Rap 138 VI

Mechanistic Design of
Semi-Rigid Pavements
- An Incremental Approach
Danish Road Institute

Report 138
2004
Ministry of Transport - Denmark

Road Directorate
Guldalderen 12
P.O. Box 235
DK-2640 Hedehusene
Denmark
Telephone +45 4630 7000
Telefax +45 4630 7105
Title Mechanistic Design of Semi-Rigid Pavements

Dated December 2004
Copyright Road Directorate, all rights reserved
Authors Finn Thgersen, Christian Busch, Anders Henrichsen
Published by Road Directorate, Danish Road Institute
ISSN electronic 0909-1386
ISBN electronic 87-91177-56-1
Photo Finn Thgersen
Reports published by the Danish Road Directorate

can be requested from the bookshop:
Telephone +45 4322 7300
Telefax +45 4363 1969
e-mail schultz@schultz.dk
Mechanistic Design of
Semi-Rigid Pavements
Finn Thgersen
Christian Busch, COWI
Anders Henrichsen, NCC
Danish Road Institute

Report 138
2004
Ministry of Transport - Denmark

Contents
Contents........................................................................................................................ 1
1. Preface ..................................................................................................................... 5
2. Executive Summary ............................................................................................... 7

2.1 Background........................................................................................................ 7
2.2 Project Work...................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Recommendations............................................................................................ 11
3. State-of-the-art for Semi-Rigid Pavements ........................................................ 12
3.1 PIARC 1991..................................................................................................... 12
3.1.1 Design ..................................................................................................... 12
3.1.2 Mix design .............................................................................................. 13
3.1.3 Measures against reflective cracking ...................................................... 14
3.1.4 Pre-cracking............................................................................................ 14
3.2 Update 2002..................................................................................................... 15
3.3 References........................................................................................................ 16
4. Formulation of a Deterioration Model ............................................................... 17
4.1 Model Development ........................................................................................ 17
4.2 References........................................................................................................ 18
5. Calibration of Deterioration Model through Full Scale Pavement Test........... 19
5.1 Test Pavements ................................................................................................ 19
5.2 Paving .............................................................................................................. 20
5.3 Compaction control ......................................................................................... 20
5.4 Test specimens................................................................................................. 21
5.5 Loading and measurement procedures ............................................................ 22
5.6 Measured Pavement Response......................................................................... 22
5.6.1 E-moduli from FWD measurements....................................................... 22
5.6.2 Surface Moduli from LWD measurements............................................. 23
5.6.3 Pavement Reactions................................................................................ 24
5.6.4 Rutting .................................................................................................... 25
5.7 Cores taken from pavement ............................................................................. 26
5.7.1 Layer thicknesses and strengths.............................................................. 26
5.7.2 Plane sections of cores from loaded area................................................ 31
5.7.3 Thin sections........................................................................................... 32
5.8 Deterioration analysis ...................................................................................... 34
5.8.1 E-moduli of Stabilised Layers ................................................................ 34
5.8.2 Development of incremental-recursive model........................................ 38
5.9 Post-loading survey ......................................................................................... 42
6. Danish Reference Pavements .............................................................................. 46
6.1 Design of CTB pavements in Denmark ........................................................... 47
6.2 Pavement sections with no reflective cracking................................................ 47
6.2.1 Section A: Motorway M10 Kge Bugt, km 19.0 to 23.6 (2x3 lanes)..... 47
6.2.2 Section B: Motorway M4 Taastrup-Ballerupvej, km 1.2 to 4.0 ............. 48
6.2.3 Section C: Motorway M12 Frederikssundsmotorvejen, km 11.0 to 13.8 49
6.2.4 Section D: Motorway M10 Kge Bugt, km 10.4 to 14.1........................ 50
1
2
6.3 Pavement sections with reflective cracking..................................................... 51
6.3.1 Section E: Motorway M3 Jyllingevej-Holbkmotorvejen,
km 46.1 to 51.9....................................................................................... 51
6.3.2 Section F: Main road no. 448, Bjergby-Hirtshals, km 7.7 to 13.2.......... 52
6.4 Test section, Far............................................................................................. 53
6.5 Whole-life traffic data for the reference sections ............................................ 53
6.6 Axle load distribution on Danish motorways .................................................. 55
7. Supplementary Measurements on Reference Pavements ................................. 59
7.1 Moisture content of CTB ................................................................................. 59
7.2 Cores from reference pavements ..................................................................... 59
7.2.1 Laboratory testing on cement bound base .............................................. 61
7.2.2 Laboratory testing on asphalt layers ....................................................... 64
8. Design Guideline for Semi-Rigid Pavements ..................................................... 66
8.1 Verification on reference pavements ............................................................... 66
8.2 Deterministic Design Criterion........................................................................ 67
8.2.1 Analysis of Incremental-recursive Modelling ........................................ 67
8.2.2 Design Reliability ................................................................................... 70
8.2.3 Design Example...................................................................................... 71
9. Laboratory Testing of Materials and Composition........................................... 72
9.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 72
9.2 Test Method for Determination of Compressive Strength............................... 72
9.3 Relationship between Unconfined Compressive Strength,
Split Tensile Strength, Flexural Strength and Modulus of Elasticity............... 73
9.4 Optimal Material Composition ........................................................................ 74
9.4.1 Relationship between Dry Density (degree of compaction) and
Compressive Strength of a Typical Base Material ................................. 75
9.4.2 Effect of the Fine Aggregate Properties on the Strength of CTB ........... 76
9.4.3 Effect of the content of material >2mm on the strength of CTB ............ 77
Appendix 1
- Experiences for semi-rigid pavements................................................................... 79
Appendix 2
- Test Methods for Determination of Compressive Strength................................. 85
Appendix 3
- Relationship between Unconfined Compressive Strength,
Split Tensile Strength, Flexural Strength and Modulus of Elasticity ................... 93
Appendix 4
- Relationship between Dry Density and Compressive Strength of
a Typical Base Material .......................................................................................... 101
Appendix 5
- Effect of the Fine Aggregate Properties on the Strength................................... 107
Appendix 6
- Effect of the Content of Material > 2 mm on the Strength of CTB .................. 113
3
4
1. Preface
Long life, high strength and low cost pavements that meet economic and
environmental requirements for life cycle sustainability are in high demand
everywhere. They are therefore a target for innovation by contractors and consultants
in the Danish road industry as well as a priority interest for any public road
administration. New capabilities in this field will give competitive advantage at home
and abroad to private industry and offer potential savings to road owners.
This project came about because partnerships between COWI and NCC in road
construction abroad had given them occasions to consider a vast practical and
economic potential in these countries of certain hydraulically bound materials in
pavements. To unleash this potential and bring it to use on the market would,
however, require research action and field verification. This realisation coincided with
retrospective studies by the Danish Road Institute of the performance of hydraulically
bound base layers used in motorway construction more than 20 years ago. These
studies revealed an uneven, but sometimes superior, performance that called on new
research to find the key to achieve constant high performance of these materials.
Hydraulically bound materials in various forms have a long history as road pavements.
One such pavement type is Portland cement concrete. It has a predictable performance
and offers a competitive solution to the problem of supporting very high and heavy
traffic for many years with minimum maintenance.
Another - and very different application of the technology is found in semi-rigid

pavements, where a hydraulically bound material is used as a rigid base layer covered
by a flexible, bituminous surface layer. When successful, it offers high strength and
remarkable durability while avoiding some of the drawbacks of the rigid pavement:
cracking and surface deteriorations that are difficult to maintain. A further advantage
is the generally easy access to the necessary low-cost materials: sand or gravel of
various geological origin to be mixed with minor amounts of cement, - or, in many
parts of the World, various mineral deposits of volcanic origin that are bound when
mixed directly with water and activator, so-called natural pozzolana.
Use of such local materials can save foreign currency and when the source is close
to the construction site also transport, which in turn will reduce the environmental
impact of the project.
A big disadvantage is, however, that the performance of this type of bound material
has never been really predictable. There has not been a reliable and exact method or
model for the estimation of initial strength and strength development as a function of
the accumulated load of traffic that it will carry over time. When designing the
material mix and setting the dimensions for this type of pavement, road engineers have
largely depended on experience, and performances have been very varying in practice.
Some have given excellent support to surface layers for many years, while others
needed total rehabilitation after very few years of service. This uncertainty translates
into increasingly prohibitive economic risk.
5
The economic risk has since the mid 1980s effectively forced this technology out of
the market in many countries, and indirectly prevented utilisation of the technology in
areas of the World where the availability of pozzolane, volcanic materials could
otherwise provide very cost-effective solutions to new road construction, often in
developing countries with a weak economy.
At the same time, oil is seen to become a scarce and expensive resource, and that will
eventually reflect severely on the price of bitumen. The search for suitable and
competitive alternatives is therefore seen as important, necessary and timely.
This was the background for the formation in the winter 2003 of a project partnership
between COWI, NCC and the Road Institute of the Danish Road Directorate with the
aim to develop and test a model for the calculation of the strength development under
traffic of a hydraulically bound, cement stabilised material for use in semi-rigid
pavements. The primary motivation for COWI and NCC was the potential use of such
a tool in road construction abroad, while the interest of the Danish Road Institute was
targeted on the potential savings on Danish roads and the quest for alternatives to
bitumen bound base layers.
The project was funded jointly by the three partner organisations and carried out by a
team of researchers from COWI, Dansk Beton Teknik A/S (for NCC) and the Danish
Road Institute. It was successfully completed in June 2004, and the results were
presented to the Danish Road Directorate, which subsequently decided to make a full
scale verification pavement in 2005 of the semi rigid pavement concept and design
method that was developed in the project.
The steering group was:

Jrgen H. Spliid, Civil Engineer, MBA, NCC International, Denmark
Peter Hostrup Rasmussen, Director, Railways, Roads and Airports, COWI
Anders Henrichsen, Managing Director, Dansk Beton Teknik A/S, (project leader)
Jrgen Christensen, Director, Danish Road Institute, The Road Directorate, (chairman)
The steering group for the project thanks Dr. Techn. Per Ullidtz from Dynatest
International, Marianne Grauers, Ph.D from the Swedish National Road and Transport
Research Institute and Kirsten Eriksen from COWI A/S, who provided advice and
comments on the draft report that were very valuable for the final editing process.
Roskilde, December 2004,
Jrgen Christensen
Director. Danish Road Institute
6
2. Executive Summary
2.1 Background
Throughout Europe an increasing interest in the pavement type commonly known as
Semi-rigid pavements has been observed in recent years.
This type of pavement is a composite design consisting of an unbound subbase layer, a

hydraulically bound base course layer and a bitumen rich hot rolled asphalt concrete
as binder and/or wearing course.
The reason for the growing interest in this type of pavement, which in Europe has
been applied since the 1950s, could well be related to the following:
Increased traffic loads and widespread rutting in existing flexible pavements

indicate the need for pavements with improved stiffness.
Experience with existing semi-rigid pavements indicates economically feasible
performance, provided relevant design and construction principles were applied.
The design of Semi-rigid pavements lends itself to the use of marginal materials
and, consequently, often a reduced environmental impact. In this way the design
may be seen as a contribution to a sustainable infrastructure construction.
In Europe, the semi-rigid pavement concept is used to a varying extent. Some

countries like Germany, France and Spain have a rather large proportion (30-50 %) of
semi-rigid pavements on their main road network, whereas in other countries like e.g.
Denmark, less than 5 % of the total length is constructed with this pavement type. A
typical pavement for heavy traffic applications consists of 15-25 cm cement treated
base course (CTB) covered with 10-20 cm of asphalt concrete surfacing. The 7-day
compressive strength requirement for the CTB layer is usually in the range 6-12 MPa.
A well-known disadvantage of pavements with cement-treated base courses is

contraction cracking of the CTB causing reflective cracking through the asphalt
concrete surfacing. This can be seen on the road surface as large transverse cracks
with a typical spacing of 10-20 m. If these cracks are not maintained, e.g. by crack
sealing, they will often act as the starting point for further deterioration.
The adverse effects of the contraction crack tendency exhibited by cement bound
layers can be mitigated by different techniques for obtaining a more closely spaced
crack system. One possibility is to use a binder combination with slower strength gain,
hereby promoting a larger number of thermal contraction cracks formed while the
early-age tensile strength is still relatively low. Another and by now widely agreed
solution used by most countries is to pre-crack the CTB-layer. This is done by wet-
forming transverse notches at 2-4 m distance in the layer immediately after the paver
down to a depth corresponding to 1/3 1/2 layer thickness. After hardening, fine
cracks will propagate through the rest of the layer. The resulting transverse cracks will
develop relatively small cracks openings and good load transfer, thereby reducing the
tendency for reflection through the asphalt layer.
In Denmark, around 100 km of motorway pavement with cement bound gravel base
course was constructed in the 1970ies. The typical pavement structure was 20 cm
7
CTB covered with 12 16 cm asphalt concrete surfacing. The CTB layer was required
to have a minimum 7-day compressive strength of 5 MPa.
The use of this pavement type was abandoned in Denmark in the early 1980ies,
mainly because of poor performance of a road section that suffered from critical
transverse reflective cracking already at the time of opening to traffic.
Recent investigations by the Danish Road Directorate have revealed that a number of
heavily trafficked motorways in Denmark have performed much better than expected
at the time of design. The investigations show that in most cases the wearing course is
bitumen rich asphalt concrete and in many cases the base course is a cement treated
base course.
Some of these high performance roads have served the traffic for more than 20 years
without wearing course replacements and without any reflective cracking. It is
assumed that the good performance of these stabilised base layers is related to use of
moderate cement contents, which results in a crack pattern without discrete cracks.
These observations were the basis for the decision by the project partners to conduct
the present data collection, research and development study with the following aims:
Develop a realistic deterioration model for this type of pavement.

Establish and verify a background for structural design of semi-rigid pavements.
Draft Technical Specifications for construction of hydraulically stabilised base
layers combined with relatively thin high performance wearing courses.
2.2 Project Work

During 2003 the project was carried out as planned. Initially, a deterioration model
was formulated, based on an incremental-recursive process, i.e. a calculation rule
that determines the development of the layers E-modulus over a number of load
repetitions as a function of the layers critical reaction to the actual load, its current
E-modulus and the initial E-modulus. For the cement stabilised layer, the longitudinal
strain at the bottom of the layer is chosen as the critical reaction.
The work with this deterioration model received valuable input from colleagues in
CSIR Transportek, South Africa as well as from a DANIDA funded R&D project
involving the Danish Road Testing Machine. The project partners express their
thanks for these valuable inputs.
Upon formulation of the deterioration model the following procedure was followed:
A full-scale testing series was executed that would allow determination of the
deterioration parameters for different values of material strength and deformation
The results from the full-scale testing was entered into the general model
The model was finally verified against measurements from selected sections on
Danish motorways with up to 30 years of service life
The full scale testing series was carried out on a test field at a motorway construction
site near Fagerhult in southern Sweden. Three CTB-mixes with varying strength and
composition were tested in a relatively thin pavement with 180 mm CTB covered by
30 mm asphalt surfacing. For each of the three materials two 15-m test sections were
paved, one of them supplied with instruments for measurement of stresses and strains
8
in the pavement. Each of the six sections was loaded with the HVS - Heavy Vehicle
Simulator, which is a mobile Accelerated Load Testing Facility. During a 5-week
period in the autumn of 2003 the test sections were loaded with up to 125,000 wheel
passages with a load of 30 or 60 kN. The deterioration was monitored by
measurements with both the Light Weight Deflectometer and Standard Falling Weight
Deflectometer, along with recorded stresses and strains in the pavement.
The results from the full scale testing were used for development and calibration of the
incremental-recursive model. The model constants were determined from data analysis
for the six test sections.
The model was finally verified against Falling Weight Deflectometer data from
Danish motorway sections. Along with this special verification a more general
collection and analysis of data for construction, performance and traffic for a number
of Danish CTB pavements was carried out with the aim of trying to establish why
some of these pavements have shown superior performance and others not.
A few of the most interesting pavement sections were selected for supplementary
studies. Pavement materials were sampled for determination of in situ strength and
stiffness and Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) measurements on the pavements
were performed. The main results are summarised in the following table:
Pavement Reflective E-values from Compressive Intact

Section Cracking FWD [MPa] strength [MPa] cores
M3 Yes 12.000 20.000 17 14/14
M10-s No 1.500 10.000 11 32/48
M10-n No 2.000 12.000 21 28/43
The motorway section with extensive reflective cracking had a rather high and
constant stiffness measured with FWD, whereas the two sections with no reflective
cracking showed lower values and greater variability. This was confirmed by the
proportion of intact cores taken from the sections. For the M3 section all attempted
cores were intact but for the other two sections only around 2/3 of the cores had an
intact CTB-layer. The core strengths do not confirm that a lower strength should be
favourable in relation to reflective cracking. It should be noted however, that the core
strengths represent maximum values for the material in the intact cores, which for the
last two sections does not give a true picture of the actual strengths. Furthermore, it is
worth noticing the high in-situ strengths found after 20-30 years compared to the 5
MPa requirement at the time of construction.
The traffic analyses conclude, that some of the Danish motorway sections which were
designed for 5-10 mil. 10-ton Standard Axles have now supported up to 27 mil.
Standard Axles during a 20-30 year life time without need for strengthening.
The verification on the Danish motorway pavements confirmed the applicability of the
incremental-recursive model developed from the full scale testing. With this model,
traditional deterministic design criteria could be developed. These criteria relate the
initial strain to allowable number of load repetitions for a given initial E-modulus of
the stabilised layer and chosen deterioration level, i.e. terminal E-modulus.
9
Using the design criteria, a table with design examples for different traffic levels can
be prepared. The failure condition is a terminal E-modulus of 3,000 MPa.
Layer Number of Equivalent 10 ton Axles

