~---------=

that AC is the Mohr-

by ,..,"no'nl-" of the various forces
and normal to AC we obtain

cos 1{ff + T sin 1{fr) tan

F=------
W sin W sin - T cos 1{ff
There are many ways this relation can be and one of them
is
2cH + tan
F= ----+--~-~------~~~

case of c = 0 and T = 0,
"f.",,",UA'- reduces to the relation for
on a i.e. F = tan I tan
if we examine the case when F = 1, we can
to obtain
T= ~y____~~________~__~__4_c_H_
 ',Ill'''''''')'' and answers: InrI nfl,,,," and 291

dip angle of failure plane, degrees

We can see from the

when the ~ .. ir'.in,..,
failure
conditions,

leads to

becomes

is to the horizontal force T

and so we find that the factor is
tan
F
292 foundation and ISTeJO/,I/TV mechanisms

and the for F

x
where the we'aelle COlmE.ulea from = sin
the f3 as shown below.

For the
entation 1

of
f3 and;.

s = W sin 1/1 and N = W cos

condition s N tan we factor of

N tan</>
S
from we find
W cos 1/1 tan </> tan
W sin 1/1
This means the
can be wri tten as
tan </>
x x
tan 1/1
 Uu'eSflon and answers; tOlrncrofi'on and nSfIOblmV mechanisms 293

from which we see that the three

[3= 101' ./
/

values into the the

sin 10 1 tan 29 0.982 0.554

---x-- 1.48.
sin 36 tan 32 0.588 x 0.625
that the

The calculation here is "nr"'lrnvi

have been measured on the
the factor of
294 instot)ilily mechanisms

be pe]ctoI"IIlE!d the

Determine an upper bound the pressure, P,

lOllnCllarlion shown below cOlrlsistilnR of three rock formed
1 ..""' ..11 ...... sets in the rock mass.

""""".,.---........,..r-----,-- All angles 60

c': 25 kN/m 3
y 24 kN/m3
$'::: 0

in
the forces on the common surface in

block 1 block 2 blockS

each force that acts on the a block is

the two blocks it acts hAI"A"""""

and that
In order to number
of unknowns in the the with an
of 3, moves on to block 2, and finishes at
 and answers: foundation and 295

Block 3
0, directed to the reckoned
cos 60 - cos 30 0,

cos 30 + c Leos 60 - c Leos 60 30 0

and hence

0, directed .... u'''1'',-1c reckoned

sin 60 - sin60 W = 0,
the condition S= this reduces to
sin30 cLsin60-cLsin60- W o
and into this
sin 30 cLsin60 cLsin60 W 0
and the identities sin 30 and

Block 2
0, with forces directed to the reckoned
30 cos 60 cos 30 = 0,
With the condition of S = this reduces to
cos 30 c Leos 60 - c L cos 60 - cos 30 - c L 0
and we obtain

+W

Block 1
directed to reckoned
cos 60 - cos 60 - cos 30 0,
With the S = c L this reduces to
cos 30 + c L cos 60 - c L cos 60 - cos 30 = 0
and hence

0, with forces directed "", .. ,",.,..1,,, reckoned

sin30+ sin 60 + sin 30 + sin60 - W - 0,
296

With the un,,,,,,,,/; condition of S = cL this reduces to

sin 30 + c L sin 60 + sin 30 + c L sin 60 - W - =0

and to

sin30 + 2cL sin 60 - W = O.

and in
10
p = = 5.774c.

For this
into l<=:>:>"'J.<= of
p = 144.3

and L = 6 m we obtain a ,-v"uu/",,,,

P = 866.0

0.05
0.1

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

cohesion, kPa
 and answers; n"T,nn.mv mechanisms 297

A cross-section is shown below. The

is with a unit _A,it'lll,t and the fractures AC
and DE have an at E
the water pressure at that
The the tractu!res
same strike.
A D

y 22

conditions determine the water pres-

sure at and hence the of the
DBC. Take the kinematic Vlsco!,ny and
assume block ABD is stable.

the fracture network in order to determine

the water the BD and Be. The
first is to and of
the channels
below.

A 0

45

Node: A B C D E
Elevation 17.0 17.0 Ian 30 9.815 0.0 17.0 9.815 - 6.5 3.315

Channel: AB BC BD BE
17.0 17.0 tan 30 6.5
19.63 185
298

We then draw up a table of heads:

Node: B C D E
0 0 0
0 17.0 3.315
0 17.0 3.315

and a of channel conductance:

Channel: AB Be BD BE
L 14.37 19.63 7.185 6.5
c 43.76 32.03 87.52 96.75

The fundamental at a node is

and for node B in the network this is

is as

= 9.815 m.
The at

PB Yw Yw o.
!-"~"~~'~L~ is reduced

it
as

F = -===-------
we have for DBC

To this we determine
 answers: fnll'nri'''ffil"l,1'I 299
--_0

o'-~--~"'c

!2 x 17 17 !2 x 17 17 tan 30
=61.07

1343.6 kN
is then
17.0
- - x 10 + (l343.6cos
F = =-=..:::..----::---::-:-:----::---- 1.29.
1343.6 sin 30

Assume the same circumstances in

case when the DBC moved dn'wnihm a limlited om",".. n,t.
re!.ul'tina in a ClOllul:idelral:.le increase in the of DB. ~alculla1re
the factor of of the block DBC.

AJ7.6 In the circumstance that the

mm, far more water will enter at D
as a result the at B will increase towards a
there a variation
then we can

to the water

Po = Yw x = 9.81 x 7.185 70.49

v = 253.2
u I
2' 691.8 kN.

the factor is as
1343.6 cos 30 - 691.8 253.2 sin
F 0.44.
253.2 cos 30 + 1343.6sin30
the
as
300

for a of and the

2.0

1.8

;>. 1.6
~
en 1.4
'0 1.2
(;
t5
l
u..
0.8

0.6

0.4

a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Aperture, mm

of

Q J 7.7 A foundation 6 m x 10m In carries a

vertical load of 180 MN which It transmits to the rock as a
to be with a """,rII,.hole

at the centre,
belowe.

over one

total load of
5m 45MN ......" ... ,,.,,,,,,
distributed

3m

x
 answers: rounajrlflCIn and 301

3) + lu

+ y + -(I

and
R
0, and for this
0.2

180
p -0--=3MPa.
1 x 6
we
P
Il z = + 0.00 - 12.88
4"G
3
- - - - x 10.71 = 7.672 x m
4Jr x 333.33
with the total al~;pl,'tCemE~n then 0.031 m.

is

3) + 1<1

xyz
I" +R-
and R is
For a and
with the <lrl1rtrr.nr.

+ 0.00 - 0.00 +
2"
3
x 0.85 0.41 MPa
2Jr

QlSplalCelnelrH and stress across

",n'''rr..nr,,,,to values
of
302 Foundation and "tn,h,II,h/ mechanisms

rather
4. Plots

C!
'"
~'" .-
U"!

it q
..-
'"'"'"
1il
.~ U"!
'",. '"
':;,

t'lIt"rlnn normal to the surface of a

half space is
2Psin6

Show on a sketch the of this Dr,oblern

the (J and the orientation of the stress
and a,. What are the of a IJ and Tr 9 in this nr,nnl ... I'n
Sketch the locus of constant aT for 6, and show how
eXI!)rE~SSliOn above leads to the of a 'bulb of Un",,."iU

For the case when the line load is not nnrn'It'l1

how the bulb of pressure its nature,
InlUi!:,nUnlll .. 1"' ..... 11.. any zones where tensile radial stresses may be
induced.
 lJu'esrlan and answers: 303

.."",.....'fi ...."t ........,.. this

Iln,,,,,r',,,,L'! rocks?

2P sine
a,
'!fr

we see it is a maximum f) is 90. This maximum must also

occur when the direction of action the radial stress is to
and so we is as

stresses,
of ae is
solution to

for radial stress

2P
r sin f),
'!far

P a r are constant, we can

If we assume that 1,
obtained.
30 45 60 75 90
r 0,000 0,259 0.500 0.707 0.866 0.966 1.000
304 Foundation and mechanisms

0.707.45"

75"
0
1.000,90

The maximal radius for

forces are
not normal to the

line or zero
radial stress

zone or
radial stress

occurs on a fracture if the

the friction to the
fracture orientations on a
of radial stress contours, then we can where the radial
stress is at such an that does
occur, then stress field is UC'CIJ'~L into the
rock mass. This is shown _ ..,,... ___ _
3

3 Goodman R. E. (1989) Introduction to Rock Mechanics. Wiley, Chichester, 2nd edn.,

 \.JU'!:l'SfIUfI and answers: and instat)i/ily mechanisms 305
p

for
material

radial stress
contours
constrained to lie
orientation of within friction
fracture set boundaries

Q r 7.9 The rock blocks shown in the Skl!!!t!:n

used In the of a C;OlmlllUlrel"
res;siv'e failure of rock slope:5, and for this a 1TI111nUIO

..... r .. ..,.wlth A to tClillDle

306 Foundation and insl'ablility mechanisms

about the corner

The shear resistance on all curif'lle,p,c with f/J = 35.
Given that B is twice as as determine the thickness t of
block B. Also show that there is no lIP""''''nor for block A to at the
cornerC.

a
free on the various
force due to the of
of block B is 2W.
There

A must rotate about

us a relation between P and Q and
act: Q = P tan at a distance t above the
Because block A we can write
moments \u~.u,",v,_",

. 0.75
Wsm30 x 1.5 - Wcos30 x 2 - Pt O.
UAl,j; . . .j ; this
I .
P = - W (1.5 sm30 - 0.375 cos
t
We know that block B is and hence tan 35. To de-
termine the forces in this we write down the force
and normal to the for block B:
- 2 W sin 30 - P 0 and - W cos 30 - Q = 0
 \,{u'esrlon and answers: OUlrld()ttcln and InSfOlJIIIlV mechanisms 307

which we obtain

+ 2Wsin + 2Wcos tan35.

P and P tan 35 because is
at the above to

tan 35 + 2W cos tan 35

from which we
sin 30
p
35
can now be to
2W cos 30 tan 35 - sin 30 1
W(1.5sin30 0.375 cos
1 35 t
t:

1.019 m.

we must
The

+P- W sin 30 0 and +Q - W cos 30 =0

and

W sin30 P and = Wcos30

us a relation the at A to

W sin 30 - P
=
Wcos30 Q
As u<:lL<u.:::.because at this can be
to
Wsin30 P
P tan 35 .

the value of P
as

As this value is much lower than the actual friction of , we

can see that will not occur.

the sector and com-

menton any between the numerical solution and the
all'llal'lItilc:al solution.
308 Foundation

lolalload 01
45MN. uniformly
distributed

3m

1 v 11

Uz: = P 2rrG
and ;=1
n

is most
calculate the sector
and then take the minimum
r = min relative to radius
If we examine the f!e()m~~tn the area, we all sectors i I

can written as

area 5m

is as

,,3
e. ri r,de

1 9 5.062 1.590 0.205

2 27 5.612 1.763 0.222
45 4.243 1.333 0.175
4 63 3.367 1.058 0.135
5 81 3.037 0.954 0.118
Total 6.698 0.855
 309

and from these we find that

1- v
Uz = 4x --x 0.0307 m
2n:G
and
p
Uz = 4x x 1.632
results for these

2
vertical stress
vertical displacement

-2

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
number 01 sectors

4 Yoshinaka R. and Kikuchi K. (eds) (1995) Rock FOlmdn/ion. rcc'''''''UJjl!';" of the Interna-
tional on Rock Foundation, Balkema, Rotterdam,
310 "'nlllntintinn and In"mrlllllV mechanisms

5Hoek E. and En"inlle1ing, institution of and

1
must establish the

in
abutment of the finished Hoover Dam. In
of dam constmction is shown as the Alto
Dam was constmcted. The rock
312 of surface excavations

in
mass fractures.
Here involved and any re-
maintenance of the rock mass, both in terms of its overall
and the of rockfalls on to the
 The 313

18.3 Unstable rock masses 22 from India to Tibet.

stress horizontal and VCllHUl'Cl

one of the china

structures
of a cliff is a
location from
view. The rock the castle was
and the shotcrete has since become
and is now in a the rock
to evaluate the
which was the theme
314 of surface excavations

answers:

Given the
answers: excavations 315
316 of excavations

proPos,ed on a rock mass of a

results of a site and
aSlsoc:ia1~eCl Inltiolrnttorv t .....II' ..... programme are shown in the table

Intact rock Fracture

elastic
modulus modulus

o Mc,dd~r&:lltellv
weathered sandstone 61 4.0 18.0
3 SlInhtlv weathered sandstone 98 5.0 20.0
8 Sliohtlv weathered limestone 80 39 115
10 massive limestone 100 40 120
End of hole at 12 m

a
massive limestone is not re-
the modulus for
 answers: excavations 31 7

From these we find that the modulus for rock mass is

11 GPa.

than the in the

rock mass in then we

3
(Om m)= = 1.00GPa
3
3+5
(Om 8 1.76 GPa.

which there is no

of the IV<1'UO;:U

area. A
reduces with
ofa
proportion of applied stress
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 OA 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

'"
.2
~ 2
ill
ttl 3
a
'0
4
aill'"
""
::; 5
E
6
318 excavations

In order to determine
nec:essarv to na ..fnrtn I-'''H",'-<VUU,LUJ;

QJB.2 In a mass a
~"'_
lI'l"I[:.lClI" ..... consider how the
o excavated

the formation the

refraction of stress waves will
to the rock structure - the

QIB.3 A quarry is to be in a rock mass which contains four

fracture sets with directions and as follows:

1 Jimeno C. L., Jimeno E, L. and Caicedo E J. A. (1995) and of Rocks,

Balkema, Rotterdam,
 answers: surface excavations 319

Set 1 2 3 4
6

pre-

re~'DE~ctlve critical
failure mode at each

for both the

is shown below.
320 ." "Tn..'.. excavations

::

friction

the maximum
we use each of the
azimuth values under . . v.""". . "'.
that will avoid
 and answers: excavations 321

mechanisms. These are then

direction Critical Critical mode

000 90 55 55
015 90 57 57
030 90 63 63
045 75 70 70
060 75 65 65
075 90 52 52
090 90 45 45
105 90 38 38
120 90 35 35
135 35 35 35
150 35 38 35
165 35 40 35
180 90 47 47
195 90 57 57
210 90 75 75
225 90 90 90
240 90 90 90
255 90 87 87
270 90 75 75
285 65 68 65
300 65 60 60
315 90 57 57
330 90 53 53
345 90 52 52
All in

Pr4!!D4l1re a table as in 8.3 for case when the

Is not known.

