Cluster 10 (Year 4)
85-95 Scale Score
* Reads short novels with
minimal illustration,
unfamiliar content,
settings and characters
and challenging and
unusual vocabulary. [1.1]
* Adjusts rate of reading
to suit text complexity and
reading purpose. [1.3]
* Uses more sophisticated
word identification
strategies to maintain
word and sentence level
fluency and create
meaning, e.g. use of
homonym, syllabification,
analogy. [1.3]
* Uses topic knowledge,
vocabulary knowledge and
context to read unknown
words when engaging
with subject texts. [3.3]
* Chooses a reading path
appropriate to the text
(literary, factual,
electronic) and navigates
multimodal texts
appropriate to the
purpose. [1.2]
* Interprets text by
inferring connections,
causes and consequences
during reading. [2.8]
* Responds to and
interprets texts by
discussing the differences
between literal and
inferred meanings. [2.10]
* Interprets the meaning
of a text by seeking further
information in other
sections of a text or in
different texts. [2.1]
* Identifies ways texts
present different
perspectives. [2.2]
Cluster 11 (Year 5)
95-105 Scale Score
* Reads for sustained
periods (20-30 minutes)
and sustains
understanding in longer
texts over time, e.g.
reading short novels over
several days. [1.1]
* Confidently engages
with a wide range of
authentic texts, e.g.
newspapers, TV
documentaries, websites
and chooses reading
pathways appropriate to
the purpose for
reading/viewing. [1.2]
* Monitors reading for
accuracy and meaning and
adjusts reading when
difficulties are
encountered, e.g. adjusts
speed, rereads and attends
to most important
information. [1.3]
* Manipulates multiple
texts that include a variety
of purposes and modes to
locate information for a
specific purpose. [2.8]
* Uses text navigation
skills such as skimming
and scanning to efficiently
locate specific information
in literary, factual and
electronic texts. [1.2]
* Analyses and evaluates
the ways that inference is
used in a text to build
understanding. [2.8]
* Re-examines sections of
texts for evidence to
support interpretations
and opinions. [1.2]
* Evaluates a personal
interpretation of a text by
critically re-examining
evidence within the text.
[2.3]
* Responds to themes
and issues evident in texts
that present different
perspectives on a given
Cluster 12 (Year 6)
105-115 Scale
Score
* Reads increasingly
longer novels and subject
texts using a range of
effective word
identification strategies to
maintain meaning. [1.1]
* Reads, views and uses a
wide variety of literary
and factual, print and
electronic texts with
increasing autonomy, e.g.
extended novels and
information texts, video
documentaries,
multimedia and
performance texts, graphic
material. [1.1]
* Reads more demanding
subject texts that have
increasing levels of
technicality and
abstraction. [1.3]
* Monitors reading for
accuracy and meaning by
selecting and using
appropriate higher order
word identification skills
such as knowledge of
word origins and analogy.
[1.3]
* Confidently adjusts the
chosen reading/viewing
pathway to achieve the
intended purpose in
literary and factual, print,
electronic and multimodal
texts. [1.2]
* Interprets and critically
analyses texts by
responding to inferred
meaning within a text and
justifying interpretations
using evidence. [2.10]
* Reinterprets ideas and
issues by creating
innovative personal
responses to ideas and
issues in literary texts
through oral, dramatic,
written and multimodal
presentations. [5.3]
* Critically analyses a
wide range of imaginative,
informative and
Cluster 13 (Year 7)
115-125 Scale
Score
* Reads for sustained
periods (30+ minutes) and
maintains meaning in
longer texts or across a
variety of texts on a single
topic over time. [1.1]
* Adjusts reading rate
appropriate to subject
content and purpose. [1.3]
* Applies technical
vocabulary and content
knowledge to create
meaning when reading
subject texts of increasing
abstraction. [1.1]
* Selects and reads texts
in ways that best meet
requirements of a task.
[1.1]
* Uses multiple reading
pathways in a range of
complex texts to locate
and assemble information.
[2.6]
* Applies and further
develops monitoring and
self-correcting strategies
in subject contexts. [1.3]
* Applies and further
develops fluent and
expressive reading skills
in subject contexts. [1.3]
* Applies comprehension
strategies and skills
including predicting,
visualising, summarising,
monitoring, questioning
and making connections,
to make meaning in
subject contexts. [2.2]
* Explores, analyses and
responds to ideas in
imaginative, informative
and persuasive texts. [2.8]
* Judges the value or
effectiveness of texts
according to their purpose
and subject matter. [2.9]
* Interprets and responds
Cluster 14 (Year 8)
125-135 Scale
Score
* Reads a wide range of
increasingly complex
subject texts for sustained
periods. [1.1]
* Selects suitable reading
pathways to engage with
new content. [1.2]
* Identifies multiple
purposes for which texts
are constructed. [2.8]
* Consolidates an
increasing repertoire of
comprehension strategies.
[2.1]
* Draws on widening
personal and textual
experience and knowledge
to make meaning of texts.
[2.2]
* Interprets texts that
present challenging ideas
and issues. [2.7]
* Makes bridging
inferences by linking
pronouns, synonyms and
other cohesive devices to
clarify and build meaning.
Cluster 15 (Year 9)
135-145 Scale
Score
* Independently selects
and reads an increasing
volume and range of
complex texts. [1.1]
* Strategically navigates
texts with speed and
efficiency. [1.3]
* Recognises, articulates
and reflects on
effectiveness of strategies
used to enhance
comprehension. [2.1]
* Makes reasoned
inferences based on
implicit information
(including causal and
temporal relationships).
[2.6]
* Explains how and why
alternative interpretations
of texts are developed by
particular groups of
people. [x]
* Reconsiders the
Cluster 16 (Year10) Element
145-155 Scale
Score
* Strategically navigates 1. Reading Texts
an extensive volume of
texts for a complex task.
Involves recognising
[1.2]
words automatically,
reading in a phrased and
fluent way and navigating
texts to create meaning.
* Examines different 2. Comprehension
perspectives on complex
issues within and between
texts. [1.1] Involves responding to,
* Explains how interpreting, analysing
interpretations of texts are and evaluating texts.
shaped by social, cultural
and/or historical contexts.
[x]
* Explores and examines
alternative interpretations
of texts. [2.10]
* Evaluates text accuracy
and credibility by
comparing texts on a
similar topic. [1.1]
* Analyses and evaluates
the relative importance of
key ideas and information
in a text to construct an
overview. [2.5]
* Responds to and
analyses texts by
discussing the ways
language structures and
features shape meaning.
[2.7]
* Responds to and
interprets texts by
integrating sources of
information in texts. [2.7]
* Demonstrates
understanding that words
can have different
meanings in different
contexts. [3.3]
* Demonstrates expanded
content vocabulary by
drawing on a combination
of known and new topic
knowledge. [3.2]
* Shows awareness that
there are a number of
ways to work out the
meaning of unknown
words. [3.3]
* Finds the meaning of
unknown/unfamiliar
words in reference
sources, e.g. dictionaries,
thesauruses. [3.4]
topic or different points of
view in a text. [1.1]
* Analyses texts to
explain and compare how
audience, purpose and
context influence texts.
[2.8]
* Critically analyses and
interprets a text to create
a summary that
demonstrates an
understanding of the
different views and values
represented. [2.5]
* Analyses and responds
to language and
grammatical techniques
used to influence an
audience. [4.1]
* Analyses and compares
how information and ideas
are presented in a range of
texts on the one topic.
[1.1]
* Makes effective word
choices in response to
purpose and audience
when creating texts. [4.1]
* Demonstrates
understanding of new
words for new concepts.
[3.1]
* Applies knowledge of
prefixes and suffixes to
understand the meanings
of new words and to
create new words. [3.1]
* Refines vocabulary
choice in response to
purpose and audience
when editing and
reviewing own and peer's
writing. [4.4]
persuasive texts in
different forms to
compare how ideas are
presented. [1.1]
* Explains how texts can
be interpreted from a
variety of perspectives by
discussing the ways that
different views and values
are presented. [2.7]
* Interprets texts by
identifying and discussing
multiple purposes within
the same text. [2.10]
* Interprets and analyses
several different texts on
one topic to present a
summary of information
and ideas that show an
understanding of the topic.
[2.5]
* Analyses texts to
compare how language
structures and features
are used to position
readers and viewers. [4.2]
* Analyses and evaluates
how written information
and visual images shape
meaning by comparing
texts on the same topic.
[2.3]
* Uses new words for
known concepts, e.g.
blissful for happy. [3.2]
* Increasingly uses
appropriate content
vocabulary when creating
spoken and written texts
about specific topics. [4.1]
* Accurately uses the
vocabulary associated
with digital technology
and electronic texts. [3.2]
* Draws on knowledge of
word origins to work out
meaning of new words.
[3.3]
to points of view in texts
with an awareness of
underlying social, cultural
and/or historical values.
[x]
* Identifies different
interpretations of and
perspectives in texts. [1.3]
* Analyses and evaluates
how texts are shaped by
purpose, audience and
context. [2.8]
* Identifies an authors
point of view with textual
evidence. [2.1]
* Draws on knowledge of
familiar types of text
relevant to subjects to
facilitate understanding of
new texts. [2.2]
* Identifies and infers the
meaning of imagery and
symbolism in spoken,
written, visual and
multimodal texts. [2.3]
* Analyses and evaluates
the impact of visual
images on the meaning of
texts. [2.3]
* Locates and synthesises
information to draw
conclusions from a variety
of sources. [2.5]
* Applies knowledge of
root words and word
origins to understand the
meaning of new subject
specific words. [2.2]
* Uses technical
vocabulary to explain a
complex concept or
phenomenon. [4.1]
* Selects appropriate
vocabulary in response to
context, purpose and
audience. [4.3]
* Uses a combination of
effective strategies to
work out the meaning of
unknown words. [3.1]
[4.2]
* Compares own opinions
and interpretations of
texts with others and * Critically evaluates the
justifies position with
textual evidence. [2.4]
* Compares and contrasts
different values and
opinions presented on
similar content. [2.9]
* Identifies ways in which
authors position the
audience to accept and usefulness. [2.2]
particular views and
perspectives. [2.10]
* Identifies and evaluates
ways in which authors use
language, structures and
textual features to achieve
particular purposes. [2.8]
* Identifies assumptions,
bias and stereotyping in
texts. [2.2]
* Evaluates the credibility
and reliability of textual
sources. [2.2]
* Applies knowledge of
non-English words to infer
meaning of unfamiliar
words. [3.1]
* Uses specialised
vocabulary for subject
specific concepts and
processes. [3.2]
* Selects vocabulary that
expresses feelings,
opinions and judgements.
[4.1]
* Demonstrates an
understanding of nuances
and subtleties in words of
similar meaning. [4.1]
* Demonstrates
deliberate choice of words
considering purpose,
audience, context, subject
knowledge and reference
resources to clarify
meaning. [4.1]
meaning of texts when
exposed to alternative
interpretations. [2.9]
ways in which authors use
and integrate language,
structures and textual
features to achieve
particular purposes. [2.2]
* Evaluates information
from a variety of sources
for credibility, authenticity
* Uses textual evidence to
explain how the audience
is positioned by particular
representations of people,
events, ideas or issues.
[2.4]
* Questions and
challenges information
and assumptions in texts.
[2.10]
* Critically analyses texts
for different perspectives
and bias. [2.10]
* Identifies ambiguities
and conflicting messages
in texts. [2.2]
* Critically compares
aspects and qualities of
texts. [1.1]
* Develops deep * Uses effective 3. Vocabulary
knowledge about word vocabulary to convey deep
knowledge
meaning in relation to knowledge and
context. [3.3] understanding. [4.4]
* Uses a range of * Uses and interprets Involves understanding
vocabulary for precision, complex, formal, the meaning of spoken and
clarity, cohesion and impersonal language in written words and using
effect. [3.4] academic texts. [2.1] words to create and
* Explores and uses * Builds an increasingly understand texts.
vocabulary to enhance comprehensive
meaning and create vocabulary. [3.2]
impact. [3.4] * Demonstrates self-
* Integrates a range of reliance in exploration and
word learning strategies application of word
to determine meaning of learning strategies. [4.4]
unfamiliar vocabulary.
[3.3]
* Draws ideas from
personal experiences,
other texts and research to
create imaginative,
informative and
persuasive texts for
different audiences. [4.5]
* Shows awareness of the
need to justify opinions
with supporting evidence.
[4.2]
* Locates resources and
accesses information
when planning. [2.7]
* Rereads and revises
text to check and improve
meaning, deleting
unnecessary information
or adding new
information. [4.5]
* Creates meaningful
sentences using a variety
of sentence beginnings,
including adverbial and
adjectival clauses to create
complex sentences. [4.2]
* Uses sentence and
simple punctuation
correctly. [4.2]
* Uses morphemic, visual,
phonic knowledge and
knowledge of prefixes and
suffixes to spell and edit
words. [3.1]
* Uses grammatical
features such as pronouns,
conjunctions and
connectives to accurately
link ideas and information.
[4.2]
* Consolidates
handwriting that is
consistent in form. [x]
* Writes coherent,
structured texts for a
range of purposes and
contexts. [4.5]
* Deliberately structures
language in a way that
creates more cohesive
imaginative, informative
and persuasive texts. [2.8]
* Shows awareness of
accurately acknowledging
sources in relevant texts.
[2.2]
* Refines writing in
response to feedback. [2.9]
* Selects appropriate
language for purpose, e.g.
descriptive, persuasive,
topic, technical, evaluative,
emotive, and colloquial.
[4.5]
* Uses topic sentences
and appropriately
organises main and
subordinate ideas. [4.3]
* Experiments with using
complex punctuation to
engage the reader and
achieve purpose. [4.5]
* Applies knowledge of
generalisations, meanings
of base words and word
parts (prefixes and
suffixes) to spell new
words. [3.1]
* Writes fluently with
appropriate size, slope
and spacing. [4.5]
* Uses word processing
programs confidently and
accurately, integrating
various functions. [x]
* Plans and designs more
complex multi modal
texts. [4.5]
* Writes sustained texts
for a wide range of
purposes. [4.5]
* Makes choices about the
type and form of texts,
including combinations of
forms and types, to suit
purpose and audience.
[4.5]
* Creates well planned,
extended texts that
include more complex and
detailed subject matter
and language features
such as nominalisation.
[4.5]
* Critically reflects on
effectiveness of
own/others writing and
seeks and responds to
feedback from others.
[2.9]
* Selects some
sophisticated and subtle
language features, literary
devices (e.g. irony,
humour) and grammatical
features (e.g. modality) to
engage and influence an
audience. [4.5]
* Makes sentence level
choices (e.g. short
sentences to build tension;
complex sentences to add
detail) using a variety of
sentence beginnings and
dependent clauses. [4.1]
* Uses a range of
punctuation to enhance
meaning and clarity,
including the use of
brackets to enclose
additional information,
quotation marks and
commas to indicate
clauses. [4.2]
* Integrates a range of
spelling strategies and
conventions to accurately
spell most words,
including words of many
syllables. [4.4]
* Uses visuals to extend
or clarify meaning, selects
from a range of media and
experiments creatively
with the production of
multimodal texts for
audience impact. [4.3]
* Creates well structured
and sequenced texts for
imaginative and
persuasive purposes. [4.5]
* Chooses aspects and
combinations of texts to
suit particular purposes
and audiences. [4.5]
* Creates and develops
ideas to explore a concept
or theme. [2.7]
* Uses paragraphing to
structure information and
partition events and ideas.
[2.8]
* Intentionally constructs
a variety of sentence types
including complex
sentences for effect. [4.2]
* Creates texts with
appropriate design, layout
and graphics. [4.5]
* Self-regulates spelling
and applies spelling
knowledge and strategies
to spell complex, subject
specific vocabulary. [4.4]
* Uses correct and
appropriate punctuation
to support meaning. [4.1]
* Uses a range of editing
strategies to improve
clarity and consistency of
style. [4.5]
* Uses legible, fluent
handwriting style. [x]
* Creates texts that
incorporate substantial,
elaborated ideas and
themes. [4.5]
* Uses, monitors and
reflects on planning
strategies to enhance the
effectiveness of a text.
[4.5]
* Tailors writing in
response to audience,
purpose and context. [4.5]
* Identifies and explores
different perspectives and
points of view. [2.10]
* Demonstrates
coherency by using a
variety of devices that
support readers to link
ideas and establish
relationships. [4.5]
* Selects sophisticated
grammatical structures to
enhance quality of writing.
[4.2]
* Creates and
manipulates texts that
integrate different modes.
[2.8]
* Makes deliberate
language choices for
greater precision and
technicality. [4.2]
* Uses a range of complex
punctuation to support
clarity and precision of
meaning. [4.2]
* Correctly references
resources. [x]
* Creates a range of
coherent texts for
imaginative, informative
and persuasive purposes.
[4.5]
* Explores challenging
ideas and ethical
dilemmas. [4.5]
* Uses sophisticated
grammatical features to
express complex ideas and
concepts. [4.2]
* Constructs texts that
have a variety of well
developed, effective
sentences for clarity and
coherence. [4.5]
* Manipulates language
features and structures to
suit context. [4.3]
* Applies knowledge of
word origins to spell
unknown words. [3.1]
* Uses complex
punctuation strategically
for effect. [4.2]
* Efficiently revises, edits
and proofreads texts to
enhance accuracy and
quality. [4.5]
* Creates sustained texts 4. Aspects of
that develop complex
writing
themes, concepts and
ideas. [4.5]
* Adapts and innovates Involves using spelling,
on familiar text forms to grammar, design features,
create distinctive texts. handwriting and digital
[4.3] tools to create texts for
* Constructs considered specific purposes.
arguments that explore
and analyse a range of
different perspectives on
complex and challenging
topics. [4.5]
* Strategically selects
from a range of resources
to create multimodal texts
that incorporate
sophisticated design
features. [5.3]
* Demonstrates control of
sophisticated language
features and structures.
[4.5]
* Cites references using
conventions appropriate
for purpose. [x]
* Provides detail and * Appropriately
supporting evidence in a questions the viewer idea
logical manner when put forward, and
speaking about opinions expresses disagreement
and ideas. [5.1] with sensitivity to the
* Engages an audience perspective of others. [5.1]
when making oral * Uses multimedia to
presentations by using enhance meaning when
strategies such as facial communicating ideas and
expression, gesture, pause information to others.
and repetition. [5.3] [5.3]
* Adjusts language used * Discusses the use of
for a similar purpose but different registers for
different, less familiar different purposes,
audiences, e.g. recount of audiences and contexts.
same event to [5.3]
peer/teacher/principal, * Logically develops
code-switching. [5.2] arguments and points of
* Listens attentively and view when planning more
responds appropriately to formal oral texts such as
spoken and multimodal speeches and debates.
texts that include [5.2]
unfamiliar ideas and * Uses active listening
information. [5.2] strategies such as
rephrasing ideas and
clarifying and repairing
breakdowns in
communication. [5.1]
* Effectively sustains a
point of view throughout a
discussion or debate,
drawing on a range of
sources to provide
justification. [5.1]
* Analyses, synthesises
and evaluates the views
and reasons put forward
by others. [5.3]
* Plans, rehearses and
makes adjustments to oral
presentations for specific
purposes and audiences.
[5.2]
* Refines and expands
active listening strategies
to include strategies such
as challenging others
ideas, providing feedback
and support for others.
[2.9]
* Listens attentively to
more lengthy and
challenging spoken and
multimodal texts to gather
and evaluate key
information. [5.3]
* Expresses opinions to
others with increasing
confidence. [5.3]
* Draws on oral
techniques for effective
presentations. [5.3]
* Makes appropriate use
of visual and multimodal
elements to support
presentations. [5.2]
* Reflects on and refines
own spoken language to
suit purpose, audience and
context. [5.2]
* Uses talk to explore
understandings of new
concepts, ideas and issues.
[5.1]
* Analyses and discusses
the structures and
features of spoken texts in
subject contexts. [5.2]
* Collaborates effectively
in pair and group work
when exploring subject
content, concepts and
ideas. [5.3]
* Asks relevant clarifying
questions. [5.1]
* Listens critically to
spoken texts to discuss
and support opinions
based on evidence in the
text. [5.3]
* Identifies opinions
offered by others,
proposes other relevant
viewpoints and extends
ideas in a constructive
manner. [5.1]
* Plans, rehearses and
revises oral presentations.
[5.2]
* Explains how a spoken
text has influenced their
thinking. [5.3]
* Adjusts delivery of
spoken texts in response
to audience reactions and
expectations. [5.3]
* Uses oral techniques
effectively to influence
audiences. [5.3]
* Uses formal language to
construct spoken texts for
particular purposes and
audiences. [5.3]
* Applies appropriate
protocols for participation
in group work and
discussions. [5.1]
* Explains and evaluates
the effects of a spoken text
on the audience. [5.3]
* Critically responds to
spoken texts using
evidence to justify
interpretations. [5.3]
* Engages and appeals to
audience by using
language devices. [5.3]
* Uses appropriate and
relevant terminology
when discussing issues,
ideas, opinions. [5.3]
* Synthesises arguments
in a discussion to confirm,
reject or alter personal
opinion. [5.3]
* Listens to and
interprets increasingly
complex spoken texts on
challenging issues and
abstract concepts. [5.3]
* Convincingly expresses 5. Aspects of
point of view to persuade
speaking
or influence audiences.
[5.3]
* Effectively selects Involves using oral
language to establish and language to communicate
develop relationship with with others in a range of
audience. [5.3] contexts, and listening
* Plans, researches, actively and attentively
rehearses and delivers when interacting with
oral presentations on others.
complex issues in a range While listening when
of contexts. [5.3] interacting orally with
* Creates coherent others is represented in
spoken texts for both this aspect, it is also an
informal and formal essential component in a
contexts for particular number of other aspects.
purposes and effects. [5.3]
* Chooses from a
repertoire of oral
techniques to engage
audience and enhance
message. [5.3]
* Recognises that
language can include or
marginalise groups of
people. [x]
* Evaluates self and peer
contributions and
participation in
collaborative activities.
[5.3]
* Listens to, identifies and
challenges attitudes,
biases and assumptions in
spoken texts. [5.3]
 Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum

Contents

Description and Implementation 1

Strategies for Improving Literacy:

1. Reading 4

2. Comprehension 12

3. Vocabulary 35

4. Writing 43

5. Speaking 56
Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Description

Description and Implementation of Document

How to use Ready-Reckoner:

The Ready Reckoner on the cover of this document is used to match ACER data
with an approximate literacy ability level/cluster along the NSW Literacy
Continuum, which relates to what a student is expected to achieve and display by
the end of the year (albeit, separate from syllabus outcomes). Search the
students data results for their scale score (scores are scaled to the year group of
the test and can thus be used across year groups) and line it up with the relevant
cluster to get an approximation of what the student is likely to be able to achieve.
Use classroom observations, student work and assessment data to better locate
students abilities with a greater degree of accuracy.
Once youve located where you believe a student is in terms of an individual
cluster or cluster dot point, click on the relevant dot point (if electronic copy) or
otherwise follow the reference code at the end of the dot point to its
corresponding strategy. The reference codes first number refers to the
continuum element and the second refers to the individual strategy within the
collection for that element (an x means the dot point does not match a strategy
since the skill can be taught directly). This strategy, based on academic and
experimental evidence, is best suited (out of the collection) to progress the
student to the next cluster in regards to that dot point and other associated dot
points. Many of these strategies will also improve the overall literacy of the
student.

Collection of Literacy Strategies:

The strategies compiled within this document are categorised based on which
literacy element they most improve (many improve multiple elements of
literacy). Each has a strong evidence base tested against one or multiple
experimental and/or quasi-experimental studies that are referenced at the end
of each strategy. They were further chosen to be accessible to whole-class
instruction as they benefit all skill levels in some degree, although there exists
the potential to implement these strategies individually. The strategies are
designed to take a portion of a lesson and be surrounded by and integrated into

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Description

content learning, rather than isolated from content or take up entire lessons
(although introducing a new strategy may take a full lesson).
Structurally, the strategies are laid out with an opening introduction to the
strategy and what it involves and which cluster this strategy relates to most
closely (this may also be mentioned in implementation suggestions). Following
this is either a step-by-step guide of conducting the strategy or a list of activates
based on this strategies with individual descriptions that informs you how to
actually apply and conduct the strategy. Following this are individual
suggestions for implementation in order to best conduct the strategy within your
classroom and subject with fidelity to the original studies from which effect sizes
were gauged. There are also suggestions located in this section about scaffolds
and considerations that may be necessary while conducting this strategy; such as
frequency of instruction, setting, materials, and possible relations to assessment.
Following this is the list of referencing informing the details and sections of the
strategy.

