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The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation - N 7 / May-August 2017

To improve sports performance we


SUMMARY
must ll the gap, often overlooked,
between the state of well-being
and the pathological state, without
taking for granted the fact that the
absence of specic diseases means
a perfect bill of health.
The onset of MUS is a signicant
index that must not be ignored,
related with the areas of metabolic

52
or neuro-immuno-endocrine
disorders...

2 EDITORIAL: HUMAN BEINGS AND MOVEMENT


by Antonio Urso
4 PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION
AND STRENGTH/POWER
PERFORMANCE
by Jay R. Hoffman
18 THE ROLE OF FEEDBACK
IN ATHLETE LEARNING
by Monica Paliaga
22 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES
IN WEIGHTLIFTING
by F. Javier Flores and Juan C. Redondo
46 SPORTS PERFORMANCE.
MUS, STRESS AND CHRONIC

20
One of the most important aspects
LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION
by Dario Boschiero
56 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING
IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE
related to the problems of motor AND SCIENCE FICTION
control, and therefore also learning, by Vito Leonardi
is related to the phenomena that
affect feedback. Feedback is all the
information that the individual who
76 EDITORIAL GUIDELINES
carries out a movement has the ability 78 ABSTRACTS
to receive and process, and that allows
him to control the movement and
perform it more effectively.
2
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

EDITORIAL

H uman beings
and movement
My apologies if I constantly return of movements following clear ru- biomechanical system, which were
to this topic, but movement is ta- les: competition rules. often clearly different in terms of
king on an increasingly important So: space, time and accuracy. The- the strategic organisation of the
role, naturally in an overall view of se three elements are the basis of movement: posture, technique,
performance at any level. Move- every sport, and represent the key use of muscle chains and psycholo-
ment is the basis of qualification in to its understanding and interpre- gical approach.
high levels of specialisation; I spe- tation. All human performance is
cialise if I have a basis which I can organised within these elements, I was going over my notions of bio-
specialise on. But what exactly am and when one or more does not fit mechanics and discovered that
I specialising, is it not movement? in with others, the result is always many elements, among the theo-
I am writing this today with more different from what the sports ru- retical and practical aspects, often
conviction than yesterday, and with les dictate. showed totally incomparable dif-
greater determination than be- ferences in more than one case. It
fore. A belief that was reinforced Having been fortunate to experien- was extraordinarily fascinating to
after attending last years Olympic ce the various competitions first observe in some athletes, the flui-
and Paralympic Games. I dont want hand, I was particularly impressed dity with which the motor sequen-
to talk about the actual results, I am with the organisational aspects of ces engaged, creating a seemingly
more interested in how they have movement of various athletes in simple (movement?) framework,
evolved, the ways in which the body various sports. I was amazed how almost within everyones reach.
expresses itself, by organising, Olympic athletes first and fore- And I wondered, for example, how
creating and personalising in a set most, were capable of reaching the could I have trained that move-
space and time, with resolute accu- same result as their opponents, by ment through the development of
racy, a precise functional sequence doing things, within a repetitive strength, also taking into account
3

N 7 / May-August 2017
how much strength? Which and how lise such an athlete? What, if any, All this raises further considera-
many preparatory exercises would is the methodological approach in tions and subsequently sparks new
I have performed? It is by no means each sport to create the basics of questions: with the knowledge we
easy, however many considerations movement? How do you measure have at our disposal today, are we
came into play in things already the adaptations? Do these aspects still able to bring out the best in
seen many times, if not directly on go hand in hand with the technolo- the athletes we consider to be the
the competition field, then at least gy of the competition equipment luckiest? Or there are aspects that
on television, even if the obser- (non-specific tools and specific to- still escape us, sides where light ne-
vations are not exactly the same, ols: wheelchairs, straps, prostheses eds to be shed, particular points of
strange as it may appear. and more? It all becomes more com- view to be accentuated?
But the final blow, so to speak, was plicated, it almost seems as if there
dealt at the Paralympic Games. All are no longer any rules, or maybe Perhaps we should put everything
the considerations made, all the there is an infinite number of rules. into a new melting pot and careful-
reflections stimulated by the ob- In fact, if we thought in this way, it ly mix and blend all the ingredients,
servation of Olympic athletes were would undermine the readjustment both old and new.
to be completely forgotten. The Bio- phenomenon of the human-machi- Human movement still harbours
mechanics that we have all studied ne, even in extreme biomechanical many secrets and has lots more to
more or less in depth with those conditions. These athletes can do reveal. Naturally, we need to know
athletes, and in relation to that type things far better than those im- how to query it.
of performance, can no longer exist properly called able-bodied people.
in the realm of Paralympics. There They are proof of the infinite re-
are no longer references within the sources within us, set aside but not
same sport. The disabilities are dif- abandoned. Existing and available
ferent, sometimes too different, so when necessary, to be used and put
you cannot even attempt to make into action in extreme circumstan- Antonio Urso
analogies of any kind. How do you ces or upon the extreme desire to EWF President
qualify and subsequently specia- act, to express an ability.
4
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

PROTEIN
SUPPLE-
MENTATION
AND STRENGTH/
POWER
PERFORMANCE

BY Jay R. Hoffman
N 7 / May-August 2017
5
6 PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE

Proteins are nitrogen-containing are non-essential amino acids that should be used to attenuate mu-
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

substances that are comprised of are considered to be conditionally scle proteolysis and promote mu-
amino acids. They form the major essential which means that the- scle protein accretion (Hoffman, et
structural component of muscle, re may be times when obtaining al., 2015). Daily protein needs are
and other tissues in the body. Pro- some of these nonessential ami- determined by the ability to main-
teins are not the primary or a de- no acids becomes vital for main- tain a positive balance between
sired source of energy, but during taining health. Absence of any of protein degradation and protein
periods of nutrient deprivation the essential amino acids from the synthesis. If protein degradation
they can be used to produce ener- diet can limit the ability for muscle exceeds protein synthesis the
gy. For proteins to be used by the to grow or be repaired. body is considered to be in a cata-
body, they are first degraded to bolic state, but if protein synthesis
their simplest form, amino acids. Daily Protein exceeds protein degradation the
There are twenty amino acids iden- Requirements body is considered to be in an ana-
tified that are needed for growth Consuming a high level of protein bolic state. A positive balance re-
and metabolism, and are catego- and preserving lean body mass in sults in an increase in skeletal mu-
rized as either being essential or the body is important during pe- scle mass as opposed to a negative
nonessential. Nonessential ami- riods of intense physical training balance, which results in a loss of
no acids are synthesized by the and training overload. In order to skeletal muscle. In general, the
body and do not need to be consu- sustain muscle protein balance du- protein requirement for an adult
med in the diet, whereas essential ring periods of stress and/or high to maintain a positive protein ba-
amino acids cannot be synthesized intensity activity, diet alone may lance is 0.8 gkgday-1 body mass.
endogenously and must be consu- not be sufficient. The use of pro- For individuals who are active their
med in the diet. However, there tein supplements can or perhaps protein needs appear to be grea-
ter and dependent on the type of
physical activity being performed.
Individuals performing strength
and power activities have greater
daily protein need than individuals
involved in sub-maximal but su-
stained activities (e.g., endurance
activities). Both groups of active
individuals though require a gre-
ater daily protein intake than their
sedentary colleagues.

Resistance exercise has been


shown to stimulate both protein
synthesis and protein degrada-
tion, but in a fasted state protein
degradation will still exceed pro-
tein synthesis (Biolo et al., 1997).
When protein is ingested following
exercise, the increase in muscle
protein synthesis is between 50%
and 100% greater than that seen
from resistance exercise only
(Biolo et al., 1997). Other inve-
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE 7

N 7 / May-August 2017
stigators have reported that the giate football players) increases have in optimizing the training
combination of oral ingestion of in protein ingestion do appear to response and enhancing recovery,
amino acids and resistance exer- result in greater performance re- and how the timing of ingestion
cise may produce a 3.5 fold incre- sults. Resistance trained athletes may provide significant benefits
ase in muscle protein synthesis consuming 2.0 gkg1day1 for (Rodriguez et al., 2009). In ad-
(Miller et al., 2003). Although resi- 12 weeks showed greater gains in dition, supplementation is also
stance exercise and protein intake strength than a similar group of convenient and efficient for provi-
can each increase muscle protein strength/power athletes consu- ding immediate protein needs to
synthesis, the combination of the ming 1.2 gkg1day1 (Hoffman enhance recovery.
two is clearly superior in eliciting et al., 2007).
significant gains. Strength/power Daily protein intakes ranging from The benefits of protein supple-
athletes appear to have a greater 1.2 and 1.7 gkg1day1 are re- mentation has been demonstra-
daily protein requirement than commended for strength/power ted in a recent meta-analysis per-
other segments of the population. athletes to maintain a positive formed on studies examining the
In studies examining high versus nitrogen balance (Rodriguez et ability of protein supplementation
low daily protein intakes, higher al., 2009). However, much of the to enhance the adaptive respon-
protein consumption was associa- evidence supporting this daily pro- ses of skeletal muscle to resistan-
ted with greater gains in protein tein range has been based upon ce exercise (Cermak et al., 2012).
synthesis, muscle size, and body studies examining recreational Results were examined from 22
mass (Hoffman et al., 2006; 2007; athletes. Investigations on com- randomized controlled studies.
Lemon et al., 1992). Fern and colle- petitive strength/power athletes To be included in the analysis each
agues (1991) compared two daily are limited. One study examining study needed to have a supple-
doses of protein ingestion (3.3 college football players compared mentation group that consumed
vs. 1.3 gkg1day1) in subjects three different daily protein inta- a minimum of 1.2 gkgday-1 of
performing a 4-week resistance kes (1.2 gkg1day1, 1.7 gkg protein taken in combination with
training program. Significantly 1day1, and 2.4 gkg1day1) a prolonged resistance training
greater elevations were observed and found no significant differen- program of at least 6-weeks. The
in protein synthesis, which was ces in strength or lean body mass analysis concluded that protein
also reflected by significant gains between the groups, but the grea- supplementation in combination
in body mass were observed in the test gains in strength (1-RM squat with resistance training, in either
subjects consuming the higher and bench press) were seen in the young (23 3 y) or older (62 6
daily protein intake. In a study of group consuming the highest daily y) adults, can significantly aug-
previously untrained individuals protein intake (Hoffman et al., ment the gains in lean body mass,
consuming 2.62 gkg1day1 ver- 2006). cross-sectional area of both type
sus 0.99 gkg1day1 during resi- I and type II muscle fibers and
stance training resulted in greater strength. The mechanism leading
elevations in protein synthesis, but Use of Protein to greater strength and size deve-
no differences in muscle growth Supplementation lopment through protein supple-
or strength were noted between Dietetic and sports medicine or- mentation is not clearly defined.
the groups (Lemon et al., 1992). ganizations generally take a con- However, one of the benefits asso-
Considering that subjects were servative approach to supplemen- ciated with protein consumption
previously untrained, the signifi- tation. Consensus among these following an intense workout is
cant gains in strength were likely organizations is that protein ne- in its ability to enhance the reco-
related to neural adaptations eds can generally be met through very and remodeling processes
and not to any muscle structural food sources. However, these or- within skeletal tissue (Tipton et
changes. In studies on competitive ganizations also acknowledge the al., 2004). Several studies have
strength/power athletes (colle- role that protein and amino acids reported a decrease in the extent
8 PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE

of muscle damage, attenuation in supplements can also be from the Animal proteins
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

force decrements, and an enhan- same variety of sources. Howe- The common animal proteins typi-
ced recovery from protein inge- ver, of interest to many athletes is cally found in protein supplemen-
stion following resistance exercise which protein is most effective in ts include whey, casein and bovi-
(Cooke et al., 2010; Hoffman et al., maximizing performance gains. A ne colostrum. Whey is a general
2010; Hulmi et al., 2009; Kraemer protein that contains all of the es- term that typically denotes the
et al., 2006; Ratamess et al., 2003). sential amino acids is considered translucent liquid part of milk that
This would potentially results in to be a complete protein. Proteins remains following the process
a higher quality workout during from animal sources are comple- (coagulation and curd removal)
the next training session, which te proteins. In contrast, proteins of cheese manufacturing. Whey
can stimulate greater adaptation from vegetable sources are incom- protein accounts for 20% of the
in the muscle compared to those plete in that they are generally protein content milk. It contains
who do not consume the protein. lacking at least one of the essen- high levels of the essential and
How the timing of protein inge- tial amino acids. branched chain amino acids. The-
stion affects this response will be re are several varieties of whey
discussed later. Thus, vegetarians who get their protein that result from various
protein from vegetable sources processing techniques. These
Source of will need to consume a variety of include whey powder, whey con-
Protein; Does it vegetables, fruits, grains, and le- centrate, whey isolate, and whey
Make a Difference? gumes to ensure consumption of hydrolysate. Whey protein powder
Protein consumption from meals all essential amino acids. Protein is more commonly used in the food
can be consumed from a variety of from vegetable sources are gene- industry as an additive in food
sources that are from animal and/ rally less efficient than animal pro- products, and not seen in sports
or plant origin. Similarly, protein teins (Hoffman and Falvo, 2004). supplements. Whey concentrate,
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE 9

whey isolate and whey hydroly- liquid secreted by mothers in the and contains the greatest concen-