In the case when the friction

such that the kinematic ",::;",,,'..,'UH
This is the same as """""-k'''U-L
to nr,~"~'nf"
322 excavations

The maximum

Critical mode

000 15 10 10
015 15 13 13
030 15 13 13
045 75 12 12
060 75 10 10
075 90 8 8
090 90 10
105 90 11
120 90 12
135 38 20
150 38 35
165 38 28
180 90 24
195 90 22
210 90 20
225 90 20
240 90 22
255 90 23
270 90 15 15
285 65 12 12
300 65 10 10
315 90 9 9
330 90 8 8
345 90 9 9

All

Q J 8.5 Use the results 8.3 to draw a the crest

around the quarry excavation that the floor of the quarry
is circular. Determine the best orientation for a radla' access road
to the quarry floor that the road can be constructed In any
direction and that the orientation is for a road with the
steep,est po:sslllJle side so that excavation associated with

u""" ,,_ as was the case in

Q18.4.

walls of the
distance from the crest
where 1/1 is In
 and answers: surface excavations 323

015 030 045 060 075 090 105 120 135 150 165
~ ~ ~ ro ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
0.70 O.~ 0.51 0.36 0.47 0.78 1.00 1.28 1.43 1.43 1.43 1.43
0.35 0.32 0.25 0.18 0.23 0.39 0.50 0.64 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71
direction 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345
V ~ ~ W W ~ ~ ~ 00 ~ ~ ~
0.93 0.65 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.27 0.47 0.58 0.65 0.75 0.78
0.47 0.32 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.13 0.23 0.29 0.32 0.38 0.39

180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345
0.82 O.~ 0.39 0.18 0.23 0.42 0.63 0.87 1.00 1.04 1.09 1.10

crest

of
access road
324 excavations

The minimal volume of side excavation is the two

whose directions are 0450 and 225, which means that
for road is either 135 or . If we examine
at these we see that
basis it makes sense to use

r"Y\r""~"
for the case when the friction
of this in the
excavation is
whose directions are and 195,
trend for the is either 105 or 285.
at these azimuths have 11

015 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165

10 13 13 12 10 8 10 11 12 20 35 28
5.67 4.33 4.33 4.70 5.67 7.12 5.67 5.14 4.70 2.75 1.43 1.88
2.84 2.17 2.17 2.35 2.84 3.56 2.84 2.57 2.35 1.37 0.71 0.94
direction 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345
24 22 20 20 22 23 15 12 10 9 8 9
2.25 2.48 2.75 2.75 2.48 2.36 3.73 4.70 5.67 6.31 7.12 6.31
1.12 1.24 1.37 1.37 1.24 1.18 1.87 2.35 2.84 3.16 3.56 3.16

180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345
3.96 3.40 3.54 3.73 4.07 4.74 4.92 5.19 4.53 4.27 4.10
vation volume

crest
with line
access road
quarry

We have case of zero

it is not a realistic case, it shows
the increases as the
this is much smaller than
The
 answers: excavations 325

165 180 195

volume lor
0' friction

105

090

075

volume for
045 30' friction

015 345
000

QJ8.6 to to the nnnl'ldl!!l.ill: 8.3.

A J8.6 We use the

!....--11.... + ....- - - - - - - - - 1
 excavations

For each of the azimuth values under

avoid

critical mode

000 90 55
015 90 57
030 90 63
045 90 70
060 90 65
075 90 52
090 90 45
105 90 38
120 55 35
135 90 35
150 90 35
165 90 35
180 90 47
195 90 57
210 90 75
225 40 40
240 40 40
255 90 87
270 90 75
285 90 65
300 90 60
315 80 57
330 80 53
345 80 52

All in

does
the

roadstone quarry
quarry has been
such that overall

da,miinCllnt sets of
mean orientations:
Feature Joint set A Joint set B
75 0

direction 3300
 answers: excavations 327

riA,.i",n rltl""n"'Ac ."',..... " ...... to

AJ8.7 A schematic section the face reveals that the

of the face is as

60"

indicates

at
If we assume that the fractures in rock mass are COjne:Slon and
35, then we can construct two
and

. \

/
328 of '" ..<tn,'.. excavations

direction
000 nonnal to entire face A and Hf individual benches
030 nonnal to entire face A and Hf entire face
060 entire face A and H, entire face
090 A and H, individual benches
120 x x
150 x x
180 x x
210 x
240 x
270 x x
300 x x
330 x x

has not been included in this table as

set and the
intersection of two other from
rock mass,
The below summarizes the
used to
between the various
that almost the entire southwest
that will
 l./lJreSI',or,s and answers; of "''',..,''-.. excavations 329

The first two

nh...rr,.,n~",.,t over a
economic. The
IJU'~;:'lIJ'''=1 and leads to some H"''-~''"''''U

this length of lace

to instability

the overall for the

330 excavations

with a face is cut into a rock mass

set of fradures diFJping into the at an
tr,lIIndl!ltn of the fradures is frictional. Assume
that tan and fj can all be t:OlrlSi.r:lIIIIFllld
variables with
Variable ton
Mean 0.55 50 60
Standard deviation 0.15 5 10
the of the fador of

1~.IIUllC'llO, or values IJ'ln"";U","'III:'Y

..11""111 ..11 .....1'111

JIl'AIr+",1I'1I'n as many trials as you

Mean: 0.55 50" 60"

Standard deviation: 0.15 5 10"
Standard normal randoms Random values Factor of
-0.258 -0.083 -0.103 0.51 48.7 57.4 1.77
-0.514 2.382 2.006 0.47 47.4 54.9 2.17
1.282 -2.004 -0.529 0.74 56.4 72.8 0.91
0.394 1.054 -1.315 0.61 52.0 63.9 1.25
-0.919 -0.360 0.067 0.41 45.4 50.8 3.78
0.547 0.097 -1.085 0.63 52.7 65.S 1.18
-1.381 0.972 -0.283 0.34 43.1 46.2 -27.47
0.926 -0.768 -2.011 0.69 54.6 69.3 1.03
0.283 -1.761 0.903 0.59 51.4 62.8 1.32
0.350 -1.133 1.050 0.60 51.8 63.5 1.28
-0.424 0.731 0.541 0.49 47.9 55.8 2.00
-1.854 -0.516 -2.065 0.27 40.7 41.5 -1.98
0.507 0.784 -0.854 0.63 52.5 65.1 1.20
-0.153 -0.319 1.328 0.53 49.2 58.5 1.65
-0.795 -0.055 -2.569 0.43 46.0 52.1 3.04
-0.611 1.601 0.448 0.46 46.9 53.9 2.39
-1.495 -0.842 0.546 0.33 42.5 45.1 -7.69
2.059 -0.805 -0.276 0.86 60.3 80.6 0.70
0.911 -0.371 -1.502 0.69 54.6 69.1 1.03
0.322 -0.Q18 -0.133 0.60 51.6 63.2 1.29
0.997 0.147 0.340 0.40 45.0 50.0 4.54
1.431 0.167 -1.072 0.76 57.2 74.3 0.87
-0.172 1.903 0.366 0.52 49.1 58.3 1.67
 and answers; of excavations 331

Standard normal randoms Random values

1.084 -0.232 0.60 51.8 635
2.271 0.021 -0.003 0.89 61.4 82.7
0.310 -0.448 0.643 0.60 51.6 63.1
-0.361 0.741 0.414 0.50 48.2 56.4
-1.140 0.665 -0.l93 0.38 44.3 48.6
-0.746 0.269 0.834 0.44 46.3 525
-1.190 0.429 0.60 51.6 63.2 1.29
-0.962 -0.337 -0.306 0.41 45.2 50.4 4.16
0.975 -1.552 1.076 0.70 54.9 69.8 1.01
1.332 0.310 0.75 56.7 73.3 0.89
1.306 -1.412 -1.343 0.75 56.5 73.1 0.90
-1.607 -2.746 0.186 0.31 42.0 43.9 -4.30
-1.312 1.109 0.87 60.7 81.4 0.68
Means: 057 50.5 61.0

Notice that some of This is due to the

combination random of
In Monte Carlo simulation
here we will
The factor of

(11<,rr,",..",n,'" is due to the limited number of

the mean of all of

and

0.25 Tproportion
in category

0.20-'-

0 N "<t <D
V
LL
d d d
V V V
IJ.. LL LL
V V V
0 N "<t
d d

Even if we result in a
is a substantial nr,'n{wt,(ln a factor of less than one.
these results we N(O < F 7,
332 of surface excavations

0.12

i:::' 0.10
0
OJ
<l1
iii
0
0.08

c::
0 0.06
t
0
0..
e
0..
0.04

0.02

0.00
(\J '<t to co q "! '<I: <q 'Xl 0 (\J
~ (0 co 0 (\J '<t (0 co
d d d d C"i C"i C"i C"i
v
Ll..
v
Ll..
v
Ll..
v
Ll..
v
u..
~

v
Ll..
v
Ll..
~

v
Ll..
v
Ll..
(\J
v
Ll..
N
v
Ll..
(\J
v
Ll..
N
v
Ll..
N
v
Ll..
M
v
Ll..
v
Ll..
v
Ll..
v
Ll..
V
Ll..
V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V
0 (\J '<t to co q "! ~ <q 'Xl 0 (\J '<t <:0 co 0 (\J '<t <:0
d d d d d N N N N N C"i C"i C"i C"i

A dam will exert a vertical force of 9400

a horizontal force 4400 on its horizontal t,l"uln,f'intio,n
shown in the below. At a of 6 m below the 'OI.n4'1 ....,...
there is a horizontal the of which is
frictional with q, = 32. The unit

co-ordinate c:vett"'ln
which coincides with
co-ordinate lIIV~:T""'TI
as shown in the the com-
on,!!'"1fS of radial stress due to a
vertical line load P and a hori-
zontal line load Q

(fr(Q)

At what value of x-ordinate is the

stress on the

Priest S. D. and Brown variahle rock

 answers: excavations 333

zero, and will the stress state on the to the left of

this be sustainable? Over what range of x-ordinate values to
the of this will occur on the What
conclusions can be drawn the overall stCilbillitv
dam?

AJ8.9 The

line of action of
inclined force linc of zero
stress

Q 4400
tana = =
P 9400 d
from which we obtain
9400
d 6 x 4400 = 12.8 m
of zero stress

stresses.
a U<::lCUJl<::U that took into account
334 of surface excavations

the and
of the dam to make "'''''"T""n
In order to determine the
of this the is we need to
the stress state induced on the and compare this
we could determine a solution
at the IS III
instructive to determine the conditions
the variation with ~"""., .... ~
is to sketch the a"",,nrn,pr.v

stress transformations:

Mohr's circle:

From this we can see 0"

0', 0',
Un =
2
(1 + cos and r = 2 sin 2a.

A table of can now be below.

-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
16.16 11.66 7,81 6,00 7.81 11,66 16.16 20,88 25,71 30.59
-68.2 -59,0 -39,8 0,0 39,8 59,0 68.2 73,3 76.5 78,7
158,2 149.0 129.8 90,0 50,2 31.0 21.8 16,7 13,5 11.3
137,6 264,0 588,6 997.4 588,6 264,0 137.6 82.4 54.3 38.4
-161.0 -206.0 -229.6 0,0 229,6 206,0 161.0 128.5 105,9 89.8
-23,4 58,0 359,0 997.4 818.2 470,0 298,6 210,8 160.3 128.1
-3,2 15.4 211.9 997.4 482.9 124,4 41.2 17.4 8,7 4,9
8.1 -25,6 -176.6 0,0 402,4 207,3 102.9 58,0 36.4 24,6
128.8 147,4 343.9 1129.4 614,9 256,4 173,2 149,4 140,7 136.9

3,6 -9,9 -27.2 0.0 33,2 39.0 30.7 21.2 14,5 10.2

The results for these 10

with the curve

shear stress
 and answers: of surface excavations 335

available friction angle

20 25 30

-40.0

of the dam will be

is '-A'"'-'-.'-<'-.'-<
the dam is, th<'r.,-.:>t
we must never of instability in a
structure such as a dam

determine the value P

for ,".'11 ...1IOn," shown below.

y=19

A1B.10 We start by
and mark vectors ,-pr,,-p,"pr,t,
on the various block

c
E
 of excavations

so we find VI
sin 120 sin25 :::::} V2

1)12 VI

sin35 sin 120 :::::} VI2

VIV vlsin35:::::}vlv

VlH VI cos 35 :::::} VlH 0.8192.

We can now write down an for virtual work:
P sin 30 . V;e + P cos 30 . V2V + . VIV EVW
beca use V2 v to
Psin30 V2-

virtual is

50 x 5 cos 30 . V2 + 50 x 5 cos 30 . VI2 +. 5 x 25 cos 20 . VI IVW.

sm 15
For we and so

250 . 30 . (V2 + P sin30 V2 +

we
25030
P=----------------~~~-----------

now need to and 1

VVCU::'AL,of the overburden:
1 5
-x5x---x25=1
2 tan 15
and
5
W = - - x 4 x 19 = 1418.2
tan 15

2584.4 x 0.5736

=8956
 Additional 337

convenience.
fracture data are
 iii

son

Rock slress nod Wenthering

wilier pressure lind fracturing
increllsing dreasing

19.1 Rock the surface and at

340 excavation <:Tnnw'n; mechanisms

Figure 19.2 fracture surface

the element at the

is soft: the load will not decrease
the the

can be much

It is more difficult to obtain about the rock mass

than at the surface. As we noted in the
core obtained during a site
of the order of 0.0005% of the rock mass
to this small

The rock mass will be disturbed by the rock excavation process, but
the used to the rock
 341

too
and both these factors
time,

tunnel may need in some

in other areas, as illustrated in
342 excavation mechanisms
 ,.. ,,,,,nr''<and answers: Iln,rl4>l"nr,!"II excavation mechanisms 343

ht>,(',""::t> the

and how stress concentrations around

can cause failure.

UUleSI:IOrIS 19.1 to 19.6 are a set of

rock cavern, and so we
""r'7 ..,...11,..,';

correct order.

Q19.1 The
IIn,nll"rnrounn ma-
""""rr..,nt'""rI in a

which con-
sets with the rOllO\lVI
orientations:
Set diredion
1 058 54
2 195 70
3 127 81
4 160 32
5 335 64
set of DDDI'1DXI
30 zero It is prC)Pc)se~a
the axis of the machine hall will be
oriented on a
Determine the kinematic blocks
344 excavation InSTIl[lIlIlV

tech-

this is a circle 30 in from is

as
335/64

195f70 160/32

code

Block
123
124
125
134
135
145
 answers: Incll"r,nrl'UIl'Ii'l e'xCClvclti(l111 illsfclbility mechanisms 345

195170 195170

Block 123 Block 124

335;64 __--~-_ _

195110 195170

Block 125 Block 134

195170

Block 135 Block 145

346 Int"l..." ..,n .. nl"l excavation "",'(mill"" mechanisms

127181

195170 160132

Block 234 Block 235

335;'64 ___-~___

127illl

195170 195170

Block 245 Block 345

Q J9.2 For the unstable roof blocks established in the answer to

Q19.1, determine the direction of movement, and .... 'w . . _ ~. of !li:lidilnn
where relevant.