Suggestions for using this document as a whole:

As previously mentioned, it is also important that you use multiple data points
(atop of ACER results) in your assessment of student ability against clusters or
cluster dot points along that elements continuum. In association with this,
reassessing students frequently during implementation to document
improvement and their pathway along the continuum will greatly improve the
accuracy of this assessment and the effective use of this document.
It is strongly recommended that each of these strategies not be conducted
tokenistically (taught once and then left) but rather that students are frequently
given opportunities to practice the strategies learnt in class, with occasional
reminder instructions on how to conduct them. Further, it is important not to
overload the classroom with strategies located within this document but rather
spread them out reasonably and teach them as they apply to students. A
reasonable amount of time should be dedicated to the chosen strategy in
isolation before adding or moving onto others, however if the strategy builds off
one previously learnt, making connections is advised.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Description

The description of each strategy is designed for flexibility to content areas and
subjects. As such, most do not contain specific copies or examples of worksheets,
texts/sources or other materials. The strategy instead details the structure of the
lesson(s)/activity(s) and requires you to design or find your own resources
around your specific content area and subject. Every subject that involves
literacy can utilise this document.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Reading Strategies

Strategies for Improving Literacy

1. Reading Strategies

[1.1] In-Class Reading

Whilst the idea of inserting scheduled silent reading time into each class is far
from new, research has shown that simply giving students the time to read
without structure or use of that reading in-class has little to no effect on reading
ability (Block et al, 2009). It does show improvements, however, if applied to a
purpose and theory of effective styles of reading. Particularly, silent reading that
is Transactional, Conceptual or Individually Scaffolded significantly improves
students reading ability. These styles of silent reading are described below and
are based on (a) allowing students a choice of books to read for guided
independent reading practice, (b) the reading more than seven pages of
continuous text from fiction or non-fiction classroom books, and (c) 15-20min of
silent reading that contains one of the specific teacher actions below.
Effective Reading Styles:
Individually Scaffolded Reading (Personalised schema-based learning)
reading of this kind is set to the purpose of improving particular reading
and/or reading comprehension skills. The teacher chooses books relevant to
the skill they want students to practice and then designs scaffolds for student
to use whilst reading so that they may put reading, comprehension and/or
vocabulary strategies (such as those in this document) based on meaning
making to use on a book of their choosing from the class stores. These
scaffolds are most effective when personalised to each individual student and
when teachers monitor reading to provide assistance when needed and
ensure students are using the scaffolds when needed.
Conceptual Reading (Conceptual learning theory) Conceptual reading is
based on the theory that students comprehension increases when reading is
applied to a broader understanding of an overarching concept. This
somewhat resembles the unit of study although unit concepts are broken
down into smaller, more manageable themes related to the topic. In this style,

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Reading Strategies

teachers choose books to represent an array of concepts and students read

two or more texts of their choosing back to back that relate to a single
concept before moving onto a new concept. As such, texts are generally
shorter and able to be read in one or two sessions each. In doing so, students
draw meaning from multi-faceted, multi-research-based understandings of a
concept (Farnham-Diggory, l996)
Transactional Reading (Transactional learning theory) Similar to
conceptual reading, transactional reading is also based on a thematic topic
however does not split this topic up into various concepts. Instead, all texts
are related to the unit of study so that, regardless of which book the student
choses from the collection, each will be related by a central theme. Each
reading does not need to be multi-text, allowing some students to read
multiple shorter related texts and others to read larger related texts as they
chose and as fits the duration of the unit of study. The transaction comes
from a discussion during the last 5min of the reading time, where students
discuss (as a class) teacher-designed open-ended questions about insights
gleaned from their selected text about the topic, making connections between
reader, topic and text.

Suggestions for Implementation:

Each of these styles has different applications and suits different comprehension
and reading clusters more effectively than another (although each style can suit
all clusters as texts are student-selected from the teacher-collected array of
texts). Further, some fit more neatly into different subjects than others.
Individually Scaffolded Reading suits mostly English and is preferential to
struggling readers in lower clusters; Conceptual Reading suits most multi-text,
research or multi-source subjects as it can be easily turned into Inquiry-Based
Learning (Love et al, 2015) or a research project by opening texts, sources and
research to the internet, suiting higher clusters. Transactional Reading
represents a more familiar style around the unit of study within English and
works best for mid-range clusters. Again though, all styles show comprehension
and reading improvements across all clusters, some are simply more effective for
different groups.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Reading Strategies

In terms of general implementation, the teacher collects a wide array of

purposeful texts/sources for the students to choose from as they wish, either
arrayed by skills, concepts or thematic topics. The student then reads these
books continuously for 20min (except transactional which uses 5min of that time
for class discussion) either at the beginning or end of each lesson. The frequency
and time allocation to this strategy are what raise results from small
improvements to large improvements in comprehension and reading skills.

References:
Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic
processes in reading. In P. D. Pearson, R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal
(Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 341367). White Plains, NY:
Longman.
Block, C., Parris, S., Reed, K. Whiteley, C., & Cleveland, M. (2009). Instructional
approaches that significantly increase reading comprehension. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 101(2), 262-281.
Farnham-Diggory, S. (l996). Paradigms of knowledge and instruction. Review of
Educational Research, 64, 463477.
Guthrie, J. T. (2003, May). Increasing comprehension: Concept oriented reading
instruction. Paper presented at the research conference at the annual
convention of the International Reading Association, Orlando, Florida.
Love, B., Hodge, A., Corritore, C,. & Ernst, D. (2015). Inquiry-based learning and
the flipped classroom model. PRIMUS, 25(8), 745-762.
Rosenblatt, L. M. (1979). The reader, the text, the poem: The transaction theory
of the literary work. College English, 42, 223227.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Reading Strategies

[1.2] Discursive Viewing (Silent Discussions)

Discursive viewing bases itself strongly on communal methods of viewing and
consuming film and media, as well as technological models of peer-to-peer
communication. It takes the common comprehension Before, During and After
viewing questions frequented to companion worksheets, places it in a
technological and open space and allows students to discuss and divulge into
subjects of their choosing Before, After and even During the watching of a film,
video or piece of media. In this way, it makes use of the discussions often held
around and within reading, although for viewed materials. This allows for a live
and, importantly, silent discussion that students voluntarily or prescriptive enter
as the teacher wishes. The same technological processes and use of
comprehension questions can be extended to written texts.
Steps:
1. Design a series of comprehension questions around the film or media to be
answered before, during and after watching. These questions are best to be
open with Before questions centring on idea generated by titles, previewing
and big-picture predictions; During questions being about thematic concerns,
significant scenes throughout the film and small-picture predictions; and
After questions being largely evaluative such as discussions of meaning,
integrity and opinions. Questions should not be closed or require you to
pause the film.
2. Create a wiki or class discussion board/blog where students can log on and
answer these questions. Students should be able to view and comment on
other students answers, allowing for discussion threads to develop where
students agree or differ in their answers. Students must answer questions
individually as they come up before entering into others threads/answers.
3. Provide opportunity for students to access these questions before, during
and after the viewing of the film (respectively), particularly during. This is
result in some students silently engaging in discussions about questions of
interest as they desire while others view the film individually with no
disturbance from those silently discussing answers and opinions.

Suggestions for Implementation:

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Reading Strategies

Discussions of all kinds involving open and often opinion-based questions have
been shown to greatly improve comprehension of all texts types, especially when
applied before, during and after the consumption of the text (Berne & Clark,
2008). These discussions have also been shown to improve engagement with the
text when predictive, personalised and communal. Students need to be familiar
with and have adequate access to the chosen website/software used in order to
use this strategy, and teacher monitoring of live student answers is
recommended to avoid students digressing into unrelated or inappropriate
topics. Despite the required management, this strategy works well for all clusters
across all subjects were films are watched. If applied effectively, Discursive
Viewing will significantly increase reading and comprehension skills in regards
to film and media.

References:
Berne, J. I., & Clark, K. F. (2008). Focusing literature discussion groups on
comprehension strategies. The Reading Teacher, 62(1), 74 79.
Gannon, S. (2010). Teaching film. In S. Gannon, M. Howie & W. Sawyer (Eds.),
Charged with meaning: Re-viewing English (pp. 179-184). Putney,
Australia: Phoenix Education.
Jetnikoff, A. (2010). Using media technologies in English. In S. Gannon, M. Howie
& W. Sawyer (Eds.), Charged with meaning: Re-viewing English (pp. 307-
314). Putney, Australia: Phoenix Education.
Scammacca, N., Roberts, G., Vaugh, S., & Stuebing, K. (2015). A meta-analysis of
interventions for struggling readers in grades 412: 19802011. Journal
of Learning Disabilities, 48(4), 369-390.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Reading Strategies

[1.3] Paired Reading

Paired reading is the process of students grouping up and reading to one
another. What students are to read largely depends on the topic but may be self-
created texts or existing texts of any type. The reading students read openly to
their partner whom provides corrective feedback to improve speaking and
reading fluency during reading, engaging students in peer feedback. Stenhoff and
Lignugaris/Krafts (2007) review of paired reading and other forms of peer
tutoring found that this process is most effective when students are paired in
heterogeneous groups (such as a competent and struggling reader), students
train one another in reading and if students monitor one anothers reading
(2007). Students can further improve their learning if they wrote the
text/located the writing from research and discuss the story/passage after
reading.
Steps:
1. Arrange students into pairs. For greatest results, pair students to have
alternate reading and/or speaking abilities (high and low). If students are
roughly the same, pair students by other measures of difference to diversify
the perspectives within the group.
2. Have students create/locate passages for reading. Either through research,
selecting from a catalogue of texts or by having created the text before hand,
have students select relevant texts related to the topic themselves either for
themself or their partner to read aloud (both are effective). If students tend
to choose texts with lower reading levels than you (the teacher) would
prefer, consider creating lists of passages containing levels of your choosing.
3. One student reads the other corrects. One student takes the role of the reader
and reads aloud to the other. The other student takes the role of the listener
and will insert corrective feedback as the reader speaks (where necessary).
Examples of corrective feedback are helping the students pronunciation and
aiding with reading punctuation properly. Students may need some
instruction on how to provide feedback effectively.
4. Students review the passage/text read. Students now discuss and evaluate
the text/passage read for meaning and along comprehension/research
questions. This may be conducted like a peer tutorial, whereby the student

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Reading Strategies

who selected the text prepared some questions to ask the other; or
collaborative, whereby the teacher designs the review questions and the
students answer together. If the student created the text, this review should
focus on effective peer feedback on strengths and suggestions for
improvement.
5. Students swap roles and discuss again. This second discussion may extend
into a comparison of texts and a group evaluation of their own reading skills
(using positive language). This self-/group-evaluation may need to be
modelled and taught by the teacher prior to students trying it themselves.

Suggestions for Implementation:

Paired reading, like much wide reading strategies, is best performed by using a
variety of texts types of different difficulties across different themes, concepts
and topics (Wexler et al, 2010). This strategy requires a level of routine and
dedicated time frequently throughout a topic (roughly every second day or once
a week at least). It can, however, easily be applied to normal content instruction,
particularly collaborative research activities where student pairs may be able to
choose their subtopics in an Inquiry-Based Learning model (Love et al, .2015).
This strategy is helpful for all clusters to improve reading and speaking skills and
works best in mixed level classes so that skilled students may help struggling
students by taking a tutoring role. This strategy works across all subjects (baring
math).

