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Journal of Dentistry
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A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: Objectives: This study evaluated several ber- and matrix related factors and investigated different
Received 14 March 2016 mechanical properties of discontinuous i.e. short ber-reinforced composite (SFRC) (everX Posterior,
Received in revised form 18 July 2016 eXP). These were compared with three conventional composites, microlled G-nial Anterior (GA),
Accepted 20 July 2016
nanolled Supreme XTE (SXTE) and bulk-ll Filtek Bulk-Fill (FBF).
Methods: Fracture toughness (KIC), exural strength (FS), exural modulus (FM), compressive strength
Keywords: (CS), diametral tensile strength (DTS), apparent horizontal shear strength (AHSS) and fracture work (Wf)
Short ber-reinforced composite
were determined for each composite (n = 8) stored dry or in water. SEM analysis of the ber diameter (df)
Critical ber length
Volume fraction
(n = 6) and orientation (n = 6) were performed. The theoretical critical ber length (lfc) and the aspect
Fiber orientation ratio (l/d) of SFRC were calculated and the volume fraction of discontinuous bers (Vf%) and the ber
Toughening mechanism length (lf) of SFRC were evaluated. The results were statistically analyzed with two-way ANOVA
Aspect ratio (a = 0.05).
Results: The mechanical properties of SFRC (eXP) were generally superior (p < 0.05) compared with
conventional composites. GA had the highest FM (p > 0.05), whereas FBF had the highest AHSS (p < 0.05).
The ber related properties Vf%, l/d, lf, lfc and df of eXP were 7.2%, 18112, 0.31.9 mm, 0.851.09 mm and
17 mm respectively. SEM results suggested an explanation to several toughening mechanisms provided
by the discontinuous bers, which were shown to arrest crack propagation and enable a ductile fracture.
Water exposure weakened the mechanical properties regardless of material type. Wf was unaffected by
the water storage.
Conclusion: The properties of this high aspect ratio SFRC were dependent on the ber geometry (length
and orientation) and matrix ductility.
Clinical signicance: The simultaneous actions of the toughening mechanisms provided by the short bers
accounted for the enhanced toughness of this SFRC, which toughness value matched the toughness of
dentin. Hence, it could yield an inherently uniform distribution of stresses to the hard biological tissues.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction high strength performance of the composite [1] and the ber
length above its critical value [2]. Indeed, some SFRCs contain
Composites reinforced with discontinuous bers are known as microber llers (60120 mm) [3,4], which are well below the
short ber-reinforced composites (SFRC). Earlier attempts to critical ber length (0.51.6 mm) [2]. Due to the insufcient ber
improve the mechanical properties of composites by incorporating length, micrometer bers act as microller particles instead of
short bers had limited success. This was due to the difculty of ber ller. This gives the SFRC properties comparable with
maintaining their high aspect ratio (l/d), which is important for the particulate ller composites (PFCs) [5,6].
Interpretation of the properties of SFRCs is more difcult than is
for unidirectional bers and composites reinforced with them. This
* Corresponding author at: TCBC, Institute of Dentistry, University of Turku, could be due to the fact that unidirectional bers are assumed to be
Turku, Finland. Itinen Pitkkatu 4 B, FI-20520 Turku, Finland. straight, perfectly circular at the cross-section, to have same mean
E-mail addresses: jasmina.bijelic@utu., jasminabijelic@gmail.com diameter [7] and to be closely packed [8]. In contrast, short bers
(J. Bijelic-Donova).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdent.2016.07.009
0300-5712/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Bijelic-Donova et al. / Journal of Dentistry 52 (2016) 7078 71
and Vf, equally important is the length of the short bers. Indeed,
Nomenclature
these factors together determine the ber debonding from the
matrix during loading of the SFRC structure. As an example, the
eXP or SFRC Millimeter-scale short ber-reinforced com- debonding for longer aligned bers is greater than for random
posite or high aspect ratio short ber-rein- ones, which undergo only limited debonding. In other words, the
forced composite load bearing capacity of SFRCs is more effective with short random
PFC Particulate ller composite than with longer aligned short bers [15]. Furthermore, favorably
GA or MFR G-nial Anterior, microlled hybrid restorative oriented bers would allow the bridging phenomenon, which is
composite material important ber toughening mechanism. Fiber bridging is most
SXTE or NF Supreme XTE, nanolled restorative composite effective for transversally aligned bers, intermediate for random-
material ly orientated bers and absent for non-reinforced systems. Fiber
FBF Filtek Bulk Fill, owable bulk ll restorative breakage, on the other hand, is important as it introduces new
composite material length in the system, while the Vf remains unchanged [14].