A J9.2 For each block which has been identified as lmstable due
the direction. This will be the most

which make up

and determine the orientation of each one. The intersections are as

follows:
 ... ""n,',,, and answers: excavation mechanisms 347

Intersection Orientation Intersection Orientation Intersection Orientation

12 23 191170 34
13 24 35
14 25
15 45

For each block unstable due to

direction.
the critical
block 134 has three
124 and 135 have
none: this of a
be the candidate for a direction if it is located on the
the block.
Block Planes Intersections Critical
123 d l 185/54 d3 150/81 h2 119/34 /23 191/70 hI 049/54 d3 150/81
124 tt2 119/34 124 114/24 14! 126/27 112 119/34
134 d l 185/54 d) 150/81 d4 160/32 In 049/54 134 214/20 141 126/27 dJ 150/81
135 113 049/54 /35 044/37 151 029/50 113 049/54
234 d4 160/32 123 191/70 134 214/20 142 114/24 /z3 191/70
245 d2 195/70 d4 160/32 124 114/24 145 246/02 152 268/39 d2 195/70

Q J9.3 For the unstable roof blocks established in the answer to

9.1, determine the volume of the block that could fall
from the roof and hence calculate the necessary pressure to
ensure

AJ9.3 Four blocks - 145,235 and 345 - have been identified as

from the roof. We need to draw each of these to scale in order
to determine their the traces of the lines
In
orientations of these lines intersection in order to
For the blocks listed
25, and 45.
For all of the and each one on the
",t.rn,;n", its orientation. draw a radial dotted
The intersections are as follows:

(2) that forms a block draw its strike on the

a dashed line.
(3) For each block in tum, draw a of lines r<>r,r<>.=n the
of the roof. Within these draw the
the dashed strike lines
their trends. Also draw the intersections rar,ra.""'r.hr,Q'
348 excavation instat)jliliy trl .. rhnnj",.""

to determine
if do

137
140
=277

scale
Block 125
 and answers; JnnGllr'llrnlJJ'In excavation ind'nh,:lifv me'Cn(lnll;mS 349

1+ I sin D
~ 36 34 . I sin

h tan + tan + tan

. tan 34 + 24 . tan 39 + 16 . tan
19. 19.37 mrn == 3.9 m
w = j x 22 x 24.16 x 3.9 691.0 and
p =~ x 22 x 3.9 28.6

from the

= lO2
= 175
277

Block 145

Scale of scale 5 mm: 1

L14=6mm

L 1=7mm L 15=3mm

I+ sin + I sin I)
+ ~ . 78 . 77 . I sin + ! . 77 . 7 . I sin
265.4 10.62
350 excavation

h ~(114 tan + tan +

= . tan 27 75 tan 2 + 3 tan
+2.6 = 3.1 mIn 0.61 m

w = ~ x 22 x 10.62 x 0.61 = 47.5 and

= ~ x 22 x 0.61 4.5

= 1195 - 68
= 1127 208
140

= 37
= 39

Block 235

Scale of block scaleS rom: 1

L25:::45mm
L3:::60mm

L35=49mm

L5=87mm

sin I sin 1 + sin

t (! .44 . 60 . I sin + ~ . 60 . 87 . , sin + ~ . 87 . 44 . I sin
1223.9 + 1225.3 + = 1226.5 49.06
Questions answers: excavation 351

h tan + + tan
13 ' tan 70 + 49 ' tan 37 + 45 . tan
+36.9 = 36.3 mm 7.27 m

w = x x 49.06 x 7.27 2615.6 and

p t x 22 7.27 53.3

33
= 175
= 208

Block 345

Scale of scaleS mm: 1

L45=83mm ~ ~

+t 87 14 I sin
== 11.42

h + tan
. tan 20 + 83 . tan 2 + 9 . tan
= 3.83 mm 0.77 m
352 excavation 'n,>fnhiljtv

= i x 22 x 1.42 x 0.77 = 64.5 and

~ x 22 x 0.77 5.6

19.1 19.2 for the nU1un,;n A UIILlsllrlllted in

Q19.1).

A'.....9.4 We7 use the same method

~~."~ the use
but with an inclined pr()]e(;tlo.n
an inclined

Inclination 01 elements Inclined nmlAcltlon

Block 123 Block 124

(.JtJeSil'IClns and answers: excavation """UUJI"V 353

Block 125 Block 134

04'

Block 135 Block 145

04'

Block 234 Block 235

354 excavation in,;tNI'I,I,1'v ml~ctlarllSlns

Block 245 Block 345

Block condition Direction

123 falls
124 stable is directed
125 slides of set 5
134 falls
135 slides intersection of sets 1 and 3
145 slides line of maximum of set 5
234 slides line of maximum of set 2
235 falls
245 slides intersection of sets 2 and 5
345 falls

19.1 and 19.2 for side wall B illustrated in

A19.5 the same but with an the

'rI"'!1T1,a results are obtained.

Inclination of ",i""i"<:I1 elements Inclined nrt'l''''I''I',nn

I.JlJeS;J/Otns and answers; excavation d ....'/'III'.fv mechanisms 355

Block 123 Block 124

Block 125 Block 134

Block 135 Block 145

356 excavation im;tobili1v

Block 234 Block 235

Block 245 Block 345

Block Direction
123 line of maximum
124 intersection of sets
125 intersection of sets 1 and 2
134 of set 1
135 of set 1
145 in excess of the friction
234 of set 3
235 of set 3
245 excess of the friction
345 intersection of sets 3 and 5

A and the 19.4

with the information the
of the block fracture sets 1, 2 and 5.

A19.6 In the south east haunch of the ov,,,,,,,,,,ti block 125 suffers from
the line of maximum set 5 in
 answers: excavation InSraCI1II1Y ...' ..,.'n"',..... ..., .. 357

tanfjJ tan 30 = 0.577 = 0.28.

tan64 2.050
In west block 125
the line of intersection of
the

the excavation and

set 4 in this
other than to ensure the kinematic
The

tanfjJ sin 80 tan 30 0.985 0.577

x x-- --x =--x 1.47.
tan 1/1 sin 35 tan 34 0.574 0.675

If the factor
be 1.50. The discrepallcy
358 lnrl..r"ur"",.11 excavation in<:f,..I',;liIv fllec.'nOnls:ms

rock on the tunnel

and
2.51
A second of 6 m driven nnrnlllAlI
to and at the same centre line that the centre
line of two tunnels is 10m. Comment on the st(1lbtllity
the tunnels for the field stresses

stress is

[0 +(1- + cos

and a location on a = r, this to

Ue u v [(l+k)+
We assume that the the the

Uv y. = 0.026 . 450 L70MPa.

of induced stress occur at ,""v,nuI,",>

to

case of k
we see that the r{'"nn!".,,,,,,,.
 answers: 1In1;",r,nrn excavation instat)ilil'y mechanisms 359

the case and examine

stress state to detennine

first tunneL
is 10 m, and as two
10 m () = 0 in the
a = 3 m, for case
(lr = 4.20 MPa. The shear stress is
zero. This means we have = 12.48 MPa and
12.48 in invert is
to be

cos 0.12 MPa

the stress is

cos 33.25 MPa.

For the case at the centre of the
the "a"n",,, 13.33 MPa (lr = 24.46

we have = 13.33 MPa and

k' = 1.84. The stress induced in
then found to be
+ I - cos
+ 1- 1 cos 60.05 MPa

15.53 MPa.
Ul",,,,,,,,,,, we can
method. For the case a
2D element method
we have used the

I Beer G. and Watson 1. O. (1992) Introduction to Finite Element and Element

Methods Engineers. Wiley, Chichester. Note that the BOUND is a simple
tool and ideal for one in Q19.7.
360 Un,dArOI'tn,ll1d excavation

is shown below. We have taken

and used elements on

curved, 3-node iSOJoal1imEllric boundary elements

forming tunnel nodes not shown)

each the tunnels

stresses both exist. The results

3.0 m diameter tunnel 6.0 m diameter tunnel Kirsch solution

k = 0.3 k 2.5 k =0.3 2.5 k = 0.3 k = 2.5
node circum- node circum- node circum- node circum- circum-
ferential ferential ferential ferential ferential
stress stress stress stress stress
(MPa)
1 31.50 1 5.90 13 31.50 13 5.90 0 31.59 5.85
5 -1.14 5 76.00 17 -1.14 17 76.00 90" -1.17 76.05
9 31.50 9 5.90 21 31.50 21 5.90 1800 31.59 5.85

stresses are

element Kirsch-based
6.0 m diameter tunnel 3.0 m and 6.0 m tunnel
k = 0.3 k = 2.5 k == 0.3 k 2.5
node circurn- node circurn- node circum- node circum-
ferential ferential ferential terential
stress (MPa) stress
1 33.10 1 15.53
5 -0.26 5 62.50 0.12 5 60.05
9 33.70 9 19.70 9 33.25 9 15.53
13 32,10 10,90 13 31.59 13 5.85
17 -1.12 17 73.90 17 -1.17 17 76,05
21 31.90 21 6.94 21 31.59 21 5,85

The results here are and instructive. Two need to be

 answers: excavatian mechanisms 361

=0.3

results
o AnC>FfWim,,!p

5 9 13 17 21
-5 Node number

80
70
<Il
CL
~ 60
rii k 2.5
(fJ

!!:! 50
ti
u 40
B
::J
U 30 [J
E
20 results

10

0
5 9 13 17 21
Node number

5m 3m

nrin~inn stresses in the area

werepx = = pz = 11 MPa. 4m
Determine the
stresses and their diredions at
A after excavation has

A horizontal fault with A.

If the shear of the fault is 20", will
on the fault occur at A?

A 19.8 Here we will excavation and

to estimate state A.
362 excavation inS#'abilify mechanisms

tunnel and for the

1 (1v

A are then

+ + (I - k) + cos

11.99 MPa

and

(1, (1- k) + cos

10.01 MPa.

i.e. (11) = 11.99 MPa and (1f

In order to the above
stress states are to the same 'LV-UH.JLll

to consider the of a horizontal

and on this

to be turned
stress

a arctan = 53.1.
The transformed stresses are then
(11J + (1r (10 - (1,
(1z = 2 + 2 cos2a
11.99 + 10.01 11.99 - 10.01
---
2
-- + ---
2
-- = 10.72
(1a + (1f (1a (1r
(1x = --2- + --2- cos +
10.01 11.99 10.01
---2-- + 2 ~~~\-~--t = 11.28 MPa

11. 99 - lO.ot
-0.95 MPa
2
When we the Kirsch
we must rernelnlJeI stresses that are
(JlJes;fic.ns and answers: excavation 363

included in each The final stress state is then

+
0 0
point A It'ft tunnel right tunnel field stresses

evaluates to

+ ~ [, ~O 0
Uc 0 11 10.72 11
A

10.29
MPa.

and from this the friction to maintain is com-

as

if> = arctan

25.00

20.00 - normal stress

numerical analysis: lull
I1l Kirsch approximation: crosses
Cl.
:::!!
15.00

10.00
'"
1;;'"
U')
5.00

0.00
.0

-5.00

below shows the variation

both the Kirsch
The errors involved are
and show how the
364 excavation Ifl.,;n. . ",,,rv mechanisms

8.0 -

_ numerical analysis

til - - - Kirsch approximation

'"
!'!
C>
<Il
-0
oJ
c;,
c Distance from lH tunnel centreline, m
ro
c
0
U 6.0 10.0 12.0 .0
E
-a
f!.'
'5
c;;
<Il
a:

-6.0

-8.0 j

QJ9.9 An ovaloid excavation at a of 750 m has in vertical

section its axis and the ratio of its width to
is 4. The radius of curvature of its ends is to half its
Assume that the in situ stress state can be calculated on the basis of
lateral restraint in a CHILE medium 1. Section
with y = 28.0 and v = 0.3.
An elastic element for Ie = 0 shows that the
stress in the centre of the roof is -20.5
is 104 MPa. An with k = 1 stresses of
4.59 MPa and 84.2 MPa. What stresses would the balunc1Dr'Velement
for the in situ stress state?
....11i"' ... " for stresses in terms of radius of curvature:

compare the stress in the centre of the roof of the excavation

with that for an excavation with the same
and
compare the stress in the side wall with that for a of
radius of curvature.

A J 9.9 As the numerical used an elastic we can de-

termine the stresses induced value of k, the ratio of horizontal
to vertical stress rata. For a case of lateral
2
the ratio of
aH v
k=-=--
av 1 v
which means that in this case we have k = 1- = 0.429. As we
have results for k = 0 and k = 1, the stress for the in

2 This formula is a traditional one in rock mechanics but note that, in a

field case, ratio between the horizontal and vertical stress components cannot be
estimated using this fonnula, because of the influence of other factors, such as erosion
and tectonic stresses as discussed in 4.
LllJleSl'lorlS and answers: excavation mechanisms 365

situ case can be

0.429 - 0 1-0
and so for the roof we find
0roof = 0.429 [4.59 - (-20.5)J + = -9.74MPa
and for the side wall we find
O"ide wall = 0.429 [84.2 - + 104 = 95.5 MPa.
In the of the vertical stress is
(Jv = yz = 0.028 x 750
MPa. = 21
For an oriented with its axis the
circumferential stress induced in the boundary at the top and bottom of
the is
W2
where Ptop = -.
2H

and q = leads to

(Jtop = 0v 2k
q
+k - IJ
and from that q = 4 for this we find
that
20.429
(Jtop = (J"
( q2k + k - I
) = 21 ---+0.429
4
= -7.5 MPa.

The stress induced at the ends of this is

where Pend because the is an ovaloid. These relations

lead to

from which we obtain

0end = 21 (I - 0.429 + = 96.0 MPa.