References:
Love, B., Hodge, A., Corritore, C,. & Ernst, D. (2015). Inquiry-based learning and
the flipped classroom model. PRIMUS, 25(8), 745-762.
OConnor, R. E., White, A., & Swanson, H. L. (2007). Repeated reading versus
continuous reading: Influences on reading fluency and comprehension.
Exceptional Children, 74, 3146.
Stenhoff, D., & Lignugaris/Kraft, B. (2007). A review of the effects of peer
tutoring on students with mild disabilities in secondary settings.
Exceptional Children, 74, 831.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Reading Strategies

Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., & Denton, C. (2010). The efficacy of repeated
reading and wide reading practice for high school students with severe
reading disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research, 25(1), 2-10.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

2. Comprehension Strategies

[2.1] ART Reading Comprehension Strategy

The simple mnemonic of Ask, Read, Tell (ART) prompts students to conduct pre-,
during- and post-reading activities (respectively) on passages, texts and sources
for comprehension. Each step uses a particular set of comprehension and
reading skills with Ask generally engaging students in previewing and self-
questioning; Read engaging students having students monitor their
understanding and using vocabulary strategies; and Tell answers the Ask
questions and uses peer communication. As such, ART is multi-strategy
intervention that students can use at different degrees of specificity due to its
broad scope and ability to encompass other reading/vocabulary and
comprehension related strategies. Whilst ART already existed in an older form,
this form by McCallum et al (2011) adds peer discussions and found a significant
increase in student comprehension and engagement.
Steps:
A. Ask: Before reading the text, the student looks over the title of the passage,
asks what the topic is likely to be, considers what he or she already knows
about that topic, and generates 2 questions that the student hopes to answer
through reading.
R. Read: While reading, the student stops after each paragraph to query
whether he or she has adequately understood that section of the passage and,
if necessary, applies understanding fix-up skills such as figuring out the
meaning of unknown words (strategies for such are located in this
document).
T. Tell: After reading, the student attempts to answer the 2 questions posed
earlier based on the content just read. Finally, the student meets with a peer
partner, and participants tell each other what questions and answers they
produced before potentially having a larger peer discussion with the class.

Suggestions for Implementation:

As ART is a structure that allows for the insertion of other techniques around
previewing, self-questioning and comprehension/reading fixes (such as

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

vocabulary and meaning strategies) and effective peer feedback/discussion, ART

is a sound place to start from before going into those added strategies. In doing
so, it provides a strong foundation for the other strategies that functions
reasonably well on its own and can be seen in use by the filling out of sheets
scaffolded to ART as well as the peer discussions. This strategy is effective for all
clusters but has particular benefit to those in lower and mid-range clusters by
providing a foundation and structure for using itself and other integrated
strategies. If applied frequently with reasonable scaffolding during the early
stages (such as worksheets breaking down ART into questions and
considerations), students exhibit significant increases in their comprehension
and reading skills.

References:
Berne, J. I., & Clark, K. F. (2008). Focusing literature discussion groups on
comprehension strategies. The Reading Teacher, 62(1), 74 79.
Brown, R. (2008). The road not yet taken: A transactional strategies approach to
comprehension instruction. The Reading Teacher, 61, 538 547.
McCallum, S., Krohn, K., Skinner, C., Hilton-Prillhart, A., Hopkins, M., Waller, S., &
Polite, F. (2011). Improving reading comprehension of at-risk high-school
students: The ART of reading program. Psychology in the Schools, 48(1),
78-86.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.2] SQ3R Note-Taking and Self-Questioning Strategy

SQ3R is a strategy for taking extensive and effective notes. It functions off the
properties of preview, self-questioning and review in a particular explicit
manner that founds itself on titles, opening sentences, headings and other
indicators found in exposition and persuasive texts or sources. Alongside a
helpful revision tool, SQ3R is an effective means of instructing students to create
their own comprehension questions, a method found to significantly improve
comprehension and self-regulation (Joseph et al, 2016). The S section becomes
particularly important if students are predicting during their preview.
Steps:
S. Survey: preview the entire section Think about the chapter title,
introductory paragraphs, heading, subheadings, concluding paragraph(s),
study questions, pictorial information, etc. Ask and think about questions like
What is this chapter about? and What information does the author tell us
about this subject?
Q. Question: turn each heading into a question Draw a line down your paper
about a third of the way over. Write questions in the left column. Avoid
closed questions (questions that can be answered yes or no). Write questions
that begin with words such as Who, What, Where, Why, How, or
List, Name.
R. Read read the information under the fist heading to find the answer to the
questions. You may need to ask more questions. Other questions may need to
be revised. Write the answer to the questions.
R. Recite: cover the material you just read Ask yourself each question. Say the
answer or write the answer. Reread the information related to any questions
you cannot answer.
R. Review: go over your notes Try to recall the main points of the chapter.
Reread each main heading and think of details that were important. More
reviewing helps you to remember longer. Be sure to review an extra time
before a test or exam.

Suggestions for Implementation:

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

This strategy provides its own mnemonic scaffold meaning it requires little
prior-knowledge. It does, however, require significant and frequent practice
along with teacher and peer modelling for student to functionally understand
and utilise the strategy. In Nolans (1991) study, the process of gradual release of
responsibility (I do, We do, You do) was particularly productive in this manner.
This strategy is suitable for all clusters and subjects where comprehension and
note-taking are of concern, with result sizes showing strong improvements in
students who structure their notes and self-question in this way.

References:
Cantrell, S., Almasi, J., Carter, J., Rintamaa, M., & Madden, A. (2011). The impact of
a strategy-based intervention on the comprehension and strategy use of
struggling adolescent readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2),
257-280.
Joseph, L., Alber-Morgan, S., Cullen, J., & Rouse, C. (2016). The effects of self-
questioning on reading comprehension: A literature review. Reading &
Writing Quarterly, 32(2), 152-173, doi: 10.1080/10573569.2014.891449.
Nolan, T. (1991). Self-questioning and prediction: Combining metacognitive
strategies. Journal of Reading, 35(2), 132-138.

15
Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.3] SCENE Visual Imagery Strategy

This visual imagery strategy helps students draw mental pictures while reading.
Students who do this are actively interacting with the text, paying close attention
to the text, tying the text to their past learning, and putting the text in their own
words. As such it improves both comprehension and writing skills (if conducted
in reverse). Along with the other mnemonic strategies within this document,
teaching students the steps alongside the letters increases the retention of the
strategy and provides significant scaffolding.
Steps:
S. Search for picture words. Students are asked to read several sentences in a
text and look for words that elicit a picture in their mind.
C. Create or Change the scene. Students are asked to use the picture words to
imagine a scene.
E. Enter lots of details. Students are asked to add many details to the scene in
their minds from all the sentences using the picture words.
C. Name the parts. Students are asked to describe the pieces of the scene using
words.
E. Evaluate your picture. Students are asked to make sure theyve included
everything from the sentences.

Suggestions for Implementation:

SCENE is designed be conducted alongside descriptive texts and as such needs to
be learnt and applied to rich texts, particularly for the construction of a
scene/setting or character. Once learnt, it can also be a useful means of
creating/evaluating settings and characters if applied in reverse (starting at E
and progressing backwards) as students are able to evaluate an existing or self
created image and translate it into words. If conducted in regular order, research
displays significant increase in descriptive comprehension (particularly
important for lower clusters and stage 4 students) (Cantrell et al, 2011), whilst if
conducted in reverse order on self-created or pre-existing images (such as a
visual text for analysis), research displays increases in writing and analytical
comprehension skills (useful for all clusters) (ONeal, 2011). This strategy is

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

most relevant to English but also to historical sources and scientific diagrams, to
a small degree.

References:
Cantrell, S., Almasi, J., Carter, J., Rintamaa, M., & Madden, A. (2011). The impact of
a strategy-based intervention on the comprehension and strategy use of
struggling adolescent readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2),
257-280.
ONeil, K. (2011). Reading pictures: Developing visual literacy for greater
comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 65(3), 214-223.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.4] RAP Paraphrasing Strategy

This paraphrasing strategy helps students read a paragraph and identify the
main idea and supporting details. Students who do this are actively interacting
with the text, paying close attention to the text, and chunking the material from
the text into smaller parts, which facilitates recall. RAP, as compared to other
self-questioning methods, is designed to be much more summative and efficient
although results in less extensive note taking. Being paragraph based though,
there is a greater implicit repetition to the steps and notes can be analysed for
more overarching themes and meaning.
Steps:
R. Read a paragraph. Students are asked to read a paragraph silently all the
way through for familiarity.
A. Ask yourself, What were the main idea and details in this paragraph? The
students ask themselves questions to guide them to the main idea and details
displayed by the particular paragraph.
P. Put the main idea and details into your own words. Students write the main
idea and details in language that makes sense to them. They then repeat A
and P on each individual paragraph.

Suggestions for Implementation:

RAP is a strategy must relevant to students in lower-range clusters and a helpful
introduction to self-questioning and note taking techniques due to the explicit
nature of the steps. The mnemonic scaffold should be reduced over time as
students develop familiarity as the strategy can be simplified down to a simple
note-taking exercise of read and paraphrase important details. It is also
recommended that student review their notes at the end and establish whole-
text ideas evident in their paragraph based notes, making themes and concepts
more visible. This strategy will greatly improve the comprehension and research
skills of in lower cluster students if conducted frequently as a method of
analysis/note taking, however has reduced effects on students in the upper
clusters (year 8 and above).

References:

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

Cantrell, S., Almasi, J., Carter, J., Rintamaa, M., & Madden, A. (2011). The impact of
a strategy-based intervention on the comprehension and strategy use of
struggling adolescent readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2),
257-280.
Joseph, L., Alber-Morgan, S., Cullen, J., & Rouse, C. (2016). The effects of self-
questioning on reading comprehension: A literature review. Reading &
Writing Quarterly, 32(2), 152-173, doi: 10.1080/10573569.2014.891449.

19
Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.5] Extended Graphic Organising

Graphic organisation is a method of integrating written forms into visual formats
(such as graphs and mind maps) that presents information in a concise manner.
These are mentioned as strategies throughout this document, however they can
be extended into more visual representative forms that make use of images,
sketches or diagrams to extend graphs. These visuals not only shift the modal
form of texts, sources and historical narratives but also provide more self-
contained and comprehensive overviews than standard notes. Largely used in
history and English, visually representative, extended graphic organisers include
many forms and can be easily varied to the particular task. Some examples are
provided below, however these examples are far from exhaustive.
Story Maps Segmenting by a chosen feature of a text (eg. events, setting,
characters, connections, etc) and branching from title(s), sketch important
scenes/characteristics/etc with some labelling. A common example is
branches of when, what, where and who. The chosen style of maps varies
although most resemble mind maps spreading from centre or to the right
Graphic Timelines a simple spin on the normal timelines utilised in history
classes but with greater focus on a topic (can include narrative timeline)
whereby labels are supported by sketches/images
Campaign Trails Using an empty map, have students draw the trail of the
historical personality, indicating significant stops with a self designed set of
symbols and key and 1 or 2 notes on the stop
Character Evolution Charts Where characters or personages develop
overtime, have students draw different iterations of the character in a line
with different internal and external attributes to visually design change in a
way reminiscent of human evolution gradients

Suggestions for Implementation:

Both standard and extended graphic organisers are largely summative and
function to improve student comprehension of something in its entirety or at a
significant juncture (such as a chapters end or following the complication). They
are particularly useful for planning student works such as essays and narratives
as well as creative overviews and notes for full texts, large sources or historical

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

narratives/personalities. Further, graphic organisers and extended graphic

organisers can be used as prompting materials for extension activities such as
predictions, creative reconstructions or evaluative essays. They function across
all years and skill sets although have particularly strong effect sizes on students
in comprehension clusters lower than their current year (Berkeley, Scruggs &
Mastropieri, 2010).

References:
Berkeley, S., Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2010). Reading comprehension
instruction for students with learning disabilities, 19952006: A meta-
analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 31, 423436. doi:
10.1177/0741932509355988
Lapp, D., Fisher, D., & Johnson, K. (2010). Real-time teaching. Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 53(5), 423-426.
Williamson, P., Carnahan, C., Birri, N., & Swoboda, C. (2015). Improving
comprehension of narrative using character event maps for high school
students with autism spectrum disorder. The Journal of Special Education,
49(1), 28-38.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.6] Question-Answer Relationships (QAR)

QAR is a strategy of improving students understanding of what a question is
asking students to look for or think about and how that question should be
answered. It uses a Gradual Release of Responsibility model and therefor begins
with strong scaffolds that gradually reduce as students begin to master question
comprehension and using questions to formulate answers.
Steps:
1. I Do: Display a deconstruction of a question by focusing on question
elements and how they relate to answers. Elements generally include an
Action (the verb, how they answer), Subject (what they are writing about)
and perhaps Focusers (such as in 2 sentences or from Johns perspective)
2. We Do: Guide students in deconstructing a series of questions and then
propose answers to some (or each) as a group (text will need to be provided).
During this provide direct instructs for students to interact with each Q
element such as by having students explicitly name what they have to do
to/with the text (action) in each question (state, infer, discuss opinions or
provide a personal opinion), identifying the subject and any focusers.
3. You Do Together: Assign students to small groups to decode a series of
comprehension questions on a text, explicitly identify each question element
and how it influences their answer, and answer the questions accordingly.
Over time, gradually remove element scaffolds but continue to have students
breakdown Qs by underlining and/or labelling.
4. You Do Alone: Have students do the above individually.
Example: Providing evidence, describe why Ellen feels dread in Text A
Focuser Action Subject Focuser

Suggestions for Implementation:

The steps above are not designed to be isolated stages but rather it is
recommended that you occasionally return to different steps (particularly the
We Do step as it provides teacher modelling) and include the naming of question
types in normal questioning of texts. Further QAR works best when conducted
consistently and frequently over a topic whilst gradually reducing scaffolds until

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all students are proficient. This strategy works best for comprehension and
analysis literacy outcomes and is applicable to all clusters on the continuum.