(million)
0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50
Asphalt Surfacing E = 2,500 MPa,
60 80
and Binder Thickness in mm
Einitial = 12,000 MPa
215 235 245
Cement Treated Required thickness (mm)
Base Einitial = 16,000 MPa
150 165 180 190 205 225
Required thickness (mm)
Gravel base E = 300 MPa Thickness 150 mm
Subbase E = 100 MPa Thickness minimum 200 mm
Subgrade E = 40 MPa -
These designs are based on criteria equations developed from an incremental-recursive

analysis that ensured that 75% of all measured E-moduli were above the prediction
lines. It can therefore be assumed that 75% of all pavements that are designed
according to these criteria will have E-moduli of the CTB layer that are above the
design terminal E-modulus.
The CTB materials with E-moduli of approximately 16,000 MPa, prescribed for the
heavily trafficked pavements must be pre-cracked at intervals of 1.5 3 m in order to
avoid shrinkage and temperature cracks, while the 12,000 MPa material with lower
tensile strength may be expected to develop a closely spaced (micro)crack pattern on
its own. This type of material is therefore better suited to small-scale projects with
more basic production methods.
During the project a number of uncertainties relating to properties of CTB materials

were identified. Laboratory investigations were performed with the objective of
contributing to a more rational approach in design of the materials and in
determination of strength parameters, which should be specified in a Technical
Specification to meet the requirements of the structural design.
An analysis of different methods for determination of compressive strength on

laboratory specimens resulted in a recommendation of the method based on Standard
Proctor compaction (ASTM D558, corresponding to prEN 13286-53).
In the design of CTB pavements, tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of
elasticity are all important parameters, but for reasons of simplicity usually only the
compressive strength is determined. The quantitative relationships between all of these
parameters were investigated for two different CTB-mixes.
Optimal design of compositions for hydraulically bound materials will be one of the
requirements for the future. The use of local sometimes marginal materials along
with a possible minimisation of the cement content contribute to the sustainability and
cost effectiveness of the concept.
10
The relationship between dry density and compressive strength of a typical CTB
material was investigated, and the results confirmed that an optimisation of the gravel
and CTB composition is an important measure towards environmentally friendly and
cost effective construction.
It was established that for CTB aggregates the following parameters are beneficial:
High density, low/moderate SE-value (non-plastic material) and high content of filler.
Further it was demonstrated that by mixing two marginal sands which each had high
cement requirements when used separately, it was possible to obtain a good combined
aggregate material with low cement requirement.
Finally, a special experiment suggested that an addition of 20 % 2-4 mm aggregate to

a 0-2 mm CTB mix did not have any significant impact on the compressive strength.
Consequently, such addition will result in a reduction in required cement content for a
given strength requirement of 15-20 %.
2.3 Conclusion
The deterioration model, which was developed as an incremental-recursive model has
been transformed into a mechanistic pavement design guideline.
When this guideline was verified against measurements from the selected Danish
motorway sections, it was found that the design guideline with good accuracy could
predict the performance of these pavements without the need for any further
corrections.
It may, consequently, be concluded that a design methodology, which in a realistic

way can predict the performance of Semi-rigid pavements has been established.
2.4 Recommendations
It is recommended that this new design approach, i.e. a mechanistic design based on
incremental recursive approach, shall be demonstrated in full-scale on a Danish
motorway section and that the work shall be performed based on Technical
Specifications, which will be prepared on the basis of the work reported in the present
report.
11
3. State-of-the-art for Semi-Rigid
Pavements
In the following, the state-of-the-art for semi-rigid pavements on a European basis will
be summarised, partly in the form of tables with strength requirements, construction
practices, experiences etc. Furthermore, special emphasis will be given to various
methods to prevent reflective cracking by inducing closely spaced cracks in the
hydraulically bound base.
3.1 PIARC 1991

In 1991 the two PIARC committees on flexible and concrete roads issued a joint
report about semi-rigid pavements [3.1]. The report summarises the state-of-the-art for
design, materials composition, construction techniques etc. As this report offers the
most comprehensive overview of the subject area that has been found, it will be
referenced here, even though some of the actual data can have changed during the 12
years since the publication of the report.
3.1.1 Design
Regarding the design of Semi-rigid pavement the authors suggest a general concept
with three different options for the function of the hydraulically bound layer, as shown
in the following table taken from the report.
Structural role Cracking tendency Elasticity Design criteria Typical layer Risk of Risk of damages due Consequences of Crack Acceptability Antireflection
assigned to the of hydraulically modulus thicknesses reflection to loss of adhesion unsealed cracks sealing of reflected cracking
layers bound with bound materials to (MPa) according to cracking between bitum. and required cracks measures
hydraulic or be obtained by traffic and hydraulically bound
pozzolanic binders means of mix design subgrade layers due to water
conditions (cm) infiltration
1. No contribution Microcracks 1000 - 2000 Fatigue resistance Bit. layers: Low Low Negligible Occasional Generally no None
to flexural of bituminous 20-32 approx. problem
resistance (1) layers
Treated layers:
15-20 approx.
2. Almost total A. Microcracks 1000 - 2000 Fatigue resistance Bit. layers: Low Low Negligible Occasional Generally no None
flexural resistance of treated materials 4-14 approx. problem
assigned to the (1)
hydraulically Treated layers:
bound layers 25-50 approx.
B. Wide cracks, 15000 - 30 000 Fatigue resistance Bit. layers: High High Troublesome in wet Extensive High traffic: Yes
regularly spaced at of treated materials 4-8 approx. climates in absence unacceptable
long intervals (2) of efficient
Treated layers: subsurface drainage Low traffic:
25-50 approx. system acceptable None
3. Both bound and A Narrow cracks, 7000 - 10000 Fatigue resistance Bit. layers: Low to High Measures to be Medium to Acceptable None
bituminous layers regularly spaced at of both bituminous 12-27 approx. medium taken in wet occasional
contribute to closer intervals (3) and treated climates in absence
flexural resistance materials Treated layers: of an efficient
20-22 approx. subsurface drainage
system
B. Wide cracks, 15000 - 30000 Fatigue resistance Bit. layers: Medium to High Cares to be taken in Medium to High traffic: Yes
regularly spaced at of both bituminous 12-27 approx. high wet climates in high unacceptable
long intervals (2) and treated absence of an
materials Treated layers: efficient subsurface Low traffic:
20-22 approx. drainage system acceptable None
(1) Equivalent modulus (laboratory dynamic moduli could be in the range of 2.000 - 8.000 MPa)
(2) Laboratory static modulus (laboratory dynamic moduli could be in the range of 25.000 - 45.000 MPa)
(3) Equivalent modulus (laboratory dynamic moduli could be in the range of 8.000 - 15.000 MPa)
Table 3.1 Different design approaches for semi-rigid pavements. From (3.1).
12
This approach leads to three different types of mix design for the treated material: A
high rigidity mix (lean concrete) with a 7-day compressive strength greater than 10
MPa (2B and 3B); a low strength soil cement or sand cement type mix with a 7-day
compressive strength less than 2 MPa (1 and 2A) or an intermediate mix type with 7-
day compressive strengths of 2.5 4.5 MPa (3A).
Examples of national pavement designs are given, either based on experimental and
theoretical considerations as for France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Spain and Australia
or purely experimentally based (empirical) as for UK, Switzerland and Austria. Some
countries base their design on avoidance of fatigue cracking whatever the importance
of the road, whereas others restrict the avoidance strategy to heavily trafficked roads.
For the lower strength soil cement type mixes the design criteria is more focused on
durability than fatigue. The different design approaches previously described can be
recognised in the predominant pavement types in the individual countries, e.g.
Switzerland uses a low strength soil cement (2A), Italy uses a medium strength base
(3A) and Belgium, Germany and France uses a high strength lean concrete
corresponding to the design 3B. Generally, the design approach 3 where both the
bituminous and hydraulically bound layers contribute to the flexural resistance of the
pavement seems to be the most widely adopted.
Furthermore, an overview of durability requirements, especially in the form of frost

resistance testing is given. Typically, change of length or compressive strength is
measured after a number of freeze-thaw cycles.
3.1.2 Mix design

Shrinkage cracking is generally considered as inevitable, especially thermal shrinkage
whereas primary shrinkage during the setting process may be controlled to a large
extent by adequate composition and construction. Reflection of these cracks to the
surface of the bituminous overlay is only accepted by some countries as long as these
cracks remain hairline cracks. Some conclusions regarding mix design, which will
positively influence the formation of many narrowly, spaced cracks are:
Adequate, e.g. not too high water content

Thermal expansion coefficient of the treated material
Strength and rigidity of material at the moment of crack formation influencing the
spacing and consequently the width of cracks
Swiss experiences recommend water content at the dry side of the Proctor optimum,
possibly at 75% water saturation.
Limestone aggregates are preferable for narrow cracks having about half the
expansion of siliceous aggregates (France).
Austrian experiences indicate a content of 10-15 % fines smaller than 63 m in

gravels as favourable.
Undesirable high strength and elevated rigidity result from high temperatures at
laying, use of quick setting and hardening binders, use of coarse aggregate of a
gradation >0/20 mm, high dosage of binder leading to excess of strength.
The report states that pozzolan or lime bound mixes with a slow strength development
rarely develop reflective cracking, even with relatively thin layers of bituminous
13
material (5-6 cm). For these mixes shrinkage cracking is negligible and the
unavoidable thermal cracking is retarded and appears as micro cracks diffused in the
material mass.
3.1.3 Measures against reflective cracking

Apart from mix constituents other measures for dealing with the reflective cracking
problem are described. Generally, three approaches can be taken:
Choosing a structure where the hydraulically bound layer is covered with thick
asphalt layers, often up to 20-30 cm. Only relevant for high traffic roads.
Accept reflective cracking and regularly seal the cracks. Mostly relevant for low
traffic roads, where inconvenience of the sealing work to traffic is of limited
importance.
Making special arrangements to delay propagation of cracks and retard their
subsequent evolution.
For the latter approach again three modes of action can be suggested:
Improving the capacity of the bituminous layers to withstand the cracking tendency
of the hydraulically bound layer. This can be accomplished e.g. by using polymer
modified bitumen.
Inserting an obstacle between the hydraulically bound layer and the bituminous
layers either in the form of a bond-braking layer or an anti-cracking stress diffusion
membrane.
Reducing the loadings applied by the hydraulically bound layer to the bituminous
layers by making the amplitude of crack opening small and making the relative
displacement of the two edges of the crack during traffic load small.
Small crack openings can be achieved as a result of proper mix design as previously
described. Another important factor is the friction (adhesion) between the road base
and its substrate, as a higher friction results in shorter crack distances.
3.1.4 Pre-cracking
In many countries various methods for pre-cracking of the hydraulically bound base
are increasingly gaining in acceptance and use. These methods all aim at ensuring
relatively closely spaced active transverse cracks in order to counteract reflective
cracking.
In principle there are two main categories of methods; a) notches formed after
compaction of the layer before setting of the material and b) cracks induced in the
hardened base.
The simplest way of inducing cracks in the base layer is to use a vibrating plate with a
welded vertical steel blade, which is pushed across the base layer. In this way a groove
with a depth of around half the layer thickness is formed. A bitumen emulsion or
plastic film is placed in the groove and the layer is re-compacted. Under the influence
of temperature and traffic induced stresses a crack will eventually penetrate the rest of
the layer under the notch. This principle of crack formation can be performed
manually (labour intensive) or semi-automatic by using vehicle-mounted equipments
like the French systems CRAFT and OLIVIA. Another option is the French Active
joint, where two special machines put down a corrugated PVC profile across the non-
hardened base layer. The added cost of a base layer with these pre-cracking treatments
14
is allegedly 2-8%. International experience points to an optimal crack spacing of
around 3 m for all of the methods mentioned.
Additional to the wet-formed joints, also methods for inducing cracks in the hardened
state exist. This can be done either by guillotine/steel ball drops or by early rolling of
the hardened base with a vibratory roller. It has been observed in several countries that
when a road base with hydraulic binder is opened to traffic when it has not finished
setting there is a smaller cracking tendency.
The experiences with early vibratory rolling have been mixed where this option has
been tried (France, Germany and Austria). The effect seems to be better for relatively
weak and thin layers (max. 15 cm).
3.2 Update 2002

An update of the country information in the PIARC report from 1991 was recently
published in a report from the Austrian Ministry for Traffic, Innovation, and
Technology [3.2]. A new questionnaire was sent to 8 countries and the answers are
summarised in Table 1 and 2, Appendix 1. For comparison data for Denmark and
Sweden are included in Appendix 1, Table 3.
The strength level for base layers generally falls in two groups: High strength lean
concrete with compressive strengths of 6-10 MPa in Belgium, Germany, Spain, UK
and Sweden and low strength materials with compressive strength 2-4 MPa (Austria
and Switzerland).
Regarding the measures to minimise reflective cracking, Germany, France and Spain
opt for pre-cracking by notching the wet base layer. Other countries are currently
making test in this area, most notably UK.
The early rolling process, which was previously used quite a lot in Germany and other
countries, is according to the report almost not used anymore. In Austria the
effectiveness of this method is believed to be highly dependant on the subgrade. In
Steiermark it has given good results, whereas other areas have had little success.
The report summarises the conclusions from an international symposium about

measures against reflective cracking held in Vienna in February 2000. 21 experts from
8 countries put forward the following comments/conclusions:
Thick asphalt layers: Too expensive. A few cracks can still reflect as a result of
poor uniformity of the bound base layer.
Reinforcement of the asphalt layers: Not always successful because of loss of
adhesion between asphalt base and wearing course.
Covering cracks in the hydraulically bound layer with e.g. 15 cm wide paper strips
(in order to lengthen asphalt strain area): Damages as a result of loss of bond.
Unbound layer between bound base and asphalt: Drawbacks regarding bearing
capacity and rutting and still risk of reflective cracking.
Hydraulically bound base with low strength/low cement content: More frost
damages and by heavy traffic sometimes map cracking in the wheel tracks and
still examples of reflective cracking
Vibratory rolling of the young base layer: Only successful in some regions.
Pre-cracking by notching: Long term practise in Germany, Spain and France, being
introduced in UK and Hungary.
15
The report concludes by recommending some form of pre-cracking for Austrian
cement bound base layers either by notching or for areas with relatively soft subgrade
early vibratory rolling.
3.3 References
[3.1] Chaussees Semi-Rigides / Semi-Rigid Pavements, PIARC, 1991.
[3.2] H. Sommer, G. Hartl, E. Tschegg: berarbeitung der RVS 8.05.13

Zementstabilisierte Tragschichten, Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Innovation
und Technologie, Heft 520, Wien 2002.
16
4. Formulation of a Deterioration Model
4.1 Model Development
Contemporary Pavement Analysis and Design is increasingly relying on incremental-
recursive analysis in the prediction of Pavement Performance in agreement with the
recommendations of the AMADEUS Project. This section describes the development
of a model, predicting the deterioration of cement stabilised base course layers.
The model that has been developed, following a DANIDA-funded project, carried out
in the Danish Road Testing Machine, which demonstrated that such a model was
likely to be useful in the description of deterioration of hydraulic stabilised materials.
An incremental-recursive process is a calculation rule that determines the

development of the layers E-modulus over a number of load repetitions as a function
of the layers critical reaction to the actual load, its current E-modulus and the initial
E-modulus.
In continuum damage mechanics (Kachanov, ref [4.1]), cracking originates as

accumulation and growth of micro-voids and micro-cracks, developing into macro-
cracks. Macro-cracks will cause a reduction of the "active" cross sectional area, for
uniaxial tensile stress. The stresses must be transmitted via the remaining, intact part
of the area. The "damage" may be defined as the relative amount of lost area:
A0 A dA
= =
A0 A0
where: '' is the damage [-],
'A0' is the original area, and
'A' is the remaining, intact area.
The damage can also be expressed as the loss of material modulus, shown below:
E 0 E dE
= =
E0 E0
where: 'E0' is the modulus of the intact material, and
'E' is the average modulus of the damaged material.
Thus '' is '0' for the undamaged material (A = A0 or E = E0).
The rate of damage is a function of actual stress or strain, and has the following
format:

N or
(1 )
= 6
10 ref or ref
where: 'N' is the number of load repetitions,
'' is the stress in [kPa],
'' is the strain in [strain],
'ref' is a reference stress in [kPa],
'ref' is a reference strain in [strain], and
'', '' and '' are dimensionless constants, [-].
17
For the actual stabilised materials is chosen the longitudinal strain in the bottom of the
layer as critical reaction. This value is chosen because:
It will under normal passage conditions be the largest strain in the layer.
It is fairly constant over the entire width of a dual wheel.
It is relatively insensitive to variations in the E-modulus of the layer below.
The chosen model hereby becomes:

N horizontal
(1 )
= 6
10 ref
4.2 References
[4.1] Kachanov, L.M. Introduction to Continuum Damage Mechanics, Mechanics
of Elastic Stability, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1986
18
5. Calibration of Deterioration Model
through Full Scale Pavement Test
5.1 Test Pavements
The testing included fatigue testing of 3 pavement types, divided into 6 test sections.
One section of each pavement type was instrumented with transducers measuring
strain in the bottom of the stabilised layers plus stresses and strains in the unbound
layer immediately below the stabilised base.
Pavement characteristics were as indicated in the table below.
Pavement Designation A1 & A2 B1 & B2 C1 & C2
Surfacing (30 mm) 30 mm Asphalt Concrete
Stabilised base course Gravel 0/16 mm Gravel 0/16 mm Sand 0/8 mm

(180 mm) C = 8 MPa C = 4 MPa C = 4 MPa
Subbase (200 mm) Sandy/silty moraine
Subgrade Crushed stone embankment > 2 m
Table 5.1 Layers in test pavements.
The pavements A1, B1 and C1 were instrumented along the centreline as follows:
6 strain gauges (SG), measuring longitudinal strain in the bottom of the stabilised
base course
3 soil pressure cells (SPC), measuring vertical stress approx. 20 mm below the
surface of the subbase
2 soil strain transducers, LVDT type (SST) measuring vertical strain between
20 mm and 120 mm below the surface of the subbase.
Instruments were placed with 300 mm spacing as follows:
Bottom of CTB SG SG SG SG SG SG
20 mm below top of subbase SPC SPC SPC
20-120 mm below top of subbase SST SST
Figure 5.1 Positioning of instruments.
19
5.2 Paving
The 3 x 30 m test section was constructed on the 28 August 2003 at a motorway
building site near Fagerhult, Sweden.
Three CTB-materials were plant-mixed and transported to the site:
Mix Aggregate Design strength [MPa]

C 0 8 mm 4
B 0 16 mm 4
A 0 16 mm 8
Table 5.2 Parameters for the three mixes tested at Fagerhult
The CTB layer was applied with an ABG - TITAN 473 asphalt paver and compacted
with an 8-ton BOMAG BW 164AD roller. The paving width was 3.5 m and intended
paving thickness 18 cm. Paving started with section C and continued with B and A.
Figure 5.2 Photos from pavement construction.
CTB layer thicknesses were measured at the side of the layer, and were found to 17
18 cm at the left side of the pavement and 12.5 15.5 cm at the right side.
After paving a bitumen emulsion was applied to prevent drying of the CTB layer.
A 30-mm asphalt wearing course was applied on the 18 September, i.e. three weeks
after paving of the CTB layer.
5.3 Compaction control

The laboratory reference values for the three mixes were:
20
Mix Maximum Dry Density Optimum Moisture
[kg/m3] Content [%]
C 2120 8.3
B 2168 8.1
A 2166 8.1
Table 5.3 Reference densities and moisture contents.
After laying the cement bound base layer Nuclear Density Gauge measurements were
made both before and after roller compaction. Before the first roller pass the
compaction level for all three sections was 80 85%. After up to ten static passes the
compaction level for section C was raised to around 95%. After the final 2 3 passes
with vibration the compaction levels were as shown in the following table:
Section Compaction Standard deviation Moisture content