KIC Fracture toughness Apparently, among the factors that determine the mechanical
FS Flexural strength performance of SFRC are the length [2,16], type, arrangement and
FM Flexural modulus distribution of the bers [1]. Other factors, known as intrinsic
CS Compressive strength (ber related) and extrinsic (matrix related) factors, also affect the
DTS Diametral tensile strength SFRCs properties [17]. The ber related factors of SFRCs could be
AHSS Apparent horizontal shear strength considered to be the lf, df, Vf, strength as well as the interfacial
Wf Fracture work ber-matrix bonding, whereas the matrix related factor could be
SEM Scanning electron microscopy considered to be the FOD [17]. In addition, the random distribution
FOD Fiber orientation distribution of short bers could be compromised or intentionally affected
Wt% Weight fraction during the manipulation process. If discontinuous bers are long
Vol% Volume fraction enough, they behave as long bers giving anisotropic mechanical
Vf% Fiber volume fraction properties [10,11,18]. To date, there exist some research on the
df Fiber diameter mechanical properties of recently introduced millimeter-scale
lf Fiber length discontinuous ber-reinforced composite (SFRC) (everX Posterior,
lfc Critical ber length GC Corp., Tokyo, Japan) [1823], but none on its ber related and
lfo Optimal ber length matrix related factors. Based on its ber l/d, this SFRC could be
l/d Aspect ratio classied as high aspect ratio SFRC i.e. millimeter-scale SFRC.
Consequently, the present study was designed to rstly
investigate several mechanical properties of this millimeter-scale
SRFC in comparison with three conventional PFCs (G-nial
are often assumed to be randomly distributed, to have a cylindrical Anterior, GC; Supreme XTE, 3M Espe, MN, USA and Filtek Bulk Fill,
shape and an elliptical cross section [9]. Nevertheless, the short 3M Espe) (Table 1) and secondly to evaluate both ber related and
bers could also be transversally aligned (i.e. in plane). The matrix related factors of the SFRC. The selected properties were
mechanical properties of SFRCs essentially depend on the ber fracture toughness (KIC), exural strength (FS), exural modulus
orientation distribution (FOD), aspect ratio (l/d) and their volume (FM), compressive strength (CS), diametral tensile strength (DTS),
fraction (Vf) [10,11]. There is, however, critical l/d for the apparent horizontal shear strength (AHSS) and fracture work (Wf).
transversally orientated short bers above which further improve- The ber related factors of the millimeter-scale SFRC were
ment of their mechanical properties declines [10]. For engineering analyzed on both a theoretical basis and experimentally. On a
SFRC this is between 6 and 9 [10], whereas the lowest l/d for dental theoretical basis, the volume fraction of the short bers (Vf%) and
SFRC is 5.2 [12]. With increasing l/d they start behaving as long the theoretical critical ber length (lfc) were calculated. Experi-
bers [10,11], which macroscopically are transversally isotropic mentally determined ber related factors were the ber diameter
materials [13], although in an x-y system they show anisotropic (df), the ber length (lf) and the aspect ratio (l/d), whereas the
properties [14]. Similarly, transversally aligned short bers have experimentally determined matrix related factor was the ber
also been described as macroscopically transversally isotropic orientation distribution (FOD). The null hypotheses were that the
materials [11]. By contrast, the properties of randomly orientated mechanical properties of the millimeter-scale SFRC will not differ
discontinuous bers are mostly affected by their Vf [10]. Thus, from the PFCs properties and that short-term water storage would
these are macroscopically isotropic materials, with most effective not affect the mechanical properties of the investigated materials.
mechanical properties at Vf of 10% [11]. Consequently, if the bers
are homogeneously distributed with random orientation, the SFRC 2. Materials and methods
is macroscopically homogenous and isotropic, whereas if the bers
are homogeneously distributed with transverse (in plane) orien- FS, FM, DTS, CS, AHSS and KIC were evaluated. Eight specimens
tation, the SFRC is homogeneous and anisotropic i.e. transversally (n = 8) were prepared per restorative composite material listed in
isotropic. Furthermore, in order to evaluate various physicome- Table 1 for each test type and each storage condition. The storage
chanical properties of the SFRCs on macroscopic level, numerous conditions were dry and in water at 37 C for 7 and 30 days,
theoretical, computational based models have been proposed. respectively. Testing procedures were performed at room temper-
Such models are mechanical-based micromechanical numerical ature (23 1 C). The ber diameter (n = 6) and orientation (n = 6)
model [14], energy-based homogenization model [15] and were determined immediately upon preparation of the specimens.