N 7 / May-August 2017
sate contain more biologically first few days following birth. This tration of protein, but contains no
active components and proteins, nutrient-dense fluid provides im- dietary fiber. Soy isolates are very
which make them a very attracti- munities and assists in the growth digestible and easily introduced
ve supplement for the strength/ of developing tissues in the initial into foods such as sports drinks
power athlete (Hoffman and Falvo, stages of life. Although colostrum and health beverages.
2004; Hoffman et al., 2015). Whey is not as common as whey and ca-
concentrate is comprised of 70% sein as a supplement, it does pre- Which Has the Greater
80% protein and is the most com- sent interesting potential as a sup- Benefit Amino Acids
mon form of whey protein found plement. Ingestion of colostrum or Whole Proteins?
in sport supplements (Hulmi et al., has been reported to significantly Both essential amino acids and
2010). Whey isolates contains 90% elevate insulin-like-growth factor whole proteins appear to be be-
protein with minimal amounts of 1 (IGF-1) (Mero et al., 1997) and neficial in stimulating muscle pro-
lactose or lipids making it ideal for enhance lean tissue accruement tein synthesis. One study demon-
individuals who are lactose intole- (Antonio et al., 2001). However, the strated that arterial amino acid
rant. Whey hydrolysate is thought efficacy of colostrum supplemen- concentrations are approximately
to provide an accelerated rate of tation has yet to be seen. 100% higher than resting levels
absorption as the manufacturing following ingestion of essential
process of creating a hydrolysate Vegetable proteins amino acids but only 30% following
(i.e., partially digested) is thought As discussed earlier, to provide for whey protein ingestion (Tipton et
to enhance absorption and utili- all of the essential amino acids, a al., 2007). These results indicate
zation of amino acids (Hulmi et al., combination of various types of a greater amino acid availability
2010). Although evidence is limi- vegetable proteins need to be con- to active muscle. In addition, the
ted regarding enhanced gastric sumed. Popular sources include amino acids were provided with
emptying or faster appearance of legumes, nuts and soy. One ad- a carbohydrate whereas no car-
amino acids in the plasma, hydroly- vantage for consuming vegetable bohydrate was provided with the
sates have been shown to enhance proteins is a likely reduction in sa- whey protein. This likely enhanced
the insulin response compared to turated fat and cholesterol inge- the uptake of amino acids into the
whey concentrate or isolate (Hul- stion. Soy, from the legume family, muscle by stimulating a greater in-
mi et al., 2010), and may improve is the most widely used vegetable sulin response.
recovery compared to whey isolate protein source. It is a complete
(Buckley et al., 2010). protein with a high concentration Comparison between
Casein accounts for nearly 70-80% of branched chained amino acids. Whey and Casein Protein
of the total protein in milk, and is Soy proteins are also associated Studies on performance effects
responsible for its white color. Si- with health benefits including re- of whey versus casein ingestion
milar to whey, casein is a comple- ducing plasma lipid profiles and in strength/power athletes are
te protein. It exists in milk in the blood pressure (Hoffman and Fal- limited. Kerksick and colleagues
form of a micelle, which is a large vo, 2004). There are three distinct (2006) compared a carbohydrate
colloidal particle. Once ingested it categories of soybeans; flour, con- placebo, 40 g of whey protein and
forms a gel or clot in the stomach. centrates, and isolates. Soy flour 8 g of casein, to 40 g of whey pro-
The ability to form this clot makes is the least refined form, and is tein and 8 g of amino acids (5 g of
it very efficient in nutrient supply. commonly found in baked goods. branch chain amino acids and 3 g
The clot is able to provide a sustai- Soy concentrate is more palatable of glutamine) per day in resistan-
ned release of amino acids into the and has a high degree of digesti- ce trained men for 10-weeks. The
circulation, sometimes lasting for bility. It is often found in nutrition group ingesting the whey and
several hours (Boirie et al., 1997). bars, cereals, and yogurts. Isolates casein combination experienced
Bovine colostrum is the pre milk are the most refined soy protein a greater increase in lean body
10 PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE

mass, but no differences were no- synthesis and muscle protein tein synthesis. Evidence also exi-
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

ted between the groups in stren- accretion. Tang and colleagues sts suggesting that whey protein
gth gains. Another study compa- (2009) compared equivalent con- can stimulate protein signaling to
red 24 g of whey ingestion to 24 g tent of essential amino acids (10 a greater magnitude than soy pro-
of daily casein supplementation g) as either whey hydrolysate, mi- tein (Anthony et al., 2007; Mitchell
in collegiate female basketball cellar casein or soy protein isolate et al., 2015).
players for 8-weeks (Wilborn et al., consumed following 4-sets per One study compared the effect
2013). Significant improvements exercise of a 10 12 repetition of whey or soy protein ingestion
were noted in both groups in lean maximum (RM) on both unilate- in previously untrained men and
body mass, strength and power. ral leg press and knee extension women participating in a 9-mon-
No differences were observed in exercises. Whey protein ingestion th periodized resistance training
any of the body compositional or resulted in a significantly greater program (Volek et al., 2013). No
performance measures between increase in plasma leucine con- significant differences were seen
the groups suggesting that both centrations during the 3-h recover between the groups in 1-RM bench
proteins are beneficial. period than both casein and soy press or squat strength. However,
proteins. In addition, whey protein significantly greater increases in
Comparison of Soy ingestion stimulated muscle pro- lean body mass was observed in
versus Animal Protein tein synthesis to a greater extent participants consuming whey than
There are clear health benefits than both casein and soy. These soy following 3-, 6- and 9-months
associated with soy protein con- differences were attributed to the of training. In addition, fasting
sumption, however the main que- faster absorption of whey protein leucine concentrations were si-
stion is whether of soy is provides and the faster increase of leucine gnificantly elevated (20%) and
the similar effect as an animal-ba- in the circulation acts as a leucine post-exercise plasma leucine in-
sed protein in stimulating protein trigger to stimulate muscle pro- creased more than 2-fold in the
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE 11

N 7 / May-August 2017
whey group. An additional study et al., 2008). Leucine appears to closer the protein was consumed
on experienced resistance trained increase muscle protein synthesis to the workout. No differences
comparing soy and whey protein in a dose-dependent manner. In an were noted in muscle protein syn-
supplementation (20 g per day for animal study rats were fed a meal thesis when 6 g of essential amino
two weeks) reported that partici- that contained either 10%, 20% or acids with 35 g sucrose were provi-
pants consuming the soy protein 30% whey or soy protein (Norton et ded one or three hours following
had an attenuated testostero- al., 2009). The whey protein meals a resistance training workout in
ne response to an acute training contained 47 mg, 94 mg and 142 untrained subjects (Rasmussen
program (Kraemer et al, 2013). In mg of leucine, respectively, while et al., 2000). However, when this
addition, the investigators also the soy protein meals contained same combination of essential
reported that whey protein inge- 29 mg, 60 mg and 89 mg of leuci- amino acids and carbohydrate
stion may blunt the cortisol re- ne, respectively. Feedings of 10% was infused immediately before
sponse to exercise. soy protein, containing 29 mg of exercise, the increase in muscle
leucine did not stimulate muscle protein synthesis was significantly
Present understanding appears protein synthesis, but feedings greater compared to infusion oc-
to support the use of milk, or ani- of 10% whey protein containing curring immediately post-exercise
mal-based proteins to maximi- 47 mg of leucine did initiate pro- (Tipton et al., 2001). Amino acid
ze muscle protein synthesis and tein synthesis. As leucine content infusion immediately prior to the
changes in lean body mass. This increased from either whey or training session resulted in a 46%
is likely related to differences in soy ingestion an increase in mu- increase in amino acid concentra-
protein quality as milk proteins scle protein synthesis was noted. tion within skeletal muscle imme-
contain a greater concentration of This was the first study to indicate diately post-exercise and an 86%
leucine. that a specific threshold may be elevation one hour post-exercise,
needed to initiate muscle protein which was significantly greater
Importance synthesis, and if protein content than those values seen from the
of Leucine for is not sufficient (i.e., not reaching same amino acid and carbohydra-
Muscle Protein this threshold) then the anabolic te infusion occurring immediately
Synthesis processes may be blunted. following the training session. The
Leucine is a potent stimulator of pre-exercise ingestion of amino
muscle protein synthesis (Cuther- Protein Timing. acids appeared to increase the
bertson et al., 2005). When it is Acute Effects rate of delivery (2.6 fold greater)
combined with a carbohydrate ele- When protein is consumed fol- and subsequent uptake by of ami-
vations in muscle protein synthesis lowing a workout the anabolic re- no acids to skeletal muscle during
appeared to be sustained (Dreyer sponse appears to be greater the exercise.
12 PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

The faster absorption capability (Dangin et al., 2002). Considering en-group differences observed. It
of whey protein has important im- that there may be a heightened is important to note though that
plications for increasing the rate sensitivity in skeletal tissue fol- the average daily protein intake
of protein synthesis following a lowing a workout (Hoffman et al., for all three groups ranged from
training session. One of the first 2015), ingestion of whey protein 1.6 2.3 gkg-1 body mass. The
comparisons between casein and immediately following the trai- results of this study suggest that
whey protein supplementation ning session may enhance muscle if dietary protein intake is at, or
examined protein synthesis rates remodeling and recovery. exceeds recommended levels for
following a 30 g feeding (Boirie et a strengthpower athlete (1.6
al., 1997). Ingestion of whey pro- Protein Timing: gkgday-1), additional protein
tein resulted in a rapid appearan- Training Response from a supplement, regardless of
ce of amino acids in the plasma, In one of the initial studies exami- when it is ingested, may not pro-
while ingestion of casein resulted ning the effects of protein timing vide any further advantage. In ad-
in a slower rate of absorption, in young (21 24 years) recrea- dition, all three study groups were
but provided for a more sustai- tional male bodybuilders, 40 g of in a positive nitrogen balance, sug-
ned elevation in plasma amino whey isolate and 43 g of carbohy- gesting that protein intakes were
acid concentrations. As a result of drate (glucose) were provided ei- sufficient in meeting the athletes
the fast absorption rate of whey, ther immediately before and after protein needs. It is also important
a more rapid increase in protein each resistance training session or to note that the length of the inve-
synthesis (68%) was observed in the morning and evening (Cribb stigation was only 10 weeks. This
within approximately two hours and Hayes, 2006). Significantly may not have been long enough
following ingestion. Casein inge- greater gains in lean body mass, to see differences in performance
stion though stimulated a more cross-sectional area of type II fi- gains from nutrient timing in expe-
sustained elevation in protein bers, contractile protein content, rienced, competitive strength/
synthesis, with a peak synthesis and strength were seen in the pre- power athletes. Another potential
rate of approximately 31% above and post-workout feeding group factor influencing the results of
baseline. However, the sustained compared to the morning and that study is that the supplement
effect of casein resulted in a si- evening feeding group. The effect contained only collagen protein
gnificantly higher leucine balance of protein timing in experienced, and no carbohydrate. This may
7 hours following ingestion with resistance trained athletes did have delayed nutrient absorption,
no change from baseline seen at not appear to be as beneficial. and subjects may have missed the
that time point following whey Hoffman and colleagues (2009) window of adaptation. Thus, ad-
consumption. Others have also re- investigated the effects of pro- ditional research still appears ne-
ported a faster increase in protein tein timing in experienced, com- cessary to determine the potential
synthesis in whey than casein in- petitive college football players. benefits associated with protein
gestion, with the greater protein The players were randomized into ingestions surrounding a workout
synthesis seen in casein over an three groups. The first group con- in experienced, resistance trained
extended period of time (Tipton et sumed a 42 g protein supplement athletes, who consume a relatively
al., 2004). When whey protein was pre- and post-workout; the se- high daily intake of protein.
provided in multiple ingestions cond group consumed the same
over four hours and compared to supplement, albeit in the morning How Much Protein
a single serving of whey or casein and evening; and the third group Should Be Consumed
(total protein consumed was equi- were not provided any supplement Per Ingestion?
valent), the multiple ingestion and served as the control group. The need for a greater daily pro-
periods resulted in a greater net Significant strength and power tein intake among strength/power
leucine oxidation than a single improvements were reported in athletes is no longer debatable.
feeding of either casein or whey all three groups, with no betwe- However, the amount of protein
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE 13