References:
Asberg, J., & Sandberg, A. (2010). Discourse comprehension intervention for
high-functioning students with autism spectrum disorders: Preliminary
findings from a school based study. Journal of Research in Special
Educational Needs, 10, 9198. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-3802.2020.01147.x
Bishop, K. & Isbester, K. (2016). Teaching reading: Junior secondary ASD
students and the Australian curriculum: English. Literacy Learning, 24(3),
53-62.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.7] Reciprocal Teaching (Short Peer Tutorials)

This teaching strategy provides direct instruction and modelling by the teacher
to help them present a mini comprehension-based tutorial to the class. Each
student then takes on the role of the teacher, with the classroom teacher guiding
both the planning and operation of the student-designed and delivered tutorial.
Prior to students designing and presenting tutorials, the teacher introduces the
reoccurring activity type of the Peer Tutorial, provides a model of a simple
tutorial/lesson structure they may use (allow students to be reasonably creative
with activities) and then presents students with some considerations they
should have while planning their tutorial within the allocated time frame. The
teacher also reviews the student tutorial plan and offers feedback prior to the
student conducting the tutorial at the start of a days lesson/class. While the
student is conducting their tutorial, the teacher still manages the classrooms
behaviour but acts more as an assistant to the student in regards to content and
activities for the duration of the peer tutorial (15min is suggested).
Introduction Steps [by Teacher]:
1. Discuss how students can teach each other about a text or topic (through
passages of text/sources)
2. Teach types of questions to ask important, not literal details that can be
asked about the passage in relation to the larger text or topic (discussion
questions, open questions, evaluative questions, meaning questions, etc)
3. Teach students a simple critical evaluation scaffold for short passages (eg,
strengths and weaknesses, or a historical source mnemonic)
4. Teach rules for summarising information and lesson steps into a quick
presentation
5. Make the goals and required features of their peer tutorials crystal clear to
students
6. Explicitly model a simple comprehension tutorial structure that students can
build off or extend:
1. Establish how the tutorial will proceed, write shorthand of these steps
on board
2. Silent reading of passage by all (preferably prior to lesson through
student online folders, prior physical copy handouts or other means)

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

3. Ask Important questions (1 or 2) about the passage, call on students

to answer, evaluate answer
4. Share thinking about unclear or confusing parts of the passage, be
critical of the passage and allow students to add their own thoughts
about the passage
5. Deliver a short summary of the passage as it relates to the larger text
or topic (elements of this summary may have been discussed during
the question step)
6. Open yourself for teacher and peer feedback from lesson as well as
suggestions on how to extend the peer tutorial
Planning Steps during Planning Phase [For Student]:
1. Pick the topic that youll be covering in your tutorial (either self designed
topic or from teacher suggested list)
2. Pick the passage(s) from texts sources based on your chosen topic. Is it a
reasonable length that other students will be able to read it and also get
significant information from it about the topic?
3. Create a short evaluation and summary of the chosen passage(s). Will you be
delivering this as a presentation to the class (if so, whereabouts in the
tutorial) or will students derive their own summaries and evaluations in
some way?
4. Think of and write down open questions about the text/topic that you ask the
others to answer and discuss. Are these questions too large and need to be
broken down into multiple questions? Are these questions open and do they
allow a discussion to be had by the class? What kind of questions are they?
5. Summarise your tutorial steps and activities in a way you can present to the
class at the start of their tutorial. Are these based on any of the teacher-
modelled tutorials or are they different? Could another student follow the
lesson by reading the steps when lost?
6. Resolve any inconsistencies or issues with the teacher during planning to
ensure the lesson will function as intended and fit into the timeframe.
7. Prepare any necessary materials prior to delivering tutorial. Is there anything
I need to print, scan or project onto a screen? Will students have access to the
passages prior to or during the tutorial?

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

Suggestions for Implementation:

Reciprocal Teaching is an easily repeated strategy that works best in topics and
subjects where multiple texts, sources and subtopics exist (English areas of
study, history, music, geography, etc). This strategy is long term and needs
frequent use within a unit with each student getting a chance to conduct at least
one tutorial (and preferably another after theyve had some experience with
peer tutorials). After the introduction to the strategy and effective modelling are
provided, students should be provided a schedule (and a list of topics if possible)
on when (and perhaps what) theyll deliver their mini-lesson, with reasonable
time to plan their lesson and present that lesson plan to the teacher for
evaluation prior to conducting the lesson to the class. The teacher may need to
model any activity that needs improvement as students present their lessons; or
add models of more complex or creative lesson types/structures to increase
student engagement with the task (there are numerous strategies in this
document that may be useful).
If done effectively, numerous studies have shown significant increases in
comprehension skills, self-regulation, speaking skills and engagement across all
clusters and subjects.

References:
Palinscar, A. (1984). The quest for meaning from expository text: A teacher-
guided journey. In D. Gerald, L. Roehler & J. Mason (eds), Comprehension
instruction-perspectives and suggestions (pp. 251-64). New York:
Longman Inc.
Schnemann, N., Sprer, N & Brunstein, J. (2013). Integrating self-regulation in
whole-class reciprocal teaching: A moderatormediator analysis of
incremental effects on fifth graders reading comprehension.
Contemporary Education Psychology, 38, 289-305.
Tarchi, C., & Pinto, G. (2014). Reciprocal teaching: Analysing interactive
dynamics in the co-construction of a text's meaning. The Journal of
Educational Research, 109(5), 518-530.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

Urquhart, V., & Frazee, D. (2012). Teaching reading in the content areas: If not me,
then who. Alexandra, United States: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.8] Text Structure Instruction (TSI)

Text structure instructions involve the often-explicit teaching of overview
metalanguage/terminology to students as a means of improving wider
understanding and chunk large texts into more manageable sections. There are
two common subjects that can be approached when discussing structure, both
with the particular merits to different units or teaching areas; Form Structure
and Text-Type Structure. Text-type structure is the most common structural
instruction taught to students across subjects (for instance, a experiment report
is comprised of the aim, method, results and conclusion, and a short story is
made up of the exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and denouement)
whilst Form structures are far less common and focus on common overall
structures across different forms (written forms can include narratives,
expositions and persuasives). Whilst the teaching of particular text-types is
rather specific and relevant to individual teaching units, Form structure
instructions are more generic in use and as such, an example of possible methods
of Form Structure Instructions are presented below. Exposition is used as the
example for as a form that often escapes explicit teaching.
Modelled Labelling After discussing the different structures within a form
(Expositions structures include description, sequence, cause/effect,
compare/contrast, and problem/solution) with students, label different short
passages belonging to each structure, and discuss with students the purpose
of each structure as well as if one is more effective than another for a
particular use. Repeat the labelling process with reduced responsibility by
having students label different passages as a class, in small groups and
individually.
Graphic Organisers Discussed elsewhere in this document, graphic
organisers are tools for making overviews containing both written and
pictorial materials for added student interaction. For instance, a simple mind-
map starting from Exposition Texts would then branch to each structure
alongside related symbols and images
Selected Text (Re)Creation Have students compose short texts utilising a
particular structure. This is most easily achieved through different text type
questions that require a particular structure like essays using compare and

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contrast or describe; or reports on cause and effect, or problem and solution.

It would also be useful to have students alter the structure of an existing text
to another and evaluate how this alters meaning making or effectiveness.
Recurring Questions As part of normal questioning and discussions on a
text, insert questions about form, the texts purpose (to entertain, inform or
persuade), the specific structure used as well as an evaluation on the
usefulness of that structure.

Suggestions for Implementation:

A meta-study of different structural instructions found that consistent
improvement of structural understanding through TSIs greatly improves
outcomes of creating and analysing different forms as well as improves student
navigation of the differences between texts; improving comprehension and
writing skills. Specifically, they allow students ease in accessing/organising
meaning from/in a text, locating and understanding the function of different
components, and making acute and appropriate decisions on how to present
their work. These instructions are best conducted consistently as part of normal
content and most useful as regular points of analysis of texts and focuses for how
to answer certain questions or how to create particular texts. Whether to focus
on text-type or form structures depends greatly on the unit and subject, with
single text units (such as a novel study in English) benefiting most from text-type
structural instruction and broader area of studies (such as a look at a activism
across multiple persuasive texts in history or English) benefiting most from
form-type structural instruction.

References:
Hebert, M., Bohaty, J., & Nelson, R. (2016). The effects of text structure
instruction on expository reading comprehension: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(5), 609-629.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.9] Peer Review/Feedback

Whilst the majority of studies done on peer review within lessons are based on
tertiary contexts, numerous studies have found them to greatly improve all
aspects of literacy, but particularly significant comprehension and writing
improvements (eg. Graham & Hebert, 2011; Williams, 2016). The process
involves the modelling of effective, constructive feedback (Outlining strengths
and suggesting ways to improve) and creating a collaborative environment
whereby students are able to provide feedback on each others works and then
students are provided opportunities to implement the suggestions left by the
teacher and peers through editing or application. In doing so, students
collaboratively extend the feedback provided teachers in a meaningful way
which directly utilises Vygotskys Social Learning Theory (Vygostky, 1978) and
Assessment for Learning (Baas et al, 2011). The following are a few structures
found to positively encourage peer-to-peer feedback:
Public Review/Opening for comments Have students present and/or
discuss their work or potential answers to an open question. Following this,
allow students an opportunity to engage with the students work/answer by
presenting constructive feedback and comments (such as, I enjoyed the easy
to follow structure of your paragraph or Your argument needs to be better
sustained throughout the paragraph after the thesis statement). A simple way
to open this up is to ask the room, Any feedback on [students] work?. This
can either be used in replacement of teacher feedback (if peer feedback is
comprehensive) or in addition to it (if so, teacher feedback follows peer
feedback)
Online Feedback (Wikis, discussion boards, Google docs, etc) Using a
program that allows students to view and comment on each others works. In
early stages of using this format to collaborative work, require students to
provide constructive feedback to anothers work as part of their own
submission.
Conferencing (Dedicated Review Stages) An effective proponent of
assessment planning, drafting and editing, have students periodically present
their work to either a self-chosen or teacher-chosen peer (different peer each
time) for a detailed review and discussion of their work. If done in a small

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class, this can also be achieved as a regular and scheduled public review. To
increase effectiveness, students should be encouraged to use a review
scaffold that outlines how to effective provide feedback and editors notes.
Paired Learning Similar to those above, however students have a single
partner whose work they regularly review and by whom their own work is
regularly reviewed. Students collaboratively decide when a draft is ready for
review and edit drafts in relation to their partners feedback. After an allotted
time, students discuss their partners work to the group (not their own) to
display how well they know each others works as editors and ensure
students are progressing effectively.

Suggestions for Implementation:

Peer feedback can be utilised in almost all larger compositions/works (Essays,
research projects, narratives, art piece, music piece, etc) across almost all
subjects. To effectively implement it, introductory lessons need to be placed to
teach students how to give useful constructive feedback whilst respecting the
work/composition. Once students understand and respect the requirements
however, only minor scaffolds (such as worksheets) are necessary for them to
function effectively. If applied frequently as a regular part of composing (with an
emphasis on using it to learn and/or edit), students are shown to experience
significant improvements to comprehension and writing skills.