mesostructured with work-energy approach model [13]. These The ber volume fraction, ber length, critical ber length and
models give an insight on what circumstances initiate fracture in aspect ratio were additionally computed.
the SFRC structure, what factors inuence its progression, what FS and FM were evaluated by the three-point bending test.
causes the ber debonding or breakage, how the FOD affects the Specimens were prepared, polymerized and tested following the
stiffness of the SFRC system and how FOD interacts with the protocol previously described [19].
ber l/d. These models have shown that in addition to the FOD, l/d
72 J. Bijelic-Donova et al. / Journal of Dentistry 52 (2016) 7078
Table 1
Materials used in the study.
Bis-GMA: bisphenol-A-diglycidyl dimethacrylate; TEGDMA: triethylene glycol dimethacrylate; PMMA: polymethyl methacrylate; UDMA: urethane dimethacrylate; Bis-EMA:
bisphenol-A-polyethylene-glycol-diether dimethacrylate.
*
Eight (8) batches of everX Posterior were used, 1301232, 1301252, 1306101, 1306262, 1308261, 1309191, 1307082 and 1308292.
Cylindrical specimens, 6 mm in height and 4 mm in diameter, the adapted ISO 20795-1 standard method [26], and as previously
were used to evaluate DTS and CS. The fabrication and testing described [19,20]. The SENB specimens were used for determining
procedures of the specimens are described elsewhere [19]. DTS in the total fracture work (Wf) in J/m2, by using Eq. (4):
megapascals (MPa) was calculated using Eq. (1) [24]:
Wf = U/[2B (H a)] 1000 (4)
DTS= 2 F/p l D (1)
where Wf is the fracture work, U is the recorded area under the
where: DTS is the diametral tensile strength, F is the maximum load-deection curve and represents the energy required to break
R
applied load in newtons (N); D is the diameter of the specimens in the whole specimen. U = PdD in newton millimeters (Nmm),
mm and l is the length of the specimen in mm. CS was calculated in where D is the measured deection for load P in N; B is the
megapascals (MPa) using Eq. (2) [24]: specimen width in mm, H is the specimen height in mm, and a is
the crack length in mm.
CS = 4 F/p D2 (2)
Fiber volume fraction (Vf %) was calculated using Eq. (5) [27]:
where: CS is the compressive strength, F is the maximum applied
Wf =rf
load in N and D is the diameter of the specimen in mm. Vf % 100 5
Wf =rf Wm =rm
AHSS was determined by the short-beam method, according to
ASTM D 447596 [25]. A translucent mold with an inner diameter where W is the weight fraction (wt%), r is the density, f represents
of 3.6 mm and a length of 14.5 mm (0.2 mm), which is one the ber and m the matrix. Wf = 8.6 wt% (Wf of the short E- glass
diameter greater than the test span was used to fabricate the rod bers in everX Posterior) and rf = 2.56 g/cm3 [27]. The matrix
shaped specimens. The mold was placed on a Mylar-strip-covered comprises resin and particulate llers with r(resin) = 1.23 g/cm3
glass slide and the restorative material was packed into the mold. [28], W(resin) = 23.7 wt%, r(particulate ller) = 2.8 g/cm3 and w(particulate
The top surface was attened with Mylar strip and glass slide and ller) = 67.7 wt%.
each specimen was polymerized on both sides for 20 s by ve The ber length (lf) was measured using the direct technique, by
overlapping irradiations with a light-curing polymerization unit separating the bers from the matrix, following the technique
(Elipar S10, 3M ESPE, St. Paul, MN, USA) at an intensity of previously described [20]. Eight batches of millimeter-scale SFRC
1600 mW/cm2 and wavelength ranging from 430 to 480 nm. The (everX Posterior) were evaluated. Fibers were deposited onto glass
irradiance of the light-curing polymerization unit was measured slide and examined with light microscopy (Leica; Leica Mycro-
with dental radiometer (Demetron L.E.D. Radiometer, Kerr, systems, Wild, Heerbrugg, Switzerland). The average ber length
Middleton, WI, USA). Upon removal from the mold, each was then dened as LN = S Ni Li/S Ni, where LN is the number
longitudinal side was further polymerized for 20 s in ve average of the ber length, Ni is the number of bers with length Li
overlapping places. The rod specimen was placed with its long [27]. Four thousand bers were measured in total (500/batch).