N 7 / May-August 2017
that should be consumed per in- ferences were seen in muscle pro- occurred following an acute bout
gestion is not well understood. tein synthesis between 20 g and 40 of knee extension exercise (4 set
Studies have used various quan- g feedings, confirming the work of of 10 repetitions using 80%1RM).
tities of protein per ingestion, Moore et al (2009). These studies Rates of protein synthesis were
ranging from 6 g of amino acids to suggest that an upper limit of mu- significantly greater for the pulse
more than 40 g of whole protein, scle protein synthesis is seen with ingestion format compared to the
amino acids or proprietary blends 20 g feedings. However, it is impor- intermediate and bolus formats
in various combinations. The big- tant to acknowledge that the body (32% and 19%, respectively). Fur-
gest question is whether there is mass of the participants in these ther inferential analysis showed
a ceiling on the effectiveness of investigations was approximately likely small and moderate increa-
the quantity of protein that can 80 kg. Whether larger individuals ses in whole-body protein turnover
be effectively used per ingestion. can utilize greater amounts of for the pulse and intermediate in-
One study examined post-exercise protein remains largely unknown. gestion formats compared to the
protein drinks containing 0, 5, 10, Still, how much protein is consu- bolus ingestion format. Thus, the
20, or 40 g protein (Moore et al., med per ingestion may be less im- pattern of protein ingested appe-
2009). Protein was consumed fol- portant that the pattern of protein ars to impact whole-body protein
lowing an acute bout of leg exten- ingestion. metabolism. Areta and colleagues
sion exercise, while muscle protein (2013) using the same research
synthesis was measured over the Recent studies have examined methodology as the previous study
subsequent four hour period. Re- the pattern of daily protein inta- reported that all three ingestion
sults indicated that muscle protein ke. Moore and colleagues (2012) protocols increased myofibrillar
synthesis increased with each in- provided 80 g of whey protein per protein synthesis, throughout the
crease of protein quantity up to 20 day to young, resistance trained 12 h recovery period (ranging from
g. No differences were observed men who were randomized into 88% - 148%). However, the inter-
between the 20 g and 40 g dose. three different groups. One group mediate ingestion pattern elicited
Whether a multi-joint structural consumed the protein in a pulse the greatest levels of myofibrillar
exercise such as the squat, or a fashion (8 x 10 g of whey protein protein synthesis than the other
normal training routine (6 7 exer- every 1.5 h); another group used an two ingestion patterns. Thus, it
cises using 3 4 sets per exercise), intermediate ingestion fashion (4 x does appear that protein ingestion
would stimulate further increa- 20 g every 3 h); and the final group every three hours has the poten-
ses in protein synthesis at higher consumed the protein in a bolus fa- tial to maximize muscle mass deve-
doses is not known. Witard and shion (2 x 40 g every 6 h). Ingestion lopment.
colleagues (2014) also examined
the dose-response relationship
between various amounts of whey
protein ingestion on myofibrillar
protein synthesis in experienced in
resistance trained men who were
not competitive athletes. Doses of
0, 10, 20 and 40 g of whey protein
isolate were ingested 10-min fol-
lowing resistance exercise. Both
moderate (20 g) and high (40 g)
doses of whey protein stimulated
a greater response of myofibrillar
muscle protein synthesis than the
lower (10 g) dose. However, no dif-
14 PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

DR. JAY HOFFMAN


holds the rank of full professor in the Sport and Exercise Science program at the University of Central Florida.
He is presently the Department Chair of Education and Human Sciences and Director of the Institute of Exercise
Physiology and Wellness.
Dr. Hoffman is a fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine and the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA).
He served as President of the National Strength and Conditioning Association Board of Directors from 2009-2012.
Dr. Hoffman also served on the Board of Directors of the USA Bobsled and Skeleton Federation. Dr. Hoffman holds
a unique perspective in his sport science background. Prior to his academic career he signed free agent contracts
with the NY Jets and Philadelphia Eagles of the NFL and the Tampa Bay Bandits of the USFL. A dual national of the USA
and Israel, Dr. Hoffman commanded the Physiological Unit of the Israel Air Force and served as a Research Officer
in the Combat Fitness Unit of the IDF during his military service. Dr. Hoffman has been honored or awarded the 2007
Outstanding Sport Scientist of the Year from the NSCA, 2005 Outstanding Kinesiology Professional Award from the
Neag School of Education Alumni Society of the University of Connecticut, 2003 Educator of the Year NSCA, and 2003
Neag School of Education Outstanding Alumni Research Award (University of Connecticut).
Dr. Hoffmans primary area of study focuses on physiological adaptations resulting from nutritional and exercise
intervention. Dr. Hoffman has published more than 200 articles and chapters in peer-reviewed journals. His
books Physiological Aspects of Sport Training and Performance, Norms for Fitness, Performance, and Health, and
Program Design were published by Human Kinetics. A Practical Guide to Designing Resistance Training Programs
and Total Fitness for Baseball were published by Coaches Choice. Further sharing his research and findings, Dr.
Hoffman has lectured at more than 380 national and international conferences and meetings.
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION AND STRENGTH/POWER PERFORMANCE 15

N 7 / May-August 2017
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The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation
18

THE

BY MONICA PALIAGA
ROLE OF

LEARNING
FEEDBACK
IN ATHLETE
19

N 7 / May-August 2017
20 THE ROLE OF FEEDBACK IN ATHLETE LEARNING

One of the most important aspects sition to link the verbal instructions movement, contains elements of
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

related to the problems of motor of the coach with their own motor psychological reinforcement; and
control, and therefore also lear- perceptions. conversely, any reinforcement fee-
ning, is related to the phenomena Extrinsic feedback can be further di- dback provides information on how
that affect feedback. vided into two types: the coach saw the movement and
Feedback is all the information that feedback on results, which in- as a result, even unintentionally,
the individual who carries out a mo- forms the individual if their mo- expresses his own judgment of the
vement has the ability to receive vement has reached its target; athlete.
and process, and that allows him to feedback on the performance, For this reason, feedback, like all
control the movement and perform relative to the way the move- communication processes, has an
it more effectively. ment is executed. impact on a relational level, that
influences the coach-athlete rela-
There are two types of feedback: The coach can then use the fee- tionship.
Intrinsec feedback, which re- dback on results to tell the athle- This effect is particularly important
fers to the information coming tes whether or not the objectives when feedback is used after errors
from the sensory system of the have been reached (for example: made by the athlete: in practice, it
individual who performs the the throw was low), or to tell them is the most common occurrence; in
movement. It is therefore rela- about the characteristics of the mo- this case, the feedback is a coachs
ted to the information resulting vement that produced that result reaction to something negative
from ones own movement, that (for example: you have to keep your performed by the athlete. This type
the individual is able to receive elbow higher to throw higher). of feedback, if repeated over time,
and process through their own According to Magill (1980), the coa- can pass from the objective level of
analyzers: visual, tactile, acou- chs extrinsic feedback always has a error correction, to the subjective
stic and vestibular dual function: and relational level: the athlete may
Extrinsic feedback, which re- interpret corrective actions as criti-
fers to the information coming 1. The informative function: con- cism of his person or his personality,
from sources external to the in- cerns what has already been and think that the coach has a low
dividual performing the move- said about the information that opinion of him.
ment, such as the coach (verbal the coach makes available to
and non-verbal information) or the athlete, so that the latter It is always wise, therefore, to con-
by watching a video. In this case can connect it to his internal in- sider the dual function of feedback
only the acoustic and visual formation in order to control his (informative and reinforcement)
analyzers are used. movement better and to achie- and appropriately dose instructions
ve increasingly higher levels of that have a negative value with tho-
Extrinsic feedback, therefore, ne- efficiency; se that have a positive meaning,
eds to be somehow translated 2. The reinforcement function, on bearing in mind that the messages
into a motor language, in the sense the other hand, concerns the transmitted to athletes can also be
that the visual and acoustic infor- effect that any coach feedback of a nonverbal nature.
mation must be integrated with the produces on the athletes emo-
vestibular and proprioceptive infor- tional sphere. Many studies have investigated the
mation of the intrinsic feedback. important characteristics of fee-
Hence the need for the instructor Every action of the coach affects dback:
or coach to refer their external fe- the motivation, the drive and the
edback to the internal feedback of self-esteem of the athlete. Each in- 1) the rate at which the coach must
the athlete, and then find words and tervention the coach makes, howe- provide the feedback, which de-
actions that facilitate such commu- ver, has itself a dual function; any pends on the athletes motor skills
nication, putting the athlete in a po- feedback providing information on level. As the athlete improves, the
THE ROLE OF FEEDBACK IN ATHLETE LEARNING 21

feedback will be more and more result obtained. Magill and Wood activities, before providing fee-

N 7 / May-August 2017
spaced out, to allow him to use the (1986) and Rogers (1974) have dback.
external information and connect shown that both performance and
it to the internal sensory informa- learning increase as a result of ac- It is critical that the coach stimula-
tion. During the athletes technical curate and detailed information: tes interest and attention in young
evolution, the function of feedback however, there is a limit to accuracy athletes, to solicit the conscious
should move from predominantly beyond which there is a deteriora- and responsible participation in
reinforcement to the more infor- tion in results. Newell and Kennedy the physical activity, especially
mation- oriented. Feedback is much (1978) believe that this limit is af- when it is directed to learning and
more effective when the athlete fected by age; as one grows older, mastering techniques. Young ath-
demonstrates a request, a need of there is a greater ability to use more letes must be enthusiastic and
information: the coach must not and more accurate information; involved in their own learning pro-
then bombard the athletes with cess in order to reach the neces-
feedback, but will have to motiva- 3) the most appropriate time to in- sary autonomy to manage it them-
te them to search for information, tervene with feedback. selves.
encouraging active participation When extrinsic feedback is provi-
in learning, trying to convey in- ded immediately after an athlete
structions and suggestions, when has completed his movements,
he feels that the athlete really ne- instead of waiting a few seconds,
eds them; the learning is not so effective,
because it hinders the elaboration
2) the accuracy of the feedback, process of the athletes intrinsic
in other words, the kind of specific feedback, and the time to evaluate
information that the coach provi- his mistakes. Enough time must be MONICA PALIAGA
des the athlete with respect to the given to athletes for each of these Psychologist with
a Masters in Sports
Psychology from the
Italian Association of Sport
and Exercise Psychology
and International Sports
Coaching Certification from
the Tim Gallwey
Inner Game School
22

Body
weight
categories
in weightlifting
Comparing results of the Olympic Games and World
and European Championships from 2005 to 2016.

BY F. JAVIER FLORES AND JUAN C. REDONDO


23

N 7 / May-August 2017
24 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING

Body weight categories in weight- trend of results during the period studied. The criterion to choose
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

lifting. Comparing results of the studied (2005-2016). the competitions studied was the
Olympic Games and World and Eu- To facilitate reading, the article introduction on 2005 of the cur-
ropean Championships from 2005 has been divided into two parts, rent technical regulation on the
to 2016. analyzing firstly the male results progression of the barbell load in
and secondly the female results. multiples of 1.0 kg. The doping ca-
The main goal of this article is to According to the code of colors ses found after the download date
make a descriptive analysis cate- used in the preparation of the fi- of results could alter the results
gory by category of the results of gures and tables, green color re- shown in this article.
the Olympic Games (OG) and Wor- presents Olympic Games and red
ld and European Championships and grey colors represent World Results for men
(WC and EC) since 2005, when the and European Championships re- The average of total for the top
competition rules set a minimal spectively. To analyze combined 3 (Figure 1) and top 10 (Figure 2)
progression of 1.0 kg after any suc- data of these three competitions, male ranked lifters in each body
cessful attempt for the same ath- blue and pink colors have been weight category show a similar
lete, until the 2016 Olympic Games used to represent male and fema- trend. The total achieved during
celebrated in Rio. The idea behind le data respectively. WC and OG is similar with a light
this descriptive analysis is to take a The results shown in this paper trend to achieve better results for
snapshot of the last results during are taken from IWFs website on OG. Equally the results of EC are
the most important competitions 08/28/2016 and consist of three the lowest of the three types of the
for the European weightlifting, Olympic Games, nine World Cham- competitions studied.
observing the best and worst ca- pionships and eleven European For the top 3 classified athletes
tegories and competitions and the Championships for the period (Figure 1), the average of lost per-

Figure No. 1
Average of total for top 3 male athletes in OG, WC and EC.
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 25

formance for EC respect average where the lost level of performan- 1.95 %. In the same way, 56 kg

N 7 / May-August 2017
of performance achieved during ce for EC is lower with -2.70 and represents the category with gre-
OG and WC is -4.58 % 1.96, being -2.74 % respectively. Same trend ater loss (-10.67 %), and 105 kg the
56 kg the farthest category of the is observed comparing the top 10 category with lower loss of perfor-
indicated percentage with a loss ranked athletes (Figure 2), where mance (-3.81 %) in regards to the
of -10.07 %. On the other hand, the average of lost performance average of performance achieved
105 and 85 kg are the categories for EC respect OG and WC is -5.75 during OG and WC.

Figure No. 2
Average
of total for top
10 male athletes
in OG WC and EC.

Figure No. 3
Average
Sinclair scores
for top 3 and
top 10 male
athletes in the
OG, WC and EC.
26 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING

Figure 3 shows the average Sin- clair scores for 85 and 56 catego- letes classified, 85 kg is the ca-
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

clair scores on the top 3 and top ries. Analyzing each competition tegory with highest average Sin-
10 male athletes during OG, WC separately, OG on Figure 4, WC clair through the 3 competitions.
and EC in the period studied(from on Figure 5 and EC on Figure 6, Analyzing the lowest average
2005 up to 2016 OG). we can observe how the highest Sinclair scores obtained sepa-
average Sinclair for the top 3 ran- rately of the three competitions
The same trend is observed for ked athletes was achieved on 85 studied for the top 3 athletes; 62
top 3 and top 10 data, being the kg in OG and EC and 77 kg in WC. kg achieves the lowest averages
highest and lowest average Sin- Taking into account top 10 ath- Sinclair scores during OG while

Figure No. 4
Average
Sinclair scores
for top 3 and
top 10 male
athletes
during OG.

Figure No.5
Average
Sinclair scores
for top 3 and
top 10 male
athletes
during WC.
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 27

56 kg obtains the lowest averages and 9 show the summary average editions of OG studied, however

N 7 / May-August 2017
Sinclair scores during WC and EC. Sinclair scores by categories and the tendency line of the 3 meda-
Finally, comparing the top 10 ath- the tendency line of the top 3 and lists shows an increasing trend
letes, 56 kg remains like the body top 10 male ranked athletes clas- from Beijing up to Rio like in WC
weight category reporting lowest sified per competition. (for top 3 and top 10 athletes).
average Sinclair scores while 85 Moreover, in EC the average Sin-
kg shows the highest average Sin- In the OG the level of performan- clair for top 10 tends to grow
clair scores during the three com- ce to top 10 athletes it seems to however for the top 3 shows a cle-
petitions analyzed. Figures 7, 8 remain stable during the three arly decreasing trend.