References:
Baas, D., Castelijns, J., Vermeulen, M., Martens, R., & Segers, M. (2011). The
relation between Assessment for Learning and elementary students
cognitive and metacognitive strategy use. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 85(1), 33-46.
Forrer, D., Wyant, N., & Smith, M. (2015). Improving writing through the peer-to-
peer evaluation process. Journal of Business & Economics Research, 13(3),
137-144.
Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2011). Writing to read: A meta-analysis of the impact of
writing and writing Instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review,
81(4), 710-785.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: Development of higher psychological

processes. Harvard, United States: Harvard University Press.
Williams, L. (2016). Fostering collaboration. In E. Boas & S. Grazis (Eds.), The
artful English teacher (pp. 21-39). Adelaide: Australian Association for the
Teaching of English.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

[2.10] ASKIT Self-Questioning Strategy

This self-questioning strategy helps students learn to ask questions about a text
and predict answers. Students who do this are actively interacting with the text,
paying close attention to the text, questioning their goals for reading the text,
and articulating what they read. In doing so, they are creating a self-regulated
method of question creating/answers in the interests of increased
comprehension and reading. ASKIT further imitates the natural process of
higher-order thinking (being critical and asking questions of what you read as
you read) in an explicit and structured way.
Steps:
A. Attend to clues as you read Students are asked to identify anything they
question as they read a text. They are to look for clues to answer their
questions as they read.
S. Say some questions Students create questions that havent been answered
yet. They might do this by turning headings into question format using who,
what, where, why and/or how.
K. Keep predictions in mind Students guess answers to their questions
before looking for answers specifically after the initial read-through.
I. Identify the answers The students now find the answers in the text by
locating related passages or areas that provide necessary information.
T. Talk about the answers The students then discuss how closely their
prediction matches the answer with either the teacher or a partner. They
further discuss the text for the questions it left and varied interpretations.

Suggestions for Implementation:

ASKIT and self-questioning strategies have been found to greatly improve
student comprehension of texts and research, as well as having a positive effect
on students understanding of question-answer relationships through the
creation of questions. It is also shown to improve student self-regulation if
applied regularly and is particularly useful as a common part of regular
comprehension prior to the display of teacher-written comprehension questions.
Indeed, if student become familiar and self-regulated with the process, students
have been shown to increasingly take effective notes from texts that cover all

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Comprehension Strategies

significant details and ask such is a useful strategy for improving research skills
across all subjects as well as text-comprehension in English and History. ASKIT is
most beneficial to mid- and upper-range clusters.

References:
Cantrell, S., Almasi, J., Carter, J., Rintamaa, M., & Madden, A. (2011). The impact of
a strategy-based intervention on the comprehension and strategy use of
struggling adolescent readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2),
257-280.
Joseph, L., Alber-Morgan, S., Cullen, J., & Rouse, C. (2016). The effects of self-
questioning on reading comprehension: A literature review. Reading &
Writing Quarterly, 32(2), 152-173, doi: 10.1080/10573569.2014.891449.
Nolan, T. (1991). Self-questioning and prediction: Combining metacognitive
strategies. Journal of Reading, 35(2), 132-138.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Vocabulary Strategies

3. Vocabulary Strategies

[3.1] LINCS Vocabulary Strategy

LINCS is a strategy for learning and understanding new and unfamiliar words
and terms. It utilises an effective, multimodal method of breaking down and
translating these unknown terms that uses cognitive skills, background
knowledge, and visual representation to create a self-regulated self-translating
method. Amongst a large catalogue of morphemic/affix word strategies, LINCS is
the most widely used amongst scientific studies of vocabulary strategies.
Steps:
L. List the Parts (affixes) List the parts of words that create the definition of
the word along with the definition (eg. Divergent = Di to divide or separate,
Verge moving on/off a certain course, -ent Adjective. Therefor, something
is Divergent if it separates from the common or usual course/path). Note: A
portion of a lesson may need to be dedicated to help students distinguish
between the different affixes/morphemes within a word so may break words
apart for meaning rather than pronunciation (ie. Affixes and morphemes vs
phonics & syllables)
I. Identify a Reminding Word Think of a familiar word that sounds like the
new word and write it below (eg. Dive)
N. Note a LINCing Story Make up a short story about the meaning of the new
word that includes the reminding word (eg. I dived from the board into the
water)
C. Create a LINCing Picture Create an image that represents the story and
sketch it below word.
S. Self-Test Apply steps either forwards or backwards to an unfamiliar word
and test against dictionary

Suggestions for Implementation:

The LINCS method is useful across all subjects that integrate meta-
language/terminology into their teaching (a science term is exampled above) as
well as those that require reading of sources/texts that often contain unfamiliar
words (such as history, law, English, etc). If possible, this strategy should be

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Vocabulary Strategies

taught in conjunction with these texts/sources in order to allow students

sufficient practice with the method, greatly improving their vocabulary and
reading skills. This strategy can be scaffolded to all literacy clusters.

References:
Harris, M., Schumaker, J., & Deshler, D. (2011). The effects of strategic
morphological analysis instruction on the vocabulary performance of
secondary students with and without disabilities. Learning Disability
Quarterly, 34(1), 17-33.
Helman, A., Calhoon, M., & Kern, L. (2015). Improving science vocabulary of high
school English language learners with reading disabilities. Learning
Disability Quarterly, 38(1), 40-52.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Vocabulary Strategies

[3.2] Integrated Vocabulary-Rich Environment (IVRE)

Rather than a specific activity or action, IVRE is a process of environment and
self(teacher) used vocabulary. Simply put, the intention is to surround students
with multiple modes of word consumption whilst in the class in order to witness
model use and practice the use themselves of meaningful, complex vocabulary. In
doing so, students are passively surrounded and consuming models of effective
vocabulary and actively encouraged to utilise that vocabulary. Below are
examples of some of the ways to create an IVRE:
Integrated Modelled Vocabulary A method generally used for introducing
new terminology, the teacher gradually replaces more mundane words with
more suitable and complex synonyms. A common example in a music class is
telling students to Speed it up, up the tempo and from then on using tempo
in replacement of speed for music. For non-terminology words, a common
English example is describing a character as mean by saying they are
malicious, cruel, vindictive or contemptible; depending on which word best
describes the character.
Simulated Contextual Use Helpful for developing contextualised styles of
language (such as formal or informal), students engage with various
contextual vocabularies/registers in simulated conditions such as plays,
reading-aloud, discussions, in-character conversations/panels. This is a
particularly favoured method of language classes or teaching Shakespeare
(such as trading Shakespearian insults)
Sculptures and Posters Particularly useful for terminology and character
charts, students create posters or sculptures that visually display and
describe the term or characters (such as a table of characters with some
vocabulary-rich descriptions) and place them around the room. Colour,
visuals and adequate text size increase students passive engagement with
these posters

Suggestions for Implementation:

Environmental interventions function best when they are seamlessly integrated
into the day-to-day goings-on of the classroom so as to be passively consumed by
the students. Following this integration, students need to be provided frequent

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Vocabulary Strategies

and recurring opportunities to use the new vocabulary in meaningful ways that
can occur naturally in class-as-usual activities by simply encouraging the use of
the vocabulary with which theyve been engaging with. Even small changes such
as increasing the complexity of the language used by the teacher have been
shown to greatly improve student vocabulary and speaking skills.

References:
McKoeown, M., & Beck, I. (2004). Direct and rich vocabulary instruction. In J.
Baumann & E. Kameenui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to
practice (pp. 13-27). New York: Guilford.
Smith, T. (2008). Teaching vocabulary expeditiously: Three keys to improving
vocabulary instruction. English Journal, 97(4), 20-25.

38
Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Vocabulary Strategies

[3.3] Clue Word Strategy (CWS)

Clue Word Strategy is a combined method of interpreting new and unfamiliar
words when presented within a sentence. It mixes a context analysis method
with the LINCS strategy (described in detail within this document) to analyse the
word for meaning from context and morphemic clues. Through the combination
of these methods, Helman, Calhoon and Kern (2015) found a greater versatility
and effect size of the intervention than either Context Clues or LINCS alone,
although found a greater need for explicit instruction due to the lack of a
mnemonic device.
Steps:
1. Read a sentence with a target vocabulary word
2. Look for context clues that surround the unknown word
3. Re-read the sentence
4. Write the target vocabulary word
5. Break the vocabulary word into its morphemes (i.e., prefix, suffix, root)
6. Write the meaning of each morpheme
7. Predict and write the meaning of the targeted science word
8. Check the dictionary or the answer key sheet for the correct meaning

Suggestions for Implementation:

This strategy utilises a Gradual Release of Responsibility model of instruction
beginning with teacher demonstration to teacher-led practice, guided practice
and independent; gradually moving towards student self-regulation of the
strategy. The method requires greater explicit instruction than the separate
methods that combine to form CWS due to the many steps and is particularly
benefited from graphic organisers (such as a poster) to visually demonstrate the
process to the students. If conducted with a gradual release of scaffolds (such as
the organiser or teacher instruction), students present significantly higher
reading outcomes and improved vocabulary understanding and use within a
meaningful context.

References:

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Vocabulary Strategies

Harris, M., Schumaker, J., & Deshler, D. (2011). The effects of strategic
morphological analysis instruction on the vocabulary performance of
secondary students with and without disabilities. Learning Disability
Quarterly, 34(1), 17-33.
Helman, A., Calhoon, M., & Kern, L. (2015). Improving science vocabulary of high
school English language learners with reading disabilities. Learning
Disability Quarterly, 38(1), 40-52.

40
Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Vocabulary Strategies

[3.4] DISSECT Word Identification Strategy

The word identification strategy helps students learn how to decode
multisyllabic words. As students need to be able to break apart longer words to
aid in their comprehension, DISSECT provides a simplified method of using
context and morphemes to determine meaning and use. DISSECT differentiates
itself from other similar strategies in this document by having a dual focus on
meaning and pronunciation.
Steps:
D. Discover the context. Students are asked to decode the word as best as they
can and read to the end of the sentence to discern the context.
I. Isolate the prefix. Students are asked to look at the beginning of the word to
see if they know the prefix and can pronounce it.
S. Separate the suffix. Students are asked to look at the ending of the work to
see if they know the suffix and can pronounce it.
S. Say the stem. Students are asked to pronounce the stem/root word. If they
cannot say the stem after isolating the beginning and ending, they move to
the next step.
E. Examine the stem. Students are asked to use the rule of twos and threes: If
a stem begins with a vowel, separate the first two letters to pronounce, or if a
stem begins with a consonant, separate the first three letters to pronounce
C. Check with someone. If the students cannot pronounce the word after these
steps, they are told to ask someone else for help.
T. Try the dictionary. If they need additional help, they should find the word in
the dictionary.

Suggestions for Implementation:

DISSECT is recommended for students who struggle with pronouncing multi-
syllabic words and also struggle to determine their meaning with or without
contextual cues. This strategy requires some level of pre-lessons or scaffolding
around what is an affix and how to derive meaning from it, and the
pronunciation rule of twos and threes described in the steps. Once students
understand these processes, regular opportunity to use the strategy letter by
letter on new and unfamiliar words will result in increased vocabulary skills,

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Vocabulary Strategies

particularly around verbal/speaking vocabulary. DISSECT is useful across all

clusters (as later clusters will likely only need the context clue in step D) and
subjects.

References:
Cantrell, S., Almasi, J., Carter, J., Rintamaa, M., & Madden, A. (2011). The impact of
a strategy-based intervention on the comprehension and strategy use of
struggling adolescent readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2),
257-280.
Pearson, D., & Corley, W. (2002). A word identification strategy for middle and
high school students. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 6(2), 73-78.

42
Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Speaking Strategies

4. Writing Strategies

[4.1] PENS (MARK) Sentence Writing Strategy

This sentence writing strategy helps students learn to write four types of
sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compoundcomplex. Sentence
writing is the foundation of all writing clusters and the main process students
struggle with in terms of writing (Nevo, Brande & Shaul, 2016). This strategy is
merged between the PENS strategy and MARK strategy, with the S encapsulating
all of MARK. The PENS section is a step by step student guide to planning a
sentence by making what each kind of sentence requires explicit, while the
MARK section is an explicit self check of the constructed sentence.
Steps:
P. Pick a formula. Students pick one of the formulas to create a sentence
(Simple, compound, complex or compound-complex).
E. Explore words to fit the formula. Students are asked to think about the
words they would use to fit the formula they picked. Some questions students
might ask are as follows; Simple: Whats the subject, what is it doing and
what is it doing it to? Compound: whats the conjunction and which is the
primary and subordinate clause? Complex: Simple plus where, why and/or
how?
N. Note the words. The students write down the words separately before
formulating the sentence.
S. Search and check. There are several parts to the search and check step;
these parts have their own mnemonic, MARK:
M. Mark out imposters. Students are to cross out the words in the sentence
that look like they could be the subject or verb but are not. For example,
they would mark out a preposition or an infinitive that does not belong.
A. Ask, Is there a verb? Students are to check their sentence and find the
verb.
R. Root out the subject. The students are asked to check their sentence and
find the subject.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Speaking Strategies

K. Key in on the beginning, ending, and meaning. Students are asked to

check for capitalization and punctuation. They are also to check that the
sentence is logical when it is read.