These

is not so
shows how the stresses compare for
range of values of q. the DVI'on,t. of the case for stress induced in
the roof when k = I, the ::Icnrpprn,:'n these
results show that the into
the behaviour of the
366 excavation

120
side walls

100 c

'"
Il.
::!!;
ri
"0
a
"E
Cl
(1j
E approximate approximate
40,
'"'" for k= 0.429
~ 20

numerical analysis solution

140
Solid
120

100
'"
Il..
::!!;
ri 80
"0
a
'E
0>

'"
E
40
gj
~
U5 20 Roof, k= 1
X X X X
0
1 2 3 4 5 q 6
-20 )E X X )( )( >(
Roof, k 0
-40

J 0 The axes a excavation are In-

clined at :1:450 to the hll,lI"i2'1I ...toL are in the ra-
tio 2.5: 1. The vertical and horizontal oriincloc:11 field stresses are
8.5 MPa and 25.5
and minimum elastic stress "'I[)I,'U"'''''
excavation.
poss.unlTY of failure the rock on the exca-
oounaCllrv. on the basis thot the st,'enloth of the rock in com-
e = 30 MPa and q, =

AJ9. JO The for the circumferential stress induced in the ma-

terial at the

u() p I(I+k)[O+
of an

1 k) [( 1 +
excavation is

cos + (1
I
where p is the vertical stress k is the ratio of horizontal to
vertical q is the ratio fJ is the
lJl.JleS1r'OfIS ond answers: excavation mechanisms 367

q= WIH

For the case when f3

cos = cos 90 O.
reduces it to
ali ~ {(I + k) [(l sin (I k)[(l+ J.
In to determine where circum-
ferential stress is a maximum or a we can differentiate this
prE!SSllOn with to X, set the result to zero and solve for X.

1+ cos + 1+ sin J.
this to zero and

tan =

For this we have q 2.5 and k = 3,

which

that both X = - 20.3 and

If we substitute into
the

~ {(l +3) [<t

22.5
(1-3) 1+ J = 104.2 MPa
and
-8.5
- {(I + 3) [ (1 +
22.5
-(I 3)[(1+ -5.6MPa.
368 excavation ,~~..""." "

the relation
2c

which was in A6.3 to find

230 60
128.7 MPa.

is zero, we can see that the excavation is

stress, but unstable at

tanEJ =
q
",W",,<UH of the tri-
the atan2

(J = atan2
we find that the locations of max-
imum and minimum stress relative to
are then

and

= 139.0
stress distribu-
maxima and minima. The lines
drawn normal to rprnp,,,pr.t the stress at that
with lines inside the excavation
A useful for
the ",v--,-uU\CU we
water. For the case under

Pr(l,<Yr~ITn.nin"Y "'nl'\l'''I'\'~'' such as Fortran include the atan2 function in order to

resolve the issue of correct The same effect can be obtained on a calculator
using to co-ordinate conversions.
 Additional 369

the
direction
stress is
come into contact with the
stress where we would
occur

minimum stress =
-5.6MPa

19.6 VI1>"',Ul"" a rock mass dissected four fracture sets.

370 excavation 1.<:f(lnl,IlTV mechanisms

1 indicates that there is one adverse fracture

2 indicates that there are no adverse fractures
3 indicates that there are two fractures which intersect """"''''''''''"
4 indicates that a block can form from three fractures and slide into the shaft
that can be

blocks and the nature stress

rock mass visualization shown in

3DEC and other programs are available from Itasca at

 Additional 371

programs are available for many rock mechanics

the of rock mass the blocks
be intersected an excavation and will be
stresses and strains induced by PV,"",,,,.,

seminal book on the

and Brown (1980), which
of rock masses, l'.C:'UR'l'."La.

mentation.

~ UNWEDGE and other programs are available from www.rocsciencc.com

 1
structure will influence its For

occur, on the
We have to
Will it be
374 of excavations

20.2 Interaction of stresses and rock mass fractures has combined to cause
failure of the rock mass and installed support in an mine.

stress-induced failure of the intact or a combination of the two?

The of interaction between stresses and rock mass
structure are illustrated in where we can see that the individual
rock blocks have been a considerable amount and the
distorted.

mechanics
as most of the
The

the overall rock behaviour is

that
more we
concentrate in this and
techniques to a
 answers: excavations 375

answers: aE~Slla

J A vertical shaft is to be sunk tlU'lIIl1lnh a rock mass in which

the of the two horizontal stresses have a ratio
of 3: 1. A clear space of 5 m x 5 m must be maintained within the
for The three excavation cross-sections
consideration for
.riA!d<l'lllin merits of each cross-section in terms
rm'CIII:nes. and hence ...... 1'........ ""

(a) (b)

Excavation profile

high induced stress

tangenlial stress = 8 (ill )

will be a variation in the stress ----

a
value of 8 to a value of O. Such
variations in stresses lead
to rock and it is
ficult to the shaft with a or reinforcement solution.

if ratio of
axis to the minor axis is made
and the excava-

is n r,>tprrP'c1
'-NY"",",, " ' , . . " "

zone of uniform U''I''.\"''''<U

'''''''U'''''''J the in contrast to the stresses
376 excavations

large compressive
induc~d stress

t large !ensile
induced stress

we can make an estimate

of the excavation.
The small radius of curvature at the corners indicates that the
at will be and f'rtTYlnrt:>"'"

stresses.

shaft oriented with its

and ratio the

nOrll!:OnYDI stress COlml)Olnent.

stress COlml:tOrlel1t
rftlmr'r""!I:!l:IVoP !l:h'~l'Ilnlh is 0.5.
What would be your Initial based on this

not
minimum number of faces a
can have is tetrahedral block
the excavation surface and three
to tunnel nt:>I!"n"'nrl
the
indicate a tunnel orientation of west-east.
The ratio of rock stress to rock ",fr,pr".,~h
concentration value 2 will raise
the
should be V<UUU'"A
 answers: excavations 377

a west-east orientation should

alone.
nr>no'ntc perp(:?n(i1CUlclr to the tunnel axis would then
wouJd be

of stress as
rr.,nN''''~
we may not be
directions

fundamental reason for this nhon,(",r,,,,"',r>n is that rock can sustain a shear
stress.

Q20.3 A site Is under for use in a nl!!!,otnerwlnl

DI',~iill!d_ It is to drill a number of boreholes to a
2000 m and use these for water at pressure
nt'lilurnliv frtJdurl~d rock mass. The water will take heat from
and will then be extracted from "".-."'","U<:I.I""'"
for A is the
... u n n u this process.

Extensive site nv,esll1gatliol1iS have revealed that the rock mass

contains three sets of oriented at
1 and which 44.
a stress determination programme has established that the three
stresses have orientations and 1
6 + 12z and 15 + 28z
D'-'UU""" surface.

the intact rock Is the rock mass is so

fractured that it is saturated with and hence
et1lecliv'e stress conditions exist within the fractures.
The water holes have to be located relative to the pro-
duction hole such that the water will flow the
natural between them. For the
eRective lI'IIorllTurlll stress on a
sets, which set will be laC:Ke'a
for the
"'or",",II'IIOII","," can be deviated ............,...

run horizon,tal so that a vertical flow

necessary.

Inn"mlnQ' and Fan Fm,in,pprim' wilh

l<el'erence to Coal
378 of excovotions

to open the critical

at the horizon.

the

A20.3 The relations for are

Uz = and UH = 15 +

6+ and

horizontal is as shown below.

N

== 10 MPa;; (13

75"

30"

set 3

to set 2 is
 and answers: of excavations 379

and the to the normal to set 3 is 130 (155 0 0

= 65,
anticlockwise as The Mohr circle associated with this
geometry is shown below.

().l= 10 MP.
r-----~------------~~----~------~-----()
()1=51 MPa

we can see that set 3 has the lowest normal stress

will therefore be the fracture set that is first
In<:n'''rtlnn of the

normal stress is

a".l ---'-'---'-'- + -'-'--,,---"- cos 130 = 30.5 + 20.5 cos 130 17.3 MPa.

As a consequence, the boreholes will need to be drilled such that

intersect these fractures as near to the
borehole orientation is then either or
We can now examine the behaviour of these fractures at the three
of 1.75 2.25 km and 2.00 km. We start

fluid pressure to induce These

calculations are shown in the table (j is
l30. The
I.e.
T all tan an tan 44.

Induced Induced Critical

normal shear fluid
stress, stress, stress, pressure,

a{J
,
ah c=
+ r= c+r cos II 1: =r sinO aUm=---
1:
a-alim
2 2 tan 44
(km) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1.75 46.0> 95 28.0 185 1Ii. 11 14.17 14.IiR 1.4:\
2.00 51.0 10.0 30.5 205 17.32 15.70 16.26 1.06
2.25 55.5 10.5 33.0 22.5 18.54 17.24 17.85 0.69

From this we see that the critical fluid pressure decreases with
This means once the water pressure at a horizon ap-
380 of .nnrlF>rrJrru excavations

it will induce SnE~arllI1g

,n1,rtc.ri water will flow
the

A circular tunnel of radius 4 m is to be driven in a weak

hVldrlt)st'otiie stress of 9 MPa.
mass in its initial and
and 0', 30'3.

comment on

PI=---
l+b
and for this case we have P = 9
unfractured

2x9-8
PI = -"---- =
1 +4
= 105 2 MPa.

radial deformation at the the tr",rh"'",ri zone is

P-PI
----r
2G e

zone. For critical

starts to we have
2.1 GPa we find that
9 2 28
0.0067 m.
2 x 2.1 x

we choose a series

1/(d-1J
u
 and answers: of excavations 381

Proof = Pi +
We are and
Yrock = 25 in the with
the three below.

Pi rc u ProIJ[ Pfloor

9.00 0.0000
2.00 4.000 0.0067 2.00 2.00
1.80 4.216 0.0074 1.81 1.79
1.60 4.472 0.0084 1.61 1.59
1.40 4.781 0.0096 1.42 1.38
1.20 5.164 0.0114 1.23 1.17
1.00 5.657 0.0139 1.04 0.96
0.80 6.325 0.0178 0.86 0.74
0.60 7.303 0.0247 0.68 0.52
OAO 8.944 0.0394 0.52 0.28
0.20 12.649 0.0892 0.42 -0.02

The shows how the floor stabilizes without a

sure after a radial of about 85 mm.
and sidewalls never It is
also to see of the
zone of fractured rock increases with If an

4.00

3.50 elastic
behaviour
3.00

limit of elastic
behaviour

0.000 0.010 0,020 0.030 0.040 0,050 0.060 0,070 0,080 0,090 0,100
radial displacement, m

For the de:slan of ofa un:de'rl!llrolund civil defence fa-

in a rock mass, there ore two excavation OAOn!'lAltrU~!!I
as shown in the sketches of the vertical cross-sedions
Both consist of excavated rooms
lars.
382 excavations

x 1
x 1
xl
......"' ..., ..."..."..,' has been undertaken a CHILE
in order to determine the relation
between pressure at the various
These relations are below the sketches ;; rep-
..",.,,,,.,,ti.,,... aISr,:I,lac:el1nelrn and p rel'rf~se'nti
:&UIIJ'P'U~1 pressure is to be
a interaction aeonlleltriE~s in
order to determine which is the .,...,...1&........... The stress-strain
charaderistic:s of the two below:
5.0 8.0 10.0 11.1 11.4 10.9 10.0 8.7 3.0 0.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 7.0 12.0

character-

x
x
we can

8
= j +d j + It
the of the is 6 m in this case.
 answers: excavations 383

To determine the initial form of Hooke's

i.e.

E +
can be considered to very out of the
we can assume that are in a state of
strain. to out of the of the cr()ss"-secuOI
this us to write
o +
and hence discover that
ay =
substitution into leads to
l+v
ez=~[(l-
v = 0.2 and E = 9.12 with the initial stress
ax 1 MPa and a z = 5 initial strain in the vertical
direction as 0.5 x (20.2) then becomes
o
6
into leads to
6000 59.20
p ---8 + -- -1564e + 15.43
3.837 3.837

Cd 12,
a.
::::E

0.0 ""....... "-~-

O,OE+OO 2"OE-03 4"OE-03 6"OE-03 8.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.2E-02 1.4E-02

strain
384 excavations

three charac-

- 1.12IpA-

As the is ",,,,-nn'"lPtr,

and from these we find

x

into the usual =mx+c

1000 9.867 O.
PA - 0.6395 SA + 0.6395

1000
PB + --,------.--"--

Derill!l a pillar characteristic formula lor pillar B

Find the operating point of pillar B and hence determine P. and Sa

Use the new value 01 Pelo derill!l a pillar characteristic formula lor pillar A in lermsol p, ando,
 answers: of underor'ournd excavations 385

The iteration follows the

cr,.r"".".-I characteristic

of

for demonstration: a better

basis of

Itera- Pillar A Pillar B

tion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
strain strain

1 25.00
2 -1666 3.739 3.178 3.368 x 10-4
3 -1564 14.50 11.18 2.126 10-3
4 -1666 12.345 9.891 1.473 x 10-3
5 -1564 12.54 10.11 1.552 x
6 -1666 13.01 10.29 1.631 x 10-3
7 -1564 12.42 10.05 1.521 10-3
8 -1666 13.05 10.31 1.642 10-3
9 -1564 12.42 10.04 1.519 10- 3
10 -1666 13.05 10.31 1.643 x
11 -1564 12.42 10.04 1.519 x 10- 3
12 -1666 13.05 10.31 1.643 x

The of 10.0 MPa and

10.3 show how the

Ground and characteristics at iterations 2 and 3:

Ground
........... - - - - - '................................ - - - characteristic - .........................--..<
alpillarA

4.0E-03 6.0E-03 1.4E-02

strain
386

Ground and characteristics at iterations 11 and 12:

14.0
Ground
12.0 I" .....~_ ..~o..__ characteristic
al pillarS Pilar
characteristic
10.0

4.0

2.0

0.0 o \ _ _ - . - - .
O.OE+OO 2.0E03 4.oE-03 6.0E-03 8.0E-03 1.0E-02 1.2E-02 t4E-02
strain

From the
the
strate how the V"J~"~'
linear
For of the aPJJrol)ria of
characteristic is
PA + 6.700
PB = 6_700
to can be written as the

1 PA 0.2921pB O eB 15-43
+ I PB + O 19.30
I PA + O PB 6.70
O PA 1 . PB 6.70
In matrix these are
1 0.2921 1563 0
0 1666
~2200
x =
1 0 0 6.70
0 0 6.70
and the solution of this matrix is
10.04
10.31
19 x
1.643 x
 387

These values can be seen to be identical to those obtained iteration.

the two IS on the basis
of this also red uces the and
in the excavation

A new is which can extract from

one of two coal seams. The first seam is at a of 250 m and has
a of 3 m, and the se'~OlnCII of 500 m with
a thickness of 1 m. A
............ ,1 .. calls for the upper seam to be mined with a width of
200 m, and the lower seam to have a width of 400 m the
sketch below for in which the direction is
into the
Centreline Panel edge

Surface

Depth

_~_~====~~==~~._coal seam
Mined panel

Enlo;~lee'n'Handbook
2 can be used
and horizontal
strain distribution transverse to the direction of
Assess the of the extraction
, ..... __ ... on estimates of surface subsidence and horizontal
the data taken from the SEH.
The SEH values of the ratio of maximal subsidence to ex-
traction thickness of about 0.75 and 0.72 for the upper and lower
relpl!ctivE!ly. The of subsidence that occurs at a
the transverse Orl!lifU,e for both seams is
taken from the SEH.
Subsidence
0.95 0.90 0.80 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ratio of
distance from
centre
to depth 0.08 0.1 0.17 0.2 0.25 0.29 0.32 0.38 0.42 0.62 1.11

the strain that occurs at

the transverse for both seams is
gelo,,.,. also taken from the SEH.