Figure No. 6
Average
Sinclair scores
for top 3 and
top 10 male
athletes
during EC.

Figure No. 7
Sum of
average Sinclair
scores of all
categories for
top 3 and top 10
male athletes
in the OG.
28 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Figure No. 8
Sum of average Sinclair scores of all categories for top 3 and top 10 male athletes in the WC.

Figure No. 9
Sum of average Sinclair scores of all categories for top 3 and top 10 male athletes in the EC.
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 29

N 7 / May-August 2017
Tables 1, 2 and 3 show the differences between average Sinclair scores achieved by the top 3 and top 10 male
athletes classified per competition (OG, WC and EC) and year of edition.
The highest average Sinclair scores by category and year are:

OG top 3: 2016; 85 kg category (471.89 3.73 points)


OG top 10: 2008;105 kg category (452.4 14.32 points)
WC top 3: 2014; 105 kg category (471.15 2.89 points)
WC top 10: 2011; 94 kg category (455.92 6.37 points)
EC top 3: 2011; 85 kg category (456.14 8.41 points)
EC top 10: 2006; 94 kg category (439.23 142.30 points)

On the other side of the coin the lowest average Sinclair scores by category and year are:

OG top 3: 2008; 62 kg category (445.71 15.01 points)


OG top 10: 2016; 62 kg category (426.88 16.61 points)
WC top 3: 2006; 62 kg category (436.01 10.94points)
WC top 10: 2013; 56 kg category (416.92 28.00 points)
EC top 3: 2009; 56 kg category (389.3 4.90 points)
EC top 10: 2007; 56 kg category (355.58 15.98 points)

The trend in the Tables 1, 2 and 3 show like the heavy weight categories, 85 kg and more achieve the best resul-
ts. On the contrary light weight body divisions 56 and 62 kg report the lowest results.
30 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Table 1 - Average Sinclair scores of the top 3 and top 10


56 62 69 77
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
2008 454,21 432,13 445,71 426,96 460,25 440,92 459,35 449,1
2012 452,62 432,33 464,32 442,95 454,89 441,19 458,18 431,3
2016 470,35 432,03 451,84 426,88 468,72 446,66 471,21 445,26

Table 2 - Average Sinclair scores of the top 3 and top 10


56 62 69 77
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
2005 438,28 421,4 449,78 417,36 456,6 429,08 448,29 430,88
2006 437,61 426,57 436,01 422,47 441,34 421,86 452,72 438,53
2007 440,8 422,63 450,03 431,16 458,66 440,05 456,75 445,8
2009 444,75 417,8 457,01 440,15 454,75 434,44 469,36 451,2
2010 449,27 423,57 459,17 441,41 444,08 432,87 462,84 444,57
2011 444,33 425,18 458,9 439,77 456,13 442,94 465,61 443,57
2013 448,68 416,92 462,65 426,95 465,3 440,59 461,46 440,34
2014 462,89 440,01 460,61 434,24 462,02 441,21 456,4 437,74
2015 464,37 430,99 465,57 437,13 464,99 449,31 462,96 446,67

Table 3 - Average Sinclair scores of the top 3 and top 10


56 62 69 77
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
2006 399,29 376,64 443,77 381,34 441,4 394,73 447,14 397,49
2007 411,71 355,58 417,14 407,23 442,33 425,1 452,94 437,22
2008 392,11 363,13 422,05 383,79 446,84 423,19 453,31 427,43
2009 389,3 373,95 417,1 389,29 450,18 428,28 432,74 416,92
2010 400,03 387,33 432,49 404,08 435,56 395,51 445,22 419,6
2011 403,56 394,1 423,94 401,07 441,83 419,86 434,34 407,11
2012 416,26 383,29 420,73 400,46 431,5 422,85 435,05 425,68
2013 400,06 376,78 408,06 387,67 435,07 413,17 427,01 412,57
2014 402,99 394,72 424,05 410,8 430,74 410,5 438,21 423,06
2015 408,06 390,97 420,87 404,68 440,82 416,25 442,88 425,84
2016 405,3 380,57 422,89 405,29 438,42 418,3 449,43 433,22
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 31

N 7 / May-August 2017
male athletes during the OG by categories
85 94 105 p105
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
467,21 447,47 461,67 451,46 466,56 452,4 464,85 434,56
459,25 446,09 470,62 446,09 450,31 434,07 452,62 439,85
471,89 451,19 454,08 441,85 460,92 446,81 462,53 441,72

male athletes during the WC by categories


85 94 105 p105
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
460,03 453,51 456,97 444,38 454,16 439,23 463,04 440,13
449,48 438,75 448,14 440,8 450,59 437,56 446,02 424,36
453,75 440,8 450,95 441,57 454,28 440,13 452,63 432,77
455,94 444,35 447,54 437,62 452,82 433,89 444,2 421,03
455,84 445,77 459,19 447,64 453,03 438,69 446,38 428,46
453,55 444,01 463 455,92 462,79 444,74 446,71 429,77
459,54 442,15 455,7 436,42 450,59 432,52 458,08 428,19
466,34 451,53 462,84 446,61 471,15 446,45 452,43 434,77
462,33 442,97 450,31 434,24 451,46 441,09 446,57 438,63

male athletes during the EC by categories


85 94 105 p105
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
452,74 417,1 447,2 439,23 454,72 410,08 441,51 405,93
447,06 429,77 445,92 432,68 427,3 423,38 443,75 413,18
444,83 427,3 444,4 425,17 441,42 417,13 454,35 424,87
441,76 433,85 440,2 408,98 445,82 430,23 433,57 399,81
442,24 414,19 438,67 407,11 443,18 424,32 439,68 417,92
456,14 430,28 443,3 412,19 445,81 426,18 420,41 402,79
432,11 422,14 444,17 429,01 437,34 414,35 432,5 420,22
451,29 424,55 429,67 411,44 442,82 419,25 438,73 412,24
449,23 420,65 437,33 412,75 439,11 425,1 445,17 425,14
435,56 419,13 453,08 424,87 440,11 432,1 430,09 413,22
440,71 421,28 436,09 424,69 440,66 429,35 446,85 423,93
32 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Table 4 - Highest and lowest results per competition.


Top 3 Top 10

Sinclair Weight Sinclair Weight

Highest Olympic games category. 466.12 85 448.25 85

Highest World Championships category. 459.19 77 445.64 85

Highest European Championships category. 444.88 85 425.25 85

Highest combined category of OG, WC and EC. 456.03 85 439.71 85

Lowest Olympic games category. 453.96 62 432.16 56

Lowest World Championships category. 447.71 56 424.81 56

Lowest European Championships category. 402.61 56 382.37 56

Lowest combined category of OG, WC and EC. 436.84 56 413.11 56

Values are given as average Sinclair scores of the all of competitions studied.

Table No. 4 shows highest and lowest results in OG, WC, EC and the combination of these three competitions
of the male body weight categories. As you can observe on this table, 85 kg is the category with highest
results during the competitions studied except for WC 77 kg category analyzing the top 3 athletes. On the
other hand 56 kg represents the lowest results for all competitions excepting for the top 3 OG where they
were achieved by 62 kg category.

Table 5 - Best and worst male competition.


Top 3 Top 10

Sinclair Year Sinclair Year

Best Olympic Games 3711.54 2016 3535.00 2008

Best World Championship 3694.68 2014 3532.56 2014

Best European Championship 3499.31 2008 3499.31 2008

Worst Olympic Games 3662.81 2012 3513.87 2012

Worst World Championship 3561.91 2006 3450.90 2006

Worst European Championship 3432.71 2013 3222.54 2006

Values are given as sum of average Sinclair scores of every category by championship.

Table No. 5 reports the best and worst edition of the top 3 and top 10 ranked male athletes of
the OG, WC and EC. The results show how the top 3 and top 10 analysis are coincident except for
the worst EC top 3 which was for 2013 edition while for the top 10 the worst EC edition was 2006.
Equally the best OG for the top 3 was achieved during Rio 2016 and for the top 10 in Beijing 2008.
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 33

N 7 / May-August 2017
Table 6 - Highest and lowest male Sinclair scores
to obtain the different medals.
Highest Lowest

Sinclair Weight Year Sinclair W eight Year

Sinclair gold medal (OG) 481.31 56 2016 451.31 105 2012

Sinclair silver medal (OG) 478.71 p105 2008 443.83 62 2008

Sinclair bronze medal (OG) 467.91 85 2016 431.48 62 2008

Sinclair gold medal (WC) 484.39 69 2014 439.61 56 2006

Sinclair silver medal (WC) 474.16 p105 2005 431.43 62 2006

Sinclair bronze medal (WC) 467.83 105 2014 422.64 62 2005

Sinclair gold medal (EC) 469.28 85 2006 394.92 56 2009

Sinclair silver medal (EC) 460.9 85 2011 381.31 56 2008

Sinclair bronze medal (EC) 460.02 p105 2008 374.65 56 2008

Values are given as Sinclair achieved by the athlete.

Table No.6
Finally the analysis of the highest and lowest average Sinclair scores by medal color and competition are
reported on Table 6. In general terms studying Table 6 the lowest Sinclair scores are achieved in light
weight-body divisions except for the gold medal in OG which is obtained in 105 kg category. On the contrary
highest Sinclair scores are obtained in heavy weight divisions except for the gold medal in OG where 56 kg
category reports the highest Sinclair scores.
34 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING

Results for women the top 3 (Figure 10) and top 10 the lowest of the three types of the
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

The same analysis is applied to the (Figure 11) ranked female lifters competitions studied.
female athletes using the similar in each body weight category show For the top 3 classified athletes (Fi-
figures and tables as in the case a similar trend and results for OG gure 10), the average of lost per-
of the male weightlifters presen- and WC. Just as it happens in the formance for EC respect average
ted above. The average of total for male analysis, the results of EC are of performance achieved during

Figure No. 10
Average of total for top 3 female athletes in OG, WC and EC.

OG and WC is -8.99 % 1.76, being gory with lower loss of performan- vely). The lowest result is clearly
p75 kg the farthest category of the ce (-8.61 %) respect the average of achieved in the p75 kg category
indicated percentage with a loss performance achieved during OG (302.67 17.64). To the top 10 ran-
of -13.89 %. On the other hand, 69 and WC. ked athletes, p75 kg shows equally
is the category where the lost le- the lowest score (272.13 17.12),
vel of performance for EC is lower Figure 12 shows the average Sin- however, the highest results are
with -6.32 %. Same trend is obser- clair scores on the top 3 and top very close between them repor-
ved comparing the top 10 ranked 10 female athletes during OG, ting 58 kg as the highest score with
athletes (Figure 11), in which the WC and EC in the period studied 297.33 13.16 closely followed for
average of lost performance for EC (from 2005 up to 2016 OG). The 48, 63, 69 and 75 kg categories
respect OG and WC is 10.92 2.89 highest average Sinclair scores of with the follow results respecti-
%. In the same way,p75 kg repre- the top 3 athletes are reported for vely: 295.14 15.33, 297.33, 13.17,
sents thecategory with greater 58 and 75 kg categories (322.31 296.26 17.29, 296.66 17.31,
loss (-14.94 %), and 58 kg the cate- 16.67 and 323.73 12.61 respecti- 294.09 13.73.
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 35

N 7 / May-August 2017
Figure No. 11
Average of total for top 10 female athletes in OG, WC and EC.

Figure No. 12
Average Sinclair scores for top 3 and top 10 female athletes in the OG, WC and EC.
36 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING

As in the male analysis, Figures 13, obtained in 58 kg for OG (Figure kg respectively for OG, WC and EC
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

14 and 15 study each category per 13) and 75 kg for WC and EC (Figu- and the lowest for both the top 3
competition separately. In the top res 14 and 15). To the top 10, the and top 10 are founded in p75 kg
3 ranked female athletes the hi- highest averages Sinclair scores category.
ghest averages Sinclair scores are are achieved in 69 kg, 63 kg and 58

Figure No. 13
Average Sinclair scores for top 3 and top 10 female athletes during OG.

Figure No. 14
Average Sinclair scores for top 3 and top 10 female athletes during WC.
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 37

N 7 / May-August 2017
Figure No. 15
Average Sinclair scores for top 3 and top 10 female athletes during EC.

Figure No. 16
Sum of average Sinclair scores of all categories for top 3 and top 10 female athletes in the OG.
38 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Figure No. 17
Sum of average Sinclair scores of all categories for top 3 and top 10 female athletes in the WC.

Figure No. 18
Sum of average Sinclair scores of all categories for top 3 and top 10 female athletes in the EC.
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 39

N 7 / May-August 2017
Figures 16, 17 and 18 show the OG studied with a progressive de- a higher slope for top 10 results.
summary average Sinclair scores crease of the results from Beijing So, as in the case of the analysis of
by categories and the tendency to Rio, being the tendency line to Figure 16 for the OG, on Figure 18
line on the top 3 and top 10 fema- results of top 3 and top 10 athletes we can observe how the tendency
le ranked athletes classified per almost parallel. line of the top 3 results of EC per-
competition. To the OG, the level By contrast, the tendency lines formance tends to decrease, and
of performance on the top 3 and reported by WC (Figure 17) show on the contrary, the level of the top
top 10 athletes shows a similar an increase of the results for both 10 tends to increase during the pe-
trend during the three editions of analysis (top 3 and top 10), with riod studied.

