Plant Cells
shape - most plant cells are squarish or
rectangular in shape.
Amyloplast (starch storage organelle)- an
organelle in some plant cells that stores
starch. Amyloplasts are found in starchy plants
like tubers and fruits.
Cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and
fat that surrounds the cell, but is inside the
cell wall. The cell membrane is
semipermeable, allowing some substances to
pass into the cell and blocking others.
Cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that
surrounds a plant cell. This layer of cellulose
fiber gives the cell most of its support and
structure. The cell wall also bonds with other
cell walls to form the structure of the plant.
Chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped
organelle containing chlorophyll.
Photosynthesis (in which energy from sunlight
is converted into chemical energy - food) takes
place in the chloroplasts.
Chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that
can use light energy from sunlight to turn
water and carbon dioxide gas into glucose and
oxygen (i.e. photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is
green.
Cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the
cell nucleus in which the organelles are
located.
Golgi body - (or the Golgi apparatus or Golgi
complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like
organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes
and is located near the nucleus. The Golgi
body modifies, processes and packages
proteins, lipids and carbohydrates into
membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from
the cell.
Lysosome - vesicles containing digestive
enzymes. Where the digestion of cell nutrients
takes place.
Mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped
organelles with a double membrane. The inner
membrane is infolded many times, forming a
series of projections (called cristae). The
mitochondrion converts the energy stored in
glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a
high energy molecule, for use by cell.
Nuclear membrane - the membrane that
surrounds the nucleus.
Nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus.
Ribosomal RNA is produced here, then
exported into the cytoplasm where it forms the
ribosomes.
Nucleus - The nucleus is a spherical body
surrounded by the nuclear membrane. It
contains mostly
DNA in chromosomes. The nucleus controls
many of the functions of the cell (by
controlling protein synthesis). The nucleolus is
found within the nucleus.
Ribosome - small organelles composed of
RNA. Are sites of protein synthesis.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER)
a vast system of interconnected, membranous,
infolded and convoluted sacks that are located
in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous
with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER
is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough
appearance. Rough ER transport materials and
produces proteins (which are sent to the Golgi
body, or inserted into the cell membrane).
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth
ER) a vast system of interconnected,
membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes
that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER
is continuous with the outer nuclear
membrane). It produces lipids (fats) and
membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off from
rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins
and lipids to the Golgi body for further
processing and to the membranes.
Vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space
within a plant cell that is filled with fluid,
mostly water.
Most plant cells have a single vacuole that
takes up much of the cell. It helps maintain
water balance and the shape of the cell.
Vesicle - a small, membrane-bound space
that helps to transport material in/out or
within the cell. Some are storage vessels. eg.
proteins produced in the rough endoplasmic
reticulum are transported by vesicles produced
at the tips of the rough ER, to the Golgi body,
for processing.
Animal Cell
Shape - most animal cells are roundish or
irregular in shape.
Cell membrane
Centriole - during cell division in animal
cells, two pairs of centrioles form from
microtubules at each end of the cell. The two
centrioles are arranged perpendicular to
each other. Microtubules formed in the
centriole grow into spindle fibers which then
attach to replicated chromosomes and assist
in separating them during mitosis.
Cytoplasm
Golgi body
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
Nuclear membrane
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Ribosome
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded
cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with
food being digested and waste material that
is on its way out of the cell. Smaller than
plant cell vacuole.
Vesicle
Chloroplasts - sites of photosynthesis - in nearly
all plants and some protists trap light energy and
convert it into chemical energy have double
membrane structure - inner space is the stroma.
Within the stroma have a series of stacks of
flattened membrane structures called thylakoids
the stacks are called grana.
sorts, concentrates and packs them into
sealed droplets called vesicles.
The endomembrane system includes the
nuclear envelope, lysosomes, vesicles, the
ER, and Golgi apparatus, as well as the
plasma membrane. These cellular
components work together to modify,
package, tag, and transport proteins and
lipids that form the membranes.

The RER modifies proteins and synthesizes

The light energy trapping molecules of
photosynthesis are found in the membranes of
the thylakoids.
Plants have cell walls made of cellulose.
During cell division plant cells build dividing walls
between the two new cells called the cell plate.
An adhesive layer the middle lamella - is laid
down between the new cell walls.
phospholipids used in cell membranes.
The SER synthesizes carbohydrates, lipids,
and steroid hormones; engages in the
detoxification of medications and poisons;
and stores calcium ions. Sorting, tagging,
packaging, and distribution of lipids and
proteins take place in the Golgi apparatus.
Lysosomes are created by the budding of
the membranes of the RER and Golgi.
Lysosomes digest macromolecules, recycle
worn-out organelles, and destroy
pathogens.