axis perpendicular and its midpoint centered to the loading nose. When the ber diameter (df), the ultimate tensile strength (sfu) of
The side supports were adjusted to a span length of 11 mm the glass ber and the interfacial shear strength (ti) of the glass
(0.2 mm) and specimens were loaded by a universal material ber reinforced composite are known, then the theoretical critical
testing machine (Lloyd model LRX, Lloyd Instruments Ltd., ber length (lfc) can be calculated from lfc = sfudf/2 ti[29]. The
Fareham, UK) at a crosshead speed of 1.0 mm/min until failure. tensile strength of E-glass ber is estimated at 2.0 GPa, whereas the
The diameter of each specimen was measured prior to testing with interfacial shear stress (ti) for a glass ber reinforced composite
a digital caliper and the apparent horizontal shear strength in MPa varies between 17.6 and 33.8 MPa depending on the ber
was calculated in accordance with Eq. (3): conditioning and the testing environment [30], but typically is
20 MPa [27]. The diameter of the individual glass ber in our study
AHSS= 0.849 P/d2 (3)
was 17 mm, whereas the interfacial shear stress evaluated by
where AHSS is the apparent horizontal shear strength; P is the macroscopic short-beam test was 15.6 MPa. This experimentally
breaking load in N and d is the specimen diameter in meters (m). obtained result was then compared with the typical values
Fracture toughness (KIC) was evaluated using single-edge presented in the literature [27].
notched bend (SENB) specimens (2.5 5 25 mm) according to
J. Bijelic-Donova et al. / Journal of Dentistry 52 (2016) 7078 73
Table 2
Mechanical properties of investigated materials.
1
Material Storage FM (GPa) FS (MPa) DTS (MPa) CS (MPa) AHSS (MPa) KIC (MPa m /2) Wf (J/m2)
MFR dry 15.0a#(1.7) 90a*(7) 39a#(4) 233a*(32) 14.1a#(0.8) 0.9a# 0.1 55a*(9)
water 14.4a#(2.0) 78a^(6) 38a#(5) 174a^(39) 13.6a#(0.6) 0.8a# 0.1 164a^(35)
NF dry 3.9b#(1.0) 104b*(11) 37a*(3) 219a#(79) 18.4bc*(5.2) 1.1a# 0.1 53a#(7)
water 3.5b#(0.6) 64b^(8) 29b^(5) 191a#(60) 16.0b^(2.5) 0.9a# 0.1 146a#(18)
FBF dry 5.7b#(1.2) 119c*(13) 43ab#(8) 217a#(25) 19.8c#(2.1) 1.1a# 0.1 88a*(14)
water 4.7b#(0.9) 83a^(7) 39a#(4) 200a#(34) 19.9c#(1.1) 0.9a# 0.1 203a^(9)
SFRC dry 12.6a*(2.8) 119c*(5) 46b*(5) 235a#(33) 15.6ab#(1.3) 2.4b* 0.5 546b#(241)
water 9.8c^(1.0) 85a^(8) 39a^(3) 190a#(31) 14.7ab#(1.5) 1.7b^ 0.2 580b#(102)
Same superscript letter and sign above the values indicates groups that were statistically similar (p > 0.05). Letters describe the statistical difference among the materials
across each storage medium, whereas the signs represent the statistical difference between dry and water storage mediums across each material category level.
74 J. Bijelic-Donova et al. / Journal of Dentistry 52 (2016) 7078
Fig. 2. SEM picture of the ber orientation distribution around the crack notch. X-ber orientation enabled by crossing paths of normally orientated (red arrow) and
transversely orientated (black arrow) bers. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
J. Bijelic-Donova et al. / Journal of Dentistry 52 (2016) 7078 75
Fig. 6. Typical load-deection curves of investigated materials. 1: everX Posterior; 2: Supreme XTE; 3: G-nial Anterior and 4:Filtek Bulk Fill.