Handbook. Na-
 388

Strain
proportion -0.70 -0.80 -1.00 -0.80 -0.40 0.00 0.40 0.80 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00
Ratio of
distance from

0.00 0.02 0.11 0.19 0.24 0.29 0.31 0.38 0.42 0.49 0.52 0.59 0.67 1.11

In the Itir.. li .....c: for the maximum contractile and ex-

tensile strains for these width to ratios are both
to about 0.7.

A20.6 Width 200 m, = = 250 m, seam thick-

=
ness 3 m.
As the ratio of maximal "UI-'''......'''. to extraction thickness is about
for an extraction thickness of 3 m the maximal subsidence
above the centre the - will be about 2.25 m. This
used to scale the dimensionless data taken from the
to the

ues
of the maximum and actual distances
values in the second row by 250 m to the
in the

Subsidence (rn) 2.138 2.025 1.800 1.575 1.350 1.125 0.900 O.fi75 0.450 0.225 0.000
Distance (rn) 20.0 25.0 42.5 50.0 62.5 72.5 80.0 95.0 105.0 155.0 277.5

These results can then be

Notice from this
crr~,,,t'>r than 0.5 m,

more than 500 m.

distance from centre line, m
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.00

0.50

E
1.00

1.50

2.00

I
2.50 1.

The transverse strain is way as the

The results are below.
 389

Notice that the strain the convention in

which is
-5.0 -5.8 -7.2 -5.8 -2.9 0.0 2.9 5.8 7.2 5.8 4.3 2.9 1.4 0,0
xW- 3 xW- J x10- J xlO- 3 10") xlO+ o xlO ,~ xlO- 3 xlO x10 3 10 1 xlO- 3
Distance (ID) 0.0 5.0 275 47,5 60.0 725 77.5 95.0 105.0 122,5 130.0 147.5 167.5 277.5

7.SE-3

5.0E-3

2,5E-3

150,0 200,0 300,0

i distance from centre line, m
2.5E3
~
,~
5,OE3 '"
-g"
~
!i
7,5E3

Width = 400 m, = 500 m, seam thickness = 1 m

As the ratio of maximum ;:'"...,""'U<::UL to extraction is about
for an extraction thickness of 1 m the maximum subsidence will
about 0.72 m. for distances of 500 m, the
and is
above the
the subsidence is ar~."h'r the overall
the subsidence
Subsidence 0.900 0.675 0.450 0.225
Distance (m) 50.0 80,0 95.0 277,5

distance from panel centre line, m

100 200 300 400 500 600

j
0.2
E 0,3
ill'
<:.)
c:
(!l 0.4
"0
'iii
.0
::::J 0.5
<Jl

0.6

0.7

O.S
 390

With the to the 500 m, and the maximal subsidence

0.72 m, the strain in the table and the
below. the strain the convention of
tension
Strain -7.1 -8.1 -1.0 -8.1 -4.0 0.0 4.0 8.1 1.0 8.1 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0
x10- 4 x10- 4 xlO 3 x10- 4 x10- 4 xlO,o xlO- 4 x10 4 x10- 3 xlO- 4 xlO- 4 xlO- 4 xlO- 4 xlO+ o
Distance (m) 0.0 10.0 55.0 95.0 120.0 145.0 155.0 190.0 210.0 245.0 260.0 295.0 335.0 555.0

1.25E-3

1.00E-3

7.50E-4

5.00E-4

2.50E-4
c:
.~

Vl 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0

distance from panel centre line, m

-1.25E-3

From the results shown we can see that - unless there is a

constraint on the width of the subsidence - extraction of the
seam is because both the maximal and
maximal less than for the shallow
seam. Other of differential subsidence
tilt of the

A bauxite room and

100 m in a rock mass whose unit _"",ill'lll,t
The of the mine calls for a
cOlmlC.re,ssiive failure of the
the of in this bauxite shows that their
orolmr..."",..:..:iive ..:tr'"",l11ll1'l1tlh may be calculated from the "".... ,,,. .."'..:..:1

where A is the
What Is the

For reasons, the rooms must have a minimum

width of 5.0 m. What is the greatest extraction ratio that can be
achieved with this size of
If the roof of a room is reinforced with rock then the
maximum achievable width is about 8 m. Is it cost eHective
to do this?
 391

A20.7 When A is very the

tends to a value of 55 MPa - this is the LaC'VL.:H'"

where G y is the for this casc, is

yz 0.027 x 100 the maximal stress that a
can

iteration. It is more instructive to a series of curves

width in terms of the stress and the

and hence

The curves of width in terms of width and

20
18
16
E 14

:0 12
'3:
OJ 10
c
'c
<l)
8
c-
o 6
4
2

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
pillar width, m
392

We can see from this that with F = 2 the minimal width for an
of 5 m is about 14 m, and hence the
nn,c>ni,na extraction ratio is

0.46.

If a room can increased to 8 m the shows

that the width will need to increase to about 22 m. The extraction
ratio in
416
r ---~- = = 0.46
900
not be cost effective: the extraction ratio hence the
the reinforcement will have to be for.
in which extraction ratio with width is
the maximal for a
width has been used. It is clear from that no ..":,,,"'T...
from than 6m
60.0 1.00
<1l 0.90
0... Pillar compressive strength
::::E 50.0
Extraction ratio 0.80
~c 40.0
0.70 0
.~
!l:' 0.60
00 c
(!) 0

.~
30.0 - ~ ~ ~
0.50 f~
~
(!) 0.40 x
Ci 20.0 w
E
0
- 0.30
<.>
0.20
r 10.0
0:: 0.10
0.0 0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Pillar width, m

of the mine in
width and the
nv'esltia,att!ld. Plot the curve of extraction ratio
in the range 0.5 m to 4.0 m,
oDIF!ni,nn width and the ...Ol...,.!~ ... ft
extraction ratio.
If the extraction ratio thus identified is to be what value of
the factor is If the width is to be cnlanlge'rs
to 3.5 m?

the extraction ratio will be

width can be below about 2.5 m.
 393
1.00
0.90
0.80
0
.~ 0,70
c 0.60
0
U 0.50
~
0} 0,40
0.30
0.20
010
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
opening width, m

For a extraction ratio and nn.proi;,..

in A20] shows that the associated
(I - r) wp (I r) 0
In this case r 3.5 m, and so the width is found
from
- 1.84 0
to be 2.2 m. The
10 +45exp 140MN
and the load carried it is
+ 88
a of 1.59.

prIOP'OSI:l1 has been made to use an old unrilllll,rftrftilinirl

......... u,. as a
it was mined
array of l!'Iiilllllll"~_ ~l!'Iill'lll"inll between the
are each 7 m square, and excavation is

Examination of the shows that the limestone is hOll'i'll!:.!lIn1111

bedded with IITIll,riA'lI'ftll"", ~lllIftll':inll
and undulations. The bed-

quarry estimated its uniaxial II"ftlml'.II'A~!li:liVA !!:tr'AlMllIth

whereas a Iftil'.ftrfttl..rv
the axial stress in the II"ft,.,t...,in,A pres-
sure was 4 MPa. The unit .....lIllI'.AIU
Estimate the Rock Mass
table in and hence determine

m:::::: m,exp
394

Use these values faclIal'ha with the Hoek-Brown ....'9..."' ......

to determine the maximal vertical stress the can sustain (1)

at their faces and at their centres. Assume that the ratio of hori-
y",rtl.!'ClII stress is 0.075 at the centre of each
th.~.n .., to estimate the nv',IU',nCllP YPr1~iCllil

in the

A20.9 If we consult a table of RMR

can the values to the rock mass of the

Parameter Comments
measured 100 MPa 4
described as 12
described as tn.,rlA'''' 10
value associated with a sp"lcirlj?; say, 0.4 m
will be close to 20
Dis,cOIltirmity condition of

18
Total 64

The Hoek-Brown

us to know both m and s the case where we are

of a we can assume 0'3 = 0 and hence use the

the s exp into this we

obtain

aJ =
from with ac 100 MPa and RMR we find a, 13.5 MPa.
This is the maximal vertical stress that the rock at the face the
can sustain.
For the case when we are centre of the where
the h""""'~i","" triaxial test data can be used
for the m. As the laVUU:ILUl
intact we that s
re2Irr;mi~in,g the Hoek-Brown criterion

+
 395

mj is value of m for intact and

GJ 4 MPa and s I, we find that

3.09.

we obtain

= 3.09 x 0.277 0.86

and
s exp exp 0.018.

vertical stress is 0.075 at

and so we can = 0.075 into
to
(1- o.
= 100 MPa into
18.8

rrihutaryarea

This shows that of rock each

is

and so the vertical stress is

80 rn, Wo 6 rn and

at and the

Gface 13.5
= 1.75
Gp 7.7
396

and at the centre it is

= Ucenlre = 18.8 = 2.44
up 7.7
This shows that the effect of the confinement offered
is to increase in factor of
centres, in cOlmr>arison faces.
that will surround of the
both of these
need to be

about 2 m.
that no stress-induced is what is the
maximum ofa
It is considered that the will offer sufficient to
Drd!!!VIE~nl d@arilldation of the side walls of a and that the
stress-induced failure of concern is that in the crown. What is the
maximum of a in these circumstances?

A20. J 0 We will assume in the cross-section of the the

stresses induced in the sidewall of the can be
the excavation. On
the inscribed
we have
Usidewall = I _ k + 2 w
Uvertical h
and if the crown is semi-circular we have

U
crown
=k 1+ =k-l+
UVerlical

the of the excavation as the minimum of

2
2w
h ..",------ or h =
---+k-l
Uverlical
The maximal stress that can be sustained the crown and the
sidewall are 218 MPa and -5 Note that the sidewall
stress is because this r<>.,r"'C<>lnt<: the tensile ctr,o,",,:rth
nOlYo>h",
 397

The vertica 1 stress is

avertical = Y . z = 0.029 x 800 23.2 MPa
and hence the ratio of horizontal to vertical stress is
k 37.0
1.59.
23.2

h a crown +I _ 15.3 m.
aVertical

the rock
in
2w 2x2
h --;;;------ = 10.7 m.

avertical
+ 1.59
23.2
Thus we see that is the condition if no
stress-induced
the

In the last we have been able to

in the

factors

a new site and the

rn"",,.orl in the
en""11'<<:

....:;:nn.n." stimulated

similar work be obtained?

the area understood? Are there

area?
at the site?
P" ....,... ,,'--uas an elastic material?
the intact rock under-
stood?
Are the and mechanical nr,,,,..,,prt ..,,,,- of the fractures
known?
What are the """ ..... ,,"' rock 1IYI.:.rh,OIn,r<: features of the rock mass at the
site?
398

Is the understood at the site? Is to

bea
Are rock

taken into

could lead to

those of the rock mass

rpinhnrr'pnr'lP,-.t or i:>UI"I-"J1

failure mechanisms been identified?



answers
answers
-
402 .,...ai'''''''<: 1. 1-1.5: fnTrnrU.rT.ln

in This is the
cavern in the world. Describe
would have to be considered
in

in rock mechanics for

site same as those
used in soil mechanics?
 .1 .1
I I I I

shows a limestone above a

on the ",,,,,,,,,-,',,, ...u, could

shows the surface of a

a rock slide has occurred, LAiJAUH

this fault could

is

of a
rocks of a near-surface
404 ,p.ttj'nn<: 2. 1-2. 10: gecllogical

Q2.2

What evidence is

was conducted in a rock mass

fracture #300 in core is shown to
this fracture the rock mass and
and
Uu,estj,ons 2. 1-2.10: aeC,loa'ICOI 405
406 lJu,eSfllDns 2. J-2. JO:

Q2.6 The

in

is to be excavated
cavern will be 35 m
would
 .1 .1

J Show how the stress state in a via the stress

on an cube rock.
are listed in the stress matrix. What do the
in a row of the stress matrix in common? What do the
of the stress matrix have in common?

Q3.2 When a matrix is s tress matrix

rical?

vector and tensor

How are on Mohr's

What is a stress?

biaxial stress,
triaxial stress?

Q3.7 how to calculate the

stress states which were "'!.p"''-'.U<:O", stresses and the

stress

Q3.8 What are the stress invariants?

Q3.9 the rates of

the answer to establish force in the x, y
tions and hence write down in differential form the three
for an elemental

Q3.IO Given an elemental cube with a normal stress COm~)0l1eI1t

two stress on its it is
408 lJIJ... Cl',nrlil: 3. J-3. JO: stress

to find a cube orientation such that the shear stresses QI!;;a,)pE~ar on all
faces and normal smesses)
Is it ,-,,-,,,,en,,, ,'-
shear
answer.
 .. .. ....

is no
state of stress in a in one sentence
think is meant
Natural stress

stress
Tectonic stress Far-field stress
n",;H'-HUU stress Local stress

2-D stress the nrinf'i"'''

stresses and the resultant stress state.

MPa

MPa

How to the
3-D state the standard stress
USBM

A B
410 UlJiesl'/OfIS 4.1-4.10: in situ stress

were cut normal to the wall of the and were oriented

to the tunnel axis as shown.
for each of the
6.72 MPa and 7.50
stresses and their
worldwide ,,~v.
'A ....

measurements have made in the wall of

These at 20 and 90 relative to the
7.38 MPa 7.86
stresses.

mass has been measured the

Two tests were conducted in a vertical
hr.""!".nl,,, one test at a of 500 m, and the other test at a of
1000 m. The results were as follows:
pr!SSllfe, PB Ps

500 14.0 8.0

1000 24.5 16.0

Given that the al! of the rock is 10 estimate and list

the values (1J, (12 and 0'3 at the two
all of have to make in
these estimates. Are any doubtful?
of are consistent with each and
statement. Are
data?

How are three-dimensional tensors transformed so that stress

can be calculated?

measured the Dn~-eXIS

the results are as
35 towards 085;
43 towards
27' towards 335.
xyz
Righl-
handed
x, co-ordinale
y, system
Z,

Q4.9 A fault is
an orientation . Determine stress r",rnr,nr,':>n
co-ordinate with the fault. Assume for this "lU'IC::".SVA

the presence not the stress field.

