Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
INTRODUCTION
PORTLAND CEMENTS
HISTORY
In Italy, the first people to employ mortar in their buildings were the
Etruscans. It was from them that the Romans derived their knowledge of the
art. It says much for their ability as builders that the dome of the Pantheon of
Rome, constructed with a type of concrete, is still in an excellent state of
preservation today.
Cement Industry 1
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
With the fall of the Roman Empire, all knowledge of cement seemed to
have vanished and nothing more was heard of it until the early part of the
eighteenth century when its use could be traced to England, in almost exactly
the same form as that used by the Egyptians and Romans!
During the first part of the eighteenth century very little progress was
made with the evolution of cement. In 1756, an Engineer named John Smeaton
gave serious attention to the principle of setting lime under water.
Very little notice was taken of Smeatons discovery at the time but 50
years later, the French Chemist, Vicat, went a step further by burning
pulverized chalk and clay together in the form of a paste. His product, like
Smeatons received very little attention. They even carefully picked out and
discarded the very portion of the burnt material which would have given them
Portland Cement! It was not until 1824, that Joseph Aspdin, a Leeds
bricklayer, discovered what is known as Portland Cement.
Cement Industry 2
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Chemical
Chemical Name Oxide Formula Cement Notation Mineral Name
Formula
Tricalcium
Ca3SiO5 3CaO.SiO2 C3 S Alite
Silicate
Dicalcium
Ca2SiO4 2CaO.SiO2 C2 S Belite
Silicate
Tricalcium
Ca3Al2O6 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A Aluminate
Aluminate
Tetracalcium
Ca2AlFeO5 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF Ferrite
Aluminoferrite
Calcium
Ca(OH)2 CaO.H2O CH Portlandite
hydroxide
Calcium
sulfate CaSO4.2H2O CaO.SO3.2H2O C H2 Gypsum
dehydrate
Calcium oxide CaO CaO C Lime
General construction
Fairly high C3S content
Type (most buildings, bridges,
General purpose for good early strength
I pavements, precast units,
development
etc)
Structures exposed to soil
Type Moderate sulfate
Low C3A content (<8%) or water containing sulfate
II resistance
ions
Type Ground more finely, may Rapid construction, cold
High early strength
III have slightly more C3S weather concreting
Type Low heat of hydration Low content of C3S Massive structures such
IV (slow reacting) (<50%) and C3A as dams. Now rare.
Type High sulfate Very low C3A content Structures exposed to
V resistance (<5%) high levels of sulfate ions
Cement Industry 3
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
55% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 2.8% MgO, 2.9% (SO3), 1.0%
Ignition loss, and 1.0% free CaO.
A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed fifteen
percent.
51% (C3S), 24% (C2S), 6% (C3A), 11% (C4AF), 2.9% MgO, 2.5% (SO3), 0.8%
Ignition loss, and 1.0% free CaO.
A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed eight percent
which reduces its vulnerability to sulfates. When sulphates in moist soil or
water enter concrete, they cause chemical reactions that result in expansion,
scaling and cracking. Wetting and drying in a sulphate environment aggravates
the formation of sulphate salts or compounds that have sufficient
crystallization pressure to disrupt cement paste.
Cement Industry 4
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
High Early Strength Hydraulic Cement (HE) provides high strength relatively
quickly, usually in a week or less. It is chemically and physically similar to
General Use hydraulic cement, except that its particles are more finely ground.
It is used when forms need to be removed promptly or when the structure must
be put into service quickly. In cold weather, its use reduces the length of the
curing period. Its typical compound composition is:
57% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO3), 0.9%
Ignition loss, and 1.3% free CaO.
Low Heat of Hydration Hydraulic Cement (LH) is used where the rate and
amount of heat from hydration must be minimized. It develops strength at a
slower rate than other cement types. This type of cement is intended for use in
massive concrete structures, such as large gravity dams, where the
temperature rise resulting from heat of hydration must be minimized. It is
generally only available by specific request for large projects. Its typical
compound composition is:
28% (C3S), 49% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 12% (C4AF), 1.8% MgO, 1.9% (SO3), 0.9%
Ignition loss, and 0.8% free CaO.
The percentages of (C2S) and (C4AF) are relatively high and (C3S) and (C3A) are
relatively low. A limitation on this type is that the maximum percentage of (C3A)
is seven, and the maximum percentage of (C3S) is thirty-five.
38% (C3S), 43% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 9% (C4AF), 1.9% MgO, 1.8% (SO3), 0.9%
Ignition loss, and 0.8% free CaO.
This cement has a very low (C3A) composition which accounts for its high
sulfate resistance
Cement Industry 5
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
RAW MATERIALS
Typical constituents of Portland cement plus Gypsum
Clinker CCN Mass %
Tricalcium silicate C3S 45-75%
(CaO)3 SiO2
Dicalcium silicate C2S 7-32%
(CaO)2 SiO2
Tricalcium aluminate C3A 0-13%
(CaO)3 Al2O3
Tetracalcium C4AF 0-18%
aluminoferrite (CaO)4
Al2O3 Fe2O3
Gypsum CaSO4 2 H2O C H2 2-10%
Function of Compounds
Cement Industry 6
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
results of these reactions determine how portland cement hardens and gains
strength.