Suggestions for Implementation:

This sentence writing strategy provides the foundation of many others that
instruct student to extend sentences (conjunctions, paragraph design, etc) and as
such should be taught fairly early. As part of instructing this strategy, students
need to be taught the four different sentence/clause types mentioned above,
particularly if they are taught one at a time using the mnemonic PENS MARK as a
constant scaffold in learning and constructing different kinds of sentences.
Students also need to understand basic syntax and the difference between
different types of words (noun, finite and infinitive verbs, preposition, article,
etc). As significant elementary prior learning is required for the success of this
strategy, this strategy is recommended for mid-range writing clusters, however
will function well for lower-range with scaffolding and added learning. If
conducted in this way, students will experience significant increases in their
writing skills and control of language for purpose/audience.

References:
Cantrell, S., Almasi, J., Carter, J., Rintamaa, M., & Madden, A. (2011). The impact of
a strategy-based intervention on the comprehension and strategy use of
struggling adolescent readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2),
257-280.
Nevo, E., Brande, S., & Shaul, S. (2016). The effects of two different reading
acceleration training programs on improving reading skills of second
graders, Reading Psychology, 37(4), 533-546, doi:
10.1080/02702711.2015.1066911.

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[4.2] Explicit Sentence-Based Instruction (ESBI)

Sentence-Based Instructions vary greatly in the specific topics they cover
(primary clauses, subordinate conjunctions, syntax, paraphrasing, etc) but will
largely focus on the foundational skills of a students writing. They involve
zoomed in attention to student writing gaps and providing explicit scaffolding
for effective writing at the sentence level rather than the word (synonyms and
spelling, etc) or paragraph (structure, tone, etc) levels.
The example below displays one strategy at different degrees of scaffolding for
instruction on using subordinate conjunctions (but, although, so, etc) expand on
a primary clause:
1. Provide exposition on the use of conjunctions to expand on a primary clause
or sentence.
Caesar was an effective leader, so he led many campaigns
2. Provide students with the primary clause and conjunction and have them
create the expansion
Caesar was an effective leader, but ______________________________
Caesar was an effective leader because _________________________
3. Repeat the above but in inverted form (conjunction, expansion, primary)
Although _________________________, Caesar was an effective leader
4. Present students with a topic sentence and ask what follow up sentence
(beginning with a conjunction) could they make to expand on or add
specificity to the topic sentence [no longer provide conjunction]
Caesar was an effective leader. [However,] ____________________

Suggestions for Implementation:

Whilst this form of instruction is commonly avoided at high school levels and
viewed as too lower-order, meta-analyses suggest that students who have
sentence-based gaps within their fundamental writing skills (such as those
covered by sentence-based instructions) will have significant issues across
multiple greater scale skills (such as narrative or exposition writing) (Graham &
Perin, 2007; Graham & Hebert, 2011). Further, research by Panero (2016) found
significant writing outcome improvements in students who received explicit and
frequent instructions on these gaps when conducted within the context on

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subject content (Graham & Hebert, 2011). Therefor, implementation should be

long term with a gradual release of scaffolds, explicit (as displayed above) and
targeted towards specific content understanding, rather than as an abstracted or
self-contained exercise.

References:
Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2011). Writing to read: A meta-analysis of the impact of
writing and writing Instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review,
81(4), 710-785.
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve
writing of adolescents in middle and high schools. Washington, DC: Alliance
for Excellent Education.
Panero, N. (2016). Progressive mastery through deliberate practice: A promising
approach for improving writing. Improving Schools, 19(3), 229-245.

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[4.3] Creative Reconstructions

Creative reconstructions are a particularly favoured and common teaching
strategy amongst English teachers. They involve students adapting or recreating
a text to a prediction, character/setting/tone change, shift in mode or some other
personalisation or change. They possess particular use both as creative writing
exercise but also a powerful connection with the text, requiring students to first
comprehend the text (or feature of the text) and then reconstruct it. As creative
reconstructions are relatively singular in their process, the following is a list of
potential evidence-based reconstructions that one could have students conduct.
This list is by no mean exhaustive or prescriptive.
Before reading the text, have students: predict and write their interpretation
of the opening of the text based on the title in a short story or screenplay
After reading a portion of the text, have students: predict and write what they
believe happens next (following style of author), reconstruct a character by
shifting personality or physical feature, recreate a scene in a different mode
or text type
After finishing the text, have students: reconstruct the text with a different
tone, reconstruct the most significant (or a selected) scene of the text and
comment on the changes it makes to the plot, insert a new character of their
creation and comment on how it affects the plot thereafter, recreate the
opening of the text in a new setting (such as modern day)

Suggestions for Implementation:

This strategy is mostly restricted to use within the subject of English although
reconstructing sources to different contexts can produce useful discussions. This
strategy is both effective in improving comprehension and reading skills but
mostly focuses on writing with considerably malleability to a variety of topics
and timeframes. Depending on the type of reconstruction you set and your
students, some scaffolding may be necessary (such as providing an outline),
however the general process is useful for all literacy clusters.

References:

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Speaking Strategies

Adams, P. (2010). Imaginative re-creations of literature. In S. Gannon, M. Howie,

& W. Sawyer (Eds.), Charged with meaning: Re-viewing English (pp. 53-
68). Putney, Australia: Phoenix Education.
Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2011). Writing to read: A meta-analysis of the impact of
writing and writing Instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review,
81(4), 710-785.

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[4.4] Grapheme-Based Spelling Strategy (Breaking Method)

This spelling strategy relies heavily on students have reasonable understanding
of phonics (such as that a hard E can be spelled ee, ea, ei/ie or ee). A grapheme
(sometimes referred to as a phonogram) is small distinguishable component of a
written word that affects pronunciation by representing a particular phoneme
(such as ght, which represent the phoneme of a soft t). Using these parts of
words, students can utilise prior learning about phonics to determine how to
spell self-broken words. This strategy is used in a more editorial process than
before writing at first but rapidly helps students determine when theyve
misspelt a word as they write, inciting the use of this strategy. The properties of
phonemes and graphemes used within this strategy can also applied to improve
students ability to spell by sounding out.
Steps:
1. Write down commonly misspelled words on the board and break it apart
based on graphemes (eg. Em-bar-ras-s, ec-sta-cy or nec-es-sa-ry) and discuss
with students that words can be broken down by sound bites such as these.
They do this by either pronouncing the word slowly or over pronouncing it
by jutting between graphemes. Have students suggest some more words they
commonly misspell and have the class try out the strategy quickly on the
word and then check their spelling against yourself or spell-check software.
2. Give students a passage of text youve (the teacher) edited to have numerous
misspelt words. Students must first read through and underline the misspelt
words then go back to underlined words and attempt to correct them by
breaking the word apart by graphemes (or by memory if they already know
the words spelling). Once a reasonable amount of time has passed, allow
students to call out words in order to ensure they got them all and then have
students offer the spelling of each misspelt word.
3. Have students write their own short passages on the content area (creative
texts, essays, short answers, etc) and both as theyre writing and after
finishing, underline words they believe theyve misspelt then correct them.
Students show work to a partner to check or the teacher if unsure. Students
may also go through and edit each others texts. Repeat this step most often,

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reminding students about the Breaking method of spelling as you request

they edit their works.

Suggestions for Implementation:

Research displays that explicit teaching of spelling (repetition of an abstracted
word) has little to no effect on high-school age students (Farkas, 2003) and
ultimately fails to adapt to a growing lexicon of encountered words. Thus, as
much as possible (aside from when introducing this strategy in step 1), spelling
strategies should be applied in context as part of writing, reading and editing.
This strategy works across all clusters where spelling is relevant and can be
easily adapted to every subject (bar maths).

References:
Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., and Johnson, F. (2012). Words their way:
Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction (5th ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson-Prentice-Hall.
Bus, A.G., and Van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1999). Phonological awareness and early
reading: A Meta-analysis of experimental training studies. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 91, 403 414.
Cates, G.L., Dunne, M., Erkfritz, K.N., Kivisto, A., Lee, N., and Wierzbieki, J. (2007).
Differential effects of two spelling procedures on acquisition and
adaptation to reading. Journal of Behavioral Education, 16(1), 71 81.
Farkas, R.D. (2003). The effects of traditional versus learning-styles instructional
methods in middle years. Journal of Educational Research, 97, 1: 42 54.
Weiser, B., and Mathes, P. (2011). Using encoding instruction to improve the
reading and spelling performance of elementary students at risk for
literacy difficulties: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational
Research , 81(2), 170 200.

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[4.5] Writing Workshops (Frequent Writing and Editing)

The Writers Workshop is a long-term strategy whereby students are routinely
given time to write various creative and academic texts of their own choice,
engaging in drafting, redrafting, editing, discussing, presenting and finalising
works into a large portfolio of drafts and final projects of multiple texts. Created
by Atwell (1987), the process has been reviewed frequently and consistently
found to be flexible to different classroom environments and effective in
increasing writing skills (Gannon, 2010; Williams, 2016). The writing strategy
has numerous components thatll each require a degree of scaffolding when first
introduced.
Steps:
1. Introduction Introduce students to the routine of the Writers Workshop
that theyll be engaging in for a designated timeframe. As part of your
introduction, tell students that as members of the workshop, theyll each be
and conduct themselves as authors guided by a fellow author and publisher,
rather than students instructed by a teacher. Discuss what these roles entail
and your own experience as a writer in a conversational story form to engage
students with their role and highlight that stories need not be on fantastic
events to be engaging (express this explicitly if needed). Students will be
allowed to create any text-type they choose and writing results are greater
when they also choose the topics of their writing (no stimuli).
2. Project Board The following imitates a creative project meeting where
persons inform a creative director what they are each working on and have
coming up. Express that students are able to write any kind of text they
desire, from creative texts like the short story, poem and comic; to academic
texts like feature articles, essays and reports. Have students discuss some
ideas for what theyll create or like to try out. They should have a rough idea
of the text-type and what itll be focusing on/what itll be about. Give every
student a chance to offer up their idea, beginning with students you believe to
be more confident storywriters so that they may give ideas to the less
confident. If possible, take quick notes of each students ideas. This process is
repeated at the beginning of most workshops as a check-in and may simply

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be students saying their continuing on their progress, making a new draft,

editing, or starting a new project entirely.
3. Writing Either using pen and paper or laptops (tell students to enable
tracking if using laptops), have students now begin writing their works.
Express that it doesnt have to be perfect first time round, that most drafts of
professional products are in fact very rough and drafted a few times before it
resembles the end product that you see in bookstores. Whilst they are
writing, face the class and write a text yourself in a way that students know
you are yourself creating. This helps establish the professional environment
and, if done effectively, students should be writing their own texts when you
look up from your work after 5min. Resist the urge to move around the room
like a teacher until at least 15min have passed.
4. Open Discussion Towards the end of the workshop, open the class to
discuss how they feel about the project, expressing any issues or confusion
they have with it as well as how they found writing without a stimulus (as
this is not a common experience for all students). When repeated, discussions
should be more targeted towards students opening up issues their having
with their writing to the class for advice, perhaps reading the passage and
allowing their peer to provide constructive feedback (specific strengths and
suggestions to improve weakness). Some degree of scaffolding and work on
giving effective feedback may be necessary so students are more elaborative
than, I like your story and provide more helpful commentary such as your
pacing really helps set the anxious mood and suggestions like consider
using more imagery in establishing the setting, Im struggling to imagine it at
the moment. As you (the teacher) move further into the workshop and take
a stronger publisher role where students ask advice, ask students if theyd
like to open their issue to the class and schedule a maximum of two to three
students for this section so it does not drain on time.
5. Conferencing Similar to the open discussions, students are encouraged to
discuss their works with their peers and the teacher in more paired
environment. Students will most likely wish to come to you first but
encourage them to discuss ideas, struggles, particular points of issue, stylistic
decisions, etc with another student as well to avoid dependency. For the

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greatest effect, establish one or two places where writers may conference
quietly (for a short time (5min)) to avoid disturbing others. If available,
consider having students work through google docs so they may give access
to other students for conferencing at will and so you have constant access to
all students works.
6. Redrafting (repeatedly) Make sure to express throughout the workshops
that creating a first, second, third and even fourth draft of a work is the best
way to produce a good work. Encourage students to return to their text and
rework or rewrite it, rather than the common practice of submitting a first
draft or even an edited version of a first draft. This does not mean they
through away old drafts though; they should date and store them somewhere
like a computer or physical file they keep in the classroom aside when they
wish to work on projects at home. Considerations for reworking include, re-
arranging the order of events in the story or paragraphs in an essay for
greater flow, tone shifts, the reduction or increase of characters, settings or
events/thesis points, adapting work to a specific group of readers, etc.
7. Submitting Final Drafts for Feedback After a few workshops, allow students
to submit works for detailed teacher feedback (unlike the quick feedback of
conferencing). This feedback should be based on meaning and style first and
spelling and grammar second (although these may be related). Students are
then encouraged to use this detailed feedback (as well as the feedback gained
from conferencing and discussion not already used) to edit or redraft their
work.
8. Editing Unlike redrafting, editing does not seek to alter the overall meaning
of text but rather refine the ways meaning is constructed. Considerations
students can make related to this include (but are not limited to): tone,
pacing, grammar, spelling, sequencing of descriptions, events and/or
paragraphs, and/or print style (how writing looks on the page; particularly
relevant to poems).
9. Finalising Products After a final edit, student either send a finalised copy to
the text or hand them in for photo copying before the original is returned. As
with drafts and edits, students should store these finalised projects
somewhere they can easily access them.