[% standard Proctor] [% standard Proctor] [%]
C 95.9 0.6 6.9
B 95.7 1.4 6.7
A 97.6 0.4 6.9
Table 5.4 Compaction values measured with Nuclear Density Gaug.
After the final compaction sand replacement tests were carried out on each section.
Section Maximum Dry Compaction Moisture content

Density [t/m3] [% standard Proctor] [%]
C 2.06 97.2 6.3
B 2.12 97.8 6.1
A 2.16 99.7 6.6
Table 5.5 Compaction values measured by sand replacement.
5.4 Test specimens

At the mixing plant 10 test specimens with dimensions 150 mm diameter, 300 mm
height were made from each of the three mixes, using vibrating hammer compaction.
3 specimens were tested in compression at 7 days and 28 days respectively. The
results are shown in Table 5.6.
7 days 28 days
Mix Compressive Average Compressive Average
strength [MPa] strength [MPa] strength [MPa] strength [MPa]
3.27 4.26
C 4.51 4.0 5.28 4.9
4.24 5.08
3.78 4.86
B 3.80 3.7 4.58 4.7
3.39 4.60
8.43 9.46
A 8.89 8.7 12.03 10.9
8.87 11.21
Table 5.6 Strength results for cylinders made during construction.
21
The dry densities of the test specimens were 2.17 t/m3; 2.19 t/m3 and 2.24 t/m3
respectively, corresponding to 101 104 % Proctor, i.e. the compaction of these test
specimens was better than what was measured on the actual layer.
5.5 Loading and measurement procedures

Fatigue loading on the pavements was carried out with a dual wheel, C-C distance
300 mm, tyre pressure 0.8 MPa. The HVS testing was initiated 28 October (base layer
age 2 months) and continued through November until 9 December.
During the 1st loading series all pavements were given 30,000 passages at a wheel load
of 30 kN. A 2nd loading series was carried out on some of the pavements at 30 kN or
60 kN load, pending the outcome of the first loading series.
FWD measurements at 50 kN was carried out before loading commenced (23 October)
and after 1st and 2nd loading series (21 November and 11 December) in 11 positions on
each pavement (corresponding to the instrument positions on the instrumented
pavements). To establish a baseline, measurements were also undertaken at 33
untrafficked points positioned between pavements A1-A2, B1-B2 and C1-C2, termed
AREF, BREF and CREF respectively.
LWD (Light Weight Deflectometer) measurements were carried out at the same times
as the FWD measurements plus at variable intervals during fatigue loading, shortest
intervals in the beginning where changes were expected to occur most rapidly.
Rutting was measured at 3 transverse profiles at the same time as the LWD
measurements were carried out. Rutting was determined as the difference between the
actual and the original profile.
Instrument recordings were taken roughly at the same time as the LWD
measurements, with the wheel positioned centrally and with one tire over the
instrument line, plus at 50 mm intervals moving from one side to the other.
5.6 Measured Pavement Response
5.6.1 E-moduli from FWD measurements

The FWD measurements were analysed with the ELMOD5 program. Preliminary
analysis using non-linear modelling of the subgrade resulted in a distinct negative
stress-dependency, typical of cohesive soils. This is not likely for the actual crushed-
stone embankment, and must be interpreted as a result of the static overburden,
increasing the deformation resistance of the deeper layers in the pavement. The
analyses also showed that the E-modulus of the asphalt surfacing could be set to a
constant value of 2245 MPa throughout the entire test.
Instrument readings (vertical stresses and strains) carried out during wheel loading
also indicated that the sandy/silty moraine had a significantly lower E-modulus than
the underlying embankment. Final analysis was therefore based on a constant asphalt
E-modulus, E-moduli of the sandy/silty moraine that corresponded to actual
instrument readings, and linear elastic properties for the CTB and the embankment.
22
Pavement Asphalt Modulus Stabilised Base Modulus Subgrade Modulus
Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

A1 2,261 2,047 2,367 10,809 8,773 6,499 275 206 131
12% 12% 13% 13% 11% 6% 2% 3% 6%
AREF - 1,757 2,433 - 5,659 6,592 - 197 210
9% 18% 24% 24% 3% 3%
A2 2,531 1,746 2,350 15,243 8,088 10,936 256 159 189
13% 18% 10% 6% 7% 11% 7% 5% 7%
B1 2,306 1,791 2,470 3,654 1,553 977 271 158 156
20% 14% 18% 9% 16% 14% 3% 6% 6%
BREF - 1,668 2,368 - 2,719 2,338 - 183 204
5% 18% 41% 61% 9% 27%
B2 2,510 1,707 2,662 4,829 1,215 2,256 250 159 194
21% 19% 15% 21% 27% 28% 3% 1% 3%
C1 2,741 2,146 3,062 2,060 983 1,330 266 194 216
13% 19% 24% 20% 6% 11% 3% 6% 3%
CREF - 1,922 2,739 - 2,521 2,627 - 219 223
13% 15% 33% 31% 6% 6%
C2 2,242 1,642 2,397 7,042 1,195 1,972 275 156 196
21% 15% 11% 7% 13% 18% 2% 3% 4%
Table 5.7 Average E-moduli (MPa) and coefficients of variation from FWD measurements
(1st analysis).
Pave- Asph. Stabilised Base Modulus Sandy/silty moraine Subgrade Modulus

ment Mod.
All Series Series Series Series Series Series Series Series Series
Series 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
A1 2,245 15,098 11,598 8,539 36 36 36 455 307 163
A2 2,245 20,009 9,869 14,288 51 51 51 392 193 235
B1 2,245 5,276 1,871 1,059 88 88 134 348 178 161
B2 2,245 6,909 1,471 3,271 77 77 77 305 189 233
C1 2,245 3,541 1,498 2,206 56 56 56 426 286 322
C2 2,245 10,228 1,602 2,971 61 61 61 382 195 258
Table 5.8 Average E-moduli (MPa) and coefficients of variation from FWD measurements
(2nd analysis).
5.6.2 Surface Moduli from LWD measurements

The results from the LWD measurements were recorded as surface E-moduli. There
was some variation along the sections; a typical plot is shown in Figure 5.3. The
variation is quite high at the outset, but decreases as the fatigue loading progresses.
23
LWD Measurements Section A1
Passes
1,600
0 (30 kN)
1,400 2000 (30 kN)
Surface modulus (MPa)
8300 (30 kN)

1,200
20000 (30 kN)
1,000 30000 (30 kN)
30000 (60 kN)
800
31000 (60 kN)
600 33000 (60 kN)
400 39000 (60 kN)
55000 (60 kN)
200 77500 (60 kN)
0 98000 (60 kN)
Location
Figure 5.3 Variation of LWD surface moduli along test section.
The development of average surface moduli on all test sections is shown in Figure 5.4
below.
LWD Surface Moduli

10,000
Eo (MPa)
1,000
100
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000
No. of passages (30 & 60 kN)
Sect.A1 Sect.A2 Sect.B1
Sect.B2 Sect.C1 Sect.C2
Figure 5.4 Development of average LWD surface moduli.
5.6.3 Pavement Reactions

Pavement reactions during wheel loading are shown in Table 5.9. The average values
presented are calculated from the maximum value of recordings with the wheel
positioned centrally and with one tyre over the instrument line and the measurements
taken at 50 mm intervals when the wheel was moving from one side to the other.
24
Section N Horizontal Strain Vertical Stress Vertical Strain
Load Avg. Max. Min. Avg. Max. Min. Avg. Max. Min.
- kN str str str kPa kPa kPa str str str
A1 100 30 99 123 72 11 13 9 254 292 212
A1 8,400 30 105 135 72 11 12 8 298 332 248
A1 20,100 30 114 145 78 11 13 10 322 365 263
A1 30,100 30 112 145 76 10 11 8 321 364 262
A1 30,300 60 201 301 125 25 29 22 657 733 546
A1 31,100 60 203 343 103 24 29 20 714 768 616
A1 33,100 60 190 368 69 24 29 21 748 807 659
A1 39,100 60 165 398 25 25 30 21 767 831 713
A1 55,100 60 159 422 40 26 31 23 788 852 735
A1 78,300 60 158 450 44 28 33 24 756 820 657
A1 98,300 60 166 478 36 30 35 25 777 852 682
B1 100 30 299 433 202 35 53 23 444 524 381
B1 5,100 30 298 377 228 36 53 23 515 577 460
B1 15,100 30 313 411 219 38 55 27 465 498 430
B1 30,100 30 315 455 200 38 52 30 418 484 354
B1 31,100 30 301 439 203 40 57 28 473 515 419
B1 50,100 30 312 481 188 42 58 30 460 561 387
B1 71,100 30 305 513 195 42 61 30 416 491 345
B1 95,200 30 294 513 174 42 60 28 422 490 354
B1 107,100 30 302 492 171 40 57 28 442 486 387
B1 107,300 60 411 645 265 84 115 57 651 707 606
B1 109,100 60 441 645 298 98 134 66 721 827 631
B1 125,100 60 471 642 319 107 148 66 777 837 707
C1 400 30 207 239 167 31 39 22 635
C1 4,300 30 167 216 109 37 45 30 704 Note:
C1 14,100 30 140 202 88 40 48 33 743 Only one SST
C1 19,200 30 139 197 83 42 52 33 746 functioning in
section C1
C1 28,400 30 127 189 79 43 52 32 707
C1 30,100 30 127 188 71 43 53 34 721
Table 5.9 Pavement reactions during fatigue testing.
5.6.4 Rutting
Rut development was limited throughout the testing period, but the rate of rutting
increased sharply on Section B1, when the wheel load was increased from 30 to
60 kN, as shown in Figure 5.5.
25
Development of Rutting
3.5
3.0
2.5
Rut (mm)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000
No. Of Passages (30 & 60 kN)

Section A1 Section A2 Section B1
Section B2 Section C1 Section C2
Figure 5.5 Development of rutting, average of 3 profiles per section.
5.7 Cores taken from pavement
5.7.1 Layer thicknesses and strengths

Three 100-mm cores were taken from each of the three sections 8 October, i.e before
fatigue loading commenced. All cores were taken along a line 0.5 m from the
pavement edge, i.e. outside the area where HVS loading was to take place. The layer
thicknesses are shown in Table 5.10.
Asphalt thickness CTB thickness

Section Individual values Average Individual values Average
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
30 192
C 31 32 185 189
34 170+
36 177
B 23 31 189 184
35 185
25 170
A 30 28 179 176
30 178
Table 5.10 Layer thicknesses from cores.
Photos of all the cores are shown on the following page. The cores from the weaker
section C all separated near the top of the CTB layer. One of the cores from section B
separated near the middle of the CTB layer. The rest of the cores were all intact.
26
C
A
Figure 5.6 Photos of cores taken before HVS loading.
From these cores, test specimens with a height of approximately 100 mm were sawn
and supplied with 5-mm cement mortar cappings to get plane surfaces for compression
testing.
The specimens were tested 27 October, i.e. one day before HVS testing started on the
site. The results are shown in Table 5.11:
27
Section Compressive Average strength Compaction calculated from
strength [MPa] [MPa] density and estimated moisture
content [% Proctor]
3.19
C 3.68 3.5 97.3
3.58
5.97
B 4.90 5.4 99.9
5.43
11.11
A 8.43 9.9 100.7
10.12
Table 5.11 Strength results for cores taken before HVS loading.
After completion of the HVS testing a total of 24 100-mm cores were taken 13
December from the test sections. For each section 6 cores were taken along the line
outside the HVS test area, and furthermore two cores were taken from the area that
had been loaded by the HVS wheel. Again, the layer thicknesses were measured and
the cores photographed.
Asphalt thickness CTB thickness

Section Individual values Average Individual values Average
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
30 196
32 195
29 180
C 31 31 185 178
34 165
34 148
27 174
28 179
25 182
28 186
26 185
B 26 30 180 183
35 180
34 188
32 184
30 180
27 160
28 173
31 185
A 32 28 195 182
28 183
27 191
23 182
24 184
Table 5.12 Layers thicknesses for 2nd round of cores.
28
Cores 1-6 from area not loaded by
HVS
Cores 7 and 8 taken from loaded area,
C2
All cores separated between asphalt

and CTB

HVS
B2
Cores 5-8 separated between asphalt

and CTB
29
HVS
A2
All cores intact
Figure 5.7 Photos of cores taken after HVS loading.
It is noticeable that none of the cores taken from the loaded areas showed any
particular signs of degradation, i.e. no cracking was observed. For the B-cores, there
was some tendency that the upper part of the CTB layer in cores 7 and 8 was more
damaged during coring than the cores from the un-loaded area.
The cores were tested in compression after the same procedure as previously
described. The testing was carried out some time after completion of the HVS loading,
however no attempt has been made to re-calculate the following results to determine
the strength levels immediately after HVS testing.
Section Compressive Average strength Compaction calculated from

strength [MPa] [MPa] density and estimated moisture
content [% Proctor]
4.21
C 3.64 4.0 98.9
4.14
5.44
B 4.72 4.6 98.7
3.57
11.81
A 11.17 11.3 100.5
11.06
Table 5.13 Strength results for cores taken after completion of HVS loading.
30
At a later stage (7 months after completion of the HVS testing) a further three cores
from section A was tested for compressive strength and E-modulus acc. to NT Build
205 (modified to 100 mm cores and height < 200 mm). The results are shown in
Table 5.14.
SampleNo. Eo Ec
MPa GPa GPa
A-2 17.3 22.8 (22%) 29.1 (15%)
A-4 14.6 11.2 (52%) 15.0 (39%)
A-6 15.9 8.2 (44%) 13.6 (32%)
Mean 16.0 14.1 19.3
St.dev. 1.3 7.7 8.6
: Compressive strength
Eo: E-modulus (measured at first loading up to 45 % of estimated compressive strength)
Ec: E-modulus (measured at third off-loading from 33 % of estimated compressive strength)
Note: The actual load levels used for determination of the E-moduli are shown in brackets
Table 5.14 Strength and E-modulus for three cores from section A.
Overall, it is estimated that the compressive strengths during HVS testing was 3 4
MPa; 4 5 MPa and 10 11 MPa respectively for the three mixes.
The layer thicknesses measured from the cores confirm that all pavement sections
consist of around 180 mm CTB with 30 mm asphalt wearing course.
5.7.2 Plane sections of cores from loaded area

One core from the loaded area from each of the three sections was selected for plane
section analysis. Photos of the plane sections with asphalt wearing course up are
shown in Figure 5.8 (CTB layer sawn in two parts).
C2 B2 A2
Figure 5.8 Plane sections from the three test sections.
31
Except for the deterioration at the top of the CTB layer in the cores C and B partly
caused by the drilling process, there are no other particular signs of deterioration
visible, i.e. no cracking, even though the stiffness of the material is substantially
reduced as it has been shown in the data analysis.
5.7.3 Thin sections

Thin sections were made from two of the cores that were also used for plane sections,
namely from area A2 and C2. The thin sections were made from the top 40-mm of the
cement treated base just under the asphalt wearing course.
Both thin sections show a relatively inhomogeneous CTB material. Dense lumps with
a high filler content is surrounded by more porous areas with loosely packed sand held
together by relatively little paste. This inhomogeneity has however apparently not had
any adverse effect for the compressive strength. Like it was the case for the plane
sections, no cracks of any significance can be observed in either of the thin sections.
Photos from the thin sections are shown in the following two figures.
32
SV 8563-7 pos A 25x SV 8563-7 pos A 25x + fluorescence
SV 8563-7 pos B 25X SV 8563-7 pos B 25x + fluorescence
SV 8563-7 pos C 25x SV 8563-7 pos C 25x + fluorescence
SV 8563-7 pos D 25x SV 8563-7 pos D 25x + fluorescence

Figure 5.9 Photos from thin section made from top of core from area A2.
33
SV 8565-8 pos A 25x SV 8565-8 pos A 25x + fluorescence
SV 8565-8 pos B 25X SV 8565-8 pos B 25x + fluorescence
SV 8565-8 pos C 25x SV 8565-8 pos C 25x + fluorescence

Figure 5.10 Photos from thin section made from top of core from area C2.
5.8 Deterioration analysis
5.8.1 E-moduli of Stabilised Layers
Non-linear subgrade behaviour

The deterioration of the stabilised layers can be determined from the LWD
measurements. This calculation requires knowledge about the E-moduli of the asphalt
and the subgrade E-moduli.
This presents limited problem as far as the asphalt is concerned, the FWD
measurements throughout the test period indicates very little variation in this
parameter, and an average value of 2245 MPa was used for all calculations.
34
Boussinesq analysis would be used for the incremental-recursive modelling. If the low
E-modulus for the sandy/silty moraine was used directly, it would lead to an over-
estimation of the strains in the bottom of the stabilised layer. A combined surface
modulus was therefore calculated for the moraine/embankment system.
It was also found that significant regeneration of stiffness took place in the stabilised
layers during the rest periods between finalization of the HVS loading and FWD
testing. This is especially evident for sections A2, B2 and both C-sections between
series 2 and 3 (cf. table 5.8).
For the final analyses, the layer E-moduli were therefore scaled according to the
development of the LWD-measured surface moduli, resulting in the following values
for the continued analysis.
35
Section Passages Load E2 Emoraine Em,combined
kN MPa MPa MPa
A1 0 30 15,098 36 104
A1 2,000 30 13,474 36 104
A1 8,500 30 12,314 36 104
A1 20,000 30 11,332 36 104
A1 30,000 30 11,598 36 104
A1 30,000 60 11,057 36 104
A1 31,000 60 9,703 36 104
A1 33,000 60 9,496 36 104
A1 39,000 60 7,218 36 104
A1 55,000 60 5,593 36 104
A1 77,500 60 5,094 36 104
A1 98,000 60 4,423 36 104
A2 0 30 20,009 51 130
A2 3,000 30 16,694 51 130
A2 10,000 30 13,937 51 130
A2 15,000 30 12,511 51 130
A2 30,000 30 9,869 51 130
A2 40,000 30 10,749 51 130
A2 60,000 30 10,288 51 130
A2 75,500 30 9,687 51 130
B1 0 30 5,276 88 172
B1 5,000 30 3,697 88 172
B1 15,000 30 2,643 88 172
B1 19,000 30 2,355 88 172
B1 30,000 30 1,871 88 172
B1 31,000 30 1,835 88 172
B1 50,000 30 1,540 88 172
B1 71,000 30 1,392 88 172
B1 95,000 30 1,282 88 172
B1 107,000 30 1,304 88 172
B1 109,000 60 1,370 134 172
B1 125,000 60 1,059 134 172
B2 0 30 6,909 77 161
B2 2,500 30 4,541 77 161
B2 11,000 30 2,875 77 161
B2 20,500 30 1,918 77 161
B2 30,000 30 1,471 77 161
C1 - - 3,541 56 153
C1 4,000 30 2,230 56 153
C1 14,000 30 1,826 56 153
C1 19,000 30 1,650 56 153
C1 28,500 30 1,521 56 153
C1 30,000 30 1,498 56 153
C2 - 10,228 61 148
C2 2,000 30 6,894 61 148
C2 5,000 30 5,062 61 148
C2 12,000 30 3,271 61 148
C2 30,000 30 1,602 61 148
Table 5.15 E-moduli for analysis.
36
Measured and Calculated Reactions
Reactions, corresponding to the measured quantities were calculated, using
Boussinesq theory.
The results are illustrated in Figure 5.11 to Figure 5.13 below. Correspondence is quite
good for vertical stresses and strains, but deteriorates for horizontal strain, possibly as
a result of de-bonding between the layer and the straingauges.
Longitudinal Strain Ratio (Boussinesq)
3.0
2.5
Calculated/Measured
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 25,000 50,000 75,000 100,000 125,000 150,000
No. og Passages
Section A1 Section B1 Section C1
Figure 5.11 Measured vs. calculated longitudinal strain.
Vertical Stress Ratio (Boussinesq)
3.0
2.5
Calculated/Measured
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 25,000 50,000 75,000 100,000 125,000 150,000
No. og Passages
Figure 5.12 Measured vs. calculated vertical stress.
37
Vertical Strain Ratio (Boussinesq)
3.0
2.5
Calculated/Measured
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 25,000 50,000 75,000 100,000 125,000 150,000
No. og Passages
Figure 5.13 Measured vs. calculated vertical strain.
Vertical strains ratio development is similar and faster for the two weak pavements
than for the strong (A1) pavement. This is consistent with the assumed stress-
softening nature of the sandy moraine layer.
5.8.2 Development of incremental-recursive model
Measured or Calculated Reactions as Basis