Cell walls can be thickened through the addition

of materials to the inside of the primary cell wall.

Golgi apparatus(or complex, or body, or

the Golgi) is found in all plant and
animal cells and is the term given to
groups of flattened disc-like structures
located close to the endoplasmic
reticulum.
The number of Golgi apparatus within a
cell is variable. Animal cells tend to have
fewer and larger Golgi apparatus. Plant
cells can contain as many as several
hundred smaller versions.
The Golgi apparatus receives proteins and
lipids (fats) from the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. It modifies some of them and
All eukaryotic cells have the following:
A nucleus
Genetic material
A plasma membrane
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm, including the cytoskeleton
Pili: They are short protein appendages,
which fixes bacteria to surfaces. These pili
are smaller than those flagella and are
used in conjugation to exchange the
genetic information.
Ribosomes are made inside the nucleolus
and then sent outside the nucleus to make
proteins.
The most important function of the
nucleus is to store the cell's genetic
information in the form of DNA. DNA
holds the instructions for how the cell
should work. DNA stands for
deoxyribonucleic acid. The molecules of
DNA are organized into special structures
called chromosomes. Sections of DNA
are called genes which hold hereditary
information such as eye color and height.

Flagella: They are rigid rotating tail. The

clockwise rotation moves the cell forward
and anticlockwise rotation helps the cell to
spin. The rotation is powered by H+
gradient across the cell membrane.

Pseudopod: are temporary cytoplasmic

projections of cell membrane in certain
unicellular protists such as amoeba.
Pseudopods, also called pseudopodia
(singular: pseudopodium), literally means
false foot. That is because they are
associated with locomotion. Amoeba, for
instance, moves in distinctively crawling-
like manner in which the cell forms
pseudopods towards the front of the cell.