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Steps will repeat and come up differently across different workshops.

Suggestions for Implementation:

Notably a very large and multi-faceted strategy for improving writing, the
writers workshop requires significant attention and time. When introducing the
workshops, it is recommended that you spend the whole or majority of the
lesson on it to ensure students fully comprehend the goals and steps of the
process. Following the introductory lesson, further workshops are best
conducted at the end of each English lesson (for 20-30min), with the prior parts
of the lesson focusing on regular content and/or improving literacy issues you
noticed from students works brought up in workshops. In fact, the workshops
deliver frequent and easily accessible evidence of student learning and
opportunities for students to voluntarily use other strategies you teach prior to
workshops (and those, like peer-feedback, that are integrated within the
workshops). If applied effectively, frequently and consistently, this strategy
displays the greatest writing skill increases of all strategies located in this
document, as well as significant increases to speaking, reading, vocabulary and
comprehension skills. This strategy is useful for all clusters and increases in
effectively the longer it is in use.

References:
Atwell, N. (1987). In the middle: writing, reading and learning with adolescents.
Portsmouth, England: Heinemann Educational Books.
Forrer, D., Wyant, N., & Smith, M. (2015). Improving writing through the peer-to-
peer evaluation process. Journal of Business & Economics Research, 13(3),
137-144.
Gannon, S. (2010). Creative writing. In S. Gannon, M. Howie & W. Sawyer (Eds.),
Charged with meaning: Re-viewing English (pp. 223-230). Putney: Phoenix
Education.
Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2011). Writing to read: A meta-analysis of the impact of
writing and writing Instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review,
81(4), 710-785.

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Teaching with the NSW Literacy Continuum Speaking Strategies

Graham, S., & Perin, D., (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve
writing in adolescents in middle and high school. New York: Alliance for
Excellent Education.
VanDeWeghe, R. (2008). Research matters: Writing next and the power to teach.
English Journal, 97(5), 88-92.
Williams, L. (2016). Fostering collaboration. In E. Boas & S. Grazis (Eds.), The
artful English teacher (pp. 21-39). Adelaide: Australian Association for the
Teaching of English.

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5. Speaking Strategies

[5.1] Participation Instruction (PI)

PI is a speaking strategy based around research centred on foreign language
proficiency that can be extended to other subjects containing students who
struggle to discuss or interact verbally in class. These students commonly
include new members of the class, English as a Second Language (ESL) students,
students with speaking difficulties or disabilities or otherwise anxious or shy
students (Levpuek, 2012; Kahn & Ali, 2010). Tsous (2005) study displays that
establishing explicit instruction about how to preface statements made within
discussions and providing opportunity to use these structured introductions to
statements, improves students speaking ability and efficacy around speaking to
the class.
Steps:
1. Discuss with class how to introduce particular statements in an open
discussion. Examples include, Going off what [person] just said, In
regards to [thing], Based off [text/source/person], I believe. Further,
discuss with students how they can raise questions and comments in a
concise and comprehensive way. This includes changing common, negative
phrases like, I cant do this with more focused and positive phrases like Im
having trouble with the [element of activity/concept].
2. Have frequent open, largely opinion-based discussions with students so they
may practice these prefaces. Ask that students answer in full sentences rather
than direct replies.
3. To further discussions, after any exposition/activity to the class, open
yourself (as the teacher) to comments from the class about what they
thought about the activity/information including any struggles they had and
anything they found particularly helpful or interesting and why. If necessary,
also discuss how to give effective feedback and ask what students think of
other students replies or work (peer feedback). Ensure students still use full
sentences and preface their feedback (eg. The [activity/information
element] was confusing because).
4. Repeat steps as often and in whatever order necessary.

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Suggestions for Implementation:

This strategy can easily be applied to most lessons and indeed requires a high
frequency for students to build proficiency and efficacy in speaking to the class.
Whilst particularly struggling students may be hesitant to speak at first, this
strategy was designed for such students and simply requires persistence and
opportunity to speak in positive and constructive ways to engage students. This
strategy is only necessary for students or classes that struggle with open
discussion, reviewing persons of the class, and/or have difficulty collaborating
for whatever reason and as such is relevant to lower speaking clusters. This
method is useful across all subjects, although has stronger effects in foreign
language classes if extended into role play where consistent use of a foreign
language in constructive ways often builds fluency (Dormer, 2013). The same
can be said of unfamiliar language, such as Shakespearian language (Sawyer &
Watson, 2010).

References:
Dormer, J. (2013). Improving Speaking Accuracy Through Awareness. Journal of
Adult Education, 42(1), 16-22.
Khan, N., & Ali, A. (2010). Improving the speaking ability in English: The
students perspective. Procedia, 2, 3575-3579.
Levpuek, M. (2012). Social anxiety, social acceptance and academic self-
perceptions in high-school students (Academic OneFile trans.). Drustvena
Istrazivanja, 21(2), 405-419.
Saywer, W., & Watson, K. (2010). Teaching Shakespeare today: An introduction.
In S. Gannon, M. Howie & W. Sawyer (Eds.), Charged with meaning: Re-
viewing English (pp. 213-222). Putney, Australia: Phoenix Education.
Tsou, W. (2005). Improving speaking skills through instruction in oral classroom
participation. Foreign Language Annals, 38(1), 46-55.

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[5.2] Blended Orating

Public speaking is common component of high school assessment both within
class discussions and formal speeches. Ibrahim and Yusoff (2012) suggest that
this causes many students (especially ESL students) significant stress and that
efforts can be made to scaffold students into public speaking whilst
collaboratively working on speaking skills. This strategy proposes a method of
removing the anxiety common among students in regards to public speaking
through online practice in a variety of forms with the availability for editing and
peer feedback to promote student reflection and reflexive learning. The online
format provides a chance for students to alter mistakes and also witness their
own speaking habits during editing as well as for other students to witness
others styles and provide constructive feedback.
Steps:
1. Have students set up a YouTube (or other video-sharing platform) account
and familiarise themselves with the websites video upload and editing
features (or other video software they all possess).
2. Have each student conduct a formative assessment whereby they are to
upload a draft speech (transcript in the description) onto YouTube as private
on a topic of your choosing, emailing the link to the teacher for her to compile
into a list.
3. If students are comfortable and familiar with peer feedback, distribute links
to class. If not, provide teacher feedback through the comments function.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 as many times as desired in different forms (multimedia
presentation, vlog, interview, slam poetry, etc) with different degrees of
editing (one-take, rough edit, polish edit, etc). Having students create a group
project is also effective.
5. Transition to public speaking in front of class with teacher recording so
student can view any changes when speaking in front of people and not
simply a camera

Suggestions for Implementation:

This strategy poses learning opportunities for both speaking skills and digital
literacy. It can be designed and varied to a personalised form to focus on a

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variety of speaking skills (public speaking, using visuals, speaking to suit context,
etc) and has the potential to be designed around informal and formal
assessments and filmed both during and outside of school hours. Blended
Orating is effective for every year and continuum cluster, however requires
reasonable access to Youtube or another file upload site and recording devices.
This author suggests having students film at home if using personal devices.

References:
Ibrahim, A., & Yusoff, Z. (2012). Teaching public speaking in a blended learning
environment. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 2(6),
573-576.
Jetnikoff, A. (2010). Using media technologies in English. In S. Gannon, M. Howie
& W. Sawyer (Eds.), Charged with meaning: Re-viewing English (pp. 307-
314). Putney, Australia: Phoenix Education.
Williams, L. (2016). Fostering collaboration. In E. Boas & S. Grazis (Eds.), The
artful English teacher (pp. 21-39). Adelaide: Australian Association for the
Teaching of English.

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[5.3] Guided Individual Learning for Speaking (GILS)

GILS is a series of phased guided learning activities for the improvement of
speaking abilities commonly applied to tertiary students adapted to the high
school classroom context. It involves the gradual increase of spontaneity of
speaking opportunities for students beginning with an introductory discussion
of speaking processes. Students progress along stages as skills and confidence
increase and as such are exposed to increasingly difficult forms of classroom and
public speaking.
Stages:
1. Introduction: The teacher discusses the different elements of speaking in
both regular and professional settings (Tone, pace, volume, fluency, body
language and gaze) and instructs students on effective communication to a
group, modelling such whilst instructing.
2. Class discussions on a covered topic from the unit with emphasis on open
questions such as evaluations (pros and cons), opinions and broad
comprehension questions. This discussion requires all students to participate
in some way, either as individuals or in groups. Students may be standing (in
a circle) or sitting in seats. Consider using an open discussion format where
students speak at will rather than a raised hand system.
3. Individual and group short talks on topics followed by class discussions.
Students (individually and in groups) prepare research on a topic relating to
the unit and present findings to the class in a conversational manner.
Following this, students discuss the information presented and evaluate both
the information and how it was delivered. A degree of teacher instruction is
required for students to effectively provide peer feedback. A group example
of this is the Jigsaw Activity where students form focus groups researching
an topic each, collective formulate the information into notes for a
conversation presentation and then divide into new expert groups
(composed on one member of each different focus group) to present their
research findings to the others.
4. Individual Multimodal Presentations on a topic followed by class discussions.
Similar to the short talk, however students present information in a more
formal setting in front of the class with a visual aid such as Prezi or

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PowerPoint. Again, students evaluate the information, asking clarifying

questions of the students and then provide feedback on the students
performance.
5. Spontaneous speaking on a current controversial issue, either by individual
students or by the representative of a small group. In this form, students are
given far less time to prepare and are speaking on a topic not covered in the
class but relevant to the world which theyll likely have an opinion on.
Examples include debates where student group based on positions (such as
should Australia become a Republic), open discussions of ethics (or another
non-binary topic) and best practice (such as how to best approach a new
topic or unit).

Suggestions for Implementation:

This phased strategy covers a large sparse of time (perhaps multiple terms
culminating in a speaking assessment) although requires only a minor degree of
frequency (about once a week) for stages 3 to 5. It is strongly recommended that
classroom discussions remain a consistent practice in the class however as this is
the most adaptable and manageable activity type (Tilwaldi et al, 2012) that may
run concurrent to other stages. Depending on time restraints and student
speaking clusters (if within lower ranges), teachers will need to consider the
efficacy of stages 4 and 5, perhaps choosing to instead culminate stages 1 to 3
with a graded multimodal presentation rather than make it a common part of
instruction. This said, this strategy has been shown to show significant
improvements in student speaking skills across all clusters (especially mid-
range) and most subjects.

References:
Kaminskien, L., & Kavaliauskien, G. (2014). Attitudes to improving speaking
skills by guided individual activities. COACTIVITY, 22(1), 39-48.
Liao, H. (2014). Examining the role of collaborative learning in a public speaking
course. College Teaching, 62(2), 47-54, doi:
10.1080/87567555.2013.855891

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Ross, M. (2015). Leveraging change by learning to work with the wisdom in the
room: Educating for responsibility as a collaborative learning model.
Journal of Business Ethics, 131(3), 511-518.
Tilwaldi, D., Kaneko, S., Hosomura, T., Dasai, T., Mitsui, H., & Koizumi, H. (2012). A
method for cooperation support between discussion space and activity
space in collaborative learning and its experimental evaluation.
Electronics and Communication, 95(2), 744-754.

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