be also mentioned as factors contributing to the toughening effect. ndings [23,50]. Furthermore, the lower limit for the ber aspect
Hence, it becomes clear that the different toughening mechanisms ratio in dental SFRC is 5.2 [12]. Consequently, it could be concluded
operate simultaneously and lead to improvement in the toughness that the upper limit for the length of the short ber within SFRC
of this SFRC. In addition, the toughness of the investigated SFRC systems could be considered 2 mm, optimal ber quantity could be
matches the toughness values reported for the dentin [48], which 10 Vf%, and lower limit for bers aspect ratio 5.2. In the present
is important, because inherently the distribution of the stresses study, the gradual discontinuous bers lengths for the everX
between the biological hard tissue and the restorative material Posterior were measured between 0.3 mm and 1.9 mm, which
substituting it would be uniform. Moreover, both have common makes the lowest aspect ratio 18 and greatest 112 (Table 3). The
toughening mechanisms such as crack deection and the crack critical ber length for the everX Posterior was measured to be
bridging phenomena [48]. Structural similarity between the dentin between 0.85 and 1.09 mm, which is in the range of the reported
and the millimeter-scale SFRC is also observed. The collagen bers critical ber length [2]. This critical length of the bers is
provide the toughness of dentin similar to short bers, which important, because short bers tend to pullout. For the longer
provide the toughness of the millimeter-scale SFRC. embedded length, only the short segment will pull out, as seen in
Together, the fracture work and the fracture toughness, depict Fig. 4. Pulled out bers indicate that the composite continues to
the fracture resistance ability of the material. As these properties carry the load, although its strength does not increase. Neverthe-
were signicantly improved for the investigated SFRC, it can be less, the composites fracture toughness, at this stage, still
anticipated that the endurance of the material in static or fatigue continues to increase substantially [1]. If, however, the ber
load could also be enhanced. However, it should be born on mind length is twice the critical length, then the bers will break and the
that this brous material should clinically be protected with PFC bridging energy will decline. Thus, an optimum ber length should
layer, and the fatigue endurance of the material combination will be maintained, in order to allow the bridging phenomenon [46].
signicantly be affected by the thickness of this protective layer The optimum ber length (lfo) for composites reinforced with short
[49]. bers was determined to be approximately 1.2 times the critical
The reinforcement efciency of SFRCs depend on the ber l/d ber length lfc (lfo 1.2lfc) [46]. The optimal lfo for everX Posterior
and the Vf. If the ber l/d is low, the ber ends create discontinuity would be approximately 1.15 mm (1.01.3 mm). It follows then,
in the resin matrix, act as stress concentration sides and weaken that the short ber lengths within the investigated SFRC should be
the composite [12]. Experimental versions of high aspect ratio within the range between the theoretical ber length (0.85 mm)
SFRCs indicated that bers with lengths from 2 mm to 5 mm and the optimal ber length (1.15 mm). When reporting a value for
provide almost equal reinforcement capacity, and that optimal short ber length, a range of values rather than a xed value should
physicomechanical properties were obtained with formulations be used, because of the variations of the average short ber values,
between 8.5 and 10 Vf%. Other studies have reported comparable which seemed to be consignment dependent. This is important,
J. Bijelic-Donova et al. / Journal of Dentistry 52 (2016) 7078 77
because these variations could explain discrepancies in the middle range will provide pullout toughening mechanism (0.4
properties reported for the millimeter-scale SFRC. Earlier, a short 0.5 mm) and the longer ones (0.6 mm0.7 mm) would actively
ber length between 1.3 and 2.0 mm was reported for the everX carry the loading; and 4) small portion (6%) of the bers exceeding
Posterior [20], whereas recently two different ranges of short ber the optimal ber length could break or then behave as continuous
length values were reported for the same material, namely 0.3 bers. The bers with varying length distributions affect the FOD
1.5 mm [47] and 1.02.0 mm [51]. The difference between the and contribute to the toughening effect.
present and those studies [20,47,51] might be due to the processing Clinically, a material that has high probability of stopping an
operations of the millimeter-scale SFRC regulated by the manu- initiated fracture would preserve the tooth structure, because it
facturer. Indeed, this type of SFRC is subjected to the mixing will absorb the dissipated energy released during cracking and
method of the fabrication process, which comprises blending stop the progression of the fracture toward the tooth structure. The
reinforcing bers, llers, resin matrix and additives together. This material itself would chip, delaminate or crack, but all these are
process generates ber fractures and results in a wider range of favorable fracture types. On contrary, a material with low or no
millimeter-scale bers, which likely altered the mechanical ability of stopping the progression of the initiated fracture will
properties in the nal SFRC [19,20,47,51]. fracture. This is also accompanied by fracture of the tooth
The presence of shorter and longer short bers in the structure. These phenomena are more visible for restorations
millimeter-scale SFRC system is important also for the FOD, ber where most of the tooth structure is already lost and replaced with
debonding and consequently reinforcement efciency. Indeed, the a restoration. In such situations, the selection of the material to
longer short bers will tend to align in plane providing anisotropic replace the missing tooth tissue is of paramount importance and a
reinforcement, and shorter ber will be randomly distributed material with high fracture toughness should be preferred.
