Evolution of the Atom

By: Afnan Answar

 Timeline

1913 Today
530 BC 1897

1808 1911 1956

 Today, an atom is defined as the basic unit
of a chemical element. However, it was not
always defined this way. Throughout
history, there have been many researchers
What is an and scientist that have used various
Atom? methods of experimentation to find what
an atom is, what it looks like, and what an
atom is made out of. Our world is made out
of atoms and even atoms are made out of
smaller parts. Researchers and scientist
such as Democritus, John Dalton, J.J.
Thompson, Ernest Rutherford, Niels Bohr,
and Erwin Schrodinger are all example of
how what we know about the atom changed
with time.
Democritus
Some may believe that Democritus was the first one
to study the atomic theory , however, there are many
people that came before Democritus that have also
studied the atomic theory.
 WHO THE HECK
DEMOCRITUS?

Democritus was an ancient Greek Philosopher who was born c.460 BCE and
died c.370 BCE. He was born in Abdera, Greece and lived to be 90 years old.
Democritus also enjoyed studying philosophy and geometry. Democritus was also
known for his widespread travel from going to places such as India and even Egypt.
Naturally, Democritus wanted to follow in the footsteps of his mentor, Leucippus,
who originally came up with the atomic theory. This atomic theory stated that: The
universe is composed of two elements: the atoms and the void in which they exist
and move. However, Democrituss theory was a little different...
 DEMOCRITUSS
EXPERIMENTS
Democritus proposed that space existed and that this space was composed of
millions of different types of atoms that are unable to be seen. Democritus also
proposed that these atoms filled the space that they occupied and although we cannot
see them, atoms are everywhere. To study atoms even further, Democritus designed
an experiment where he argued that if you took a stone and began to cut the stone in
half multiple times until the stone became a fine powder. (Since there were no
laboratories or advanced technology that are used today, Democrituss experiment
relied heavily on observation, making inferences, and philosophy) Once the stone
turned into a fine powder, you would have to take the smallest of power of the stone
and cut that in half and find that you cannot make the stone any smaller. Democritus
called this indivisible. From this he concluded...
 Democritus: Conclusion
After Democritus conducted his experiments he came up with many of the
following conclusions:
1. Democritus was the first to name the smallest makeup of matter also
known today as atoms.
2. He argued that atoms were eternal and could not be destroyed
3. He proposed that atoms were small, hard particles that had different
shapes and sizes and made up of the same material (like how the atoms
of stone are different from atoms of something like wood)
4. He theorized that the number of atoms were infinite and had the ability to
join together.
5. He understood that there is no limit to how big or small something is
therefore atoms made up these things
6. Proposed that atoms fill in the space
Democritus and Todays Model of an
Atom:
Democrituss theories on atoms still remain today. For example, Democritus
proposed that atoms made up matter. We still use this today because atoms are what make
up the world around us and even atoms are made up of smaller parts such as electrons and
protons. His other arguments such as how he proposed that the number of atoms were
infinite and that they had the ability to join together. Today, we know that the number of
atoms is infinite and atoms are everywhere, like how oxygen atoms are everywhere and
take up space. We also know that atoms CAN join together to create compounds.
Although many of his other claims have been refuted, it shows that even today
Democrituss ideas influence what we know an atom to be.
 JOHN
DALTON
Intro to John Dalton:
John Dalton was born in 1766 and died in
1844. He was born in Cumberland, England where
he became a teacher and public lecturer in his
early years. When John decided to move to
Manchester, he continued to be a teacher. He soon
joined Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society. This is where he immersed himself in
science as well as going into fields such as
meteorology (he also wrote a book on
Meteorology) which made him want to go into
studying atoms and studying chemistry.
 John Daltons Experiments
Before Dalton had a chance to study an atom, he learned from Jeremias Benjamin Richter
who was known for proving atoms exist using the Law of definite proportions. Although
Dalton did not know of Richters findings when he was studying an atom in 1803, he did
mention Richters findings in 1807 in his notebooks.