The calculation method chosen was the simplest possible, namely Boussinesq theory
combined with the Method of Equivalent Thicknesses (MET), with input E-moduli as
indicated above. Other parameters applied were:
Asphalt Thickness: 30 mm
Stabilised Base Thickness: 180 mm
Poissons Ratio: 0.35
MET Correction Factor: 0.9
Model Formulation and Calibration

The model formulation and calibration is carried out as a stepwise process, using an
Excel spreadsheet.
The first step is determination of the constants, , , and REF separately for the 6 test
sections to obtain the closest possible fit for each section.
Having done this, it became apparent that and REF could be fixed as constants,
whereas and could be described as functions of the initial E-modulus of the
stabilised layer, as shown in Figure 5.14.
38
Model Constants and
2.5
-1
= 0.00009 MPa E init + 0.25
2.0
values
1.5
1.0
and
0.5 -1
= 0.00009 MPa E init + 0.05
0.0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Initial Stabilized Layer E-modulus
Figure 5.14 Variability of constants and .
Having taken this step, the combined fit for all test sections was optimized, varying
the 6 constants slightly. The fit obtained was a central fit, so that 50% of the points fall
below and 50% above the regression line.
The resultant correspondence between measured and model values is shown in the
figures on the next page.
39
Test Section A1 Test Section A2
20,000 20,000
15,000 15,000
10,000 10,000
5,000 5,000
0 0
0 50,000 100,000 150,000 0 50,000 100,000 150,000
Test Section B1 Test Section B2

20,000 20,000
15,000 15,000
10,000 10,000
5,000 5,000
0 0
0 50,000 100,000 150,000 0 50,000 100,000 150,000
Test Section C1 Test Section C2

20,000 20,000
15,000 15,000
10,000 10,000
5,000 5,000
0 0
0 50,000 100,000 150,000 0 50,000 100,000 150,000
Figure 5.15 Measured versus model E-modulus for the six test sections.
40
Correlation between Measurements and
Model, HVS Testing, Central Model
25,000
y = 1.003x
20,000 R2 = 0.896
Model (MPa)
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Measured (MPa)
Figure 5.16 Correlation for deterioration model.
The final incremental-recursive model then becomes

N
= 6 (1 )
10 REF
where:
N is the number of load repetitions,
is the maximum horizontal strain in the bottom of the stabilised layer
and the constants are as follows:

= 0.25
= 0.25 + 0.90 (EINITIAL/10,000 MPa)
= 0.05 + 0.90 (EINITIAL/10,000 MPa)
REF = 45 str
For deterministic design purposes (see section 8), a central model is not always
satisfactory, since some measure of safety is normally required. Normal Danish design
models are based on 25% percentiles of E-moduli for the pavement layers, i.e 75% of
the initial E-moduli will be above the design values. If a similar line of reasoning is
applied to the incremental-recursive model, it should predict values, where only 25%
of the measurements from the HVS sections fall below the prediction. This objective
can be achieved by reducing the value to 0.19.
41
5.9 Post-loading survey
On the 15th December the three test sections were inspected in connection with
removal of the measurement transducers.
Figure 5.17 Post-loading inspection.
None of the six loaded areas showed any particular signs of deterioration, no surface
cracks were visible and the rutting was barely visible.
The thin asphalt layer was removed on a 1 x 4 m area, corresponding to the area where
the instruments are installed in and under the CTB layer. The top surface of the CTB
layer was cleaned and inspected for cracks etc.
C1:
Most of the bitumen
emulsion sealing was
removed along with the
30 32 mm asphalt wearing
course.
Small transverse roller
cracks with a distance of
2 4 cm were visible on the
surface. Two longitudinal
cracks were found along the
edge of the wheel track (40
and 55 cm from the
centerline).
42
B1:
The 25 35 mm asphalt
layer was removed with the
bitumen emulsion attached.
Transverse roller cracks
were visible near the edge of
the loaded area, whereas the
CTB surface at the center of
the loaded area was either
crushed or had followed the
asphalt surfacing, thereby
exposing transverse cracks
with a distance of 1 2
metres (marked with yellow
on the surface).
A1:
The 27 30 mm asphalt
layer was removed. At this
section the emulsion
stayed on the CTB surface.
Except for marks from the
equipment used, no cracking
or other defects were visible
on the surface.
Figure 5.18 Photos of the loaded areas after removal of asphalt.
From each of the non-instrumented loading fields large blocks were sawn, lifted up,
placed up-side down on pallets and taken back to the laboratory.
43
Figure 5.19 Extracting blocks from the pavement.
Block C2
103 x 45 x 20,5 cm
35 mm asphalt
170 mm CTB
Block B2
74 x 50 x 21,5 cm
35 mm asphalt
170 mm CTB
Block A2
130 x 35 x 20,5 cm
28 mm asphalt
177 mm CTB.
Figure 5.20 Photos of blocks taken from each of the three sections.
44
The blocks were cleaned and inspected in the laboratory. The smoothness of the saw-
cut reflected the strength of the CTB material, i.e. the block A2 had the most plane
and smooth surface. The block C2 (the weakest material) showed signs of top crushing
under the asphalt surfacing. The outermost 20 cm of the block was outside the wheel
load area, and here the bond between asphalt and CTB was much better, as it can be
observed on this photo:
Figure 5.21 Block C2 with separation between asphalt and CTB.
After wetting and drying all blocks were inspected for cracks. Only one possible crack
was detected, in the form of a dark zone about 20 cm from one end of block A2. This
could be a longitudinal crack along the edge of the load wheel path.
45
6. Danish Reference Pavements
A major part of the Danish motorway network from the 70'ies and beginning of the
80'ies were constructed with cement bound base layers. Even though the sections were
constructed following identical specifications, some variation in performance can be
observed depending of the contractor, the source of the aggregates or the climatic
conditions at the time of construction.
Pavement sections constructed with cement bound base courses showing no or

practically no reflective cracking have been identified. As reference, also sections with
extensive reflective cracking are investigated to identify the controlling parameters for
crack development. The pavement sections in the Copenhagen area are shown in
Figure 4.1. The pavement sections will additionally be used for calibration of the
developed deterioration model.
Basic construction and performance parameters for the sections have been extracted
from the Road Directorate archives. These include pavement structure, performance
data and maintenance treatments. Also traffic data are included, both Average Daily
Traffic (ADT sum of total vehicles in both directions) and 10-tons ESALs (sum of
axles per day in both directions).
Also included in this section is an analysis of the axle load distribution on Danish
motorways.
C
B
E
Figure 6.1 Location of reference motorway sections around Copenhagen with

cement bound base. Blue: Reflective cracking. Green: No reflective cracking.
46
6.1 Design of CTB pavements in Denmark
Except for trial sections on the Knudshoved Hjulby motorway in 1957, the use of
CTB pavements on motorways in Denmark was introduced in 1966. The technology
used was based on British specifications for dry lean concrete. The specifications were
published as AAB 321 & 322 in the the grey set of specifications for motorway
construction.
The structural design of CTB pavements was as a consequence included in the Danish
design guide for road pavements from 1984 (Vejregel 7.10.03). Again British
experience was used as template, i.e. the design guide Road Note 29. The design chart
giving the required layer thickness of the CTB base as function of the number of
standard (8.2 ton) axles was without modification transferred into a Danish chart. The
only change was that the traffic load was stated as 10 ton standard axles. Regarding
the asphaltic surfacing, the curve in Road Note 29 was modified by adding additional
2 cm asphalt concrete to the required layer thickness. The reason for this modification
was that British asphalt concrete mix designs at the time had a higher content of voids
filled with asphalt (VFA) than Danish mix designs.
In addition to design based on charts, attempts were made by Statens Vejlaboratorium

to implement the layer type in the analytical design used for flexible pavements.
Unfortunately the calculation procedures used at the time was assuming increasing E-
modulus of all the layers from the subgrade to the surface. Since asphalt concrete
often was given an E-modulus of 2000 MPa the CTB layer was taken in account using
only 1500 MPa giving a disadvantage in competition with asphalt concrete base
layers. In practice, the design result was as a second step checked by a repeated
calculation using 3500 MPa for the CTB layer.
The estimated traffic on the Danish motorways in the period 1966 to 1978 resulted in
CTB pavements having 18 - 20 cm CTB and 12 - 18 cm asphalt concrete surfacing.
6.2 Pavement sections with no reflective cracking

In the following, original Danish abbreviations for the different pavement materials
are used. ABS and AB are asphalt wearing course materials, GABI is an asphalt base
material and SG, BS and BG are unbound gravel/sand base layers.
6.2.1 Section A: Motorway M10 Kge Bugt, km 19.0 to 23.6 (2x3

lanes)
Construction data
Constructed 1971-72:
34 mm AB (ABS from km 19.0 20.6)
120 mm GAB I
190 mm CTB (June 1971)
450 mm BG
Aggregate grain size distribution for the mix is shown in table 6.1:
47
% passing
16 mm 73.1
8 mm 50.5
4 mm 37.1
2 mm 32.4
1 mm 26.8
0.5 mm 17.1
0.25 mm 7.1
0.125 mm 2.8
0.074 mm 1.4
Table 6.1 Grain size distribution for
aggregate, Section A.
Cement content: 90 - 100 kg/m3. Ordinary Portland Cement.

Average water content: 6.9%
Theoretical dry density: 2.23 t/m3
Average dry density for laboratory cylinders 2.17 t/m3, with values ranging from 2.10
to 2.26 t/m3.
Average 7-day compressive strength for 38 laboratory cylinders: 9.2 MPa, with values
ranging from 6.3 to 12.8 MPa.
Performance
1984 a new ABS wearing course was applied in the southbound side of the pavement.
Slurry seal to fill ruts in 1993 and 2001.
In the northbound side new wearing courses were applied in 1981 (km 20.6 to 23.6),
1991 (km 21.6 23.6) and 1995 (km 19.0 21.6).
The outermost part towards the emergency lane on the southern part of the northbound
lane (km 21.6 to 23.6) suffers from extensive damages, probably caused by poor
quality of the stabilised base. The slipform paver used only had a width of 11 m, hence
one extra metre was probably laid out using a grader, resulting in poor quality.
48 cores were taken from the pavement in July 2002, 32 of these with partially or fully
intact CTB-layer.
FWD measurements were made in 2002, 1999 (left side km 19.2 to 21.4) and 1998
(both sides km 21.0 to 23.6).
Average IRI along the section for the newest measurements: 1.5
Generally, no reflective cracking is visible. However, at some positions minor
transverse crack tendencies can be seen at the pavement edges.
Traffic data
Minimum traffic in 2001 (km 21.7 to 23.3): ADT 82400; 9800 10-ton ESALs.
Maximum traffic in 2001 (km 20.9 to 21.6): ADT 89500; 11000 10-ton ESALs.
Estimated whole-life traffic 1972-2002: 54 mio. 10-ton ESALs.
6.2.2 Section B: Motorway M4 Taastrup-Ballerupvej, km 1.2 to 4.0
Construction data
Constructed 1977:
40 mm AB
80 mm GAB I
200 mm CTB (June 1977)
48
150 mm SG
300 mm BS
Aggregate for the stabilised layer: 0-32 mm, with the following grain size distribution:
% passing
16 mm 72.1
8 mm 58.5
4 mm 46.3
2 mm 36.1
1 mm 27.0
0.5 mm 18.0
0.25 mm 11.9
0.125 mm 8.9
0.074 mm 8.0
aggregate, Section B.
Cement content: 70 - 90 kg/m3. Ordinary Portland Cement.

to 2.23 t/m3.
Average 7-day compressive strength for the stabilised layer: 8.9 MPa, with values
Performance
In 1989 a 38 mm ABS wearing course was applied.
FWD measurements 1993.
Average IRI number: 1.5
No reflective cracking.
Traffic data
6.2.3 Section C: Motorway M12 Frederikssundsmotorvejen, km

11.0 to 13.8
Construction data
Constructed 1978:
40 mm AB
80 mm GAB
200 mm CTB
BS
Cement content: 70 - 90 kg/m3.

49
to 2.24 t/m3.
Performance
In 1990-91 a 38 mm ABS wearing course was applied and in 1998 a 34 mm AB
wearing course was applied.
FWD measurements 1993 (right side), 1994 (left side) and 1995 (left side).
Traffic data
6.2.4 Section D: Motorway M10 Kge Bugt, km 10.4 to 14.1
Construction data
Constructed in 1979-80:
38 mm ABS
110 mm GAB I
210 mm CTB (October 1979)
450 mm BL
Aggregate source for the stabilised layer: Reerslev gravel 0-32 mm, with the grain size
distribution (approximate) shown in Table 6.3.
% passing
16 mm 68
8 mm 52
4 mm 41
2 mm 33
1 mm 25
0.5 mm 16
0.25 mm 10
0.125 mm 5
0.074 mm 4
aggregate, Section D.
Cement content: 90 kg/m3

The average 7-day compressive strength for 10 cylinders from test section km 10.885
to 11.020 was 9.5 MPa, with values ranging from 7.4 to 12.2 MPa.
50
Performance
No new wearing course during the 22 year life.
43 cores were taken from the pavement in June 2001, 28 of these with partly or fully
intact CTB-layer.
FWD measurements 2001, 1993 (400 m in left side) and 1990 (rest).
Still good evenness: Less than 8% has IRI value over 1.9.
Only 1% of the length has rutting greater than 10 mm.
The section was in 2003 widened to 2x3 lanes.
6.3 Pavement sections with reflective cracking
6.3.1 Section E: Motorway M3 Jyllingevej-Holbkmotorvejen,

km 46.1 to 51.9
Construction data
Constructed in 1977:
38 mm ABS
80 mm GAB I
200 mm CTB (April 1977)
450 mm BL
Aggregate source for the stabilised layer: Tune gravel 0-32 mm, with the grain size
distribution shown in Table 6.4.
% passing
16 mm 76.9
8 mm 62.6
4 mm 50.0
2 mm 40.8
1 mm 31.0
0.5 mm 19.8
0.25 mm 10.9
0.125 mm 7.1
0.074 mm 4.5
aggregate, Section E.
Cement content: Initially 95 kg/m3, later lowered to 90 kg/m3.

to 2.33 t/m3.
Performance
No new wearing course during the 25 year life. Partial repairs in the heavy traffic lane
(33% of length in 1998-99).
Extensive reflective cracking with a distance of about 10-20 m.
14 cores were taken from the pavement in July 2001, all with intact CTB-layer.
51
FWD measurements 2001.
Traffic data
Minimum traffic in 2001: ADT 60000; 4800 10-ton ESALs.
Maximum traffic in 2001: ADT 69000; 5500 10-ton ESALs.
6.3.2 Section F: Main road no. 448, Bjergby-Hirtshals, km 7.7 to

13.2
Construction data
Constructed in 1983:
34 mm AB
49 mm GAB 0
180 mm FCS (September October 1983)
100 mm SG
450 mm BL
The FCS base layer consisted of 73% marine sand (0-2 mm), 21% fly ash and 6%
ordinary Portland cement.
35 cores were taken from the FCS layer after construction in 1983. 22 cores were
tested in compression. The strength results are summarised in Table 6.5.
Compressive Number
strength (MPa) of cores
2-3 4
3-4 1
4-5 4
5-6 6
6-7 4
7-8 2
8-9 1
aggregate, Section F.
The average compressive strength was 5.2 MPa with single values ranging from 2.2 to
8.1 MPa.
Performance
1991-92 a surface dressing was applied. In 2000 a new 21 mm wearing course was
applied.
FWD measurements were made in 1992.
Extensive reflective cracking is visible km 7.7 to 10. Less on km 10.5 to 12.4.
However, a 300-500 m crack-free section cannot be found.
The FCS base layer is currently being recycled to an unbound base layer as the road is
upgraded to motorway.
52
Traffic data
Traffic in 2002: ADT 7000; 1000 10-ton ESALs.
Estimated whole-life traffic 1984-2002: 3.8 mio. 10-ton ESALs.
6.4 Test section, Far

Results from a test section constructed 1978 on Far are also available for the
analysis. Different stabilisers were tested on five sections of 170 to 200 metres each.
Marine 0-2 mm sand was stabilised using mix-in-place equipment.
Two sections were stabilised with bitumen and tar, but in this overview only the rigid
base layers will be described. The layer thicknesses were 12-15 cm and a 4-cm GAB 0
asphalt layer was applied on top of all sections. The target strength for the mix-design
was 6 MPa at 90 days. The compressive strength of cores taken after 1 year and E-
modulus of beams from the pavement are shown in table 6.6:
Stabilising agent 1-year UCS E-modulus (bending in

[MPa] laboratory) [MPa]
I Cement 6 -
II Fly ash / cement 7.5 3300
III Fly ash / lime / cement 6.5 4300
Table 6.6 Strength and stiffness of the three Far mixes.
Several FWD tests were carried out during and after construction. Average values for
two measurement series carried out in 1980 and 1984 are shown in Table 6.7.
Stabilising agent E-value 07/1980 E-value 08/1984