Tables 7, 8 and 9 show the differences between average Sinclair scores achieved by the top 3 and top 10 female
athletes classified per competition (OG, WC and EC) and year of edition.
The highest average Sinclair scores by category and year are:

OG top 3: 2012. 75 kg category (340.19 15.59 points)


OG top 10: 2012. 69 kg category (310.41 15.69 points)
WC top 3: 2010. 75 kg category (348.88 6.45 points)
WC top 10: 2015. 58 kg category (318.21 20.70points)
EC top 3: 2011. 75 kg category (336.86 17.48 points)
EC top 10: 2012. 53 kg category (290.44 16.96 points)

On the opposite side the lowest average Sinclair scores by category and year are:

OG top 3: 2008. p75kg category (292.45 31.78points)


OG top 10: 2008. 2008. p75 kg category (268.04 27.08 points)
WC top 3: 2005. p75kg category (297.65 10.46 points)
WC top 10: 2005. p75kg category (274.47 33.11 points)
EC top 3: 2013. p75kg category (244.77 20.61 points)
EC top 10: 2013. p75kg category (230.29 20.74 points)

The trend in the Tables 7, 8 and 9 shows how 75 kg category achieves always the best results for the top 3 analy-
ses and for each competition studied. On the contrary, p75 kg show the lowest results for both top 3 and top 10
analyses during the three competitions studied. Observing the top 10 ranked athletes, the highest average Sin-
clair scores shows a greater variability, reporting the highest results on different categories; 69 kg, 58 kg and 53
kg respectively for OG, WC and EC, while p75 Kg reports the lowest results in the 3 types of competitions studied.
40 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Table 7 - Average Sinclair scores of the top 3 and


48 53 58
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
2008 335.02 308.69 326.87 302.93 328.84 308.85
2012 335.02 300.71 335.74 310.29 337.42 289.43
2016 318.65 303.27 309.1 283.29 332.51 310.02

Table 8 - Average Sinclair scores of the top 3 and


48 53 58
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
2005 331,84 307,61 332,53 301,59 335,05 302,28
2006 326,12 301,93 325,7 303,98 330,64 300,38
2007 332,92 312,6 324,72 310,94 332,37 310,73
2009 339,83 313,92 326,24 305,34 320,19 291,33
2010 341,6 308,52 322,09 308,08 329,64 309,86
2011 318,68 293,91 333 315,8 331 314,08
2013 308,61 284,43 315,35 298,35 322,85 298,07
2014 315,23 297,15 335,56 313,46 329,59 310,65
2015 321,44 311,84 330,41 312,46 345,54 318,21

Table 9 - Average Sinclair scores of the top 3 and


48 53 58
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
2006 300,72 268,53 282,21 260,64 322,03 285,45
2007 305,01 281,69 284,55 271,44 305,13 285,87
2008 322,01 281,21 290,84 275,43 299,17 273,84
2009 294,74 265,66 286,82 272,95 298,88 275,38
2010 311 269,97 305,97 271,67 306,85 273,28
2011 305,99 275,26 287,83 257,87 293,7 272,53
2012 296,58 275,34 307,11 290,44 302,44 286,55
2013 278,75 257,84 287,05 262,74 298 277,07
2014 292,23 272,35 289,85 254,59 296,71 281,02
2015 293,43 280,38 288,35 265,95 307,09 285,14
2016 296,82 282,83 309,45 284,78 304,15 283,97
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 41

N 7 / May-August 2017
top 10 female athletes during the OG by categories.
63 69 75 p75
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
317.52 302.8 331.85 305.38 327.74 303.82 292.45 268.04
319.75 286.52 325.77 310.41 340.19 304.3 333.13 287.36
335.74 301.01 325.32 307.01 316.34 295.1 304.33 285

top 10 female athletes during the WC by categories.


63 69 75 p75
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
329,89 292,57 335,58 293,72 341,93 300,8 297,65 274,47
320,2 297,18 312,84 289,8 319,06 291,45 304,81 281,24
334,66 308,56 332,39 305,86 339,89 300,14 306,88 282,44
326,79 316,11 326,96 307,83 333,18 300,11 320,49 277,86
325,25 310,62 320,88 301,79 348,88 301,79 322,49 289,85
333,74 319,98 329,04 307,88 338,25 314,71 313,79 283,97
335,3 312,47 332,77 310,31 326,17 292,64 322,14 276,14
335,89 328,65 331,13 309,17 334,26 304,94 327,6 289,02
333,44 317,34 323,31 308,84 335,83 308,3 330,62 296,65

top 10 female athletes during the EC by categories.


63 69 75 p75
Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10 Top 3 Top 10
313,85 274,76 305,73 262,07 313,13 275,02 275,27 243,91
300,37 279,5 310,15 280,75 303,19 282,26 273,15 245,64
305,04 287,78 293,27 271,04 291,65 241,13 259,73 238,25
310,7 283,48 310,47 275,83 309,12 273,62 283,3 253,53
318,94 283,21 321,09 258,85 336,56 283,66 282,18 256,01
324,6 288,08 313,58 280,41 336,86 282,83 306,41 280,03
286,8 266,83 320,17 281,97 304,48 266,9 313,61 245,2
280,57 258,84 310,42 272,91 301,17 267,49 244,77 230,29
310,49 281,63 296,05 281,78 305,34 280,06 297,13 257,46
301,12 267,36 304,35 283,16 309,27 283,39 303,12 264,53
296,46 277,15 293,03 272,62 293,89 274,1 269,4 240,81
42 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Table 10 - Highest and lowest female category per competition.


Top 3 Top 10
Sinclair Weight Sinclair Weight
Highest Olympic games category. 332.92 58 304.22 48

Highest World Championships category. 333.57 75 313.29 63

Highest European Championships category. 309.51 75 282.31 58

Highest combined category of OG, WC and EC. 323.42 75 297.33 58

Lowest Olympic games category. 309.97 P75 280.13 P75

Lowest World Championships category. 315.50 P75 283.80 P75

Lowest European Championships category. 282.36 P75 282.55 P75

Lowest combined category of OG, WC and EC. 302.61 P75 272.13 P75

Values are given as average Sinclair scores of the all of competitions studied.

Table No. 10 shows highest and lowest results of OG, WC, EC and the combination of these three competitions
of the female body weight categories. As you can notice, the results of the top 3 ranked athletes report 75
kg as the highest and p75 kg as the lowest category during the competitions studied except for the best OG
category where 58 kg achieves the highest results. On the other hand, it exists a higher variability for the
best top 10 ranked athletes, reporting 48 kg and 63 kg as the highest categories during OG and WC and 58 kg
category as the highest category for EC and the combination of the three competitions studied. As in the top
3 analysis, the lowest category for the top 10 ranked athletes remains being p75 kg.

Table 11 - Best and worst female competition.


Top 3 Top 10
Sinclair Year Sinclair Year
Best Olympic Games 2327.02 2012 2100.51 2008

Best World Championship 2320.59 2015 2173.64 2015

Best European Championship 2182.59 2010 2061.71 2008

Worst Olympic Games 2241.99 2016 2084.70 2016

Worst World Championship 2239.37 2006 2065.96 2006

Worst European Championship 2000.73 2013 1827.18 2013

Values are given as sum of average Sinclair scores of every category by championship.

Table No. 11 reports the best and worst edition of the top 3 and top 10 ranked female athletes of the OG, WC
and EC. The results on Table 11 show how the top 3 and top 10 analyses are coincident except for the best OG
and best EC.
BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING 43

N 7 / May-August 2017
Table 12 - Highest and lowest female Sinclair scores
to obtain the different medals.
Highest Lowest

Sinclair Weight Year Sinclair Weight Year

Sinclair gold medal (OG) 359.29 69 2008 312.2 p75 2016

Sinclair silver medal (OG) 350.13 p75 2012 278.57 p75 2008

Sinclair bronze medal (OG) 332.53 58 2012 277.82 p75 2008

Sinclair gold medal (WC) 363.27 p75 2014 307.48 p75 2005

Sinclair silver medal (WC) 350.91 75 2010 301.59 p75 2005

Sinclair bronze medal (WC) 341.65 75 2010 276.71 p75 2011

Sinclair gold medal (EC) 350.78 75 2011 241.3 p75 2013

Sinclair silver medal (EC) 339.65 75 2010 266.03 p75 2009

Sinclair bronze medal (EC) 327.81 75 2010 231.74 p76 2013

Values are given as Sinclair achieved by the athlete.

Table No.12
Finally the analysis of the highest and lowest average Sinclair scores by medal color and competition is
reported on Table 12. As we can see on Table 12 the lowest Sinclair scores are achieved by all medals and
competitions in the heaviest category (p75 kg). On the other hand, 75 kg for EC medals and silver and bronze
medals in WC is the category with highest Sinclair scores. During OG, the highest Sinclair scores for gold,
silver and bronze medals are obtained in different categories (69 kg, p75 kg and 58 kg respectively).
44 BODY WEIGHT CATEGORIES IN WEIGHTLIFTING
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Conclusions
The snapshot presented in this work is a brief
study which compares the results obtained in
the Olympic Games and World and European
Championships since the technical regulation
of progression load was changed in 2005. Some
of the conclusions that can be drawn from this
analysis are:
For men, the tendency shows how the hi-
ghest results are obtained in 85 kg catego-
ries and the lowest outcomes are achieved JUAN C. REDONDO
by the light weight divisions 62 kg and spe- PHD (UNIVERSITY OF VALLADOLID,
cially 56 kg. SPAIN). PROFESSOR OF THE PHYSICAL
For women, the variability among catego- ACTIVITY AND EDUCATION DEPARMENT
(UNIVERSITY OF LEON, SPAIN).
ries and competitions is higher than men,
BACHELOR DEGREE IN PHYSICAL
finding usually the highest results in 75 kg EDUCATION (POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
category and clearly occupying the lowest OF MADRID, SPAIN).
position for p75 kg category.
As for the best results obtained by type of
competition, these are usually achieved
during the OG closely followed by the WC
and clearly below we find with the results
obtained in the EC.
Tendency of performance by competitions:
for men and the top 3 analyses, trend line
shows how the performance is increased
throughout the different editions of the OG F. JAVIER FLORES
and WC, showing a clear decrease tenden- SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL
cy for EC. On the other hand, studying the SCHOOL OF COACHES OF SPANISH
tendency of the top 10 ranked athletes the WEIGHTLIFTING FEDERATION. TECHNICAL
STAFF OF SERVICE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
performance in EC and WC is increased and
AND SPORTS(UNIVERSITY OF SALAMANCA,
is a plateau for OG. SPAIN). BACHELOR DEGREE IN PHYSICAL
Tendency of performance by competi- ACTIVITY AND SPORTS SCIENCES
tions: for women, the trend line shows the (UNIVERSITY OF LEON, SPAIN). BACHELOR
same pattern of behavior as in the case of DEGREE IN PHYSICALEDUCATION TEACHER
men for EC and WC. For OG the tendency (UNIVERSITY OF VALLADOLID, SPAIN).
of the results is shown stable with a slight
downward trend.

This comparison of body weight categories


and competitions allows to compare the diffe-
rences performances obtained between cate-
gories, competitions and editions since 2005,
when the competition rules set a minimal pro-
gression of 1.0 kg after any successful attempt
for the same athlete.
ANTICIPATING THE TIMES FROM THE THEORY OF IDEAS TO EXERCISING MOVEMENTS 45

N 7 / May-August 2017
46
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Sports
performance.
MUS, Stress
and Chronic
Low-grade
Inflammation
by Dario Boschiero
47

N 7 / May-August 2017
48 SPORTS PERFORMANCE. MUS, STRESS AND CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION

An athletes sports performance is sors or stimuli. Physchophysical go beyond the generic meaning
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

clearly influenced by his/her state performance is a multidimensio- of the term well-being. In order
of well being, but despite being a nal concept, which includes phy- to favour an increase in perfor-
shared principle, it is not so easy to siological, psychological, physical, mance, we need to evaluate all the
obtain a clear picture which can as- cognitive, proprioceptive and au- types of imbalances that, without
sess the overall state of well-being tonomic variables. amounting to defined clinical
and physical and mental perfor- It is a highly complex phenomenon outcomes, reduce the well-being
mance. regulated by the Stress System, and the physical and mental per-
the low-grade inflammatory pro- formance of the athlete.
In todays world, the need to in- cesses, the circadian rhythms, The initial feedback of subjective
crease or maintain performance and the most important elements perception of well-being is found
is an obligatory passage, not only of the body composition, such as in the onset of MUS (Medically
in sports, but in all areas of our muscle, IMAT, fat and bone. While Unexplained Symptoms), a series
complex life, with an increasing an athletes health tends to be ge- of subclinical disorders of a fun-
demand for adaptability in condi- nerally above average, he/she re- ctional nature extensively analy-
tions presenting persistent stres- quires specific assessments that sed in international literature.
SPORTS PERFORMANCE. MUS, STRESS AND CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION 49

chronic and persistent fatigue

N 7 / May-August 2017
not relieved by sleep;
mood disorders;
hands and feet constantly
cold;
persistent insomnia or sleepi-
ness;
anxiety, apathy;
changes in appetite (excessive
hunger or lack of appetite);
heartburn, stomach fullness,
bloating after meals, nausea;
constipation or altered bowel
movement;
irritable bowel syndrome;
altered perspiration.

