Critical aspects of learning and motivation in complex and multilevel

learning environments

Learning processes imply a series of intra-psychological factors regarding to

motivational, emotional and social aspects affecting pupil’s academic
achievement. This paper covers two main aims: the motivational characteristics,
goals and strategies needed to facilitate cognitive and social development, and,
on the other hand, the characteristics related to expectations and attributions of
both teachers and students and their interaction in the classroom environment.

To start, what do we understand by motivation in the classroom? According to

educational psychological approaches, motivation is the level of interest that
students experience in a determinate context, toward a specific task. The origin
of this interest may either be intrinsic or extrinsic. Some important aspects of
motivation are the conditions needed for a meaningful learning, which may
depend on the personal interest towards contents and the learning context.
Secondly, children’s own perception of competence is, as well, essential to
determine motivation. In other words, pupils’ self confidence is related to the
task or activity, and how they evaluate their own competencies. Finally, the task
itself and what it means and represents for the student is important to be able to
achieve the objectives proposed.

Students’ personal interest, in first place, encircles learning goals and objectives
or reasons that lead pupils to learn a specific content. This interest varies
according to the motivational orientation of the student. According to experts,
there is a three-part model for Motivational Orientations: Task Orientation, Ego
Defensive Orientation and Social Dependence Orientation (Lehtinen et.al.,
1995; Olkinoura & Salonen, 1992; Salonen 2000; Salonen et al., 1998a).

In the first one, students’ adaptation is dominated by an intrinsically motivated

tendency and the task is comprised as a main adaptive focus for the child.

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Besides, a task oriented child is able to ignore incidental distracting stimuli and
maintain the integrity of action (Järvela et.al.,2001; Salonen et.al.,1998a). As for
Ego Defensive Orientation, the child’s focus is his or her own self, usually
reacting towards the task with emotional signs of non-well-being, an altered self
esteem and alleviating distress through emotion focused coping strategies,
avoidance and denial (Elliott, 1999; Rotenberg & Boucsein, 1993; Tinbergen &
Tinbergen, 1983).

Finally, students with Social Dependence Orientation focus, not in the task or
the self, but the instructor. Researchers have represented this type of
motivational orientation into two coping categories: Following of social cues and
active efforts to elicit supportive cueing of help from the instructor ( Olkinoura &
Stalonen, 1992; Salonen, 2000; Salonen et. Al.,1998). In both cases, pupils see
the teacher as a help giver and a supporting and rewarding agent.

Understanding the characteristics of motivation and its different orientations is a

key factor to determine the different learning styles in a classroom. However,
what is even more important is to provide students with an appropriate
environment to avoid non-task oriented attitudes and promote children’s
development of self-regulated learning.

The term self-regulated learning (SLR) is used to describe independent,

academically effective forms of learning that involve: metacognition, intrinsic
motivation and strategic action (Wine & Perry, 2000). Research made by Perry
and Vandekamp (2001), in real teaching contexts focused in the design of
learning environments that reflect those believed to promote SRL. Findings
proved that students have many more opportunities to develop and practice
SRL when they are placed in environments like those teachers where helped to
create. Teachers among this research worked together to design tasks and
structure interactions to maximize SRL opportunities for children. Some of the
strategies included complex, open-ended reading and writing activities,
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modifying tasks to create an optimal level of challenge and evaluating their own
writing and reading processes and products. As a result, students within the
study engaged in independently, academically effective forms of learning and
demonstrated high levels of metacognition, intrinsic motivation and strategic
action. This demonstrates that teachers play a key role in students’ motivation.
Thus, the type of instructional interaction developed between pupils and
teachers and how the task is designed and addressed to them is essential to
assure a proper learning environment.