[MPa] [MPa]
I Cement 925 1549
II Fly ash / cement 1016 1592
III Fly ash / lime / cement 1045 1311
Table 6. E-values from FWD testing.
The calculated average sub-base modulus was around 140-150 MPa for both
measurements whereas the subgrade modulus was around 100 MPa.
From the autumn 1980 to 1982 the sections were loaded with heavy construction
traffic, corresponding to 10-20.000 10-ton ESALs.
The increased E-values for the rigid base layers from 1980 to 1984 are in the report
partly explained by a lower measurement temperature in 1984. Furthermore, it is
stated that this tendency was also observed in the AARVE II experiments in the
Danish Road Testing Machine.
It should be noted that the FWD backcalculation was performed with a program,
which was not as advanced as present-day programs.
6.5 Whole-life traffic data for the reference sections

The traffic numbers and total axle loads (both directions) during the pavement life up
to and including 2002-data are shown in the following figures:
53
AADT for reference sections
100.000
A: M10 south
90.000
B: M4
80.000 C: M12
D: M10 north
70.000 E: M3
F: 448
60.000
50.000
40.000
30.000
20.000
10.000
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Figure 6.2 Development of total traffic on the reference sections.
10 ton ESALs for reference sections
12.000
A: M10 south
B: M4
10.000
C: M12
D: M10 north
E: M3
8.000
F: 448
6.000
4.000
2.000
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Figure 6.3 Development of 10-ton ESALs on the reference sections.
54
10 ton ESALs (cumulative) for reference sections
60.000.000
A: M10 south
B: M4
50.000.000
C: M12
D: M10 north
E: M3
40.000.000
F: 448
30.000.000
20.000.000
10.000.000
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Figure 6.4 Whole-life ESALs (both directions) on the reference sections.
6.6 Axle load distribution on Danish motorways

In order to get more detailed data for the actual axle loads on Danish motorways than
the calculated 10-ton ESAL numbers offer, data from a weighing station placed on the
M20 motorway has been analysed. Data files with all vehicles/axles from three
selected days in 2002 (29 May, 22 august and 19 November) were processed. A total
of 98.724 vehicles passed the weighing station during the three days. The total number
of axles was 231.540. Axle weights were recorded for all 4 traffic lanes (two in each
direction). The distribution of all axles is shown in Table 6.8.
55
Axle load Number of axles Percentage of total axles
(ton) (3 days) in one direction
right lanes left lanes right lane left lane
0-1 92122 70014 39.787 30.238
1-2 8113 4004 3.504 1.729
2-3 7018 513 3.031 0.222
3-4 7279 217 3.144 0.094
4-5 7768 205 3.355 0.089
5-6 9733 225 4.204 0.097
6-7 8658 178 3.739 0.077
7-8 6377 126 2.754 0.054
8-9 4270 100 1.844 0.043
9-10 2282 45 0.986 0.019
10-11 1236 25 0.534 0.011
11-12 651 22 0.281 0.010
12-13 244 9 0.105 0.004
13-14 69 2 0.030 0.001
14-15 23 0 0.010 0.000
15-16 7 1 0.003 0.000
16-17 3 1 0.001 0.000
17-18 0 0 0.000 0.000
total 155853 75687 67.311 32.689
Table 6.8 Axle load distribution for Danish 4-lane motorway.
Assuming the 4th power law, the 10 ton ESAL contribution of each load class can be
calculated from the data.
Axle load 10-ton ESAL contribution from

(ton) 1000 axles in one direction
right lane left lane
0-1 0.00 0.00
1-2 0.02 0.01
2-3 0.12 0.01
3-4 0.47 0.01
4-5 1.38 0.04
5-6 3.85 0.09
6-7 6.67 0.14
7-8 8.71 0.17
8-9 9.63 0.23
9-10 8.03 0.16
10-11 6.49 0.13
11-12 4.92 0.17
12-13 2.57 0.09
13-14 0.99 0.03
14-15 0.44 0.00
15-16 0.17 0.02
16-17 0.10 0.03
17-18 0.00 0.00
Total 54.55 1.33
Table 6.9 10-ton ESAL contributions from each axle load group.
56
This simple calculation does not include any correction factors for super single tyres
etc.
Assuming a higher exponent (10 instead of 4) with this axle load distribution, the total
10-ton ESAL load is only around 3% higher. The explanation is that the extra
contribution from the few heavy axles is almost totally balanced out by smaller
contributions from the large number of axles below 10 ton.
For the motorway where the weighing station is located, the traffic numbers registered
in the VIS national road data bank for 2002 were ADT 32.800 and 5.578 10-ton
ESALS.
The axle load distribution for trucks and the ESAL contributions of the different load
classes are illustrated in the following figures.
Axle load distribution
5,0
4,5
4,0
right lane
% of total axles in one direction
3,5
left lane
3,0
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17
weight
Figure 6.5 Axle load distribution for the two lanes on a typical Danish motorway.
57
10 ton ESAL contribution per 1000 axles in one direction
12,0
right lane
10,0
left lane
10 ton ESALS per 1000 axles
8,0
6,0
4,0
2,0
0,0
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18
weight
Figure 6.6 Contribution to 10-ton ESAL number assuming the 4th power law.
To illustrate a possible development in the axle load spectrum, data from weighing
stations on two main roads from 1979 are illustrated together with the 2002 data in the
following figure.
Axle load distributions

1979 and 2002
7
6 A2 - 1979
A10 - 1979
5 M10 - 2002
4
%
0
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15
Axle load category
Figure 6.7 Comparison of axle load distributions in 1979 and 2002.
Evidently, the axle load distributions have not changed significantly from 1979 to
2002.
58
7. Supplementary Measurements on
Reference Pavements
7.1 Moisture content of CTB
As background information for development of a test method for the frost resistance
of CTB, the in-situ moisture content was determined on samples taken from CTB
layers in the spring-months.
15th April 2002 samples were taken from two locations at a service area on motorway
M30, km 41.1.
Lumps of 300-500 g were taken with a chisel (dry) from a) CTB under asphalt and
concrete pavement and b) from CTB at the edge of the pavement.
Under the pavement Moisture content (%) Average

(%)
1 5.08 5.1
2 5.18
From edge Moisture content (%) Average

of pavement (%)
1 8.58 9.1
2 9.69
Table 7.1 Moisture contents of CTB under service area, M30.
18th March 2003 a sample was taken from the CTB pavement at M10, km 12.5. A
lump of around 1 kilo was taken from the CTB layer during the ongoing widening
project.
Under the pavement Moisture content (%)

(free edge after milling) 6.3
Table 7.2 Moisture content of CTB under motorway pavement, M30.
These few measurements indicate that the moisture content of CTB in the wet
season is probably around 5-7 % under a watertight pavement and higher (8-10%)
near the edge of the pavement.
7.2 Cores from reference pavements

From three of the semi-rigid pavements selected for further analysis, a number of 100-
mm diameter cores were available for testing. These cores were drilled in 2001 and
2002 in connection with a general pavement analysis performed prior to the up-
coming motorway widening projects in the Copenhagen area.
The number of attempted cores and number of successful cores, i.e. where the cement
bound layer could be taken relatively intact from the coring, are shown in Table 7.3.
59
Reference pavement Attempted Successful
A: M10 south 48 32
D: M10 north 43 28
E: M3 14 14
Table 7.3 Coring on the reference sections.
The first two sections show no reflective cracking whereas the M3 section suffers
from extensive reflective cracking. Evidently there is a clear tendency that from the
section with reflective cracking all cores are intact whereas only 2/3 of the cores from
the sections that have performed better regarding reflective cracking were intact,
indicating a lower strength or more cracks in the cement bound layer.
A further 10 cores were taken from the left lanes of the M10 north section in April
2003. For eight of these, the cement bound layer was more or less intact. Photos of the
cores are shown in the following figures.
Figure 7.1 Cores from A: M10 south, two from middle lane (left on first photo) and five from
heavy traffic lane.
Figure 7.2 Cores from D: M10 north, three from light traffic lane and three from heavy traffic lane.
60
Figure 7.3 Cores from D: M10 north, light traffic lane,
taken April 2003.
Figure 7.4 Cores from E: M3, all from light traffic lane.
The difference in layer structure is partly illustrated in the photos. Many of the cores
from the M10 sections were cracked to some extent whereas all cores from M3 were
as intact and coherent as those shown in Figure 7.4.
7.2.1 Laboratory testing on cement bound base

Eleven cores from the three sections were selected for further analysis (five from M10
north and three from each of the other two sections). As it was necessary to choose
intact specimens, all of these represented the best of the cores from each section.
From the 100 mm cores, test specimens with a height of 100 mm were sawn, dried
for a minimum of 12 hours and weighed. The density and absorption of the cores was
tested by weighing over and under water after one hour of submersion. The results are
illustrated in the following figures.
61
One hour absorption
7,0
D: M10 km 10.4 - 14.1 A: M10 km 19 - 23.6 E: M3 km 46.1 - 51.9
no refl. cracking no refl. cracking refl. cracking
6,0
5,0
4,0
%
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 A1 A2 A3 E1 E2 E3
Figure 7.5 One-hour absorption for the cores from the reference sections.
Apparent density
based on volume determined with absorbed water
2,30
D: M10 km 10.4 - 14.1 A: M10 km 19 - 23.6 E: M3 km 46.1 - 51.9
2,25
2,20
kg/m3
2,15
2,10
2,05
2,00
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 A1 A2 A3 E1 E2 E3
Figure 7.6 Apparent density for the cores from the reference sections.
There seems to be no particular difference between these three sections regarding the
density and compaction of the cement bound layers.
A maximum 10 mm cement mortar capping layer was applied to both ends of the
specimens in order to prepare for compression testing.
An attempt to compare the stiffness values was made by loading the specimens up to a
small compressive load of 2000 N in an MTS testing machine. The deformation was
recorded and the slope of the load-deformation curve was calculated. No noticeable
differences were found between the values for the three road sections.
62
The compressive strength was determined for the test specimens.
Reference pavement Average Compressive Strength [MPa]

A: M10 south 11.0
D: M10 north 20.8
E: M3 16.6
Table 7.4 Compressive strengths for CTB-cores from reference sections.
The values for the individual specimens are shown in Figure 7.7.
Compressive strength
30
D: M10 north A: M10 south E: M3

25
20
MPa
15
10
0
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 A1 A2 A3 E1 E2 E3
Figure 7.7 Compressive strength for the cores from the reference sections.
At a later stage a further three cores from M10 north was tested for compressive
strength and E-modulus acc. to NT Build 205 (modified to 100 mm cores and height
< 200 mm). The results are shown in Table 7.5.
Sample no. Eo Ec
MPa GPa GPa
5 25.5 7.2 (25%) 8.6 (18%)
6 17.4 5.2 (55%) 9.9 (40%)
13* 22.3
Mean 21.7 6.2 9.2
St.dev. 4.0
* Core too short for measuring E-modulus
: Compressive strength
Eo: E-modulus (measured at first loading up to 45 % of estimated compressive strength)
Ec: E-modulus (measured at third off-loading from 33 % of estimated compressive strength)
Note: The actual load levels used for determination of the E-moduli shown in brackets
Table 7.5 Compressive strength and E-modulus for three cores from M10 north.
The general strength levels are higher than anticipated, also considering the initial
value from the construction of the layers in the 1970ies, where the requirement was a
7-day compressive strength higher than 5 MPa. However, the 7-day strength values
from the laboratory testing were typically 6 12 MPa.
63
The hypothesis that reflective cracking occurs for higher strength levels cannot be
confirmed by these results. However, it should be noted that the strength values
determined here represent the maximum obtainable for the reference sections (lump
strengths). Especially for the M10 sections where there was a great variability in the
coring results, some parts of the cement bound layer will definitely have a much lower
strength.
7.2.2 Laboratory testing on asphalt layers

The asphalt layers from six cores taken from each of the three pavements were tested
with the Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus Test (NAT-test DD 213).
Average layers thicknesses and stiffness values are shown in Table 7.6.
Wearing course Asphalt base

Reference pavement Layer thickness E-modulus Layer thickness E-modulus
[mm] [MPa] [mm] [MPa]
A: M10 south 47 2324 105 8062
D: M10 north 37 1974 106 6371
E: M3 35 2146 91 9305
Table 7.6 Layer thickness and E-value for asphalt layers (20 C).
Individual values for the wearing course and asphalt base layers are shown in Figs. 7.8
and 7.9.
E-modulus, wearing course

4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
MPa
2000
1500
1000
500
0
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
Figure 7.8 Stiffness values for wearing course layers from the reference pavements.
64
E-modulus, asphalt base layer(s)
12000
10000
8000
MPa
6000
4000
2000
0
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
Figure 7.9 Stiffness values for asphalt base layers from the reference pavements.
These results are as expected in the sense that higher stiffness values are found for the
asphalt base layers from the section E with extensive reflective cracking, whereas the
asphalt stiffness is somewhat lower for the good section D with no reflective
cracking.
65
8. Design Guideline for Semi-Rigid
Pavements
8.1 Verification on reference pavements
The final step in the process was a calibration of the model to actual motorway data,
which were available for 4 sections as follows:
Section E-modulus Cumulated 10-ton ESALs
A, Right Side, Middle Lane, 2002 9,207 MPa 2.7106
A, Right Side, Heavy Lane, 2002 4,062 MPa 2.7107
A, Left Side, Middle Lane, 2002 3,231 MPa 2.7106
A, Left Side, Heavy Lane, 2002 1,533 MPa 2.7107
D, Right Side, Heavy Lane, 1990 11,939 MPa 1.8106
D, Right Side, Heavy Lane, 1998 6,977 MPa 6.7106
D, Left Side, Heavy Lane, 1990 5,673 MPa 1.8106
D, Left Side, Heavy Lane, 1998 1,806 MPa 6.7106
Table 8.1 Calibration Data.
The other parameters assumed for the pavement structures were based on results from
core drilling, FWD measurements and laboratory testing of asphalt samples, and were
as follows:
Section A D
Asphalt Thickness mm 150 145
Asphalt E-modulus (initial) MPa 3,500 3,500
(final) MPa 5,700 4,900
Stabilised Layer Thickness mm 190 210
Foundation E-modulus MPa 200 200
Table 8.2 Assumed pavement structures in verification.
Verified against the central incremental-recursive model, the agreement was very
good, as shown in Figure 8.1.
66
Reference Motorway Sections
20,000
y = 0.956x
15,000 R2 = 0.930
Model (MPa)
10,000
5,000
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Measured (MPa)
Figure 8.1 Correlation between measurements and incremental-recursive model.
The good agreement between the model, which has been determined from accelerated
tests, and actual performance of pavements that have gone through numerous climate
cycles, confirms that the model may actually be utilised directly in developing design
criteria.
8.2 Deterministic Design Criterion
8.2.1 Analysis of Incremental-recursive Modelling

An incremental-recursive model is not a practical tool in mechanistic pavement
design. This requires a traditional deterministic design criterion of the form:
PERMISSIBLE = A (N/106)-1/B (EINITIAL/EREF)C
Using the incremental-recursive model with different pavement structures and load
combinations, it is possible to predict deterioration histories from different initial
tensile strain conditions as shown in Figure 8.2.
67
Deterioration vs. Initial Strain for 16,000 MPa CTB
25% percentile prediction
100%
Actual/Original E-modulus 90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1E+02 1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08 1E+09 1E+10 1E+11 1E+12
No. of Passages
35 str 45 s tr 55 str 65 str
Figure 8.2 Deterioration development from different initial strain conditions.
It is worth noticing that the prediction curves above are semi-logarithmic. The rate of
deterioration is actually decreasing, so that e.g. a 16,000 MPa CTB layer for which the
E-modulus (25% percentile) has decreased to 30% (~ 4,800 MPa) after 10 million
passages, will only loose another 3% of its original E-modulus (~ 500 MPa) over the
next 10 million passages, even if no overlay is applied. Future rehabilitation or stage
construction activities may therefore be planned at the time of the initial design and
construction.
It is therefore possible to develop traditional deterministic design criteria that relate

initial strain to allowable number of load repetitions that will lead to a pre-determined
deterioration level.
In developing these criteria, the 25% model is used. The reason for choosing this
percentile is that this is the value used as input in Danish deterministic design
methodology. The criteria are based on fixed levels of terminal E-moduli, since this
provides the designer with a more immediate idea of the pavements strength at the
end of the design period.
The values selected are as follows:
5,000 MPa, corresponding to an asphalt base course pen 40/60 bitumen
3,000 MPa, corresponding to an asphalt base course, pen 70/100 bitumen
1,000 MPa, corresponding to crushed stone macadam
Figure 8.3 shows such criteria calculated for a 12,000 MPa CTB.
68
Fatigue Criteria for a 12,000 MPa CTB
75% reliability
Initial strain (str) 1000
100
10
1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E+08
No. of passages
12,000->1,000 12,000->3,000 12,000->5,000
Figure 8.3 Fatigue criteria for EINITIAL = 12,000 MPa.
This process has been repeated for initial E-moduli between 8,000 MPa and
20,000 MPa, leading to the results shown in Table 8.3 below.
E-modulus decrease to (MPa):

Einitial 1,000 3,000 5,000
(MPa) 6 6 6
8,000 86.4 -0.193 37.0 -0.210 21.4 -0.183
12,000 135 -0.149 62.3 -0.142 42.0 -0.140
16,000 84.8 -0.125 58.1 -0.140
20,000 103 -0.097 71.1 -0.092
6
Note : 6 is the allowable initial strain at 1 million (=10 ) load repetitions
Table 8.3 Fatigue criterion constants corresponding to deterioration levels from 1,000 MPa to
5,000 MPa.
These specific design criteria have been analysed in order to produce a generalised set
of equations describing the 6 and constants. The resultant equations are:
6 (str) = (Einitial/1 MPa+1100)1.63(Eterminal/1 MPa-620)-0.66(Eterminal/Einitial)0.20/450
= -(Einitial/1 MPa+9400)-0.94(Eterminal/1 MPa-130)-0.19(Eterminal/Einitial)0.18 x 10,000
The models ability to describe the criterion constants derived from the incremental-
recursive analyses is illustrated in Figure 8.4.
69
Criteron Exponent -1/B Criterion Constant A
Correlation Correlation
-0.050 150
y = 0.979x y = 0.987x
-0.100
Regression model
Regression model
R2 = 0.903 R 2 = 0.971
100
-0.150
50
-0.200
-0.250 0
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 50 100 150
Incremental-recursive Incremental-recursive
Figure 8.4 Correlation between incremental-recursive and model parameters
Written out in clear text, the fatigue criteria based on the generalised equations
become:
EINITIAL ETERMINAL Equation

8000 MPa 1000 MPa PERMISSIBLE = 83 str (N/106) -0.196
8000 MPa 3000 MPa PERMISSIBLE = 31 str (N/106)-0.191
8.2.2 Design Reliability