(examples of MUS Medically


Unexplained Symptoms)

Quite a large part of the popula- referring patients to specialists. ver, does not implicate significant
tion (predominantly adults) suffer, The progress made in the analysis changes in the bodys reaction me-
or have had several episodes of of the interactions between the chanisms. What is currently consi-
Medically Unexplained Symptoms, nervous, endocrine and immune dered to be essentially a fact, was
defined by the most accredited systems has created new horizons one of the most unexpected fea-
international literature as a cate- both in the medical and sports tures of stress: regardless of the
gory which encompasses a variety fields; in particular, thanks to the type of stimulus, whether it be in-
of disorders, only rarely leading to integration of the extensive litera- tense physical effort or worrying
a precise diagnosis, and remaining ture on Stress. for an exam, the activation me-
quite frequently within the limits chanisms are remarkably similar.
of altered clinical pictures, but not Stress The reactions to the stressors
to the point of being pathological. Literature describes stress as are determined by the activation
Literature has developed conside- a form of adaptation of the orga- of the nervous and endocrine sy-
rably since the 1980s, mainly be- nism (this is called the General stems; in both cases, the percep-
cause of the increasing incidence Adaptation Syndrome) to stimuli tion of stressors is located in the
of the phenomenon, considered known as stressors. brain, and it is from there that the
nowadays as one of the most fre- A stressor can be generically defi- stress signals depart.
quent, costly and complex pro- ned as an element capable of alte- On the endocrine level, the re-
blems in general practice. ring the homeostatic state (nowa- action to stress is expressed
One of the initial hurdles with re- days literature on the subject through the activation of the HPA
spect to the formulation of an ap- tends to talk about allostasis, (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal)
proach to the phenomenon was, rather than homeostasis) of the axis, the ultimate consequence of
in all probability, the confinement organism; that element may have which is the secretion of glucocor-
of this kind of problems within an various forms, and belong to the ticoids by the adrenal cortex, while
unspecified area of psycho-social most diverse categories: indeed on a nervous level, the stressors
disorders which general practitio- it can be psychosocial or strictly involve the activation of the Sym-
ners distances themselves from, physical, the distinction, howe- pathetic Nervous System.
50 SPORTS PERFORMANCE. MUS, STRESS AND CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION

That being the case, it is no wonder that literature has


The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

documented, and continues to document, the effects


on our general health caused by the prolonged activa-
tion of reactions to stress. The increase of circulating
glucocorticoids, the loss of their circadian rhythm and
the excessive activation of the sympathetic nervous
system alone are the direct or indirect risk factors for
high incidence of disorders such as obesity, high blood
pressure and mood disorders (anxiety, depression).
Before the onset of obvious manifestations, the per-
sistent activation of the response to the stressors is
associated to the onset of MUS and the loss of mental
and physical performance, and when these phenome-
na are under control and treated, the risk of full-blown
disease (usually to the detriment of the system most
at risk for the specific subject) consequently increases.
Based on the findings of the scientific community,
therefore, individuals with MUS should be carefully
analysed in order to clarify the genesis of the sympto-
mology, and to implement the most appropriate stra-
tegies.

Literature on stress has quite rapidly classified the


stress reaction stages based on their chronological
dynamics, that respects the phases of the so-called
GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome):

alarm: the phase in which the stressor is recogni-


sed and in which the reaction to the stress begins
according to the previously described mechanisms;

adaptation or resistance: the real reaction to the


stressor, when the body attempts to rebalance
and recover homeostasis; based on the bodys re-
sponsiveness, on the intensity or the extent of the
stressors, or the concurrence with other previous
stressors, this stage could have normal duration
or persist over time, without actually recovering
homeostasis, which leads to the next stage -
exhaustion;

exhaustion: this represents a chronic or persistent


reaction to stress; the body is by now unable to re-
cover homeostasis; this is the most damaging stage
as prolonged exposed to the phenomenon may in-
crease the risk of physical and psychic pathologies.
SPORTS PERFORMANCE. MUS, STRESS AND CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION 51

Stress is also generally differen- distress: is the type of stress and/or exogenous) and the orga-

N 7 / May-August 2017
tiated according to its final con- that results in the loss of the nisms adaptive capabilities lead
sequences, based on the princi- organisms homeostasis, to important changes with diffe-
ple that one stressor may on the usually associated with an rent psychophysical pathways that
whole be considered positive or excessive or persistent acti- over time can sustain negative lo-
negative, depending on whether vation of the reaction to the ops with a strong presence of me-
the body is able to react to it or not, stressors, ultimately associa- dically unexplained symptoms,
and re-establish physiological ho- ted with emotional or physi- chronic low-grade inflammation,
meostasis; in this case we refer to: cal disorders. body composition changes and si-
gnificant loss of mental and physi-
eustress: indicates the stress One of the main problems, in rela- cal performance.
that leads to an adjustment tion to the functional or diagnostic This type of symptoms, although
reaction by the organism, whi- assessment of stress, is the wide not amounting to specific patho-
ch can then return to a state variety of elements to be conside- logical conditions, is indicative of
of physiological homeostasis; red as potential stressors, ranging an impairment in the physiologi-
from this point of view, the ini- from psychosocial stimuli to orga- cal balance of the organism, often
tial stressor takes on the form nic diseases, from nutritional im- related to the chronic nature of
of a positive stimulation for balances to physical activity. inflammatory processes, chronic
the body, be it a constructive stress, unhealthy eating habits,
or pleasant psychosocial sti- In addition, the time variable as- alterations of physiological hor-
mulation, or an functional im- sociated with different types of mone balances or of their physio-
muno-endocrine adjustment; stressors or stimuli (endogenous logical circadian rhythms.
52 SPORTS PERFORMANCE. MUS, STRESS AND CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION

To improve sports performance we cificity of MUS, however, prevents vels, the distribution of intra and
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

must fill the gap, often overlooked, classification or accurate treat- extracellular fluids, muscle con-
between the state of well-being ment, as the same symptom can re- tent, fat types, the quantity and
and the pathological state, without sult from a number of problems, quality of minerals, and the ability
taking for granted the fact that the when not by the concomitant inte- of the autonomic nervous system
absence of specific diseases me- raction of pathogenic processes of to adjust (Heart rate Variability),
ans a perfect bill of health. a different nature.Focusing on the play a crucial role.
The onset of MUS is a significant specific case therefore requires Any conditions of systemic or intra-
index that must not be ignored, more data correlation and compa- cellular dehydration are particular-
related with the areas of metabolic rison, in addition to those on vague ly significant in this context, linked
or neuro-immuno-endocrine disor- and non-specific symptoms. Indica- both to the shortage of bicarbona-
ders; investigation into the causes tors of primary importance can be te and phosphate buffer systems,
of the symptoms and the adoption obtained by means of differential and to increased cell death, and
of specific recovery strategies, as analysis tests of body composition the consequent migration of cell
well as allowing the containment such as muscle, bone, total fat, vi- fluid into the extracellular matrix.
and regression of symptoms, pre- sceral fat, IMAT, HPA axis, etc. as One of the main issues related to a
vents the escalation of the factors well as of heart rate variability and low level of hydration is the difficul-
involved in their creation, involving the autonomic nervous system te- ty of transport and absorption of
new and more serious systemic in- sting with SDNN, RMSSD, scatter, nutrients (minerals, for example),
teractions that could lead to spe- etc. There is no doubt that, for the an aspect which plays a key role for
cific diseases. The same non-spe- athlete, monitoring hydration le- the athlete.
SPORTS PERFORMANCE. MUS, STRESS AND CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION 53

The differential analysis of body parameters directly related to the branes correlated to the degree

N 7 / May-August 2017
composition allows the monito- metabolic structure of the indivi- of systemic inflammation and the
ring of key parameters related to dual and the relationship between loss of intracellular fluids and mu-
muscle mass, the primary factor muscle mass and fat. The preser- scle mass.
for the maintenance of tone and vation of muscle mass, however, is
sports performance: the tenden- not the only aspect influencing the Complementing the systemic para-
cy to lose muscle mass is not a bodys metabolic rate, which may meters, the overall health picture
rare phenomenon, whether it be undergo more or less substantial can be further clarified by a survey
related to problems of an endo- alterations also due to chronic in- of the athletes ability to adjust
crinological, metabolic or chronic flammatory processes, and to the and adapt based on the analysis
inflammatory nature, a periodic relative degree of systemic inflam- of the autonomic nervous system
detection of the ratio of skeletal mation; persistent inflammation (e.g. PPG) and heart rate variabili-
muscle, fat mass) and fat types in fact, stimulating neuro-immu- ty (HRV). Parameters such as SDNN
(IMAT intramuscular fat, VAT visce- no-endocrine alterations, results (general health index and adaptive
ral adipose tissue) must not be in changes in metabolism, gene- capacity) and RMSSD (ratio of the
neglected, before implementing rally by decreasing the metabolic vagal/ parasympathetic activation
any nutritional corrections or pre- capacity of the individual. The dif- and anti-inflammatory capacity)
paring specific training strategies. ferential analysis of the body com- also allow us to assess the degree
In order to improve the athletes position (e.g. BIA-ACC) is useful in of endogenous anti-inflammatory
nutritional habits, the value of the this case where it can express the regulation, highlighting the fac-
basal metabolic rate and the daily HPA axis index value (performan- tors behind the symptomology
rate (BMR, 24EE) must be taken ce of the cortisol rhythm), an indi- and the loss of mental and physi-
into account as they are metabolic cator of the integrity of cell mem- cal performance.

Download the MUS self-assessment sheet:


DARIO BOSCHIERO http://www.biotekna.com/schede/MUS.pdf
President and Founder of the Open Academy of
Medicine, London, UK, Venice, ITALY
Founder and Coordinator of the project MUS or scan this qr code
- Medically Unexplained Symptoms, Chronic
Inflammation and Clinical Nutrition
Director of R&D in BioTekna Biomedical Technologies
54 SPORTS PERFORMANCE. MUS, STRESS AND CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

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56
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

The
periodization
of training
in practice,
science
and science
fiction
BY VITO LEONARDI
57

N 7 / May-August 2017
58 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION

I have read several times Presi- dynamics that regulate the bo- drug injections, there are only two
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

dent Antonio Ursos editorial whi- dys adaptation to the pressure other ways: improving the activa-
ch appeared in issue no.18/2016 of physical exercise. At any rate, tion of the nervous system, and/
of Strength & Conditioning. The in order to achieve these results, or increasing muscle mass. All
science of human movement, we have increased training loads methodologies, albeit with diffe-
and continue to marvel at the ex- to unprecedented levels. We have rent perspectives, are based es-
traordinary and various insights gone from occasional workouts, or sentially on these possibilities.
it provides. These range from the training just before the next race In the past, strength seemed such
development of so-called complex in the early twentieth century to a universal ability, expendable in
systems to considerations on the working out every day, twice a day, any type of physical performance,
essence of human motor skills, three times a day ... a kind of cashiers check so to spe-
then returning once again to the Where we will stop? ak. But the conflicting aspects it
endless debate on the effects of It is true that under this tremen- manifested were soon to suggest
intensive training and the distri- dous pressure we have produced different names: speed strength,
bution of training loads. excellent results, but we have also explosive-resistant strength, ab-
In the quite recent past, a vast often failed along the way, and solute strength, names that we
number of studies have been carri- sometimes the health of athletes now understand from a physio-
ed out on the subject, and an equal has been put on the line. logical rather than physical point
number of works and guidelines When will we stop? of view, that is, how the energetic
have been published dating back There are without a doubt limi- processes are activated inside the
to the historical periodization of ts to the capabilities of human muscles and not in the movemen-
the 1960s by L.P. Matveyev. performance, but where are they ts of bodies because, in physics,
Much time has passed since then located? Every time we make pre- strength is defined in a vector for-
and scientific research has not dictions we have always been pro- mat, expressed in Newtons and
come to a halt, on the contrary, it is ved wrong by the facts, but surely is neither slow nor fast, however,
tirelessly advancing, investigating there must be limits. slow and fast are the movements
in all directions on the most hid- What is todays conceptual fra- of the bodies subject to it.
den aspects that underlie human mework of the periodization mo- It was soon understood that the
performance; however, all this del, what is researchers critical different expressions of this abi-
research, must obviously respect view, what do we know today, what lity implied methodologies of
observation times, which do not could we know tomorrow, what mi- equally different developments; it
go beyond 8/12 weeks and do not ght we never know? was a unique ability that changed
continue for decades. in appearance like a chameleon,
Nevertheless, we can still see an Looking back but above all we began to under-
improvement of performance le- There is no question that stren- stand the relationship between
vels that, without exception, en- gth is a very important factor of these differences.
compasses all sports, but which is performance, at least in the vast In the 1930s, physiologist A.V. Hill
also related to many other factors, majority of sports. However, the discovered a very important con-
such as the use of new materials, ability of strength, in other words, nection. It was common knowled-
an increased interest in sport, mo- what can actually be transferred ge that by as resistance increases,
dern analytical technologies and, to the passive locomotor appa- the speed of execution decreases:
of course, the sad phenomenon of ratus, the bones, depends on a Hill showed that this decrease oc-
doping. Doping is a curse for sport; number of factors on which it is curred hyperbolically as opposed
not only does it ruin its image and not always possible to take action, to linearly: the speed of execution
compromise the health of athle- such as the anthropometric ra- is maximal with a zero load and
tes, but as the effects overlap, it tios and the physiological section is zero with a maximum load, a
obscures to a greater extent the of the muscles. Excluding illicit condition in which the maximum
THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION 59