Dalton not only studied gasses and made formulas for gasses he also studied atoms. Dalton
mainly focused on finding out why compounds had definite proportions. In one of
Lavoisier's book, it had mentioned that water was mostly made up of 85% oxygen and 15%
hydrogen. He theorized that there was one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom that the
oxygen atoms weighed more. He also concluded this when he was studying gasses and
specifically things like evaporation. He wondered what effect did different gasses had on
mixtures. Thus, he concluded that the sizes of the particles must be different. Also, through
experimenting with various other gasses he concluded
 Daltons Conclusions:
There are many conclusions that Dalton drew from his experiments with gases and
studying evaporation, some of which are:

1. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible (agreed with Democritus)

2. different compounds always consist of different elements or ratios.
3. All atoms of an individual element are identical in mass and
properties
4. Compounds are formed of two or more different type of atoms
5. A chemical reaction happens because atoms rearrange themselves
6. Atoms of each compound have an individual mass
7. Atoms of each different element are different
 Daltons Theory

"...it became an object to determine the relative sizes and weights, together with the relative numbers
of atoms entering into such combinations... Thus a train of investigation was laid for determining the
number and weight of all chemical elementary particles which enter into any sort of combination one
with another." -John Dalton
Daltons and Todays Model of an Atom

Today, we use many of Daltons theories for what we know an atom to be

like today. For example, Dalton predicted that compounds are made up of two or
more different types of atoms. Today, we also know this to be true! He also
mentioned how chemical reactions are caused by atoms rearranging which is also
true (we can often see this when there is a chemical change happening rather than
a physical one). Although many of Daltons theories are still used today, some of
them have been refuted. For instance, Dalton predicted that atoms cannot be
destroyed, but in fact, they can be destroyed by nuclear reaction (not chemical
reactions). However, his findings still relate to what we know atoms to be.
 J.J.
Thompson
 Another Researcher Is
Born!: J.J. Thompson

J.J. Thompson was a Noble Prize winning Physicists who was most
famous for finding electrons. He was born in December 18, 1856 in
Cheetham Hill, England. Thompsons father was a bookseller who wanted
Thompson to become an engineer. However, when Thompson could not
find a job as an engineer, he went to Owens College when he was
fourteen. He soon received a scholarship that got him into Trinity College
located in Cambridge where he studied in Mathematics. After he
graduated, he studied in the Cavendish Laboratory where it did not take
him long to be accepted into the Royal Society. It also did not take him
long to become a professor that taught Physics at the age of 28.
 Thompsons Research!!!!
Thompson began to study cathode ray in 1894 (cathode rays are electrical
discharge in a high vacuum tube). He used new methods and technology that had
never been used before which is one of the reasons he stood out in his
experiments. When he studied cathode rays he passed rays through vacuums,
when the rays deflected he was able to measure the angle of which they were
deflected in. This also includes finding the ratio of electrical charge to the mass
of a particle. He discovered that even when he used different types of gas, the
ratios remained constant. He began to make an inference that even atoms were
made up of smaller parts. He had found, what we call today, electrons. His
discoveries also refuted passed theories that states that atoms were the smallest
unit.
Not only did he discover the electron, he also discovered, what we know
today as, Isotopes. When Thompsons was conducting an experiment where he
used ionized neon through a electrical and magnetic field where he also used
deflection to measure electrical charge to the mass of particle ratio. While he was
conducting the experiment, he found that Neon was composed of two different
types of atoms. His discoveries led to finding more research on isotopes.
 Thompsons Discoveries:
Over the course of Thompsons research he found many new ideas such as
finding electrons and isotopes. Here are some of the other things he concluded:

1. He concluded that an atom was composed of small negative electrons that

were positive surrounding sphere. Almost like plum-pudding
2. Proved that atoms are made up even tinier parts called electrons
3. Concluded that electrons have a negative charge and what is surrounding
the electrons is positive because atoms do not have an all around negative
charge
4. All atoms must contain these negative charges
5. He discovered that even when he used different types of gas, the ratios of
electrical charge to mass of particle remained constant.
6. Elements can be composed of two different types of atoms
 Thompsons Discoveries
Today,Today:
many of Thompsons findings are still used. For example,
how he discovered the electron. Today we know that atoms are not
only consisted of electrons, they are also composed of neutrons and
protons. He also used exceptional critical thinking skills when he
figured out that electrons are negatively charged so what is
surrounding it has to be positive because atoms themselves are not
negatively charged. Although some of his theories like how he
imagined an atom to look like has been refuted, it still has some
relevance today like how he mentioned that electrons are negatively
charged and all together have neutral charge.
Ernest Rutherford
 Yet Another Researcher! Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford is yet another researcher who discovered something
about the atom and what we know it to be today. Ernest Rutherford was a
Physicist who was born on August 30, 1871 in Spring Grove, New Zealand. He
had a poor upcoming with his father struggling to support his family. His mother
was also a school teacher who emphasized how important education was.
Rutherfords famous for saying, We haven't the money, so weve got to think. In
1890 Rutherford had gotten a scholarship to Canterbury College in Christchurch,
New Zealand. At Canterbury, Rutherford had learned the importance of
conducting experiments and finding research. He continued to conduct different
types of experiments such as electrical discharge to magnetic iron. Some of
these experiments led to him finding more about what the atom is.
 Rutherfords Findings:
While visiting the Cavendish Laboratory, Rutherford was invited by professor J.J.
Thompson who wanted to collaborate with him on the study of X-rays which had
recently been invented. They both began to study the effect of X-rays on the
conductive ness of gases. Later on a paper was written on the topic of dividing atoms
into molecules.
Soon afterwards, Rutherford began to study iron-producing radiation. When he
was conducting an experiment with uranium he found that when he placed foil near it,
it resulted in one type of radiation which was either absorbed or blocked. He called
these types of radiation alpha and beta. He found that the alpha particle was similar
to the nucleus of helium while the beta particle was similar to electrons. When
Rutherford left Cambridge, Frederick Soddy introduced Rutherford to the radioactivity
theory which claimed that radioactive energy came from within the atom. Rutherford
also went on to discover radioactive gas radon with Professor Bertram Borden
Boltwood
 Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment

In 1907, Rutherford had gone back to England where he

conducted even more experiments. When he continued to
study alpha particles he discovered that the mass of the atom
was mostly in the nucleus. He used alpha particles that went
directly through the atom, but also found that some bounced
back from the nucleus. He discovered that the nucleus of the
atom was positive and the atom as a whole consisted of
mostly empty space.
 Rutherford's Theories and
We Conclusions
know Rutherford for is his famous Gold Foil Experiment, here are some
of the conclusions he drew:

1. Atoms are mostly made up of empty space

2. The nucleus of the atom is positive because alpha particles are also
positive so they bounce of the nucleus
3. The alpha particles hit bounced off off something that is small, dense,
and positively charged (nucleus)
4. The nucleus only makes up a small percentage of an atom and the rest
is empty space
5. The nucleus contains most of the mass of the atom
6. Electrons surround nucleus
 Rutherford's Findings Used Today
In Rutherford's findings, he found a lot about the atom. He also had
many correct statements like when he came up with the conclusion that the
nucleus was small, dense, and had a positive charge. This is similar to what
we know an atom to be today. We also know that an atom is mostly empty
space because of Rutherfords findings. He was also correct when he said
that most of the weight of the atom is located in the nucleus because
everything else in the atom is empty space. Rutherfords finding affect a lot
of what we know an atom to be even after many years. Rutherfords
findings were very on point although some one his theories may have been
wrong. He also gave us a somewhat of a clearer picture of what an actual
atom looks like.
NIELS BOHR
 Neils Bohr is Born!!!

Niels Bohr was born on October 7, 1885 in

Copenhagen, Denmark. Bohr had grown up with a mother
who was a successful Jewish banking clan and a father
who wanted to study Physiology. Bohr eventually attended
college at Copenhagen University where he received his
masters and doctorate degree in Physics. In 1911, he
moved to Cambridge, England and worked with J.J.
Thompson in the Cavendish Laboratory. He then went on
to become one of the most influential people to study an
atom and its electrons.
 Bohrs Experiments! :)
When conducting his study with the atom, Bohr also studied many
of Rutherfords theories and how Rutherford assumed an atom was
structured. Bohr made his own model of an atom called the Bohr Model.
In his model it showed a nucleus which has a positive charge and was
smaller compared to the rest of the atom. He also included the electrons
that surrounded the nucleus and how the electrons were negatively
charged. In his model it displayed these electrons moving in a circular
orbit around the nucleus (similar to the solar system). He also was
famous for discovering the idea that electrons go move in orbits around
the atoms nucleus and that the number of electrons depended on the
chemical properties of the element. He also theorized that an electron can
move from a higher energy orbit to a lower energy one.
 Bohrs Conclusions:
Bohrs conclusions on the structure of the atom is pretty self-explanatory. Here
are some of the conclusions he made:

1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in definite circular positions

called an orbit.
2. Each orbit has a different energy level. He believed that electrons
can move from high energy levels to lower energy levels of an atom.
3. The bigger the orbit, the more energy the atom had
4. Electrons absorb light photons causing the electron to gain more
energy
5. Electrons can emit light photons when it loses energy
 Bohrs Model of an Atom Compared to Today

Bohrs model of an atom can be easily compared to what we know an

atom to be today. Bohrs structure of an atom included a small dense nucleus
that is positively charged- is what we use today to identify an atom. Bohr
also mentioned how electrons move in definite circular orbits that can move
from high energy to low energy levels. Where Bohr could have improved is
by not just studying a hydrogen atom that only has one electron. He could
have studied some other atoms as well to really see if his statements were
correct. Bohr also seemed to sum up a lot of the predictions people before
him said about atoms. Bohr was really close to interpreting how the atom is
structured and what we know an atom is structured like.
Erwin Schrodinger
 The Last: Erwin Schrodinger

Erwin Schrodinger was born in August 12, 1887 in Vienna, Austria.

He went on to become a Physicists and a scholar who was responsible
for studying how we know an atom to be today. He also was
responsible for studying electron movement. He grew up an only child
and a child to a botanist and and oil factory owner. Erwin was also
homeschooled until he was 11 years old. He then attended the Vienna
Akademisches Gymnasium and attended the University of Vienna.
When he attended University of Vienna he was strongly influenced by
another Physicist named Fritz Hasenohrl. After he graduated with a
Ph.d in Physics, he was drafted in World War I, when he came back
from war he got married.
 Schrodingers Studies:
Schrodinger began to study theoretical physics and teach Physics at Zurich.
While doing research, he also worked with Louis de Broglie who proposed the
theory of wave mechanics. This sparked his interest of studying the wave
mechanical model (he wanted to explain why an electron moves in a mechanical
wave). He followed Bohr's model of the atom and combined it with the idea of
de Broglie of the wave mechanical model. He then theorized that an electron
does not move in definite circular motions, but in a mechanical wave. This is
similar to what we know an atom to be today and his model is the model we also
use today as well.
He built a probability function for the hydrogen atom as well as for other
atoms as well. His model suggests that we cannot predict where an electron is
moving to, but we can get a general direction of where it is going (and almost
looks like a cloud).
 Schrodinger's Conclusions:
Schrodingers research proved to be very successful-especially because we use his
ideas today. His research proved many things-especially refuting Bohrs model which
concluded that electrons move in circular orbitals. Here are some of his discoveries:

1. Schrodingers model suggests that the probability that an electron can be found
can be found at any given space, any given time , and any given region.
2. Introduced wave mechanics as a mathematical model
3.
 TODAY:
Today, we still use the wave mechanical
model at Schrodinger amazingly combined
theories to create. However, with more
advanced technology being built every year,
it seems that even the version of the atom
we know today to be can also be outdated
and some facts we know about the atom
today can also be refuted in the future.
 Work Cited
John Dalton, chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/history/dalton.html.

John Dalton. Chemical Heritage Foundation, 7 Sept. 2016,

www.chemheritage.org/historical-profile/john-dalton.

J.J. Thomson. Biography.com, A&E Networks Television, 20 Sept. 2017,

www.biography.com/people/jj-thomson-40039.

Niels Bohr.Biography.com, A&E Networks Television, 13 May 2014,

www.biography.com/people/niels-bohr-21010897.

The Editors of Encyclopdia Britannica. Democritus. Encyclopdia Britannica,

Encyclopdia Britannica, inc., 19 June 2017,
www.britannica.com/biography/Democritus.