 Questions 4. 1-4. 10: in situ rock stress 411

'0 The
Stress measurements were
line Ox

Faull III

In
 r What is the of the first stress invariant and the strain
invariant?

is valid:

Draw a Mohr circle for

the two axes, how to
81 and 82.

and Poisson's
material. This

How can the strain in a n>rl;nn be found from the

strain matrix and rosette be
used to estimate stress

rosette are
Sp and that
20, 800
orientations and
150 GPa and v =
stresses and orientations.
414 .",,,,~inr'''' 5. 1-5. 10: strain and the of ",'nld,,",fv

A limestone three fracture sets, i.e. the

mean strata thicknesses of 1 m, fracture set 1
the with two and fracture set 2
to both the and fracture set 1) with five
A welded volcanic tuff with five fracture sets.
Fracture set 1: direction 089;
Fracture set 2: direction 278;
Fracture set 3: direction 224";
Fracture set 4: dip direction 169;
Fracture set 5: dip direction 113;
A sandstone with almost no
A with three fracture sets.
Fracture set 1: direction 314; 35;
Fracture set 2: direction 048"; 43;
Fracture set 3: direction 089; 79;

QS.8 that have

constants? is that?
In this context, what do you think will

QS.9 How do you know if a material is elastic?

(b) How is time taken into account in the of elastH:lt\r(

QS. J 0 When a rock <:.n'''' .... 'fYlt'.n fails in a test in the laborat-
or when an in situ rock mass fails due to natural
is 'stress' or 'strain' the cause of failure?
 Dlles:'i0l1S 5. 1-5. 10: strain and the 415

Force transducer

Servo-valve

feedback


r how the volume

uniaxial test, and
versus axial strain. What
as the curve

What causes a rock to

Is it when the stress r",:,rr''''<l

microcrack

The "",,,",,,,,,,,h".,
a number

The linear Mohr-Coulomb with a tensile cut-off sets a

1T",nn,j-h of a

pnJp()se a criterion of the form

418 lJu,esti,ons 6.1-6.10: intact

Q6.6 A serV'o-.eontrOJllea

the aa-P
remainder
onset of
Determine an elastic constant the of the initial
the a.-p curve.
criterion is ap'pl1,catlle, deternune

the Mohr-

-6.65 100 135 160 200 298 435 MPa

6.65 100 130 150 180 248 335 MPa

are
a chain is that of its weakest link".
this statement to tensile intact

Q6.10

is
 LJIJ!>!:tlon!: 6. 1~6. J0: intact rack 419

PanelB


Q7.1 The overall for 134 m of core was found to be 58%.

(a) estimates for the total number of of core, and the
total of those of core that could be to be
than 0.1 m
How many of core could be to have a
o- ..~."t" .. than 0.2 m, and what is their mean

Q7.2 Based on a of 128 fracture

of 0.215 m, estimate the mean
and at the 80% confidence
for an error of 1O% at the 90%

Q7.3 The mean fracture in a vertical direction in a sandstone

rock mass is 1.22 m-I, and a of 500 vertical rockbolts are
to be installed to stabilize the roof of an
rock mass. How many rockbolts would you
.. intersect no
.. intersect less than 3
.. intersect more than 4
What should the rockbolts be if 95% of them are to
intersect at least 3 i.e. extend to the fourth rock
the rock mass?

has been discovered

shows that it has surface lineations
of 78 measured from the northwest strike line. What
of these lineations?

Q7.S The line of intersection between two trends aPlDrCIXilTI

northwest and at 38. The orientation of one of
422 7.1-7.10: and

and the strike of the other is 132. What is the trend of the line of
intersection and what is the of the second

have revealed that a rock mass contains 3 fracture sets, the

and fracture of which are
and 3.07 m- I , and and 5.34
be the of the

.. a
.. a horizontal tunnel

2
t* = - - - - I n

will maximize the values. How do the values

with this cornoare to the earlier values?

Q7.7 A rock mass is known to contain two sets of the orient-

ations of which are and What borehole orientations will
allow one to drill the rock mass intersect all of the fractures
at an of 45" between the borehole axis and the normals
to the What is the minimum that all fractures can be
intersected at?

which were run down these holes show that in both

between the normal to the fractures and the hole axis is
40".
Determine the orientation of the and the trend of
the holes.

A from a borehole whose orientation is 143/68,

of 204/47. The core has a
down the of 1400
retrieval.
orientation of the fracture as it emerges from
the borehole?
 423

the mean orienta-

 III

include til

described in
426 (JlJiesjfiorlS 8.1-8. J0: rock masses

! I
!~
I

:
--

--
to
--<

a a

and then ! :
= AS a+k
E

IJ '''~I"'''IU Q8.1
 ''''~1Hnr,., 8.1-8.10: rock masses 427

from which we find

a a k
E
s = 0.05 as shown
in
For two sets with Al A, the
basic reduces to

-=1 a+2k
E
as shown

1..)"".10\'''''' Q8.2

deformation
428 8. J-8. J0: rock masses

Q8.S To the effect of a fracture on the rock

of (al - 0'3) vs. Pw the of weakness
in Section 8.1. Assume 0'3 10 MPa, C = 0 and = 35, and that the
intact rock at = 75 + the form
of the

Q8.6 If a rock mass contains more than one

the of weakness
results to a lowest-bound
Plot the 2-D variation in
two
CA = 100 = 20 and CB = 0, = 35, when
stress has the value 10 MPa. The intact rock <:tr,on .,.th
al = 75 +
(b) How would this variation if the minor ......,..,ro ....."
stress were reduced to zero?

number of fracture sets and

the

criterion. such
2-D case of a rock mass that contains four sets of
fractures inclined at 45, the shear of which are
a linear Mohr-Coulomb criterion with C = 100 kPa and
intact rock is at = 75 + Assume that the minor
stress, 0'3, is 10 MPa.

Q8.8 How does the of fractures on the rock mass

indicate some ith>T"Plnr(><:between rock mechanics and
soil mechanics?

Q8.9 The and weathered

1.3 and s = 0.00001.

The uniaxial the intact rock material is estim-
ated as a c = 40 of the fractures is
by Cr = 0, = 15 0
(a) in r-a space, the shear '-'TnPTHJT
the intact rock a fracture at residual
rock mass for normal stresses up to 10 MPa.
(b) The Hoek-Brown criterion is to be used for the of ... ntAn,h
circular cut in the rock mass. Determine values instantaneous
friction for normal stresses up to 10 MPa.

the influence of fracture consider a rock

mass two fracture sets, A and B, inclined at 45,
as shown to Fracture set A is continuous and contains
un.,n'i" while fracture set B is clean and intermittent with a 'two-
 (Ju,I>di,nn<:: 8.1-8.10: masses 429

nrf,n,n-hrw,'"I extent of of

characteristics:
<:tr,p...."th
Intact (11 75 +
Fracture set A: 100 1> 20,
Fracture set B: c 0, 1> 35

iii

to a lO-m head

of a second rock mass

ofl mm?
to the difference in

tha t the mechanical

.. y"",,u~ have the same value?

What is meant the term tr::>n<:ln1

section
block unit
is a of 3 m; on the rlo'ntn::linn
432 9.1-9.10:

,
e

bottom the head decreases from the left

11

head of 1m
head of3 m
on this side
on this side
2

is no variation in flow
rI"'~ar""i"Q
the nodal heads and hence the direction and
 ... d.n"" 9. 1-9.10: pel"me~aDifllfY 433

of in each

234 5 13 14 15 16 17 18
5.16 6.13 3.06 5.81 6.61 7.42 8.71 10.00 10.00 10.00
5.32 2.58 10.00 6.61 5.65 4.84 3.23 1.45 6.94 5.00

and hence the direction and

in each rock mass fracture for

Note that this matrix is

in the lower of the

test size 1
1.156 3.696 1.165 1.649 2.886 1.652 2.876 1.197 2.593
2.114 2.771 16.214 2.529 1.700 7.658 10.928 0.627 9.854 0.847
0.670 1.623 2.274 5.163 2.209

1.215 1.767 0.909 0.450 3.512 1.314

test size 10
1.369 1.188 2.037 1.688
test size 15
1.487 1.343 1.738
the data estimate the REV value for the
of the fractured rock mass tested.
434 DIlI~d'j,onJ: 9.1-9.10: DEmmE!lIhilitv

Q9.8 The values and directions for the

shown were
at the Morro da Usina Vazante
I. These are the mean
conductivities a rock mass volume than 3
What circumstances could cause these values and orienta-
tions?
N

K max = 1.596E4 mls

III K min l042E-6 mI,
K inl 5.927E-6 mls

Q9.9 term effective stress'.

I

If a fracture contains water under u,<:"""",, and the stresses at the

fracture surfaces are would be the effect on the
stress and on shear stress in the rock of
the water nn'",,,,n-'

in a borehole in
"':;"',,"Ul'"

to the normal IJH:;:,"I.He

water pressure in this
also creates a circumferential stress of the same H'"'!yULL'L.4L

the as in A crack
servo-controlled conditions
the crack but also the intact

I The authors are to Prof. E. Quadros and Dr. F. O. Franciss for permission to
use this "i\<tJlllLJl".
 9. J-9.10: nP>f'mp>nhjlifv 435

in the How do we with the effective stress under these

circumstances?


QJO.l On the rock

that

uniaxial "r"""""',rD('C

UCS (MPa) 52,9

PL (MPa) 2,75 2.55

We wish to can do so in
the form PL = aCTe + b or in cPL + d. the basis of
the best is
Determine
and

,"n~''-'C'HJ''', and
retained for further
438 LJIl,est!,ons 10. 1-10. 10: nl~'~'rf'nvand nh()m()oenelw

QI0.1

load
104.8 153.7 168.9 191.2 194.7 237.5 258.3
6.5 9.6 10.6 11.7 12.2 14.6 16.1
0.066 x load
148.5 164.8 197.4 220.5 232.8 236.9
6.7 10.9 6.3 7.8 8.2 7.6
0.074 x load
170.0 189.5 190.2 193.9 201.1 205.3
12.7 13.8 14.3 14.3 14.9
0.094 x load
68.9 105.3 106.2 120.1 148.5 164.8 197.4 220.5 232.8 236.9
5.5 10.1 105 11.6 14.4 20.1 22.9 20.9 21.8
 (JUlestl,ons 10.1-10.10: nnintr,.... nv Dnd inhomloaf1~n""ifv 439

of the variation in
and minimal values

the

Parallel 10

What does the term 'structural domain' mean in the context of

rock

1 2 456 7 8
461 397 453 362 389 421 382 423
440 lJuesrlons 10.1 10. 10: nnj'~ntr,nnv

On the basis of these data is there sufficient evidence to rnnrl""

that the "..u ....... ', . . should be as structural
domains?

Use the

where y(h) is h n
is the number of at location
+

np,-v.l.'pn the observations.

In the are four """'U"P''''''

curves a rock mass. In each case,
SOm.
 -
442 {Ju,estilons 1 J.J -11.1 0;

Q r r.2 With reference to fracture ,.n".Q"'~f measurements made

a site
on rock core,
- on the borehole and

table below '-'yllH,VH of how well

think that the listed n,.,ron,,,,,.ti,,,,, can measured or estimated.

The first column of the table ,."r,,.,,,,,,," the ten fracture measurements
the Use the letters G for
p

Core wall

cnart
Schmidt nammer
Feeler gauge
Visual
Timed observations
Number of sets
Block size

Qll.3 of a series of scanline surveys at a site are

as
000 355 085 153 216 271
90 35 28 51 05 12
5.54 7.93 6.02 7.00 6.99 7.65

the scanlines has

a rock mass was found to con-

tain four ~r'hn,nand as
Set 1:
Set 2:
Set 3:
Set 4:
In order to establish in which directions the rock mass an excav-
ation will encounter minimal and H'O:AUU<U the
fracture in different
calculated
 ,...iT""'~ 11.1-11.10: 443

to the fracture values in the different

directions.

Extreme values
o Local minimum
Global minimum: 3.36
<> Local maximum
Global maximum 8.86

Contour values

+ with set [lumber

of the minimal and

maximal

tests are conducted on rock masses,

Local unloading modulus -___.___....

(1.)
eo
Local reloading modulus
u..

Overall
444 lJveSfl,ons 11. 1-11. 10:

was measured to
o-r~.nli'"
to form
elements of a I-'''''<''''U mall. Ten were
tested in each of four test the values obtained were
as follows.
of test Mean value Standard deviation

Direct tension test 8.4 3.2

Point load test 9.6 3.8
Beam test 10.4 4.5
test 12.9 6.7

Are these results consistent with what know about

variation and which value would use for structural calculations?

Qll.7 The

and at zero
pore pressure.

0.00 100.84 50.20

19.89 100.80 50.20
39.60 100.77 50.20
63.40 100.74 50.20
88.67 100.71 50.21
116.18 100.68 50.21
144.68 100.65 50.22
162.38 100.63 50.22
185.23 100.58 50.24
190.62 100.56 50.25
191.99 100.54 50.25
180.22 100.52 50.26
137.56 100.49 50.26
115.79 100.46 50.27
101.93 100.43 50.28
97.97 100.40 50.28
96.98 100.37 50.28

axial stress; and

axial stress.

introduction
 11. 1-11. J0: 445

QIJ.9 The results in the table below

and shear stress recorded a direct shear test on a in slate.
The shear o to 15 mm as shown in the
MPa.

Shear 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Shear 0 281 344 344 328 281 281 297
Shear 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
281 281 266 266 266 281 281 281
Shear 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5
Shear 297 297 297 313 313 313
Shear 12.0 12.5 13.0 14.0 14.5 15.0
313 313 313 313 313 313 313

results to determine the

stress values on and shear stress

encountered reC:Orlle(l, as shown in the table below.

336 648 961 1273 1586

344 516 719 953 1156

Use these to determine the basic

i, for the fracture. Also comment on
for the failure
446 lJuesrl,ons 11. 1-1 J.1 0:

which a

measureable.

I
I

and have an orientation

been assessed as 55
and mean fracture are rar,nr'~"',-l as 60%

this rock mass, and assess the

driven east to west.

Qr2.2 A 7-m-diameter tunnel

and rock at a maximum
towards the the basalts form
the

The vertical stress and the horizontal stress is about 3.4

MPa. The nature of the route means that at some
it will head in all directions between 090" and 180,
RMR to rock will behave in the
excavation.