The nucleus is perhaps the most

important structure inside animal and Where did Eukaryotic Cells come from?
plant cells. It is the main control center
The oldest rocks with evidence of fossil
for the cell and acts kind of like the cell's
cells date to 3.5 billion years. The oldest
brain. Only eukaryotic cells have a
rocks with cells large and complex enough
nucleus. In fact, the definition of a
to be eukaryotic date to 1.0 billion years.
eukaryotic cell is that it contains a nucleus
For 2.5 billion years only prokaryotic cells
while a prokaryotic cell is defined as not
existed on earth. The best hypothesis for
having a nucleus.
the origin of eukaryotic cells was proposed
The nucleus is an organelle within the
by Lynn Margulis in the early 1970s. This
cell. This means it has a special function
hypothesis is now called the
and is surrounded by a membrane that
Endosymbiotic Hypothesis.
protects it from the rest of the cell. It
Eukaryotic cells appear to be the product
floats within the cytoplasm (the fluid
of a collaboration among different types of
inside the cell).
prokaryotic cells.
The nuclear envelope is made up of two
separate membranes: the outer
membrane and the inner membrane. The
envelope protects the nucleus from the
rest of the cytoplasm in the cell and keeps
the special molecules within the nucleus
from getting out.
The nucleolus is a large structure in the
nucleus that mainly makes ribosomes and
RNA.
The nucleoplasm is the liquid that fills the
inside of the nucleus. Some prokaryotic cells became the host
Chromatin are composed of proteins and for other prokaryotic cells that lived inside
DNA. They organize into chromosomes them. Some of the complex organelles of
prior to the cell dividing. eukaryotes provide evidence for this
The pores are small channels through the theory.
nuclear envelope. They allow for smaller
molecules to pass through such as Mitochondria and chloroplasts appear to
messenger RNA molecules, but keep be the direct descendants of energy
larger DNA molecules inside the nucleus.
 producing bacteria. Mitochondria are the
descendants of bacteria that were capable
of oxidative respiration.
Chloroplasts are the descendants of
photosynthetic bacteria.
Evidence:
Both have their own DNA and ribosomes that are
similar to those found in prokaryotes. Both make
many of their own proteins and both multiply in a
fashion similar to prokaryotic cell division. Both
are double membrane organelles - the inner
membrane descended from the ancestral guest
cell, and the outer membrane descended from
the vacuole membrane that was formed around
the guest.
Other organelles may also be the product of
endosymbiosis.
Some centrioles and basal bodies have naked
DNA as part of their structure.
There are many modern examples of
endosymbiosis involving organisms that can live
together or live independently. The same was
probably true of the ancestors of endosymbiotic
organelles in the distant past.
CELL STRUCTURE
A Review of All Cell Organelles Through Q&As
Cell Theory
1. What is cell theory?
Cell theory states that the cell is the basic unit of
living organisms.
Before the discovery of the cell, people were
unaware that living organisms were made of
building blocks like cells.
Cell theory is one of the basic theories of biology.
All organisms are constructed of and by cells.
All cells arise from preexisting cells. Cells
contain the information necessary for their own
reproduction. No new cells are originating
spontaneously on earth today.
Cells are the functional units of life. All
biochemical processes are carried out by cells.
Groups of cells can be organized and function
as multicellular organisms
Cells of multicellular organisms can become
specialized in form and function to carry out
subprocesses of the multicellular organism.
2. Are there living organisms without cells?
Viruses are considered the only living organisms
that do not have cells. Viruses are made up of
genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a
protein capsule. They do not have
membranes, cell organelles, or own metabolism.
3. In 1665, Robert Hooke, an English
scientist, published his book Micrographia,
in which he described that pieces of cork
viewed under a microscope presented small
cavities, similar to pores and filled with air.
Based on knowledge discovered later
on, what do you think those cavities were
composed of? What is the historical
importance of this observation?
The walls of the cavities observed by Hooke were
the walls of the plant cells that form the tissue.
This observation led to the discovery of cells, a
fact only possible after the invention of the
microscope. In that book, Hooke established the
term cell", which is now widely used in biology,
to designate those cavities seen under the
microscope.
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells
4. What are the two main groups into which
cells are classified?
Cells can be classified as eukaryotic or
prokaryotic.
Prokaryotic cells are those that do not have an
enclosed nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are those with
a nucleus enclosed by a membrane.
5. Do the cells of bacteria have a nucleus?
In bacteria, genetic material is contained in the
cytosol and there is no internal membrane that
encloses a nucleus.
6. Are any bacteria made of more than one
cell?
There are no pluricellular bacteria. All bacteria
are unicellular and prokaryotic.
Plasma Membrane
7. What is the plasma membrane of the cell?
What are its main functions?
The plasma membrane is the outer membrane of
a cell, it encloses the cell itself, maintaining
specific conditions for cellular function within the
cell. Since it is selectively permeable, the plasma
membrane plays an important role in the
entrance and exit of substances.
8. What chemical substances compose the
plasma membrane?
The main components of the plasma membrane
are phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that are
regularly organized in the membrane according
to their polarity: two layers of phospholipids form
the lipid bilayer, with the polar part of the
phospholipids pointing to the exterior part of the
layer and the non-polar phospholipid chains
toward the interior. Proteins can be found
embedded in the lipid bilayer. In addition, there
are also some carbohydrates bound to proteins
and to phospholipids in the outer surface of the
membrane.
9. What is the difference between a plasma
membrane and a cell wall?
A plasma membrane and a cell wall are not the
same thing. The plasma membrane, also called
the cell membrane, is the outer membrane
common to all living cells, made of a phospholipid
bilayer, embedded proteins and some bound
carbohydrates.
Because cell membranes are fragile, in some
types of cells, there are also external structures
to support and protect the membrane, like the
cellulose wall of plant cells and the chitin wall of
some fungi cells. Most bacteria also have an
outer cell wall made of peptidoglycans and other
organic substances.
10. What are the main respective
components of cell walls in bacteria,