The verification of the incremental-recursive central model (50% of test section E-
moduli above and below the model curves) which was based on average E-moduli
(both initial and during the deterioration process) showed a very good fit to the
average E-moduli determined from the reference pavements.
The criteria and the criterion model described above have been developed from an
incremental-recursive analysis that ensured that 75% of all measured E-moduli were
above the prediction lines. It can therefore be assumed that 75% of all pavements that
are designed according to these criteria, will have E-moduli of the CTB layer that are
above the design terminal E-modulus, and the criteria complex can therefore be
characterized as a 75% reliability model.
70
The use of average E-moduli as initial values for the CTB layer is a slight deviation
from normal Danish deterministic pavement design practice, where 25% percentiles of
material E-moduli are normally used. A more comprehensive analysis, based on 25%
percentiles, or even a point-by-point analysis for each of the 11 points in the 6 test
pavements could provide a broader statistical basis.
It is probably possible to develop models for other reliability levels by first developing
a central, 50% reliability model, and then apply scaling factors, assuming that the
difference between the 50% reliability and the 75% reliability follows a traditional
Normal Distribution.
8.2.3 Design Example

Utilising these criterion constants, typical designs for various traffic volumes are
prepared. The load is represented as a Dual Wheel with a 20 % dynamic load addition
as used in the new Danish Design Standards, resulting in the following simplified
structures:
Layer Number of Equivalent 10 ton Axles

(million)
0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50
Asphalt Surfacing E = 2,500 MPa,
60 80
and Binder Thickness in mm
Cement Treated Base Allowable initial strain (str) 65 57 51

Einitial = 12,000 MPa Required thickness (mm) 215 235 245
Cement Treated Base Allowable initial strain (str) 75 69 62 57 52 47

Einitial = 16,000 MPa Required thickness (mm) 150 165 180 190 205 225
Gravel base E = 300 MPa Thickness 150 mm
Subbase E = 100 MPa Thickness minimum 200 mm
Subgrade E = 40 MPa -
Table 8.4 Typical Designs for axle loads between 200,000 and 50 million Equivalent 10 ton axles.
Terminal E-modulus 3,000 MPa.
The CTB materials with E-moduli of approximately 16,000 MPa, prescribed for the
heavy trafficked pavements must be pre-cracked at intervals of 1.5 3 m in order to
avoid shrinkage and temperature cracks, while the 12,000 MPa material with lower
tensile strength may be expected to develop a closely spaced (micro)crack pattern on
its own. This type of material is therefore better suited to small-scale projects with
more basic production methods.
71
9. Laboratory Testing of Materials and
Composition
9.1 Introduction
During the work described in previous sections of this report, a number of
uncertainties in regard to properties of Cement Treated Base (CTB) materials have
been identified.
Such uncertainties may relate to test methods, which should be recommended for
characterisation of a given CTB composition, general relationship between the
different strength parameters of relatively weak cement treated sand/gravel materials
or composition design techniques that may be applied in an economic/environmental
optimisation process or assessment.
It has, thus, been the objective of the work presented in the present section to
contribute to a more rational approach in design of the materials and in determination
of strength parameters, which should be specified in a Technical Specification to meet
the requirements of the structural design.
The research presented below is contributing to this objective through studies in the
following fields:
Test Method for Determination of Compressive Strength

Assessment of most precise test method
Relationship between Unconfined Compressive Strength, Split Tensile Strength,

Flexural Strength and Modulus of Elasticity of CTB materials
Optimal Material Composition
9.2 Test Method for Determination of Compressive Strength

According to prEN 13286-41 preparation of specimens for determination of
compressive strength can be prepared in four different ways (prEN 13286-50, prEN
13286-51, prEN 13286-52 or prEN 13286-53. BS 1924:Part 2 states two different
methods described in the standard in sections 4.1.4 and 4.1.5, respectively. Also
differences between the original national European standards and e.g. ASTM or
AASHTO may be recorded.
As the different procedures may result in different values for the compressive strength
of a given material, it seems to be of great importance to select and specify only one
method of sample preparation. For this purpose, three of the most commonly applied
methods were investigated:
1. ASTM D558, 100 x 120 mm, Standard Proctor (corresponds to prEN 13286-
53)
2. prEN 13286-51-Modified, Compaction with Kango hammer
72
(Modification: according to prEN 13286-51, the height of the sample shall be
equal to the diameter, however, in this investigation samples with the
dimension of 150 x 300 mm have been applied)
3. BS 1924:Part 2: 1990, Section 4.1.4, Preparation of specimens compacted to a
pre-determined density, 50 x 100 mm (corresponds to prEN 13286-53)
For a number of different CTB mixes, specimens were prepared in accordance with
the three methods. These specimens were tested for density and compressive strength.
The results indicated that method 1 provided the lowest standard deviation.
Furthermore, method 1 clearly differentiated the compressive strengths of the
examined mixes.
Based on these results, method 1, ASTM D558 / prEN 13286-53 was recommended.
The complete report is presented in appendix 2.
9.3 Relationship between Unconfined Compressive Strength,

Split Tensile Strength, Flexural Strength and Modulus of
Elasticity
In the design of CTB pavements, the tensile strength, the flexural strength and the
modulus of elasticity are all important parameters. However, as it is very difficult to
determine these properties with satisfactory reliability, especially under site
conditions, it is common practice to specify only requirements to the compressive
strength.
It is therefore of great interest to quantify the relationship between these important

properties (i.e. tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity) and the
compressive strength.
These relationships were determined for two CTB mixes with identical base material
(0-2 material) and coarse aggregate consisting of gravel and crushed granite,
respectively.
The results of these tests are presented in the two tables below.
Mix Age fc Eo Ec fsp ffl

[MPa] [GPa] [GPa] [MPa] [MPa]
A1 7 2.9 4.7 8.8 0.46 0.16
(0.1) (0.3) (1.02) (0.04) (0.07)
28 4.5 8.0 11.6 0.74 0.97
(0.2) (0.4) (0.4) (0.03) (0.23)
A2 7 2.9 6.2 11.0 0.43 0.28
(0.1) (0.7) (1) (0.02) (0.19)
28 4.8 11.1 12.9 0.76 1.44
(0.1) (0.5) (1.4) (0.04) (0.23)
Table 9.1 Summary of results presented as mean values, standard deviations are presented in
brackets.
73
Mix Age Eo/fc /1000 Ec/fc/1000 fsp/fc ffl/fc
A1 7 1.6 3.1 0.2 0.1
28 1.8 2.6 0.2 0.2
A2 7 2.2 3.9 0.2 0.1
28 2.3 2.7 0.2 0.3
Table 9.2 Ratio of E-modulus, split tensile strength and flexural strength to compressive strength.
The relationships between the strength characteristics: compressive strength, split

tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity are presented in the first
table. Note, however, that due to the large scatter of the flexural strength results, the
relationship between the flexural strength and the compressive strength is
questionable. Further documentation of this parameter is recommended.
Influence of type of coarse aggregate:
The 28 days compressive strength of series A2 (Granite) is slightly higher than that
of series A1 (Gravel). At 7 days, no difference was observed.
The E-modulus (both Eo and Ec) of series A2 (Granite) is significantly higher than
that of series A1 (Gravel). This was observed at both 7 and 28 days of maturity.
No significant difference in split tensile strength was observed between series A1
and A2.
The complete report is presented in appendix 3.
9.4 Optimal Material Composition

Optimal design of compositions for Hydraulically Bound Materials will be one of the
requirements of the future.
This optimisation will primarily be focussed on
Sustainable use of raw materials

and
Cost effectiveness
In relation to sustainability it has become obvious that the use of sometimes

marginal local materials contributes towards such requirements; the use of locally
available sands or gravels results in a reduction of the transportation needs during
construction. Consequences of this may be a reduced environmental impact from the
construction, reduced costs and in case of marginal material application a saving of
high grade materials, which may find better application in other fields.
Minimisation of the cement content in a CTB composition contributes in another way

to the optimisation.
A reduced cement consumption will result in a reduced CO2-emission and in a cost

reduction.
Precise control of mechanical properties of a given material represents another type of

contribution towards the above optimisation parameters.
74
A production in control with narrow variations in the ultimate mechanical properties
will contribute towards cost effectiveness and prevent unnecessary waste of valuable
materials.
In the coming European Standard for cement bound mixtures for road bases and
subbases it is foreseen that the materials shall be characterised by the 360 days
compressive strength and that such materials shall be supplied meeting requirements
to very narrow strength classes, i.e. meet requirements to characteristic minimum
strength as well as maximum strength. (Final Draft prEN 14227 February 2004)
All these goals, i.e. cost effectiveness, possible use of marginal materials, minimal
cement content, etc. requires a better understanding and documentation of the basic
mechanisms of hydraulically bound base course materials.
The research presented below might be considered as a preliminary illustration of the

needs for intensified research in this field and the possibilities related hereto.
9.4.1 Relationship between Dry Density (degree of compaction)

and Compressive Strength of a Typical Base Material
Experience has shown that the compressive strength of a CTB is very much depending
on the porosity of the compacted material. This is not surprising. The phenomenon is,
however, of interest when specification requirements are established and when density
reference values are discussed.
It is also a relevant issue in the optimisation process because modern concrete

technologies today offer approaches that may increase the density of a given material
without increasing the cement content, e.g. by application of chemical additives,
mineral ultra fine additions etc.
It is, therefore, the aim of the present study, on a preliminary level, to assess and
quantify the impact of varying densities on the compressive strength.
The study was performed on two CTB mix compositions containing 70 kg/m3 and 120
kg/ m3 of cement.
For each mix design specimens for compressive strength testing were produced while
varying the compaction energy. This resulted in series of specimens, in which the
degree of compaction (density), varied from 94% to 102% of Maximum Dry Density,
Standard Proctor Method (2.5 kg rammer).
The results of the two test series are presented in Figure 9.1.
75
120
Mix A (70 kg cement)
Mix B (120 kg cement)
Liner (Mix B (120 kg cement))
110
Liner (Mix A (70 kg cement))
100
fc in % of fc at MDD
Mix B:
y = 2.713x - 170.58
2
R = 0.8556
90
80
Mix A:
y = 4.4757x - 349.34
70 R2 = 0.9365
60
93.0 94.0 95.0 96.0 97.0 98.0 99.0 100.0 101.0 102.0 103.0
DD in % of MDD
Figure 9.1 Compressive Strength, fc (expressed in % of fc obtained at MDD) as function of Dry

Density, DD (expressed in % of MDD).
The results illustrated above confirm that density of a CTB material is an important
parameter in development of strength. This is in good correlation with experience
from practice.
It may, therefore, as a measure towards environmental friendliness and cost

effectiveness, be recommended that an optimisation process of the gravel and CTB
composition shall be performed. In this process the use of concrete additives and
additions shall be taken into consideration. The results of the present study confirm
that, at least, within a compaction range of 90% to 100% standard Proctor compaction
a linear relationship between strength and density (degree of compaction) may be
expected.
A full report of the tests performed is given in appendix 4.
9.4.2 Effect of the Fine Aggregate Properties on the Strength

of CTB
In the previous section it is described how the degree of compaction is related to the
development of strength. It appears that for 1% of density increase a gain in
compressive strength of 3 to 5% may be visualised.
It is well known from practical experience that some materials are very easy to
compact whereas others are quite difficult. It is also known that e.g. the Sand
Equivalent value may illustrate this difference in material qualities, i.e. materials with
a high SE-value requires much higher compaction energy than those with low SE-
values.
In the present research it has been the aim to initiate an action, which may contribute
to better understanding of which properties of the sand/gravel/CTB materials are
important for achieving a high density of the materials.
76
Initially, the impact on strength development of the following parameters was
investigated:
Sand Equivalent valued

Fines content (0.075)
Overall gradation of sand
Voids in the compacted material
With the aim of quantifying the impact of the above parameters on the compressive
strength, these gravel materials (dmax = 4 mm) were analysed with regard to suitability
for cement stabilisation. The results indicate that the following characteristics are
beneficial for gravel applied for CTB production:
High Density
Low/Moderate SE-value, (but non plastic materials)
High content of filler, provided that this contributed to increased density
As all the tests indicated a clear relationship between high density/low porosity and
high compressive strength the research was extended into an optimisation phase where
two marginal sands were combined and the mix optimised to achieve max density
when compacted at standard Proctor compaction energy.
When the sands were tested separately, the cement requirement to reach a strength
level of 3.0 MPa at 28 days was 140-150 kg/ m3.
In combination the two sands performed perfectly well and a strength level of 3.0 MPa
could be achieved with a cement content of 68 kg/ m3.
A detailed description of these investigations is presented in appendix 5 of this report.
9.4.3 Effect of the content of material >2mm on the strength

of CTB
As demonstrated in the previous sections, the density of the 0/2 mm material is
essential for the development of strength.
It is a hypothesis of the present task that the unconfined compressive strength of the
cement stabilised 0-2 mm fraction of the material will determine the strength of the
all-in material, provided that the addition of the coarse aggregates do not form an
interlocking particle system, which impacts the compaction and density of the 0-2 mm
base material and provided that the coarse aggregates are sound and strong.
To investigate whether this assumption could be correct, a test series with varying
content of 2-4 mm material has been carried out.
All mixes within the test series were made with the same base material (cement
stabilised 0-2 mm material), i.e. the only variable being the content of coarse
aggregate. The amount of free water was, consequently, kept constant (the 2-4 mm
material was introduced in the SSD condition).
The results indicate that even if the cement content per m3 material decreases with the
addition of 2-4 mm material, the compressive strength of the mixture did not differ
77
significantly from that of the base material as long as the addition of 2-4 mm
aggregate did not exceed 20% of the base material.
Above this limit there were clear indications that the density of the base material was
affected and a consequent decrease in the compressive strength was recorded.
Concluding it could be stated that an addition of 20% of 2-4 mm aggregates of the

actual quality did not have any significant impact on the compressive strength.
given strength requirement of 15-20%.
A complete report is presented in appendix 6.
78
Appendix 1
- Experiences for semi-rigid pavements
79
80
Country Austria Belgium Switzerland Germany (Niedersachsen) Spain
Pavement layer sub-base/base base sub-base sub-base base
light traffic heavy traffic light traffic heavy traffic light traffic heavy traffic
Minimum strength Rc90 10 Rc7 2,5
Rc90 10 Rc7 6 or Rc90 9
c (compression) or st Rc7 2,5 (single Rc7 2-4 Rc28 ~ 7 or
(average) Rst7 0,5 or Rst90 0,75
(splitting tensile) (days) values) Rc28 3,8
uniform sand ~180 usually
Cement content (kg/m3) min. 90 min. 100 min. 60 usually 90-100
well-graded aggregate ~ 95 100-120
CEM I or CEM III/A 32,5
Cement type CEM II 32,5 CEM I 32,5 CEM I 32,5 CEM IV/B 32,5
or CEM III/A 42,5
Fly ash/slag content (%) 35 65 0 0 36-55
Gradation prescribed no No no no yes
Crushed aggregate yes
no Yes no no no
prescribed? min. 50%
Compaction (% Proctor) min. 97 97 min. 98 100 97 mod.
bitumen
Curing bitumen emulsion bitumen emulsion + sand keep moist bitumen emulsion + sand
emulsion
per 2,5 m per 5 m
Groove joints no No no (asphalt < (asphalt > 14 no no since 1997
14 cm) cm)
Asphalt cover (cm) 15-17 (heavy traffic) 15 17-18 12 30 12 15
CTB thickness (cm) 25-30 20 20 15 20 20 20 22-25
Reflective cracking yes Often often none, when groove joints often, when no groove joints
since 1988 300 km with
Experience 35 years 25 years 30 years groove joints since 1982
groove joints
Max. axle load (kN) 105 130 100 115 130
Table 1. Design, construction and experiences for semi-rigid pavements. Adapted from (3.2).
81
Country France UK Italy
Pavement layer sub-base base sub-base base sub-base for heavy traffic
light traffic heavy traffic light traffic heavy traffic
Minimum strength Rst360 1,1 3 classes: 3 classes: Rc7 2,5 -4,5
c (compression) or st (Rst28 0,66) Rc7 4,5; 7 and 10 Rc7 10; 15 and 20 Rst7 0,25
(splitting tensile) (days)
Cement content (kg/m3) min. 70 60 100
Cement type CEM I, II or III 32,5 CEM 32,5
Fly ash/slag content (%) 80 40 FA
Gradation prescribed partly yes yes no yes yes
Crushed aggregate no partly yes no yes yes, min. 30 60%
prescribed?
Compaction (% Proctor) 95 mod. 98 mod. min. 95 100 (mod. AASHTO)
Curing bitumen emulsion + sand bitumen emulsion bitumen emulsion
Groove joints no per 3 m being investigated no
Asphalt cover (cm) 6-8 14 0 10-15 20 20-25
CTB thickness (cm) 15-25 15-25 depending on min. 15 15 25 depending on traffic 20 30
traffic and subbase and CTB type depending on subbase
Reflective cracking no yes, with no groove joints no
Experience 25 years, 5000 km main roads, 1500 km 25 years 20 years, 3500 km
motorways
Max. axle load (kN) 130 105 120
Table 2. Design, construction and experiences for semi-rigid pavements. Adapted from (3.2).
82
Country Denmark (1968) Sweden (ATB Vg 2003)
Pavement layer base base, heavy traffic
Minimum strength Rc7 5 Rc7 9

c (compression) or st (splitting average on cores from base layer
tensile) (days) (Edim = 17000 MPa)
Cement content (kg/m3) 90 120
Cement type CEM I, CEM II/A-LL
Fly ash/slag content (%)
Gradation prescribed yes yes
Crushed aggregate prescribed? no no
Compaction (% Proctor) 92% of max. theoretical
density (no air)
Curing bitumen emulsion bitumen emulsion, plastic sheets or
water
Groove joints no optional
Asphalt cover (cm) 12 - 16 9
CTB thickness (cm) 18 - 21 24 (Vg 94)
Reflective cracking sometimes
Experience 30 years
Max. axle load (kN) 115
Table 3. Design, construction and experiences for semi-rigid pavements.
83
84
Appendix 2
- Test Methods for Determination of
Compressive Strength
85
CEMENT STABILISED BASE COURSES
Test Methods for Determination of Compressive Strength
Introduction
According to prEN 13286-41, section 6.1, preparation of specimens for determination
of compressive strength can be performed in several different ways. Also differences
between the original national standards and e.g. ASTM or AASHTO may be recorded.
As the different procedures may result in different values for the compressive strength
of a given material, it seems to be of great importance to select and specify only one
method of sample preparation.
It is the aim of the present task to assess the differences between commonly applied
methods and based on the results, to recommend the most reliable procedure.
Three test methods were tried out on three mixes with varying strength levels.
On basis of these results, one test method statement is recommended for introduction
in future Technical Specification and the Work Instructions.
Mix design
Three mixes were produced using three different types of aggregate:
Mix I: Gravel from Reerslev Gravel Pit, 0-2 mm, DK
Mix II: 60% Silty sand 0-2 mm/40% Clean sand, 0-2 mm, PL
Mix III: RN Class A concrete marine sand, 0-2 mm, DK
The mix designs are presented in Table 1.
Mix I II III
[kg/m] [kg/m] [kg/m]
Cement* 80 80 80
0-2 Reerslev 1883
Silty sand 1190
Clean sand 793
RN kl. A 1796
*CEM I 52.5 from Aalborg Portland (Rapid cement)
Table 1. Mix design, dry constituents.
Maximum Dry Density and Optimal Moisture Content