Compound Function
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is
largely responsible for initial set and
early strength. Portland cements with
higher percentages of C3S will exhibit
higher early strength.
Dicalcium silicate (C2S) Hydrates and hardens slowly and is
largely responsible for strength
increases beyond one week.
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) Hydrates and hardens the quickest.
Liberates a large amount of heat
almost immediately and contributes
somewhat to early strength. Gypsum
is added to portland cement to retard
C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A
hydration would cause portland
cement to set almost immediately after
adding water.
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) Hydrates rapidly but contributes very
little to strength. Its use allows lower
kiln temperatures in portland cement
manufacturing. Most portland cement
color effects are due to C4AF.
Cement Industry 7
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Cement Industry 8
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Manufacturing
Description Equipment
Process
Bulldozers
Crusher Machine
Conveyor Belt
Roller Mill
The raw materials are milled
and dried in a roller mill.
Heavy rollers are held over a
Raw Milling rotating table and the coarse
material is milled until it is
fine enough to be carried by
air to a homogenizing silo.
Cement Industry 9
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Mixing Bed
Rotary Kiln
Where the raw materials
react at very high
temperatures to form
Clinkerization 3CaOSiO2, 2CaOSiO2,
3CaOAl2O3, and
4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3
Clinker Cooler
Cement Industry 10
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Clinker Silos
Cement Grinder
Cement Mill
Finish milling is the grinding
together of cement clinker,
with around 5% of natural
or synthetic gypsum. Other
Raw Milling cementitious materials such
as slag, fly ash or other
pozzolans may also be
incorporated into the final
cement powder.
Cement Silos
Cement Industry 11
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
LIME
The word "lime" refers to products derived from
burnt (calcined) limestone, such as quicklime and
hydrated lime. Limestone is a naturally occurring and
abundant sedimentary rock consisting of high levels of
calcium and/or magnesium carbonate, and/or dolomite
(calcium and magnesium carbonate), along with small
amounts of other minerals. It is extracted from quarries
and underground mines all over the world.
Lime Cycle
Quicklime
When limestone/chalk (calcium carbonate) is burnt in the kiln and
releases carbon dioxide.
Hydrated Lime
When water can be added to quicklime/burnt lime.
Recarbonation
Over the lifetime of lime products, carbon dioxide is gradually re-
absorbed by lime from the air, which is known as recarbonation.
Chemically, this begins to turn the lime back into calcium carbonate.
Cement Industry 12
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Cement Industry 13
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Manufacturing
Description Equipment
Process
Bulldozers
Extraction of limestone or
Quarrying chalk rock from quarries
and mines.
Crusher Machine
The Limestone enters a
primary crusher to break the
rock. Depending on the size
of the feedstone required,
Crushing
limestone may go through a
secondary or tertiary
crusher to further reduce its
size.
Screener
Kiln
Cement Industry 14
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Cooling Tower
Lime Hydrators
Quicklime can be processed
into hydrated lime by
crushing the quicklime,
adding water to the crushed
lime (water accounts for
Hydration approximately 1% of raw
hydrate), and then
classifying the hydrated lime
to ensure it meets customer
specifications before it is
transported.
Lime Silos
Cement Industry 15
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
GYPSUM
Raw Material
Calcined gypsum (the half water salt) can be made into wall plaster by
addition of a filler material (eg. asbestos, wood pulp or sand)
Plaster of paris (without addition) can be used for making sculptures and craft
projects
Cement Industry 16
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Manufacturing
Description Equipment
Process
Bulldozer
Crusher Machine
Raymond Mill
Rotary Dryer
Cement Industry 17
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Kettle Calciners
Gypsum Silos
Cement Industry 18
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Calcium
Description Application Image
Compound
A very widely used
industrial chemical , in
both its pure state
Whiting
A pure, finely
divided CaCO3 Paint, Rubber,
Calcium
prepared by wet Pharmaceutical,
Carbonate
grinding and and Paper
levigating natural Industries
chalk.
Putty Produced
when whiting is
mixed with 18%
boiled linseed oil.
Depilatory in
Made by reducing tanning industry
Calcium
calcium sulfate with and in
Sulfide
coke cosmetics.
Fungicides
Calcium Chloride
Obtained
commercially as a
by-product of
To lay dust on
chemical
highway, and
manufacture and
as an
from natural brines
antifreeze for
Halide Salts which contain more
concrete
or less magnesium
chloride.
Medicine and
Calcium Bromide
Photography
And Iodide
Have properties
similar to Chloride.
Prepared by the
Cement Industry 19
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Cement Industry 20