protists, fungi and plants?
In bacteria, the cell wall is made of
peptidoglycans; among protists, algae have cell
walls made of cellulose; in fungi, the cell wall is
made of chitin (the same substance that makes
the exoskeleton of arthropods); and in plants,
the cell wall is also made of cellulose.
11. Are membranes only present as the
outside of cells?
Lipid membranes do not only form the outer layer
of cells. Cell organelles, such as the Golgi
complex, mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes,
the endoplasmic reticula and the nucleus, are
also enclosed by membranes.
Cell Nucleus
12. Which type of cell evolved first, the
eukaryotic cell or the prokaryotic cell?
This is an interesting problem of biological
evolution. The most accepted hypothesis claims
that the simpler cell, the prokaryotic cell,
appeared earlier in evolution than the more
complex eukaryotic cell. The endosymbiotic
hypothesis, for example, claims that aerobic
eukaryotic cells appeared from the mutualistic
ecological interaction between aerobic
prokaryotes and primitive anaerobic eukaryotes.
13. Regarding the presence of the nucleus,
what is the difference between animal and
bacterial cells?
Animal cells (the cells of organisms of the
kingdom Animalia) have an interior membrane
that encloses a cell nucleus and are therefore
eukaryotic cells. In these cells, the genetic
material is located within the nucleus. Bacterial
cells (the cells of living organisms of the kingdom
Monera) do not have organized cellular nuclei and
are therefore prokaryotic cells. Their genetic
material is found in the cytosol.
14. What are the three main parts of a
eukaryotic cell?
Eukaryotic cells can be divided into three main
parts: the cell membrane that physically
separates the intracellular space from the outer
space by enclosing the cell; the cytoplasm, the
interior portion filled with cytosol (the aqueous
fluid inside the cell); and the nucleus, the
membrane-enclosed internal region that contains
genetic material.
15. What are the main structures within the
nucleus of a cell?
Within the nucleus of a cell, the main structures
are: the nucleolus, an optically dense region,
sphere shaped region, which contains
concentrated ribosomal RNA (rRNA) bound to
proteins (there may be more than one nucleolus
in a nucleus); the chromatin, made of DNA
molecules released into the nuclear matrix during
cell interphase; and the karyotheca, or nuclear
membrane, which is the membrane that encloses
the nucleus.
16. What substances is chromatin made up
of? What is the difference between
chromatin and a chromosome?
Chromatin, dispersed in the nucleus, is a set of
filamentous DNA molecules attached to nuclear
proteins called histones. Each DNA filament is a
double helix of DNA and therefore a
chromosome.
17. What is the fluid that fills the nucleus
called?
The aqueous fluid that fills the nuclear region is
called karyolymph, or the nucleoplasm. This fluid
contains proteins, enzymes and other important
substances for nuclear metabolism.
18. What substances make up the
nucleolus? Is there a membrane around the
nucleolus?
The nucleolus is a region within the nucleus made
of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. It is not
enclosed by a membrane.
19. What is the name of the membrane that
encloses the nucleus? Which component
of cell structure is contiguous to this
membrane?
The nuclear membrane is also called the
karyotheca. The nuclear membrane is contiguous
to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.
The Cytoplasm
20. What are the main structures of the
cytoplasm present in animal cells?
The main structures of the cytoplasm of a cell are
centrioles, the cytoskeleton, lysosomes,
mitochondria, peroxisomes, the Golgi apparatus,
the endoplasmic reticula and ribosomes.
21. What are cytoplasmic inclusions?
Cytoplasmic inclusions are foreign molecules
added to the cytoplasm, such as pigments,
organic polymers and crystals. They are not
considered cell organelles.
Fat droplets and glycogen granules are examples
of cytoplasmic inclusions.
Ribosomes
22. Where in the cell can ribosomes be
found? What is the main biological function
of ribosomes?
Ribosomes can be found unbound in the
cytoplasm, attached to the outer side of the
nuclear membrane or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum membrane that encloses
the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are
the structures in which protein synthesis takes
place.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
23. What is the difference between the
smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum?
The endoplasmic reticulum is a delicate
membrane structure that is contiguous to the
nuclear membrane and which is present in the
cytoplasm. It forms an extensive net of channels
throughout the cell and is classified into rough or
smooth types.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum has a large
number of ribosomes attached to the external
side of its membrane. The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum does not have ribosomes attached to
its membrane.
The main functions of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum are the synthesis and storage of
proteins made in the ribosomes. The smooth
endoplasmic reticulum plays a role in lipid
synthesis and, in muscle cells, it is important in
carrying out of contraction stimuli.
The Golgi Apparatus
24. A netlike membrane complex of
superposed flat saccules with vesicles
detaching from its extremities seen is
observed during electron microscopy. What
is the observed structure called? What is its
biological function?
What is being observed is the Golgi complex, or
Golgi apparatus. This cytoplasmic organelle is
associated with chemical processing and the
modification of proteins made by the cell as well
as with the storage and marking of these proteins
for later use or secretion. Vesicles seen under an
electronic microscope contain materials already
processed, and which are ready to be exported
(secreted) by the cell. The vesicles detach from
the Golgi apparatus, travel across the cytoplasm
and fuse with the plasma membrane, secreting
their substances to the exterior.
Lysosomes and Peroxysomes
25. Which organelle of the cell structure is
responsible for intracellular digestion? What
is the chemical content of those organelles?
Intracellular digestion occurs through the action
of lysosomes. Lysosomes contain digestive
enzymes (hydrolases) that are produced in the
rough endoplasmic reticulum and stored in the
Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are hydrolase-
containing vesicles that detach from the Golgi
apparatus.
26. Why are lysosomes known as the
cleaners of cell waste?
Lysosomes carry out autophagic and
heterophagic digestion. Autophagic digestion
occurs when residual substances of the cellular
metabolism are digested. Heterophagic digestion
takes place when substances that enter the cell
are digested. Lysosomes enfold the substances to
be broken down, forming digestive vacuoles or