QJ2.3 Use the Q to assess of the mass as

described in

Q12.4 Use the Q "V(~tPln to assess the of the rock mass de-
scribed in

of RMR and Q for

He 1'''' ",j1 between the Q and
448 lJlJieS1'IOrlS 12. 1-12. J0: rock mass -.-,.~;,,;--,,;--

values. Do results r.".."o,C .... f\..,rI

RMR = 91n Q 44?

cor-

Case Histories
+ Indian
so o SC8rldinavia, U.SA
.UK

1000
Rock Mass Quality (Q)

The correlation shown on the are

A RMR 91n Q + 44
B RMR 5.91nQ 43
C RMR = 5AIn Q 55.2
o RMR 5lnQ+60.8
E RMR 10.5 In Q + 41.8

a between RMR
which of the correlations would

scheme.

the

transmission
would use in a rock mass-rock
this ",hi,c"-'!'i,

Q12.9 values determined for three

the route of a new tunnel
the flank of a mountain
 (Julesl';orIS 12.1- 12.10: rock mass classification 449

Sandstone 80 45 0.4
Mudstone 20 75 0.3
intrusions 250 10 0.2

The mass have the

in the

Sandstone
Mudstone
2 very none none

wrote down earlier.

conclude from this exercise about the
behaviour of these rock
mass

measurements of mean
on core from 12

0.259 0.304 0.875 0.292 0.467 0.412 0.350 0.368 0.438 0.389 0.280 0.318

the
I

measurements to determine values and

thence Q values the additional comment on the
h ..... rnr' ....Q,T'lo.,t" of the rock mass in terms of:

and

rock

are
rock mass.
the with those
 1 .1-1 .1

Q 13.1 There is no time "Almr'A'" in the of then

does eX1Drt~SSea in units of stress, have time in its

Q 13.2 A lO-mm-diameter core of intact marble is

to a of 1 m. The core is
and then struck gently at one end to
the as shown below.
the transmission of stress waves.

- . .- - - - -. .- - <II Impulse

modulus of the marble is 50 GPa and the unit

, estimate the time taken for the stress wave to
travel from one end of the core to the other.
Given that marble has a trPlncri-h to

QJ3.3 What is the ratio in terms of the elastic rock constants and
what is the the for a rock with v = 0.27?

rock is to be tested in uniaxial com-

strain control in a servo-controlled
modulus of the rock is 60 GPa and the

about 10 minutes. What

machine

QJ3.S The results in the table below show the axial

radial strain induced in a of weak chalk a
452 Questions 13.1-13.10: rock and time rlp.npjnrlj~n(v

4 5 7

0.414 0.419 0.423 0.427 0.430

Radial strain
-451 -461 -471 -479 -487
8 9 10 11 12

0.438 0.440 0.441 0.443 0.444 0.445 0.447 0.447

Radial strain

a
for the various viscoelastic constants.

QJ3.6 On In
and intcr-

rock mass
rock
of intact rock and for an abandoned chalk mine excavation
and as shown below.

QJ3.7

Number of
from 0 to 50
o 99.5
100 90.1
200
300 71.6
400
500
600 65.1
 ,"'<:fIno.: 13. 1-13. 10: flVlnOI'YIU'", and time 453

The rock number of

the left-hand
the values in the <>nt_n,"'n<1 column.
Plot these results of on Lies on and
comment on the trend.

Q13.8 How do fractures to stress waves? What do

are the influences a load on the fracture shear
What the fractures below are to
shear movements?

Q13.9 bedded rock

strata to to an extensile strain
rate of I x 10 that all
the strain accumulated in the mass is concentrated in the
How will it be before the the

Horizontal fault

The tunnel oriented nC"rnc'n to the

454 II..JlJleSl'IOrIS 13.1-13. 10: rock rivr.N ...urc: and time ''''',n'''''''''''n,'V

zontal tectonic stress, UH. The tunnel deformations have been described
as follows:
after the sidewalls started
which were
heave was obvious. These
with time. Void formation in the
with time leads to serious over-

the inwards motion of the comer areas near the

A~',,,,~u'" whereas the ,.,,(,t_lnn
tunnel cross-section is
form ... Bottom at some locations were
40 em within 131
sidewall have been ,-,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,<>01

these observations in terms of the basic mechanisms involved.



a one-sentence answer mass,

water flow in
can affect the rock

QJ4.2 Draw an interaction matrix h"",n'l'1.O'

Water Flow as the

interaction matrix.

Under what conditions is a matrix "''''Tlnno,'r,r';, will almost

all rock mechanics interaction matrices be

In order also the interaction rock

activities with the rock mechanics extend the 3 x 3 interaction
matrix of to a 4 x 4 interaction matrix
term CONSTRUCTION. Write a nn,p_n,nr;><,o
content of each of
the

QJ4.5 The use of the interaction matrix is

manifold factors. The
are established first.
the are considered in the

the content of the

to be related.
456 Dlleslfio,u 14.1-14.10: rack mf!CnUniCS interactions

the interaction matrix

Ifa

excavation. List
of the rock stresses and

These numbers
matrix to the
For each TW,nr,,,.,,,

ates
1+4+1
interaction
factor in the interactive cu"t.o,....
Cause and Effect axes.
 UL,es1~jor1S 14.1-14.10: rock ITIprnt~n"r" interadions 457

PI. P2. Folds P3. Faults P4. Rainfall

P5. Freeze P6. Previous P7. Intact rock P8.
and thaw
P9. Number P12. Persistence

P13. P14. Mechanical PIS. Rock mass P16.

P17. P18. P19. In situ P20. Potential

orienta tion dimensions stress

arrlet,ers as the

C+E C - E as follows.

PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 PlO
C 24 34 52 17 21 22 15 9 24 28
5 4 3 4 17 42 8 27 13 12
C+ 29 38 55 21 38 64 23 36 37 40
C 19 30 49 13 4 -20 7 -18 11 16
Pll P12 P13 P14 PIS PI6 P17 PI8 P19 P20
C 27 26 18 9 9 21 21 8 18 0
22 19 20 26 40 29 19 16 60
+E 49 45 38 35 49 27 44 60
C 5 7 -2 -17 -31 -8 4 -11 2 -60

C - E axes, and hence

are the most
are the most
subordinate.

engITleerU1lg actions can or eliminate

the mechanisms in the
 1 .1-
i I

stress-strain curve has

<'AIm ....",,,,,,,

spleClme~n of intact tested in uniaxial r"'Ylnr"~";"

50 mm in diameter. Assume
to the bilinear

crostructure has been

cy,."."tl'" or less than the answer to

there is a Qlt!er,en<:e

QJS.3 A tunnel is a
full-face machine a

in the
460 Questions 15,1 15,10: excavation nrrnCj'nlf~"

For the case where the TBM has 500-V electrical motors
the head. Each motor uses
the head is

For the same

continuous
3.6
to the

values ob-
circumstances of a
tunnel ma-
chine?

Q J 5.5 The ,~""u'f'.n

removes the rock to the

This rock removed up

to the

to be controlled to ensure

that
bulk

'''''''''''''' affected the

more of the
controlled.

Q1S.6
Ul.lieS'!;IOfIS 15.1-15.10: excavation OrlllClt,'es 461
462 I",l1.J.t:'l>l"{)(ll> 15. 1-15. 10: excavation nrlnrln'..

.... 10
.... 20

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
....... 20
. . . . . . . . . . .. . 50
Plane Orientation
Horizontal .. ..... ..... . 10
out of face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
normal to face. . . . . . . . . . . 30
... 40

Hardness
H = hardness on scale 1-10

The of as
Bl SGI+
which is

are:
also via Point
 IP~fjn'l'I:: 15.1-15.10: excavation onnCI'Olf!"O 463

c, MPa and friction

with
Mass
been

two progress

c: the rate at which a wIlen the tunnel-

rale, Cm/hr Advance rate, A

scale) mlhr (log scale)
r-~~~-----~---~------------~10

..............................~_ _ _ _ .......::.:.,,:.J .1
1 mth 1 yr

The terms to to the rates, and

Barton noted that the of TBM tunnels lie between the 'Good'
and 'Poor' lines.
Give at least five reasons such lines occur, Le. the value of U
decreases with time.

excavation is made in a rock mass,

all three of which result from Newton's 3rd
when
464 l..Ju'e'101'lUfIS 15.1-15. 10: excavation linn"''' ....'

Draw a sketch of these three effects and cause a

so-called Excavation Disturbed Zone

increased

(b) Can tunnel rates be m-

creased?
Are new methods of excavation to be introduced?


Q16.1 When rockbolts are used for

surface or excavations
to reinforce a fractured rock b
the rockbolts will be
shear

Q16.2 A rock

What is this fJ, such that the

tension in the rock bolt is
minimized?
T

Rockbolt

Q J 6.3 The sketch below shows a rock block a and

a rockbolt The the interface
is of
466 16.1-16.10: rock rock

both these cases.

(b) For the situation when W 1000
what bolt tension is to
the cases?
Examine the behaviour
as the bolt tension varies
the force
we use
excess of I?
Rock boIts function
are sometimes rDr,cu"... ".r!
this force. In
Should we

we a of three for the rock

we use tensioned or untensioned bolts?

blocks of

QI6.S

at which
 j"''l:TI'nn~ J6. J-J6. JO: 467

to around
the excavation.

on fractures in rock
the stresses
the normal and

excavation to be C';""'.J.U""

-~r/R

excavation
468 16.1-16.10; rock fnrrp.rnp.'''If and rock

Support
Rock pressure
displacement

L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Rock
displacement

With reference to these curves,

the in situ stress condition excavation cannot be re-estab-
the after
~"'''u,~~. to insist that the rock
whatsoever occurs.

a radial convergence 1 mm.

Q16.10 The
z

0'1.

stiffness. Use this

the ratio
 six basic
mechanisms can occur beneath a foundation
on a fractured mass indicated the
fine the
470 17. 1-17. 10; foundation and mechanisms

the method of equilibrium

to the case of walls. The ABC
is restrained in three cases the
AB:
the centroid of

(b) distribution p from the

and
(c) by a pressure distribution of the
face to q at the where
In each case, derive an
case of F = 1

B c

w
a)

A _\-

Q J 7.3 For the case of

an
in the same direction as that of the

where the is from = sin f3/ sin and the

f3 and ~ are defined as shown below.

in a
with a horizontal
orientations 182/52 and and friction

Q17.4 Determine an upper bound for the '-'-'JlHU"'''''- ......;;C"" H

foundation shown below of three rock

fracture sets in the rock mass.
 (Ju,esti,ons 17. 1-17. 10: rounm[]T/CIn and .n"m.rumv mechanisms 4 71

6m
p

-~...;...;..;..~---..,..- All angles 60

c'= 25 kN/m 3
y 24 kN/m 3
$' = 0

7.6 Assume same circumstances in

when the block DBC

for the radial stress load of

nonnal to the surface of a ""' ...,.,,-.,,., is
2P sin (j
O'r
nr
472 I.../l.JfeSl'IOfIS 17.1-17.10: foundation and mechanisms

Sketch the locus constant G r for {}, and show how the
above leads to the ofa "",,,,,,,,r,a'. For the case
UIJ~JH"'U line load is not normal to the
zones

thls
has for site

The

Given B is twice as
B. show that there is no

the sector and comment

on any numerical solution and the
solution.


I A is of a series
of horizontal strata. The associated

Fracture defor-
tic modulus mation modulus

0 weathered sandstone 61 4.0 18.0

3 weathered sandstone 98 5.0 20.0
8 weathered limestone 80 39 115
10 100 4D 120
End of hole at 12 m
(a) Calculate the modulus for the ,..,r,e>r.-nn"t 10 m of
the rock mass.
A

contains a
strata
may be calculated

for each of the i

the intact Ai
the

a vertical
474 , .. ""nn .. 18. 1-18, 10: of surface excavations

QJ8.3 A r.n,~n"',r! in a rock mass which contains four

directions and as follows:

Set 1 2 3 4

The rock mass can be considered

and the of friction for all
is 30.

(Le. 0, 15, 30, .. ,' 345, and use

kinematic techniques to pre-
a table the safe

mode at each azimuth.

QJ8.4 a similar table as in but for the case when the

friction

crest around
the quarry excavation
Determine the best orientation for a radial access
that the road can be constructed in any
orientation is for a road with the

for an unknown friction

Q18.6 Add due to of

can
"", H:,.-n "'r! with

are 60.
site has established that the rock mass
contains four dominant sets of the mean
oden ta tions:
Feature set A set B
75 45 28"
direction 3300 080" 260 0
 18.1-18.10: excavations 475

Variable tan;
Mean 055 50 60"
Standard deviation 0.15 5 10

value of x-ordinate is radial stress on the

zero, and will the stress state on the to
be Over what
476 ":""fln,,,, 18. 1-18. 10: of surface excavations

of virtual determine the value of P

for for the foundation shown below.

C
y=25
AD & SD: c' 50 kPa, 4>'
CD: c'=25kPa,q,'=20


iii

QJ9. J The 5,Om 5,Om

tions:
Set
1 0580 54
2 1950 70"
3 127" 81"
4 160" 32
5 335" 64

Each set has

30 and zero is Of(Jo()sea
axis of the machine hall 0300 and

of all the tetrahedral blocks formed

the intersection

Q J 9.2 For the roof blocks established in the answer to

determine the of and of
relevant.

blocks established in the answer to

that from the roof
and hence

QJ9.4 19.1 and 19.2 for the

QJ9.5 19.1 and 19.2 for side B illustrated in

478 LlUeSTIOns J9. l-J 9. 10: excavation lll!iI"UUliIlJY mf"rnnn,I'l:ITI'l:

QJ9.6 For both the haunch A and the side wall B studied in
and and with the in calculate of
of the block formed fracture sets 1, 2 and 5.

rock
tensile
the rock on the tunnel
k=
k = 2.S?
A second is
and at the same centre line level as, the
of is 10 m.
the tunnels for the stresses

shows the relative nnc.t,nr",

zontal each 3 m in diameter. Prior to
stresses in the area were Px Pl' = P~ 11 MPa.
Sm 3m

4m

Determine the A
after excavation has
A horizontal fault coincident with the x-axis passes
the shear of the fault is with =
on the fault occur at

QJ9.9 An ovaloid excavation at a in vertical sec-

tion its axis and the ratio of its width to
The radius of curvature of its ends is to half its
that the in situ stress state can be on the basis of
lateral restraint in a CHILE
y 28.0 and v 0.3.
An elastic k = 0 shows that the stress
and in the side wall is 104 MPa.
stresses of 4.59 MPa and
for
the in situ stress state?
the for stresses in terms of radius of curvature:
I ... djrnn~ 19.1-19.10: un,:1...rnrn excavation lSf(JDI,fHV mechanisms 479

the excavation with that

excavation with the same and
the stress in the side wall with that for a of
radius of curvature.

excavation are inclined

are in the ratio 2.5: 1. The
field stresses are 8.5 MFa and 25.5

>-QILLLWlI,C the maximum and minimum elastic stress values induced

the excavation.
of failure the on the excavation
on the basis "tr,Pyunh of rock in (y\,m1"1,n:>"" is
c = 30 MPa and 4> = 40, tension is zero.
 ,
Installation

.~

(a) (b) (e)

Excavation prolils

asked for an initial decision on

structure ten .., ...<u.,,-,

A site is
It is
482 .... d.inn<: 20. 1-20. 10: of excavations

about 2000 m and use these for

the fractured rock mass. water will
and will then be extracted from
A

rock mass contains

and

is so
hence
The water
hole such that

induced on a fracture from

will be the
the lnl,,,,,,.iAn
so that a vertical flow

fracture set

the
rock mass when water is at the
Does this affect the layout of of the
and if so, how?