N 7 / May-August 2017
strength exerted equals the op- the first to come into play, which maximum force, but reach it at dif-
posite force to overcome. In the has considerable significance for ferent times, just as two cars may
graph that illustrates the stren- the purpose of the athletic build. have the same speed, but not the
gth-velocity ratio we can see the All this still did not clarify another same acceleration.
maximum mechanical power that aspect, namely the extremely
a muscle is able to express. Even important aspect of time, given It goes without saying that in per-
more importantly, in practice it that the vast majority of sporting formances with very short execu-
became obvious that this hyper- activities are carried out in a very tion times, maximum force has a
bolic trend could not be modified short time, a condition in which relative rather than an absolute
with training, but only oriented ei- the different muscle fibers play a role: therefore, what matters very
ther more towards speed or more central role. Studies carried out in often is the expression of strength
towards strength, or at any rate the former Soviet Republics in the in the unit of time required: the
raised without changing its hyper- 1960s on the strength-time ratio key concept of muscle power. And
bolic character. indicated a trend which was also again, performances with times
In the 1960s, Italian academics not linear, but rather in the shape which are not clearly defined, may
Margaria R., Marchetti M., Cavagna of an italics S. This indicated the ra- give rise to the complete manife-
G.A., Prampero P.E. and Mognoni pid strength index, in other words, station of the strength possessed,
P. significantly contributed to the the time taken by the muscle to re- and even of greater intensity if this
development of physiological and ach its peak of maximum force, but comes about by means of a parti-
mechanical models, in reference more importantly, the steepest cular form of contraction, defined
to the force/length ratio. part of the curve, which indicates eccentric. But nothing is simple,
In the 1970s, E. Hennemann disco- the most explosive moment (force everything is complicated.
vered that, at any speed of con- gradient). Therefore, two indivi- The fact that the different perfor-
traction, the red fibers are always duals may have the same peak of mance requirements led to stren-
60 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION

gth lasting over time and also to Evolution and the organization of training bases its
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

the maximum intensity possible development of the laws on living matters ability to
gave rise to performance cha- training theory adapt to external stimuli, if these
racteristics which were not exactly A body works as a result of a com- can act according to complex dy-
and exclusively muscular, but ra- plex system in which the various namics, but within the tolerance
ther depended on the systems of organs are involved, to varying limits of the actual individual. The
transforming and using energy. extents, in carrying out external genetic aspect alone represents
Initial studies on human energy work. In sport, the increase of mo- an essential starting point that
systems date back to the early tor potential is the main theme of explains how different individuals
decades of the last century, when a vast amount of literature, with using the same training will not
in 1923, Krogh and Linhard defi- elements which are not always obtain the same results. This in-
ned the oxygen debt theory and unambiguous. At present, we still dividuality is the first reason why
maximum oxygen consumption. In have fragmentary scientific evi- precise conclusions cannot be
1927, while studying integrative dence on the logic of the laws go- drawn on the effectiveness of the
phenomena between the diffe- verning the processes of physical stimuli that structured exercise
rent energy sources available in adaptation to intense exercise. has on the body, as a general rule,
the body, Linhard was the first to Preparation aimed at high results, although studies carried out on
demonstrate greater economy in in any sport, today appears more identical twins can provide further
running, by means of keeping a than ever as an organization of information. Neither mild or ran-
steady pace. The attempt, among specific stimuli aimed not only dom, nor intense stimuli produce
others, to represent the main phy- at an increase in the potential of adaptation effects in the body. It is
sical performance ability of man bio-energetic performance, but the laws of nature, the same that
in a coherent framework was put also at the ability to use this same led to the evolution and the subse-
forward by Gundlach in 1968. potential. Now, for such use we quent extinction of particular spe-
In the three ordinates of space x, y, must take into account a variety cies, when the environment chan-
z, we have maximum force (Fmax), of other factors, which are equally ged too abruptly. We should also
maximum power (Pmax) and velo- specific and refer to special abi- remember that the external envi-
city (V) over time (T), so that the re- lities, such as technique, health, ronmental pressure is crucial for
lationships between the individual on the personality of the indivi- life: in the absence of this, we ob-
abilities can be expressed functio- duals. However, several elements serve a functional and structural
nally.This model is still of interest are involved in the definition of reduction which affects all organs
today, especially for the purpose a problem, and it becomes more and systems, without exception.
of a conceptual representation, al- difficult to have a unique and com- But how does this mechanism
though mutual interrelationships prehensive conceptual picture. work?
cannot be precisely placed. The boost scientific research has
Strength, speed and endurance experienced in recent decades is, Briefly, it can be stated that: at a
move away from the zero point as in the history of the studies in que- state of rest, the various biolo-
their dimension increases, resul- stion, of an unprecedented scope, gical systems are stabilized in a
ting in an irreconcilable conflict and ranges from the physiological condition of equilibrium, defined
between them. So why, albeit in to the mechanical sphere, from the homeostatic balance, which can
varying percentages, do certain psychological to the social and na- be lost due to physical stress and
dependencies continue to remain turally, there are more schools of external agents, determining sta-
within the different motor skills? thought which, while not rejecting te defined heterostasis. Influen-
To quote the standard scientific the indisputable data of research, ced by intensity, duration and the
approach: Why a thing is rather assign to them a different context. action of agents as a whole, many
than is not, and why is it so and So, what stage are we at? Today physiological parameters are rai-
not otherwise? we follow the correct idea that the sed, while others are lowered.
THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION 61

Again, it is important that some of energy resources, of protein It has already been stated that

N 7 / May-August 2017
of these may exist in a very wide activation, as well as defense me- stimuli which are too mild, or too
range, such as the heart rate chanisms including the immune intense prove ineffective and that
that may range from 40 beats per system, in other words, very com- they must repeated over time;
minute to over 200, and others plex biochemical reactions. The but at what intensity should they
with much more reduced levels, as initial lowering of the functional be compared, and what features
is the case of blood lactate. The re- potentiality is subsequently su- should the time sequence of the
turn to normal, however, takes pla- percompensated by a higher level, stimuli have?
ce over very different times, which as a reaction of the organism, pro-
depend on the state of adaptation vided that - if repeated over time Moreover, the very idea of over-
of the individual: from just a few - it leads to the summation effects compensation resulting from trai-
minutes, such as in the heart rate, that profoundly change all the bio- ning stimuli implicitly acknowled-
to days in the case of reactive pro- logical systems of the organism, ges an increase in load according
teins (CRP) and creatine kinase above all those that most directly to the most diverse solutions, and
(CK) or a few hours, as in the case were involved. Training, therefore, which is still at the centre of a he-
of fatty acids. is founded on a simple principle: ated debate.
This kind of reorganization ear- the dichotomy between the loss In the early 1960s, the methodolo-
thquake is necessary as throu- and reorganization of homeosta- gy of training came from experien-
gh more complex processes, it tic balance. It only appears simple, ce, while the intricacies between
triggers a state of mobilization as can be observed in figure 1. general, specific and technical

Figure No. 1
Schematic representation of the alteration of the state of homeostasis produced by a load for a duration
of 4 hours. The return to normality of some parameters has a different time span and can last for several
days (HR, heart rate; FFA, free fatty acids; CRP, C-reactive protein; CK, creatine kinase), G. Newman 1987.
62 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

Figure No.2
The sequence of reparative biosynthesis in muscles during the recovery period after physical effort.

preparation were more whimsical an outdated concept, that still Sensitive Phases. According to the
and controversial; a basic concept prejudicially resists (see Behrin- author, these are the ontogenetic
however remained unchanged, ger et al. 2010). But it was, and moments during which the body
the progressive nature of the still is, this heterochrony of adap- proves to be more predisposed to
training load during the career of tation that creates the biggest the development of certain qua-
athletes. To complicate matters, problems, especially in the field lities and types of tasks. Once
in the manner of Chinese boxes, of youth sport, because some phy- these phases have elapsed, it is
one inside the other, motor skills sical performance abilities have no longer possible to fully develop
not only counteract each other but very long activation times, incu- the factors of the motor value. In
have different times of develop- bation periods, which are almost other words, a kind of imprinting, a
ment, just as various organs and deaf to training stimuli, compared now or never challenge.
systems during the developmen- to other more immediate respon- According to Bauer (1988), this al-
tal stages of adolescence. ses, such as joint mobility, coordi- leged sensitivity is nothing but the
nation and motor learning. result of development pressures
It can be said that auxology, the In the mid-1980s, these problems in adolescence, though this does
science that studies the laws of were at the centre of a heated in- not imply real imprinting in the
development and growth, is inde- ternational debate when Winter, human being, as is observable in
ed highly conservative: no over- prompted by the work of Martin some species of animals. Can there
loads before the age of fourteen, (1982), presented his Theory on be a youth training theory distinct
THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION 63

N 7 / May-August 2017
Figure No. 3
Diagram of energy
consumption during a
workout and its
restoration during
recovery:
1 - consumption,
2 - restoration,
3 - supercompensation,
4 - return to the initial level;
Jakowlew (1978).

from training at the highest level? of weekly sessions, called the mi- is that the body, under the pres-
But lets take a step back. crocycle. A number of microcycles sure of training, cannot proceed
In 1964, an extraordinary work was comprises a greater amount of linearly in its evolution, but does
produced by Prof. L. Matveyev, of time called the mesocycle, and so in a upwards trend, with stages
the Central Institute of Physical a number of mesocycles makes leading to the conclusion of an an-
Culture in Moscow, a text that soon up a time frame defined the ma- nual cycle of activities, which inclu-
became famous the world over crocycle: they are all connected to des competitions. Within a year, in
The Periodization of Training. each other by consequential pur- fact, the bodys current adaptation
Not only was this work of conside- poses. Therefore we have basic, reserves would (and here the con-
rable substance, it also represen- preparatory, training and mainte- ditional is a must) be momentarily
ted an extraordinary event becau- nance mesocycles. The basic idea exhausted and then after a transi-
se, in 1965, during the Cold War, up
until the demolition of the former
Soviet Socialist Republics, studies
were conducted were kept hidden
and covered like a military secret,
such was the importance of State
athletics. The work of Matveyev
provided significant contribution
to the rationalization of training
and in many ways, ended empirici-
sm. What exactly did this work en-
tail? According to Matveyev, the ef- Figure No.4
fectiveness of the training process The Diagram of the dynamics of the process of adaptation in the
is based on an undulating load conditions of sports activities. A indicates the trends of long-term
structure divided into phases: the changes, relatively stable in the athletes body of the athlete, over a
number of years of activity; B and C are continuous annual changes in
preparatory phase, the competi-
functional indexes, which have a temporary, unstable nature and are
tion phase, the maintenance pha- based on the compensation mechanisms that guarantee the maintenance
se. The idea of his periodization is of the required functional level for the period of stabilization of
to place the individual components the adaptation process; D: alongside the increase of motor potential
of the whole process in a sequence the possibility of its comprehensive utilization in sport performance
in which the basic unit is the cycle develops (from Verchosanskij 1985).
64 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION

tion period, they would pass to a of the body consequential to the clear that the former are the most
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

higher level. load and the deployment of its re- studied and reliable, while the de-
But with the same organization? serves. In practice, in fact, during layed effects are lost in the mass
We shall see later; meanwhile, the athletes career, the return of different stories.
from Platonov to Verchosanskij to to a general non-specific adap-
Tschiene, to name but a few, there tation appears totally unlikely in Due to increasingly widespread
isnt an author who does not ack- the training protocols, whereas criticism and in response to the
nowledge organization in phases today there is an increasing ten- needs of contemporary sport Mat-
or stages with load periods, in the dency to focus on the competition veyev revised his opinions in 1991.
logic of training, albeit with diffe- content, if not on the competition What were those changes?
rent content. itself as irreplaceable training. On Firstly, greater cohesion
the other hand, it is undeniable between preparation and the
What do these stages involve? that the increase in the number of multiple competition system
Firstly, the initial assimila- top competitions in the world has in the annual or multi-year
tion of a general, non-specific interfered, from the physical and process;
adaptation through the effect physiological point of view, with An integrative concept of the
of the repetition of single trai- preparation programmes becau- individual components as a
ning workouts, and then as the se, it must be said, the concep- more harmonized overall trai-
sum of the same. tual framework of Matveyev was ning process.
Then triggering a deep fun- founded on the physiological re-
ctional restructuring of the sponse of the body, and not on the In brief, the previous concepts
data, not only by cell enlarge- system of multiple competitions. were expanded upon and exten-
ment, but also by the coordi- It was no longer possible for the ded, and, more importantly, they
nation of the various systems athletes to have direct access to increase the possibility of diffe-
in response to the demands of the most important competitions rent perspectives. Basically a more
specific locomotor activity. without a selection mechanism. open theory, but one that will
The third phase should con- So at this point, is it necessary to triggered criticism. In fact, in the
solidate stable and enduring formulate a competition theory? background of this review lie the
adaptation with high functio- asks Peter Tschiene. The problem principles expressed by Selye, and
nal abilities. This climax, howe- primarily concerns team sports a firm belief to structure training
ver, cannot be maintained for characterized by a system of mul- into periods. In the mid-nineties,
long. tiple competitions. In recent years, a heated international debate was
The fourth and final stage scientific production in the world sparked off about the inadequacy
would be to reduce the com- has increased significantly; many of certain fundamentals, involving
plex of training stimulations studies have investigated specific some of the worlds leading spe-
to allow a complete regenera- aspects of muscular and energe- cialists on the subject. But before
tion of the organic structures. tic activity from Bosco to Tyanij, that time, no one, absolutely no
from Schmidblacher to Tschiene, one, had openly challenged Mat-
Although these principles are ge- to name but a few. Even the tech- veyev, one of the fathers, if not, the
nerally shared today, we must re- nical and coordinative aspects and father, of the most popular trai-
cognize that they are still the psychological component of ning theory. The most corrosive
incomplete for the definition of a training and competition are not criticism came in the form of a fa-
general training model. According neglected. What is missing, howe- mous article published in Sports
to many academics, we are still ver, is a coherent picture, especial- Culture, by another great name,
stuck in the adaptation syndrome ly of the very long-term effects. In Prof. Jury Verchosanskij, for many
described by Selye in 1956, that is, training we have immediate ef- years active in our country at the
the perspective of an adjustment fects and delayed effects, and it is School of Sport in Rome.
THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION 65

N 7 / May-August 2017
Figure No.5
Diagram of dynamic load undulations in the macrocycle. Above: (A) in speed strength sports. Below (B): in
sports that require endurance. The continuous lines indicate the dynamic loads in the basic exercises, the
arrows indicate their intensity.