residual vacuoles, which later migrate toward the
plasma membrane, fusing with it and releasing
(exocytosis) the digested material to the exterior.
27. What are the morphological, chemical
and functional similarities and differences
between lysosomes and peroxisomes?
Similarities: lysosomes and peroxisomes are
small membranous vesicles that contain enzymes
and enclose residual substances of an internal or
external origin to break them down. Differences:
lysosomes have digestive enzymes (hydrolases)
that break down substances to be digested into
smaller molecules whereas peroxisomes contain
enzymes that mainly break down long-chain fatty
acids and amino acids, and which inactivate toxic
agents including ethanol. In addition, within
peroxisomes, the enzyme catalase is present. It
is responsible for the oxidation of organic
compounds by hydrogen peroxide (HO) and,
when this substance is present in excess, it is
responsible for the breaking down of the peroxide
into water and molecular oxygen.
Centrioles
28. Which cell organelles participate in cell
division and in the formation of the cilia and
flagella of some eukaryotic cells?
The organelles that participate in cell division and
in the formation of the cilia and flagella of some
eukaryotic cells are centrioles. Some cells have
cilia (paramecium, the bronchial ciliated
epithelium, etc.) or flagella (flagellate protists,
sperm cells, etc.). These cell structures are
composed of microtubules that originate from the
centrioles. Centrioles also produce the aster
microtubules that are very important for cell
division.
Mitochondria
29. What are mitochondria? What is the
basic morphology of these organelles and in
which cells can they be found?
Mitochondria are the organelles in which the most
important part of cellular respiration occurs: ATP
production.
Mitochondria are organelles enclosed by two lipid
membranes. The inner membrane invaginates to
the interior of the organelle, forming the cristae
that enclose the internal space known as the
mitochondrial matrix, in which mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA), mitochondrial RNA (mt RNA),
mitochondrial ribosomes and respiratory enzymes
can be found. Mitochondria are numerous in
eukaryotic cells and they are even more
abundant in cells that use more energy, such as
muscle cells. Because they have their own DNA,
RNA and ribosomes, mitochondria can self-
replicate.
30. Why can mitochondria be considered the
"power plants" of aerobic cells?
Mitochondria are the power plants of aerobic
cells because, within them, the final stages of the
cellular respiration process occur. Cellular
respiration is the process of using an organic
molecule (mainly glucose) and oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide and energy. The energy is stored
in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
molecules and is later used in other cellular
metabolic reactions. In mitochondria, the two last
steps of cellular respiration take place: the Krebs
cycle and the respiratory chain.
31. What is the endosymbiotic hypothesis
regarding the origin of mitochondria? What
molecular facts support this hypothesis? To
which other cellular organelles can the
hypothesis also be applied?
It is presumed that mitochondria were primitive
aerobic prokaryotes that were engaged in
mutualism with primitive anaerobic eukaryotes,
receiving protection from these organisms and
providing them with energy in return. This
hypothesis is called the endosymbiotic hypothesis
of the origin of mitochondria.
This hypothesis is strengthened by some
molecular evidence, such as the fact that
mitochondria have their own independent DNA
and protein synthesis machinery, as well as their
own RNA and ribosomes, and that they can self-
replicate.
The endosymbiotic theory can also be applied to
chloroplasts. It is assumed that these organelles
were primitive photosynthetic prokaryotes
because they have their own DNA, RNA and
ribosomes, and can also self-replicate.
The Cytoskeleton
32. What are the main components of the
cytoskeleton?
The cytoskeleton is a network of very small
tubules and filaments distributed throughout the
cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is made of
microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate
filaments.
Microtubules are formed by molecules of a
protein called tubulin. Microfilaments are made of
actin, the same protein that is involved in the
contraction of muscle cells. Intermediate
filaments are also made of protein.
33. What are the functions of the
cytoskeleton?
As the name indicates, the cytoskeleton is
responsible for maintaining of the normal shape
of the cell. It also facilitates the transport of
substances across the cell and the movement of
cellular organelles. For example, the interaction
between actin-containing filaments and the
protein myosin creates pseudopods. In the cells
of the phagocytic defense system, such as
macrophages, the cytoskeleton is responsible for
the plasma membrane projections that engulf the
external material to be interiorized and attacked
by the cell.
Chloroplasts
34. What are chloroplasts? What is the main
function of chloroplasts?
Chloroplasts are organelles present in the
cytoplasm of plant and algae cells. Like
mitochondria, chloroplasts have two boundary
membranes and many internal membranous
sacs. Within the organelle, DNA, RNA ribosomes
and also the pigment chlorophyll are present. The
latter is responsible for the absorption of the light
photic energy used in photosynthesis.
The main function of chloroplasts is
photosynthesis: the production of highly
energetic organic molecules (glucose) from
carbon dioxide, water and light.
35. What is the molecule responsible for the
absorption of light energy during
photosynthesis? Where is that molecule
located in photosynthetic cells?
Chlorophyll molecules are responsible for the
absorption of light energy during photosynthesis.
These molecules are found in the internal
membranes of chloroplasts.
36. What colors (of the electromagnetic
spectrum) are absorbed by plants? What
would happen to photosynthesis if the green
light waves that reach a plant were
blocked?
Chlorophyll absorbs all other colors of the
electromagnetic spectrum, but it does not absorb
green. Green is reflected and such reflection is
the reason for that characteristic color of plants.
If the green light that reaches a plant was
blocked and exposure of the plant to other colors
was maintained, there would be no harm to the
photosynthesis process. This appears to be a
paradox: green light is not important for
photosynthesis.
The main function of vacuoles is the osmotic
balance of the intracellular space. They act as an
external space inside the cell. Vacuoles absorb
or release water in response to cellular metabolic
necessities by increasing or lowering the
concentration of osmotic particles dissolved in the
cytosol. Vacuoles also serve as a place for the
storage of some substances.
The membrane that encloses vacuoles is called
the tonoplast, named after the osmotic function
of the structure.