Q20.4 A circular tunnel of radius 4 m is to be driven in a weak rock

h.,,'rt,,t1 to an in situ stress of 9 MPa. The triaxial
<:trpn,rrtt,<: of the rock mass in its initial and fractured states

instabil-

response curves for the sidewalls and

f = 1.4 and y = 25 , and comment on the

Q20.S For the of of a

O'Pt"lrrlPtl",P<: consist of excavated rooms

 20.1-20.10: of excavations 483

X 10-- 3
X I
x

been undertaken a CHILE bound-

to determine the relation between

Perform
in
stress-strain

(1 5.0 8.0 10.0 11.1 11.4 10.9 10,0 8.7 3,0

05 1,0 1.5 2,0 25 3,0 35 4,0 7,0 12,0

A new which can extract from one

of two coal seams, of 250 m and has
thickness of 3 m; and the of 500 m with a
thickness of 1 m,
calls for

direction is into the

Centreline Panel edge

--~-Mined
484 20.1-20.10: excavations

estimates of the surface subsidence and horizontal strain distri-

bution transverse to the direction
Assess the of the extraction for each seam

ratio
maximal subsidence to extraction
the and lower seams, re~;De'ct-
of subsidence that occurs at a

Subsidence
0.95 0.90 0.80 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ratio of
distance from

0.08 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.29 0.32 0.38 0.42 0.62 1.11

the transverse
the SEH.

Strain
-0.70 -0.80 -1.00 -0.80 -0.400.000.40 0.80 1.000.800.600.400.200.00
Ratio of
distance from

0.00 0.02 0.11 0.19 0.24 0.290.310.380.420.490.520.590.67 1.11

In the the maximum contractile and ,pvlhon",i

strains for these width to ratios are both

0.7.

A bauxite room and

mass whose unit is
mine calls for a factor of
,-"uuu.:>, and the

reasons, rooms must have a minimum width of

o-,.""t.P"t extraction ratio that can be achieved with
size of
If of a room is with rock then the
maximum achievable width is about 8 m. Is it cost effective to
do this?
 LJuI2sfl,ons 20. 1-20.10: Jnc'~rlrJrrUlfiln excavations 485

are each m square, and

Examination of the
bedded with moderate .. nOWlrHY

Use these values

to determine the at
their faces and to
average vertical stress
Use the area
the and hence determine the factor of

what is the
486 20. J-20. 10: excavations

It is considered that the backfill will offer sufficient to nt',DM""'

of side walls and that the
is maximum
in these circumstances?
 of a mass under biaxial and
Int, J. Rock 25,1,3-13.
Bankwitz P. and Bankwitz E.
Drill Cores

Barton N,
tinuities in rock masses. In/,
319-368.
Tunnels and

American Geolo-

New York.

Bieniawski Z. T.

Borowski E. J. and Borwein J. M. of Mathematics,

Blackie London, 2nd

strain Int. J. Rock

Mil/.
Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow, US National Com-
mittee for Rock Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow. National
>Laue,",,] Press,

Cristescu N. D. and Hunsche U. Time in Rock Mechanics.

New
Daemen J, J. K.
of shafts. Int. ,. Rock
Davis J. c. Stalistics and Data IU11H"'~'" In ~vvw,"~. New York,
Fairhurst C. E. and Hudson J. A. SUlllle'sted method for the
488 References

stress-strain curve for intact rock in uniaxial COlml=lre:5sic::m. Int. J.

Min. 36, 3, 279-289.
E., Holt R. M., Horsrud P., Raaen A. M. and Risnes R. Petroleum
Related Rock Mechanics. I".ls.eV:ler.
Fookes P. G.

Measurement in
G. Sammis and

Harrison J. P. assessments.
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Hoek E. Mohr-Coulomb friction and cohesion values from
the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. Int. f. Rock Mech. Min. 27,3,227-229.
Hoek E. and J. W. Rock Institution of and

Il1riprD"rrllJl1ri Excavations in Rock. Institution of

Hoek-Brown failure criterion

Proc. 15th Canadian Rock Mecil. of
Hoek E. and Brown E. T. Practical estimates of rock mass .... m .. nl.rrn
Rock Mech. Min. 34, 8, 1165-1186.
Hoek E., Bawden W. F. and Kaiser P. K. Excavations
in Hard Rock.
Hudson J. A. Practice. CIRlA

of rock mechanics
US Rock Mechanics
G. A. Scott and P.

Rock Medlanics: An Intro-

for rock

Kim K. and Franklin SUlggt~stt~d methods for rock stress dctcrmina-

tion. Int. J Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomech. 24, 1,53-73.
 489

The Modern eLm"""." of Rock tlla"tmil.

for the

Mazzoccola D. and Hudson J. A. A cOllilpr,ehensi1Je

mass characterization for HlUILallH
29,37-56.
Miles R. E. random lines in a

National Coal
National Coal
Pan X. D.

663-690.

of variable

IJ""O;>I""An Press, "'An,,,,,,,

ge()ml~cl1lanical classification for
Vol. 3, Ch. 23 a. A.
pp.
Mn\lpr'<; Nouveaux de Reconnaissance des Massifs Rocheux.
to Annales de de Batiment et des Travaux 20,
236, 1055-1093 illustrated in Goodman R. E. Introduction to Rock
and
Ultimate
discontinuous rock mass, Part 1. Basic modes of
Sci., 35, 3, 301-324.
B. and Goel R. K. Rock Mass L.1~1""'.I'L~"lVfI.
Smith G. J. and Rosenbaum M. S.
490 References

abandoned chalk mine UJr,,.l<me,,, beneath NOI"\lIich Norfolk. Ceo!.,

36,37-78.
Sonmez H. and Modifications to the index
and their aOIDlIiCa[)lIItv of Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
36, 743-760.
O. Hudson
DECOVALEX 11

Su

conical-ended borehole ""'or"'I'>r'.... o.

Sci., 36, 3, 307-322.
Ian T. J. The as
revealed from case records in
Vo!' 3. Press,
Use of rock mass classifications for rir,,,ri'-"1n.O"
5, 859-864.
Rock Support and
of the International
Rotterdam,

535-542.
J.
WeiZ.
Int. in
Press, pp. 54-62.
Whittaker B. N. and Russell C. F. (1990)
lion. Institution of and
Wilson D.
Sci. 34,

of tunnels of the new high Cologne-

Line. ISRM News J., 5, 3, 26-33.
K. (1995) Rock Foundation. "rr'N,,,rt,,n
International Wr,,.I,,,hr.n on Rock Tokyo, Balkema,
 -

cube. It is

l 1 r
THE STI?ESS CUBE

j
COMPRESSION POSITIVE aod RIGHT HANDED AX.S
 and
pnJlectlon can
 The to the in 12.
used the term 'fracture' in this
Q classifications used words 'discon-
To avoid confusion with the
rPt",r,p('1 these words in the tables

1
mass _'CY,1:II1I'I1'II

RMR

1-2 2-4 4--10 >10

* * *
5--25 25--50 1OD--25O >250

0 1 2 4 12 15
A For this low range, uniaxial test is

Groundwater
125 25--125 10-25 <10 none

>0.5 0.2--0.5 0.1--0.2 <0.1 0

0 4 7 10 15

I Bieniawski Z. (1989) Rock Mass Chichester,

496 Ann~lnl1l'l( c: mass classilficcJticln tables - RMR Q

Drill core (%)

<25 25-50 50-75 75-90 90-100

3 8 13 17 20

of discontinuities
<60 mm 60-200 mm 200-600mm 0.6-2m >2m
5 8 10 15 20

Condition of discontinuities

rock continuous
wall rock
o 10 20 25 30

<1 m 1-3 m 3-lOm 10-20 m >20m

6 4 2 1 o

none <0.1 mm 0.1-1.0 mm 1-5mm mm

6 5 4 1 o

smooth slickensides
6 5 3 1 o

soft
none <Smm >5mm <5mm >Smm
6 4 2 2 o

unweathered

b
 D.n,~.,nrltv C: Rock mass cla!~sitication tables - RMR and Q 497

20-45
fair unfavourable

'l'TP:'In,[>ctivp of strike

unfavourable

fa- Favour- Fair Unfavour- unfa-

able able vourable

Tunnels and mines 0 -2 -5 -10 -12

Foundations 0 -2 -7 -15
0 -5 -25 -50

mass

100-81 80-61 60-41 40-21 <20

Class no. I II III IV V
rock fa ir rock rock

mass

Class no .. II III IV v
Av.'r;,crp "',,""c!-UllJ time 20 yr for 1 yr for 1 wk for 10 h for 30 min for
15-m span ID-m span5-m span 2.5-m span I-m span
Cohesion of rock mass >400 300-400 200-300

Friction of rock mass >45 35-45 25-35 15-25

498 RMRandQ

c:c: 11'11".'11'11 ft In 2

Jr
Q --x X
In Ja SRF
Rock ~; ....... "

0-25
25-50
50-75
75-90
90-100
is or measured as 10 'LHAU1"'l'. 0), a nominal value
used to evaluate Q. intervals of Le. 100, 95, etc., are
accurate.

12
15 cube', etc.
20

Rnn .. hn .. <:<: Number

4
3 small-scale
2.0
1.5 scale
1.5
1.0
0.5 intermediate-scale
Wi) No rock wall contact wherl sheared
1.0 minerals thick to nn'v~'nr rock

1.0 0) or crushed zone thick rock

wall contact

can be
rmrnn,rI""rI the lineations are b"".",,.,,, h, nripnl;!t~'rl
to (g) refer to small-scale features and intermediate-scale
in that order.

2 Barton, N" Lien R. and Lunde J. (1974) ':noinp,f'ri'H' dassifiUllion of ruck masses for
the of tunnel support. Rock Mech" 6,
 Anl,,,,ndjr C: Rock moss rln't<:if,!rnfinn tables - RMR and Q 499

Alteration Number
(i) Rock wall contact

1.0 25-35"
2.0 25-30"

3.0

(ii)
4.0 25-30"
etc.
6.0 16-24

8.0 (h) 12-16

8.0-12.0 0) 6-12"

(iii) No rock wall contact when sheared

6.0,8.0 (k) Zones or bands of 6-24"
or 8.0-12.0 (h), (j) for rl"",rnnti{)n

5.0
fraction
10.0, 13.0 continuOlL':i zones or bands of
or 13.0-20.0 (j) for of

Values of <p,
n"rw,.,,.h,,,,, of the alteration jJLU'UU'U",
500 AD,OerIUlX C; Rock moss rln,."ifiirnfinn tables - RMR and Q

Stress Reduction Factor (SRf)

(i) Weakness zones excavation, which may cause of
rock mass when tunnel is excavated
10.0 'n~uulv": occurrences of weakness zones (',.."nbln, ... O>
very loose

5.0

2.5

7.5

5.0 of
excavation <50
2.5 (f) shear zones in "o,mr,pt.>nt of

5.0 or cube', etc.

2.5 >200 >13

1.0 200-10 13-0.66
05-2.0 10-5 0.66-0.33

5-10 5-2.5 0.33-0.16

<2.5 <0.16
(iii) rock ,mder tile

5-10
10-20
presence

but do not intersect, the excavation.

b Few case records available where of crown below surface is less than
span SRF increase from 2.5 to 5 for such cases. For
:::: 10: reduce
 ... n'''An,,,,,, C: Rock mass rll1!:!:lfllrl1,'lnn tables RMR Q 501

Water Reduction Factor (Jw)

1.0 excavations or minor

0.66 Medium inflow or pressure, occasional outwash 1.0-2.5

of
0.5 rock 2.5-10.0

0.33 2.5-10.0

0.2-0.1 10.0

0.1-0.05 10.0

are crude estimates. Increase Jw if measures are

due to ice formation are not considered.

estimates of the Rock Mass

be
(1) When borehole core is
masses can be
where J, total number
J v is evaluated as the sum
set.

as in

the intact rock

502 Annelnl1J!lC C: Rock mass (",,,~,' ....nl"nn tables RMR and Q

should be evaluated in the saturated condition if this is """,." ..r,,,,~'i,,,.',,,

or future in situ A conservative estimate
should be made for that deteriorate
c>Y,nn"'c>rl to moist or saturated conditions.
 I

273 law 144

DIANE 160,238
accuracy 161, 164
tunnels 361,382
advance rate of TBM 259
Alto Lindoso Dam 311
n'e,,,t,.,,,... ,, 60, 159 EDZ 271
437 effective stress 155
clastic

bias 161 rock 316

indices 257 excavations 366
energy 251 energy for failure 250
blocks on 305 rock mechanics 3
Buddhist 35
excavation 247
cause-effect 239 excavation disturbed zone 260
cavern 477
block 343
undersea 25 459
Channel Tunnel 266
CHILE 160, 238
Chilean mines
subsidence 387

curve 72 excavations 358

stress-strain curve 72, 222 failure criteria 81
core 224
176
fracture orientation 112 flow
calculation 101 foundations 285
227 288,300
rate of TBM 259 mechanisms
469
dam foundation 332 292+,335
504 Index

fracture 90 interactions 231

Sciences

rl i th>TIPnt directions International for Rock

Mechanics 9
occurrence 103 introduction
intersection direction 105 401
per'slslteni:e and 137
314
319
set orientation 113

modulus of rock mass 183

Mohr-Coulomb 75
Mountsorrel 91

distribution 93
7 feedback 242
dolomite 90
380
"hilarli""." of ",;~oarin'" 248

343

393
Hooke!s law factor of 391
Hoover Dam 105
feedback 242
164
fractures 253
144 stresses 36
directions purpose of book xii

in sitll rock stress 39

409 397

references 487
intact rock 71 reinforcement of rock 265
417 465
234-243
 505

RES 231

289

495
and Q correlations 203
road 14 energy 250
rock stabilization 265
block 343
block size distribution 248
215

343

mass Ud::>::>ll1L,ClUlJl
mass classification
447
mass classification and strain 57
"eln"""'DC 213 61
for natural
rates 215
mass classification for unlined gas identification
rock caverns 206
modulus 122 stress 28
194+, 207, 393,
nrlPT'TTOllnrl excavations
masses 118

invariants 34
literature 56
measurement 44
407
reinforcement 265 states 32
rockbolt 267 tensor addition 33, 43
268 42
transformation 45, 50, 51
andQ waves 216
threshold 106 structural domain 168
subsidence above coal mines 387
scan line surveys 179 ~u)!;)!;e~i[eu Methods of ISRM 192
71

shear 473
modulus 61
188
of weakness 120, TBM
232, 397
size of unstable rock blocks 347 184
 pr", .. ,w.nri space usage 262

utilisation factor of TBM 259

viscoelastic model 219

volume
74
of unstable rock blocks 347

UDEC 191 water flow and strain 226