For each mix design, the maximum dry density (MDD) and the optimal moisture
content (OMC) were determined according to ASTM D558 / prEN 13286-50. The
results are presented in Table 2.
Mix I II III
MDD [kg/m] 1963 2063 1876
OMC [%] 11.2 9.8 11.4
Table 2. Maximum dry density (MDD), optimal water content (OMC).
86
Samples for compressive strength testing were prepared according to the following
three methods:
1. Compaction of specimens using a standard proctor rammer according to the
procedure described in ASTM D558 / prEN 13286-50, 100 x 120 mm
2. Compaction with Kango hammer according to prEN 13286-51-Modified
(Modification: according to prEN 13286-51, the height of the sample shall be
equal to the diameter, however, in this investigation samples with the
dimension of 150 x 300 mm have been applied)
3. Compaction of specimens according to BS 1924 : Part 2 : 1990, Section 4.1.4,
Preparation of specimens compacted to a pre-determined density, 50 x 100
mm (corresponds to prEN 13286-53)
For each test method and each mix, six samples were prepared for compressive
strength tests; three samples to be tested at 7 days and three to be tested at 28 days of
age.
The samples were prepared with a water content being approximately 1% below the
optimum moisture content. The samples were cured at 20oC at 100% RH until testing.
The results of the compressive strength tests are presented in Table 3 and in Figures 1
(Strength) and 2 (Standard deviation).
fc [MPa]
Mix Method 7 days 28 days
I 1 1.35 (0.03) 1.94 (0.02)
I 2 1.72 (0.08) 2.87 (0.07)
I 3 2.09 (0.39) 2.90 (0.33)
II 1 1.82 (0.01) 2.73 (0.03)
II 2 2.31 (0.05) 3.50 (0.12)
II 3 2.10 (0.11) 2.94 (0.31)
III 1 0.86 (0.02) 1.40 (0.04)
III 2 2.41 (0.04) 2.85 (0.18)
III 3 1.18 (0.03) 1.85 (0.03)
Table 3. Compressive strength expressed as mean value of three samples.
Standard deviations are presented in brackets
87
Compressive strength at 7 days
4.00
1 (Proktor)
3.50 2 (Kango hammer)
3 (BS)
3.00
2.50
fc [MPa]
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
I (Reerslev) II (Silty/Clean) III (RN)
Figure 1a. Compressive strength fc at 7 days.
Compressive strength at 28 days
4.00
1 (Proktor)

3 (BS)
3.00
2.50
fc [MPa]
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Figure 1b. Compressive strength fc at 28 days.
88
Standard deviation of Compressive strength at 7 days
0.40
1 (Proktor)
3 (BS)
0.30
St. deviation of fc [MPa]
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Figure 2a. Standard deviation of compressive strength fc at 7 days.
Standard deviation of Compressive strength at 28 days
0.40
1 (Proktor)
3 (BS)
0.30
St. deviation of f c [MPa]
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Figure 2b. Standard deviation of compressive strength fc at 28 days.
89
Dry density of Samples
The dry densities of the samples were measured. The results are presented in Table 4
and in Figure 3.
Dry density [kg/m]

Mix Method 7 days 28 days
I 1 1967 1944
I 2 1988 2001
I 3 1984 1987
II 1 2075 2056
II 2 2069 2065
II 3 2035 2020
III 1 1847 1864
III 2 1939 1921
III 3 1865 1902
Table 4. Dry density of samples.
Dry Density of Specimens for Compressive strength
2100
1 (Proktor)
2 (Kango hammer)
2050
3 (BS)
2000
Dry Density [kg/m3]
1950
1900
1850
1800
Figure 3. Dry density of samples.
90
Discussion
From the results reported above, the following observations are made:
Method 1 (Proctor) gives the lowest compressive strength, but also the lowest
standard deviation. It should be noticed that the standard procedure, i.e. light
compaction with a 2.5 kg rammer was applied.
Method 2 (Kango hammer) provides the highest strength at 28 days, but a higher
standard deviation than that of Method 1. Method 2 also gives the highest dry
density of the three methods.
The standard deviation obtained using Method 3 is significantly higher than those
obtained using Methods 1 and 2.
Due to the large scatter on the results obtained with Method 3, this method is sorted
out.
Comparing the results obtained with Method 1 and 2, it should be noted that the
compressive strengths obtained with Method 2 are markedly higher than those
obtained with Method 1. Also, the difference of the compressive strength obtained
with the two methods, varies significantly for the different mixes:
Mix I: Method 2 gave 30 to 50% higher strengths than Method 1

Mix II: Method 2 gave about 30% higher strengths than Method 1
Mix III: Method 2 gave 110 to 180% higher strengths than Method 1
The sand applied for Mix III is a conventional concrete sand which is unlikely to be
applicable for production of CTB. Contrary to this, the aggregates applied for Mixes I
and II are both known to be well suited for CTB.
However, the results of Method 2 show very little difference between the strength of
the three mixes. For the 7 days strengths it even indicates that Mix III (RN concrete
sand) provides the highest strength.
Due to these ambiguous results, Method 2 is sorted out.
Conclusion
The results presented in this report indicate that:
Method 1 provides the lowest standard deviation of the examined test methods
Method 1 clearly differentiates the compressive strengths of the three mixes
Thus, it is recommended to select Method 1 for introduction in the Technical
Specification and the Work Instructions for determination of compressive strength
of CTB.
91
92
Appendix 3
- Relationship between Unconfined
Compressive Strength, Split Tensile
Strength, Flexural Strength and Modulus
of Elasticity
93
Relationship between Unconfined Compressive Strength, Split Tensile Strength,
Flexural Strength and Modulus of Elasticity
Introduction
In the design of CTB pavements, the tensile strength, the flexural strength and the
modulus of elasticity are all important parameters. However, as it is very difficult to
determine these properties with satisfactory reliability, especially under site
conditions, it is common practice to specify only requirements to the compressive
strength.
It is the objective of the present task to indicate the relationship between the following
strength characteristics: compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength
and modulus of elasticity.
The relationships are verified by testing two series with identical base material (0-2
material) and coarse aggregate consisting of gravel and crushed granite, respectively.
Note that even though it was recommended in Appendix 2 to prepare specimens for
compression strength in accordance with ASTM D558 / prEN 13286-50 (Proctor), the
specimens for the investigations described below are prepared in accordance with
prEN 13286-51-Modified (dimension of the samples was 150 x 300 mm). The
reason for this is that the latter method results in specimens allowing for all four tests
(compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of
elasticity) to be made from the same type of specimens.
Materials
Base material (0-2 mm material):
Gravel from Reerslev Grusgrav, 0-2 mm
Cement: CEM I 52.5 (MS/LA 2) from Aalborg Portland (Rapid cement)
Coarse aggregate:
Gravel from Reerslev Grusgrav in the following fractions:
2-4 mm
4-8 mm
8-16 mm
Crushed granite, Dalby-SE, in the following fractions:

2-4 mm
4-8 mm
8-16 mm
Mix design
Two series, series A1 and A2, were produced with the coarse aggregate consisting of
gravel and crushed granite, respectively. Both series were made with the same base
material consisting of cement treated 0-2 mm material.
94
content (OMC) were determined according to ASTM D558. The results are presented
in Table 1.
Samples for compressive strength, E-modulus, split tensile strength and flexural
strength tests were prepared according to prEN 13286-51-Modified (the dimension of
the samples was 150 x 300 mm).
The samples were prepared with a water content being approximately 1% below the
optimum moisture content. The actual water content of each mix is presented in Table
1. The samples were water cured at 20oC.
A1 A2
Material Unit 2-16 mm: Gravel 2-16 mm: Granite
CEM I 52.5 [kg/m dry material] 80 80
0-2 mm gravel [kg/m dry material] 1358 1358
2-4 mm [kg/m dry material] 190 194
Water [kg/m] 205 176
Water content [% of dry material] 10.2 8.7
Calculated free water content [kg/m] 93 89
MDD [kg/m] 2006 2034
OMC [%] 11.2 9.7
Table 1. Mix design, calculated free water content, maximum dry density (MDD) and optimal water
content (OMC).
95
For each mix, six samples (150x300) were prepared for compressive strength tests,
three samples to be tested at 7 days and three to be tested at 28 days of age. The tests
were carried out in accordance with DS 423.23. The samples were cured at 20oC at
100% RH until testing.
The results are presented in Table 2.
Mix No. Age fc

Single value Mean value
[MPa] [MPa]
2.7
A1 7 3.0 2.9
2.9 (0.1)
4.4
28 4.7 4.5
4.4 (0.2)
3.0
A2 7 2.9 2.9
2.7 (0.1)
4.7
28 4.9 4.8
4.9 (0.1)
Table 2. Compressive strength, fc
(Standard deviations are presented in brackets below
the mean values).
E-modulus
For each mix, six samples (150x300) were prepared for testing of E-modulus, three
samples to be tested at 7 days and three to be tested at 28 days of age. The tests were
carried out in accordance to DS 423.25. The samples were cured at 20oC at 100% RH
until testing.
The results are presented in Table 3. Eo and Ec are determined by loading the
specimens to 45% and 33% of the compressive strength, respectively.
96
Mix No. Age Eo Ec
Single value Mean value Single value Mean value
[GPa] [GPa] [GPa] [GPa]
4.4 7.9
A1 7 4.8 4.7 9.9 8.8
4.8 (0.3) 8.5 (1.02)
8.1 11.5
28 7.6 8.0 11.3 11.6
8.4 (0.4) 12.0 (0.4)
5.5 9.8
A2 7 6.6 6.2 11.6 11.0
6.6 (0.7) 11.6 (1)
11.5 13.7
28 10.6 11.1 13.7 12.9
11.3 (0.5) 11.3 (1.4) Table 3.
Table 3. E-modulus, Eo and Ec
(Standard deviations are presented in brackets below the mean values).
Split tensile strength

For each mix, six samples (150x300) were prepared for testing of split tensile
strength, three samples to be tested at 7 days and three to be tested at 28 days of age.
The tests were carried out in accordance with DS 423.34. The samples were cured at
20oC at 100% RH until testing.
Mix No. Age fsp

[MPa] [MPa]
0.49
A1 7 0.42 0.46
0.49 (0.04)
0.72
28 0.73 0.74
0.78 (0.03)
0.42
A2 7 0.42 0.43
0.46 (0.02)
0.79
28 0.72 0.76
0.78 (0.04)
Table 4. Split tensile strength, fsp
the mean values)
97
Flexural strength
For each mix, two cylinders (150x300) were prepared. From each cylinder, three
samples with the dimension of L x W x H: 150 x 40 x 40 mm were cut for testing of
flexural strength. The samples were cut so that the lengths of the samples were
perpendicular to the height of the cylinders.
Three samples were tested at 7 days and three samples were tested at 28 days of age.
The tests were carried out in accordance with the principles of DS/EN 196-1 (centre
point loading). The samples were cured at 20oC at 100% RH until testing.
It should be noted that it is very difficult to avoid damage to the material while cutting
the beams. Consequently, a large scatter on the results may be expected.
Mix No. Age ffl

[MPa] [MPa]
0.23
A1 7 0.12 0.16
0.12 (0.07)
0.98
28 0.74 0.97
1.20 (0.23)
0.49
A2 7 0.24 0.28
0.12 (0.19)
1.38
28 1.69 1.44
1.24 (0.23)
Table 5. Flexural strength, ffl
the mean values).
Summary of Results
The results of the tests are summarized in Table 6.
Mix Age fc Eo Ec fsp ffl

[MPa] [GPa] [GPa] [MPa] [MPa]
A1 7 2.9 4.7 8.8 0.46 0.16
(0.1) (0.3) (1.02) (0.04) (0.07)
28 4.5 8.0 11.6 0.74 0.97
(0.2) (0.4) (0.4) (0.03) (0.23)
A2 7 2.9 6.2 11.0 0.43 0.28
(0.1) (0.7) (1) (0.02) (0.19)
28 4.8 11.1 12.9 0.76 1.44
(0.1) (0.5) (1.4) (0.04) (0.23)
Table 6. Summary of results presented as mean values, standard deviations are presented in brackets.
98
Table 7 presents the ratio of E-modulus, split tensile strength and flexural strength to
the compressive strength.
Mix Age Eo/fc /1000 Ec/fc/1000 fsp/fc ffl/fc

A1 7 1.6 3.1 0.2 0.1
28 1.8 2.6 0.2 0.2
A2 7 2.2 3.9 0.2 0.1
28 2.3 2.7 0.2 0.3
Table 7. Ratio of E-modulus, split tensile strength and flexural strength to compressive
strength.
Table 8 presents the ratios between the mean values of the measured properties for
series A2 (Granite) and A1 (Gravel).
Age fc,A2/fc,A1 Eo,A2/Eo,A1 Ec,A2/Ec,A1 fsp,A2/fsp,A1 ffl,A2/ffl,A1

7 1.0 1.3 1.3 0.93 1.81
28 1.1 1.4 1.1 1.03 1.47
Table 8. Ratios between mean values for series A2 (Granite) and A1 (Gravel).
Comments on results
The relationships between the strength characteristics: compressive strength, split
tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity are presented in Table 7.
Note, however, that due to the large scatter of the flexural strength results, the
relationship between the flexural strength and the compressive strength is
questionable. Further documentation of this parameter is recommended.
Influence of type of coarse aggregate:

The 28 days compressive strength of series A2 (Granite) is slightly higher than that
of series A1 (Gravel). At 7 days, no difference was observed.
The E-modulus (both Eo and Ec) of series A2 (Granite) is significantly higher than
that of series A1 (Gravel). This was observed at both 7 and 28 days of maturity.
No significant difference in split tensile strength was observed between series A1
and A2.
99
100
Appendix 4
- Relationship between Dry Density and
Compressive Strength of a Typical Base
Material
101
Relationship between Dry Density and Compressive Strength of a Typical Base
Material
INTRODUCTION
Experience has shown that the compressive strength of a CTB is very much depending
on the porosity of the compacted material. This is not surprising. However, the
phenomenon is of interest when specification requirements are established and when
density reference values are discussed. It is, therefore, the aim of the present study, on
a preliminary level, to assess and quantify the impact of varying densities on the
compressive strength.
Materials
Gravel from Reerslev Quarry sieved to the following fractions:
0-2 mm
Cement: CEM I 52.5 (MS/LA 2) from Aalborg Portland (Rapid cement)
Mix design
Two CTB mixes with different cement contents have been made:
Mix A: 70 kg/m
Mix B: 120 kg/m
Both mixes were prepared with gravel from Reerslev Quarry, 0-4 mm, DK. The mix
designs are presented in Table 1
Mix A B
[kg] [kg]
Cement 70 120
0-2 Reerslev 1878 1865
Water 220 220
Table 1. Mix Design, appr. 1 m3.

For each mix, the Optimum Water Content (OMC) and the Maximum Dry Density
(MDD) was determined in accordance with ASTM D558. The results are presented in
Table 2.
Mix A B
MDD [kg/m] 1960 2020
OMC [%] 11.3 11.1
Table 2. MDD and OMC.
The data confirm that the mix design given in table 1 is close to optimum.
Dry Density and Compressive Strength

For each mix, 9 samples with DD varying from 94 to 102% of MDD were prepared.
The specimens were prepared using a standard proctor rammer according to the
procedure described in ASTM D558, 100 x 120 mm.
102
The various densities were obtained by varying the number of layers and the number
of strokes of each layer: from 2 layers of 7 strokes to 5 layers of 30 strokes. Note that,
according to ASTM D558, the dry density corresponding to MDD is obtained with 3
layers of 25 strokes.
All samples were prepared at a water content corresponding to OMC.
At 7 days of age, the compressive strength of the samples was tested.
The results are presented in Table 3a and 3b for Mix A and B, respectively.
Sample ID Total Nos. of DD fc DD in % of fc in % of

Strokes MDD fc,MDD
[kg/m] [MPa] [%] [%]
B1 14 1891 2.4 94 81
B2 14 1907 2.5 94 85
B3 20 1931 2.8 96 94
B5 30 1968 2.7 98 90
B6 45 1991 3.0 99 100
B7 70 2014 2.9 100 97
B8* 75 2023 3.0 100 100
B9 100 2045 3.0 101 100
B10 150 2062 3.3 102 110
*Standard Proctor: 3 layers, each 25 strokes
Table 3a. Mix A: Nos. of strokes, Dry Density (DD) and Compressive Strength (fc).
Sample ID. Total Nos. of DD fc DD in % of fc in % of

Strokes MDD fc,MDD
[kg/m] [MPa] [%] [%]
A1 14 1866 0.46 95 77
A2 14 1876 0.49 96 82
A3 20 1918 0.49 98 82
A4 30 1941 0.56 99 93
A5 60 1950 0.56 100 94
A6 70 1952 0.58 100 97
A7* 75 1962 0.60 100 100
A8 100 1976 0.61 101 102
A9 150 2006 0.66 103 110
*Standard Proctor: 3 layers, each 25 strokes
Table 3b. Mix B: Nos. of strokes, Dry Density (DD) and Compressive Strength (fc).
103
Figure 1 shows the Dry Density (DD) expressed in % of MDD as function of total
Nos. of strokes of each specimen.
Figure 2 shows the compressive strength (fc) expressed in % of fc obtained at MDD as

function of Dry Density (DD) expressed in % of MDD.
104
103
102
Standard Proctor, DD = MDD:
3 layers, each 25 strokes
101
100
DD in % of MDD
99

98 Mix B (120 kg cement)
97
96
95
94
93
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Nos. of strokes
Figure 1. Dry Density, DD (expressed in % of MDD) as function of total Nos. of strokes of each
specimen.
120
Mix B (120 kg cement)
Liner (Mix B (120 kg cement))
110
Liner (Mix A (70 kg cement))
100
fc in % of fc at MDD
Mix B:
y = 2.713x - 170.58
2
R = 0.8556
90
80
Mix A:
y = 4.4757x - 349.34
70 2
R = 0.9365
60
93.0 94.0 95.0 96.0 97.0 98.0 99.0 100.0 101.0 102.0 103.0
DD in % of MDD
Figure 2. Compressive Strength, fc (expressed in % of fc obtained at MDD) as function of Dry