There is a difference between the optimum color

frequency for the two main types of chlorophyll,
chlorophyll A and the chlorophyll B. Chlorophyll A
has an absorption peak at a wavelength of
approximately 420 nm (indigo) and chlorophyll B
has its major absorption at a wavelength of 450
nm (blue).

37. What path is followed by the energy

absorbed by plants to be used in
photosynthesis?

The energy source of photosynthesis is the sun,

the unique and central star of our solar system.
In photosynthesis, solar energy is transformed
into chemical energy, the energy of the chemical
bonds of the produced glucose molecules (and of
the molecular oxygen released). The energy of
glucose is then stored as starch (a glucose
polymer) or it is used in the cellular respiration
process and transferred to ATP molecules. ATP is
consumed during metabolic processes that
require energy (for example, in active transport
across membranes).

Plant Cell Wall and Vacuoles

38. What substance are plant cell walls
made of? Which monomer is this substance
made of?

Plant cell walls are made of cellulose. Cellulose is

a polymer whose monomer is glucose. There are
other polymers of glucose, such as glycogen and
starch.

39. What is the function of plant cell walls?

Plant cell walls have structural and protective

functions. They play an important role in limiting
cell size, and stopping cells from bursting, when
they absorb a lot of water.

40. What are plant cell vacuoles? What are

their functions? What is the covering
membrane of vacuoles called?

Plant cell vacuoles are cell structures enclosed by

membranes within which there is an aqueous
solution made of various substances such as
carbohydrates and proteins. In young plant cells,
many small vacuoles can be seen; within adult
cells, the majority of the internal area of the cell
is occupied by a central vacuole.