Teacher’s expectations for the class are also a determinant aspect influencing
students’ academic achievement. As in Rosenthal’s and Jacobson’s study
(1968) of the Pygmalion, the pre-elaborated ideas of an educator towards a
pupil may affect that his or her performance, either positively or negatively.
There are diverse theoretical links between students’ and teachers’
expectations such as: Diverging learning careers based on the polarization
hypothesis (assigning students to different curricular programs based on their
abilities and interests; Berends, 1995, Hargreaves, 1967). This view divides
students into potential looser and winner groups, allocating students to
differential instructional transactions and educational pathways. An additional
theory would be the The Mathew Effect: (Stanovich, 1986) “Generously would
be given to anybody who already posses a lot, whereas even the little the
disadvantaged has got likely to be taken away”. Consequently, this result has a
multiplier effect: the more expert keep gaining in expertise, while the less expert
make little progress.

In this sense, the way the teacher plans each lesson, the ideas he or she may
have about each individual in the class, and the kind of goals prevailing in the
classroom; triggering Mastery objectives (task focused) or Performance
Objectives (ability focused goals) (Dweck & Leggett, 1998; Ames, 1990,
Edwards, 1994), may either facilitate or undercut learning and motivation.

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Another point to the issue is the institutional frame factors and the situational
features influencing teachers according to the place of work. Some schools may
have strict demanding policies which force teachers to focus on written work
and textbook based teaching. This is precisely what is common to the Spanish
educational system. Most institutions focus their learning on the amount of
written tasks children do, given that this is the only way to prove parents their
children are really working. Therefore, schools force teachers to cover all the
contents and exercises of the book, limiting teachers to use the text as the only
learning resource. In this case, even if the teacher is willing to widen students’
learning possibilities, it is quite difficult, since there is a mandatory institutional
frame to be followed.

Given that the actions a teacher takes may seriously affect the motivational
orientation of a pupil, it is then essential to think of remedial ways to support
students’ autonomy in the classroom so as to lead them to a task-oriented
attitude. One of the main goals would be to enhance classroom contexts by
supporting autonomy. Experts state there are three human needs necessary for
optimal learning: Competence (students’ need to understand their schoolwork),
relatedness (need for belonging, personal support and security in their school
relationships) and autonomy (need for latitude over decisions in school with
regard to the “initiation, inhibition, maintenance, and redirection of activities)
(Connell, 1990, p. 65, Deci, 1980; Deci & Ryan, 1987). These three may be
promoted through specific strategies to support self determination, such as:
amount of choice and positive feedback regarding competence. However, these
needs can also been undermined if the teacher plays an extremely authoritative
and strict role in the classroom. Some of the strategies that may lead to
negative effects would be: threats, deadlines, some forms of evaluation, and
surveillance.

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An additional point is the reinforcement provided to pupils, both from school and
home. This is closely related to the scaffold metaphor (Wood et al., 1976) to
describe the ideal guiding role of the adult. In an optimal instructional
interaction, the adult determines the child’s ‘region of sensitivity to instruction’
and, through graduated intervention, adjusts the scaffolding to the child’s
developing capabilities (Rogoff & Gardner, 1984, p.101). This reinforcement is
needed to help the learner achieve the academic goals proposed, however, it
should be provided progressively and then withdrawn whenever the student is
ready to work autonomously, otherwise, it may result into less optimal
scaffolding patterns.

Taking all into account, we may conclude that the factors that take part in the
meaning the student may attribute to learning, the interest the pupil may have
towards a task and the self confidence of competencies may determine
motivation and meaningful learning. In addition, these aspects may as well
influence the feeling of autonomy in the child. Therefore, the use of diverse
strategies and the facilitation of an appropriate learning environment are
needed in order to cope with the different ways of learning each individual has.
Besides, teacher’s actions in the classroom should be carefully chosen and
designed, focusing always in the development of motivational tasks. Finally, the
learning process should not, by any means, be exclusively focused in cognitive
knowledge, other important aspects such as social-cultural aspects and
emotional factors should be taken considered when planning and designing
teaching aims. Teachers must maintain a balance in order to bear with the
complexity and multilevel characteristics that may be found in a classroom; our
profession involves several roles and it takes a high degree of consistency. For
this reason, we constantly need to improve our professional skills, experience
and personal qualities to be able to succeed through our hard task as
educators.

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- Salonen P., Lehtinen E., and Olkinuora E. (1998).Expectations and beyond: The
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