Density, DD (expressed in % of MDD).
Discussion
From the results in Table 3 and Figure 2 it appears, as expected, that the compressive
strength increases with the dry density of the material:
105
1% increase of the dry density gives an increase in the compressive strength of
approximately 2.5 to 3.5% of the strength at 100% compaction. A similar reduction
in strength of 2.5 to 3.5% may be expected for each 1% reduction in the
compaction index below 100%.
The present investigation should only be considered as a preliminary contribution
to research; tests have only been carried out on one type of gravel/sand and the
relationship between density and strength has only been determined at 7 days of
maturity.
Conclusion
The results reported above confirm that density of a CTB material is an important
parameter in development of strength. This is in good correlation with experience
from practice. It should, therefore, be considered to take the in-situ density into
consideration when specification requirements are established.
The results seem to confirm that, at least within a compaction range of 90 to 100%
standard Proctor compaction, a linear relationship between strength and density
(degree of compaction) may be assumed.
106
Appendix 5
- Effect of the Fine Aggregate Properties
on the Strength
107
Effect of the Fine Aggregate Fraction on the Strength
_____________________________________________________________________
Introduction
It is the objective of this subtask to identify those properties of the gravel material < 4
mm that have decisive influence on the strength.
The impact on the development of strength of the following parameters is

investigated:
Sand equivalent value
Fines content (<0.075 mm)
Gradation of the sand
Voids in the compacted material
With the aim of quantifying the impact of the above parameters on the compressive
strength, the following three gravel materials (dmax = 4 mm) are analysed with regard
to suitability for cement stabilisation:
I Gravel from Reerslev Gravel Pit, DK

II Quarry sand 0/4 mm, PL
III Concrete sand, RN Class A, DK
Characterisation of sand
The densities of the constituent materials and the Sand Equivalent Values (SE value)
of the gravels are presented in Table 1.
Dry Density SE-values Absorpton

[kg/m] [%] [%]
Cement* 3150 - -
0-2 Reerslev 2502 43 2.4
Quarry sand, PL 2626 43 0.6
RN kl. A 2637 90 0.8
* CEM I 52.5 from Aalborg Portland (Rapid Cement)
Table 1. Dry Densities, SE values and absorption of Materials.
108
The grain size distributions are shown in Figure 1 and in Table 2.
Sieve Size Passing

mm %
Reerslev Polish RN
16 100.0 100.0 100.0
8 97.4 99.2 100.0
4 86.8 97.1 99.3
2 76.7 94.8 89.0
1 61.8 84.8 72.3
0.5 41.3 54.7 49.3
0.25 19.7 41.7 20.3
0.125 9.0 24.5 2.5
0.075 5.5 16.6 0.5
Table 2. Grain size distribution according to DS 405.9.
Figure 1 Grain size distribution

100
90
80
70
% Passing
60
50
40 Reerslev
30 Polish
20 RN
10
0
0.075
0.125
0.25
0.5
16
32
Sieve Size, mm
Figure 1. Grain size distribution according to DS 405.9.
109
Compressive strength
To quantify the influence of the type of sand on the compressive strength of CTB,
three mixes were produced using the three sands described above.
Mix design
Three mixes were produced using the three different types of aggregate:
Mix I: Gravel from Reerslev Gravel Pit, 0-4 mm, DK
Mix II: Quarry sand 0/4 mm, PL
Mix III: RN Class A, marine sand, 0-4 mm, DK
Mix I II III
[kg/m] [kg/m] [kg/m]
Cement* 80 80 80
0-2 Reerslev 1883
Quarry sand, PL 1983
RN kl. A 1810
* CEM I 52.5 from Aalborg Portland (Rapid Cement)
Table 3. Mix design, dry constituents.

content (OMC) were determined according to ASTM D558. From the measured
MDD, the mix design (Table 3) and the density of the constituents (Table 1), the
porosity of the materials are calculated. The results are presented in Table 4.
Mix I II III
MDD [kg/m] 1963 2063 1890
OMC [%] 11.2 9.8 10.5
Porosity [%] 22 22 29
Table 4. Maximum dry density (MDD), optimal moisture content (OMC)
and Porosity of Compacted Material.
Samples were compacted using a standard proctor rammer according to the procedure
described in ASTM D558. The dimension of the samples is 100x120 mm.
For each mix, six samples were prepared for compressive strength tests, three samples
to be tested at 7 days and three to be tested at 28 days of age.
The samples were prepared with a target content of 160 kg/m3 free water. By choosing
160 kg/m3 it was assured that the w/c-ratio was constant and the moisture content still
close to OMC (10.4%, 8.3% and 9.3%) absorption of the materials taken into
consideration.
The samples were cured at 20oC at 100% RH until testing.
The results of the compressive strength tests are presented in Table 5 and in Figure 2.
110
fc [MPa]
Mix 7 days 28 days
I 1.36 (0.02) 1.97 (0.06)
II 1.84 (0.04) 2.94 (0.06)
III 0.86 (0.02) 1.38 (0.05)
Table 5. Compressive strength expressed as mean value of three
samples. Standard deviations are presented in brackets.
3.00
7 days
28 days
2.50
2.00
fc [MPa]
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
I (Reerslev) II (Polish) III (RN)
Figure 2. Compressive strength.
Dry density of Samples

The dry densities of the samples were measured. The results are presented in Table 6
and in Figure 3. In figure 3, the MDD from Table 4 is presented for comparison.
Dry density [kg/m]

Mix 7 days 28 days
I 1967 1953
II 2050 2061
III 1899 1860
Table 6. Dry density of samples.
111
2100
Average Dry Density of Samples for Compressive Strength
MDD
2050
2000
Dry Density [kg/m]
1950
1900
1850
1800
I (Reerslev) II (Polish) III (RN)
Figure 3. Dry density of samples.
Discussion
The main results are summarised in Table 7.
Results for Compacted Material Gravel characteristics

fc [MPa] MDD Porosity <75 m SE-values Density
Mix 7 days 28 days [kg/m] [%] [%] [%] [kg/m]
I 1.36 1.97 1963 22 5.5 43 2502
II 1.84 2.94 2063 22 16.6 43 2626
III 0.86 1.38 1890 29 0.5 90 2637
Table 7. Summary of Results.
The following remarks can be made:

Mix II obtains the highest strength and the highest dry density. The gravel applied
for Mix II (Polish sand) has the highest content of filler (< 75 m) and a relatively
low SE-value.
Mix III obtains the lowest strength, the lowest dry density and the highest porosity
of the compacted material. The gravel applied for Mix III (Concrete sand, RN
Class A) has the lowest content of filler and the highest SE-value.
Mix I has about the same porosity and SE-value as Mix II but obtained lower
strengths and density. This may be due to the lower density and/or fines content of
the gravel applied for Mix I.
The results indicate that the following characteristics are beneficial for gravel applied
for CTB material:
High Density
Low / moderate SE-value
High content of filler (< 75 m), provided that this leads to increased density of the
mix
112
Appendix 6
- Effect of the Content of Material >
2 mm on the Strength of CTB
113
Effect of the Content of Material > 2 mm on the Strength of CTB
Introduction
As demonstrated in the previous research appendices the density of the 0/2 mm
material is essential for the development of strength.
It is a hypothesis of the present task that the unconfined compressive strength of the
cement stabilised 0-2 mm fraction of the material will determine the strength of the
all-in material, provided the addition of the coarse aggregates do not form an
interlocking particle system, which impacts the compaction and density of the 0-2 mm
base material and provided that the coarse aggregate are sound and strong.
To investigate whether this assumption could be correct, test series with varying
content of 2-4 mm material have been carried out.
All mixes within the test series were made with the same base material (cement
stabilised 0-2 mm material), i.e. the only variable being the content of coarse
aggregate. The amount of free water was, consequently, kept constant (the 2-4 mm
material was introduced in the SSD condition).
The results indicate that even if the cement content per m3 material decreases with the
addition of 2-4 mm material, the compressive strength of the mixture did not differ
significantly from that of the base material as long as the addition of 2-4 mm
aggregate did not exceed 20% of the base material. Above this limit there were clear
indications that the density of the base material was affected and a consequent
decrease in the compressive strength was recorded.
Concluding, it could be stated that an addition of 20% of 2-4 mm aggregates of the
actual quality did not have any significant impact on the compressive strength.
given strength requirement of 15-20%.
Further research on the effect of addition of aggregate size > 4mm is needed.
Materials
Gravel from Reerslev Gravel Pit sieved to the following fractions:
0-2 mm
2-4 mm
Cement: CEM I 52.5 (MS/LA 2) from Aalborg Portland (Rapid Cement)
The density and absorption of the materials are presented in Table 1.
Cement Gravel
CEM I 52.5 0/2 mm 2/4 mm
Densitydry [kg/m3] 3150 2502 2357
Absorption [%] - 2.4 5.1
Table 1. Dry Density and Absorption of Materials.
Mix design
Six mixes with varying content 2-4 mm material and identical base material were
produced. The contents of 2-4 mm material were 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 % by weight
114
of the 0-2 mm gravel. The Mix IDs for the six mixes were B, B5, B10, B15, B20 and
B30, respectively.
Mix ID kg [dry material] Water Free water Moisture OMC

Cement Gravel content content
CEM I 52.5 0/2 mm 2/4 mm [kg] [kg] [%] [%]
B 65 1859 230 185 11.9 12.2
B 5 65 1859 93 234 185 11.6 12.2
B 10 65 1859 186 239 185 11.3 12.1
B 15 65 1859 279 244 185 11.1 12.4
B 20 65 1859 372 249 185 10.8 12.0
B 30 65 1859 558 258 185 10.4 12.1
Table 2. Mix designs in kg.
The Optimum Moisture Contents were determined according to ASTM D558.

As can be seen from the table above, this parameter appears to be unaffected of the
addition of 2-4 mm material.
To obtain the maximum dry density an increase in the free water would then be
required. This was, however, not introduced in the present test series.
Porosity of material 0-2 mm

For each mix design, specimens were prepared in diam. 100 x 120 mm moulds. The
compaction energy was provided with a standard proctor rammer and in accordance
with the energy required for ASTM D558 compaction. These specimens were
prepared for compressive strength tests, three samples to be tested at 7 days and three
to be tested at 28 days of age.
Before demoulding the dry density of the specimens were determined by weighing,
assuming the moisture content from the mix design.
Based on these densities the dry density of the 0-2 mm material for each of the mixes
was determined and the corresponding porosity of the material calculated by
comparison with the max. theoretical dry density, i.e. at 0% air content in the mix.
The results of this calculation are presented in table 3 below.
Mix ID Theoretical max. Measured dry Calculated dry Porosity, 0-2 mm

dry density, 0-2 density, total density, 0-2 mm material
mm fraction material material
kg/m kg/m kg/m % (vol.)
B 2028 1925 1925 23.5
B 5 2028 1937 1920 23.9
B 10 2028 1952 1921 23.7
B 15 2028 1965 1919 23.8
B 20 2028 1977 1917 23.9
B 30 2028 1945 1851 26.5
Table 3. Estimation of porosities in compacted 0-2 mm material.
115
For each mix, six samples were prepared for compressive strength tests, three samples
to be tested at 7 or 14 days and three to be tested at 28 days of age. The samples were
compacted using a standard proctor rammer. The dimension of the samples is
100x120 mm and the water content was as stated in table 2. The samples were cured
at 20oC and 100% RH.
Mix ID fc,7 d fc,28 d

[MPa] [MPa]
B 1.5 (0.2) 3.1 (0.2)
B5 1.4 (0.2) 2.8 (0.1)
B 10 1.4 (0.1) 2.9 (0.1)
B 15 1.2 (0.1) 2.7 (0.1)
B 20 1.5 (0.1) 3.1 (0)
B 30 0.8 (0.1) 1.7 (0)
Table 4. Compressive strengths expressed as mean value of three
samples.Standard deviations are presented in brackets.
Comments:
For a content of 2-4 mm gravel between 0 and 20% (B to B20) the compressive
strengths do not vary significantly with the content of 2-4 mm material. However,
the results indicate that as the content of 2-4 mm is increased further (B30), the
compressive strength decreases.
The porosity of the base material is not affected by moderate additions of 2/4 mm
materials, i.e. up to an addition of 20%.
For an addition of 30% 2/4 mm material the porosity of the base material is
significantly increased and the strength of the total material reduced
It is assumed that a further increase in density would have been obtained if the
moisture content were maintained at OMC.
The resulting increase in w/c is not considered relevant for the compressive
strength for this type of material. It appears that it is the porosity of the fine part of
the CTB, which influence the compressive strength rather than the marginal
changes in w/c-ratios.
116
3.5 27.0
3.0 26.0
2.5 25.0
Porosity [%]
2.0 24.0
fc [MPa]
1.5 23.0
1.0 22.0
fc, 7 days
0.5 fc, 28 days 21.0
Porosity, 0-2 mm material

0.0 20.0
B B 5 B 10 B 15 B 20 B 30
Mix
Figure 1. Compressive strength, fc and porosity of 6 mix compositions.
Figure 1 shows the compressive strengths graphically in comparison with the porosity
of the base material (0/2 mm + cement) as a function of the addition of 2/4 mm
material.
117
118
Rapport / Report
Nr. Titel/Title/Shortcut Forfatter/Author

No.
122 The Effects of Freeze Thaw Periods on a Test Pavement Wei Zhang
Robin Macdonald
123 Selection of Pavement Maintenance by use of Accelerated Carsten B. Nielsen

Load Jeanne Rosenberg
Jrn Raaberg
124 Teksturdata til beregning af friktionsvrdier Henrik Aalborg Nielsen,
- anvendelse p vejoverflader ? Henrik Madsen
125 Viden om kommuneveje Susanne Baltzer

Marianne Wrtz
Bente Kloster
Knud Rossen Jrgense
126 Viden om de store veje Carsten Nielsen
Finn Thgersen
H.J. Ertman Larsen
Vibeke Wegan
127 Viden om anlg af veje Flemming Berg, Finn Thgersen
Susanne Baltzer, Bo Wamsler
H.J. Ertman Larsen
Poul Panduro
Gregers Hildebrand
Per Ahrentzen
Ole Milvang-Jensen
Knud A. Pihl, Erik Nielsen
128 Viden om drift af veje Gregers Hildebrand
Charles Lykke Hansen
SvendKold Johansen
Birger Roland Jensen
BjarneSchmidt, Jrn Raaberg
129 Crushed concrete from building demolition is a high Knud A. Pihl
quality material for road construction Ole Milvang-Jensen
Flemming Berg
130 Ubundne brelag af knust beton Knud A. Pihl
- efter europiske standarder Flemming Berg
Ole Milvang-Jensen
131 Ubundne brelag af knust tegl Knud A. Pihl
Ole Milvang-Jensen
132 Ubundne brelag af knust asfalt Knud A. Pihl
Ole Milvang-Jensen
133 Bundsikring af forbrndingsslagge Knud A. Pihl
Ole Milvang-Jensen
134 Noise emission from 4000 vehicle pass-bys Bent Andersen
- an Inter-Noise 2004 presentation Hans Bendtsen
135 Thin open layers as noise reducing pavements Hans Bendtsen

- an Inter-Noise 2004 presentation Bent Andersen
136 European co-operation in COST 347 Gregers Hildebrand

- Bringing ALT activities closer together Michael E. Nunn
137 Traffic management and noise reducing pavements Hans Bendtsen

- Recommendations on additional noise reducing measures Jrgen Haberl, Johan Litzka
Ernst Pucher
Ulf Sandberg
Greg Watts
138 Mechanistic Design of Semi-Rigid Pavements Finn Thgersen
- An Incremental Approach Christian Busch
Anders Henrichsen
Road Directorate Road Directorate Road Directorate
Niels Juels Gade 13 Guldalderen 12 Thomas Helsteds Vej 11
P.O. Box 9018 P.O. Box 235 P.O. Box 529
DK-1022 Copenhagen K DK-2640 Hedehusene DK-8660 Skanderborg
Denmark Denmark Denmark
Telephone +45 3341 3333 Telephone +45 4630 7000 Telephone +45 8993 2200 vd@vd.dk
Telefax +45 3315 6335 Telefax +45 4630 7105 Telefax +45 8652 2013 Vejdirektoratet.dk

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Mechanistic Design of

Danish Road Institute

Ministry of Transport - Denmark

Title Mechanistic Design of Semi-Rigid Pavements

Reports published by the Danish Road Directorate

Danish Road Institute

Ministry of Transport - Denmark

2. Executive Summary ............................................................................................... 7

Another - and very different application of the technology is found in semi-rigid

The steering group was:

Roskilde, December 2004,

Director. Danish Road Institute

This type of pavement is a composite design consisting of an unbound subbase layer, a

Increased traffic loads and widespread rutting in existing flexible pavements

In Europe, the semi-rigid pavement concept is used to a varying extent. Some

A well-known disadvantage of pavements with cement-treated base courses is

Develop a realistic deterioration model for this type of pavement.

2.2 Project Work

Pavement Reflective E-values from Compressive Intact

M10-s No 1.500 10.000 11 32/48

M10-n No 2.000 12.000 21 28/43

Layer Number of Equivalent 10 ton Axles

These designs are based on criteria equations developed from an incremental-recursive

During the project a number of uncertainties relating to properties of CTB materials

An analysis of different methods for determination of compressive strength on

Finally, a special experiment suggested that an addition of 20 % 2-4 mm aggregate to

It may, consequently, be concluded that a design methodology, which in a realistic

3.1 PIARC 1991

Furthermore, an overview of durability requirements, especially in the form of frost

3.1.2 Mix design

Adequate, e.g. not too high water content

Austrian experiences indicate a content of 10-15 % fines smaller than 63 m in

3.1.3 Measures against reflective cracking

3.2 Update 2002

The report summarises the conclusions from an international symposium about

[3.2] H. Sommer, G. Hartl, E. Tschegg: berarbeitung der RVS 8.05.13

An incremental-recursive process is a calculation rule that determines the

In continuum damage mechanics (Kachanov, ref [4.1]), cracking originates as

It is fairly constant over the entire width of a dual wheel.

It is relatively insensitive to variations in the E-modulus of the layer below.

The chosen model hereby becomes:

Pavement characteristics were as indicated in the table below.

Pavement Designation A1 & A2 B1 & B2 C1 & C2

Surfacing (30 mm) 30 mm Asphalt Concrete

Stabilised base course Gravel 0/16 mm Gravel 0/16 mm Sand 0/8 mm

Subbase (200 mm) Sandy/silty moraine

Subgrade Crushed stone embankment > 2 m

Table 5.1 Layers in test pavements.

Instruments were placed with 300 mm spacing as follows:

20 mm below top of subbase SPC SPC SPC

20-120 mm below top of subbase SST SST

Figure 5.1 Positioning of instruments.

Three CTB-materials were plant-mixed and transported to the site:

Mix Aggregate Design strength [MPa]

Figure 5.2 Photos from pavement construction.

5.3 Compaction control

Section Compaction Standard deviation Moisture content

Section Maximum Dry Compaction Moisture content

5.4 Test specimens

5.5 Loading and measurement procedures

5.6 Measured Pavement Response

5.6.1 E-moduli from FWD measurements

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 Series 1 Series 2 Series 3