offering an isotropic reinforcement. However, the debonding for Although the results of this investigation cannot be used to infer
random bers is limited, which allows them to enhance the load how the ber ller volume or ber ller size affect the fracture
bearing capacity of the SFRC better than longer aligned short bers toughness, the present study ascertains that the short E-glass
[15]. bers affect signicantly the fracture toughness. The ber
Measuring the ber orientation distribution is often difcult. A orientation distribution obviously warrants further research and
convenient method for characterizing the ber orientation the ber orientation in various dental cavities prepared on teeth,
distribution of short ber composite has not yet been developed, approximal box and mesial-occlusal-distal (MOD) cavity could be
which is why the SEM microstructural examination was conducted studied next.
here (Fig. 1). Fiber orientation analysis supports the hypothesis of
the importance of the ber orientation in enhancing the materials
5. Conclusion
toughness. The crossing paths of transversally and normally
oriented bers enabled radial alignment of the short bers. This
In conclusion, the brous composite comprising millimeter-
type of orientation of the short bers is known as X-orientation
scale discontinuous E-glass bers llers with a semi-IPN matrix
and is important for arresting the crack propagation at the crack
showed improved tolerance to crack propagation (fracture
notch tip (Fig. 2). However, it seems that the ber orientation
toughness) compared to the tested conventional composites
distribution is not only dependent on the lf, df and Vf, but also on
containing particulate llers. The toughening mechanisms provid-
the mold size and the placement technique. A pressing technique
ed by the short bers were the reduction of the stress intensity at
would produce a planar ber orientation, implying that the short
the crack tip, crack blunting and bridging phenomena. The
bers would adjust against the surface they are pressed to and
properties of this millimeter-scale SFRC are dependent on groups
adapt individually according to its shape.
of factors: 1) Fiber strength and structure related factors: breaking
Failure types for the millimeter-scale SFRC involved matrix
of the embedded short bers during manufacturing process, and
cracking, ber fracture and ber pull out. They all seemed to be
orientation and length of the short bers; 2) Matrix related factors:
related to factors such as FOD and lf. Indeed, post-failure
viscosity affecting the short bers orientation and distribution,
examination of both the fractured and tested single-edge notched
and porosity of the matrix such as air bubbles inclusions, pores or
bend specimens surfaces suggests ductile behavior of the bers
voids and 3) Interfacial factors: silane coupling agent type of the
with failure occurrence in the matrix. This was evident at the
bers and the particulate llers, and reaction with matrix.
protruded ber ends covered with resin (Fig. 5) as well as in the
bridging phenomenon (Fig. 4), as the bers bridge the matrix crack.
The nding is supported by the load-deection curve (Fig. 6), Conicts of interest
suggesting that this would be possible only if the pullout resistance
of bers at the rst crack is greater than the load at the rst The authors report no conicts of interests. Author PK Vallittu
cracking. It seems that owing to the presence of short bers, SFRC consults Stick Tech Ltd., a member of the GC Group in RD and
continues to carry tensile stresses after the rst cracking [1]. training.
Contrary to this, the conventional PFCs fracture immediately at the
rst peak, which indicates matrix cracking. Fiber breakage in this
Acknowledgements
study was also observed, probably at those bers in which length
surpassed the optimal ber length (>1.15 mm). This nding could
The authors thank Keme Scientic for the English language
be however advantageous when repairing SFRC restorations. In
editing of this manuscript. The authors also thank 3M ESPE and
addition, the SEM investigation revealed uniform ber distribu-
Stick Tech Ltd. (member of GC group), for generously providing
tion, which is rstly important for avoiding localized domination of
materials used in this investigation. This study is part of the BioCity
matrix properties (at regions with less bers) and secondly for
Turku Biomaterials Research Program (www.biomaterials.utu.).
avoiding physical contact between bers [27].
Mechanical testing (Table 2), the ber properties characteriza-
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