In a lengthy and verbose article, chnological background, does not although motor learning is more
what surprises readers is not the take into account sporting skill or, specific than general, it does lack
content, which had already been above all, the most recent advan- a certain generality. But critics
put forward both by Verchosanskij ces in biology and related scien- also pointed the finger at Vercho-
and others, but the resentful man- ces. It continues to impress on sanskijs biological theory: This
ner in which the same concepts skills transfer, on abilities, in other hypothetical equation of the bio-
are presented over and over again. words on the most typical aspects logical aspect and the essence of
Matveyev is accused of being pu- of physical education rather than training would be non-specific,
rely academic, far from reality, with on sport (Verchosanskij,1998). although this statement does not
ideas resembling school physical Incidentally, even P. Tschiene had in the least mean a reduction in
education programmes rather debated the problem of the laws the phenomenon of adaptation
than high-level sports, also be- of the structure and the transfer ... While biological laws regulate
cause he often refers to educating which appeared highly unlikely, at the structure, the operation and
strength and speed .... . His con- least at a high level. In the 1980s development of the organism,
ceptual framework, with a poor te- Battinelli had already argued that maintains Tschiene, the training
66 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

theory is governed by the laws of mental units, the microcycles, both, a pre-competition period, a
the structure, by its working order, implies that the effect of the load period of the competition, a tran-
by the development of sport itself is represented only by volume and sition period, all with different
as a global and complex phenome- intensity. The undulating trend, terminologies (cycle, stage, major
non, and not accountable to a sin- in particular of volume, had led to cycle, etc.) with the difference, of
gle science. applications exaggerated to the no small importance, that in the
In any case, the most controver- contrary of what Verchosanschij Verchosanskij model, there is a
sial issue, which undermines the proposes in his block structure, form of a concentrated load, a
model of classical periodization, is or concentrated forms of load, but block, that depending on which of
the return to general preparation this was true only for elite athle- the stages, falls within the specific
which by now is no longer included tes. We must acknowledge that in locomotor regime of the activity.
in the training protocols, at least Matveyevs organization of loads The idea, however, of introducing
in high level sport. Moreover, as we there are different trends in the maximum load intensity peaks in
have already said, the extension volume curves between strength the logic of training, is hardly new.
of the competition calendars, the and endurance sports, much more Harre in 1971, Platonov in 1984,
demands of commercialized sport pronounced in the former than in and Matveyev himself had under-
do not allow athletes to obtain the the latter, and flatter because of stood its importance, understo-
best result possible in the biologi- lower physiological intensity. od as a complex and total load.
cal sense. It is impossible to think A non-undulating organization of Verchosanskijs block structure, in
that athletes can stay in top form these curves, by jumps or steps addition to being a tool for monito-
for the entire competition season would however be justified in ring and directing training, is also
.... Is a new theory necessary? In shorter cycles and under special a form of training. In conclusion,
the model proposed by Matveyev, conditions. while Matveyev is credited with ha-
the organization of the training If we compare the two different ving understood that load increa-
process, which as previously sta- conceptual frameworks, we can ses cannot be distributed linearly,
ted consists of a sum of funda- see in the annual preparation of but in an undulating manner, ac-
THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION 67

cording to a predominantly exten- Verchosanschij, P. Bellotti, SDS, knowing how to do. In practice, no

N 7 / May-August 2017
sive concept of volume and inten- no.50 year XIX, pp. 2/4, 2000). And coach takes the indications in va-
sity, Verchosanskij understood the so we moved from the theory of rious publications too seriously,
value of the specific locomotor re- cognitive maps in vogue in the but, more likely, they adopt proto-
gime of activity and the possibility sixties thanks to Preiban, Miller cols based on their own experien-
of producing better effects with and Galanter, to the scheme devi- ce, on the connections between
concentrated forms of load during sed by Schmidt, the psychokinetics the different stages of prepara-
the various training cycles. It was of J.P. Le Boulche, to the opinions tion, on the different contents of
predictable that sooner or later, in of other authors and then retur- multiple competitions ... so how
view of the importance of the spe- ned to the N. Bernsteins speech in can we summarize and coordinate
cific regime of activity, the role of the 1930s on the substantial inso- all this?
motor coordination in a practice lubility of the control of movemen- Firstly, it seems increasingly clear
unpolluted by the cybernetic the- ts, a problem to be solved more that the whole adaptation pro-
ory would be discussed, as was in a biological sense that a peda- cess must revolve around specific
the case in an article by P. Bellotti. gogical one, recognized today as competition activity. Anokin in the
For these authors, abiding by the Bernsteins Problem. mid-70s had already called for a
basic assumption that coordina- We seem to be going back in time theory of action and a theory of
tion is intended as a flow of stimuli to many decades ago when trai- functional systems. This, put more
produced by the central organs ning content was basically compe- simply, means recognizing a series
towards the peripheral organs, it tition activity more or less repea- of initial parameters in order to
is not possible, in this approach, ted in its structure. structure the organization of trai-
to identify the phenomena in a cy- But how can we explain the rein- ning. If this approach is simpler in
bernetic perspective that can be terpretation of previous theories? a closed skills sport involving jum-
described in more or less complex There is no doubt that bringing to- ping or throwing, it becomes much
algorithms ... the problem of mo- gether in one coherent framework more complex in an open structure
tor coordination presents itself the different factors that come such as team games, for the huge
as a dissociation between theory into play in sporting success is a variety of related motor actions
and practice to which, today, the- daunting, if not impossible task. and the state of constant unpredi-
ory not only succumbs, but cannot But this is not enough, you may ctability that characterizes them.
even find a sense of belonging (Y. know very well what to do without In any case, the final reference of

Figure No. 6
Diagram of the main
forms of dynamic
loads in a series of
microcycles. The
arrows indicate the
trend of the dynamics
of the load volume,
the dotted arrows
indicate intensity.
68 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION

training seems certain as a spe- very is incomplete, the effects pro- infinitely by the theory of relativity.
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

cific process of adaptation, even duced by the previous ones effects Can it similarly be assumed that
if we have always known that to are suppressed, if the timing is too in athletes at very high stages of
learn how to run you have to run late, they disappear, but if they act adaptation, the methods used do
and to learn how to swim you have at the climax, they find the best not show the prime effectiveness
to swim. The idea, though substan- conditions for subsequent adap- for a change of state of the body?
tially correct, that more extensive tations (Verchosanskij, 1996). In this context, intensive training
preparation could lead to better We seem to be returning once in athletes would induce a particu-
results was so often taken to the more to the starting point of lar physical state, a singularity to
extreme, that it often translated Selyes stress theory; not that we adopt a term from physics, where
not only into a waste of time, but had lost sight of this essential the principles on which all the pre-
also into inducing adaptations point, but we have probably been paration was built are no longer
that led to more to the ability to driven towards a psycho-pedago- applicable.
increase train rather than to the gic approach more similar to phy-
achievement of high competitive sical education than to the biolo- The stimuli induced in the
results. gical - physiological approach of organism brings about addi-
stimulus-adaptation phenomena tional effects which may be
This new concept of economy in of intense physical activity. positive but also negative,
itself has important significance But it is actually during intense as can be the simultaneous
that changes the standards no and prolonged physical activity intake of multiple drugs.
longer conceived as fatigue-rest, that we realize the difficulties that Verchosanskij rightly indicates
but as consumption-recovery. The we gradually face. this complex as a potential
accumulation of muscle metaboli- training of exercises referring
tes, therefore, assumes a positive In the long-term, regular trai- to the effects as a whole, the-
role, which pushes the phenome- ning principles tend to lose refore the whole is more than
na of cell re-synthesis towards a their initial effectiveness. the sum of its single parts.
higher level of functional reorga- There are two hypotheses, ei- What could be the right mix in
nization, not to be eliminated at ther because the body exhau- the training stages in different
all costs. The increase in the volu- sts its ability to respond, sports?
me of work in itself, and the state or simply because at high Over time, the more one mo-
of consequent fatigue cannot be states of adaptation these tor skill is developed, the less
a necessary condition to improve principles no longer apply. this happens for others, its as
sports performance in the absen- Here is an example: when en- if - as a whole - they failed to
ce of the qualitative characteristi- gineers designs the hull of a co-exist, although they retain
cs of the work carried out. Accor- vessel, they apply the physical the dependency between each
ding to Verchosanskij, from the laws of fluids, but these apply other. Two hypotheses are
point of view of the new approach, to water in its liquid state, not plausible: either the body does
as regards the volume of the load, as a solid or gas. So, do laws not have the ability to pay all at
the most important goal is indica- always apply, or only under once the cost of these adapta-
ted in the efficacy of high stimuli, certain conditions? tions, or the latter are in con-
using the smallest volume of load flict with each other: in fact,
possible, maintaining them over In Newtonian physics the momen- an all-round athlete is almost
time in intervals which are nei- tum Q = m.v. is given by mass and impossible.
ther lower nor higher than those velocity, the latter may change but Different motor skills have
necessary for the completion of the mass remains constant. This is different development times,
protein synthesis. If the training true only for small speeds, in the a phenomenon known as he-
stimuli come into play when reco- speed of light the mass increases terochrony of adaptations.
THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION 69

In other words, not all organs tion, the problem of technical general and special principles, the

N 7 / May-August 2017
adapt simultaneously. acquisitions, of adaptation pro- first corresponding to all training
In youth training, the changes cesses, and psychological im- areas, the second refer to indivi-
induced by exercise are supe- plications which have not been dual aspects such as technical-co-
rimposed on the processes of mentioned so as not to create ordinative, rehabilitative or scho-
growth and development whi- further confusion on the topic. lastic purposes (cf. Kruger 1988
ch increases difficulties. 109, SAB 1988 113). In addition,
During the overcompensa- Many theories by many authors Schnabel and Muller (1988-97)
tion phases, there are boo- (Matveyev, Harre, Martin, Schna- propose a further differentiation
merang effects, such as the bel, Weineck, Platonov, Vercho- between principles in sports trai-
fast myosin IIx that declines in sanskij) have been put forward in ning and principles of training.
resistance training, but then an effort to insert into a coherent We intend principles in sports
doubles about after several framework an entire set of pheno- training when it comes to princi-
months of inactivity. mena related to training. ples that go beyond the area that
Lastly, there are problems of Many of these, however, still lack is the subject of it, but that are
relationships between general experimental confirmation. An ini- interpreted specifically. The prin-
and specific physical prepara- tial distinction is made between ciples of sports training on the

Figure No.7
Unexpected experimental results have practical applications for the athlete. The fast IIx myosin declined as
expected during resistance training. But when training stopped, rather than simply returning to the pre-
training level, the relative amount of IIx roughly doubled three months into detraining. So what does this
mean for the sprinter, to whom IIx is crucial? Provide for a period of reduced training before a competition.
70 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION

other hand are valid only within ad hoc corrective action, but the extremely complex differential
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

training itself (Schnabel, Muller, more corrective action is introdu- equations; but what is a differen-
in 1988/98 Weineck op.cit.). ced, the weaker the theory beco- tial equation? It describes the evo-
mes until it finally collapses. lution of a system, as for example
Further distinction is made betwe- Attempts at explanation built the parabolic curve of the launch
en principles and rules: the former around an observed phenome- space probe or when a stone is
possess a greater degree of gene- non are called hypotheses. These thrown, in order to determine its
ralization, but are materialized by hypotheses usually include ideal position at all times. It is neces-
rules: the rules are necessary for models to give meaning to the ob- sary, however, to know all the ini-
the interpretation of a principle, servations and the facts available. tial conditions, such as the height
and explain how it is to be applied When a hypothesis finally appears of the release, the speed, the an-
in certain sectors and phenomena to fit the observation, it is promo- gle of inclination, the air resistan-
in the process of sports training ted to a theory, perhaps an expla- ce, the coefficient of form ...
(Schnabel, Muller, 1988.99 cit.). nation in mathematical terms,
that connects the data collected if just one of these data is missing,
According to J. Weineck (op.cit.), and makes them comprehensible. the equation then has infinite so-
the plurality of individual princi- The theories that fully conform to lutions. The first initial condition
ples, some of which differ in no the experimental observations, lies in the genetic potential of per-
small part from author to author, in a variety of conditions, are cal- formance, the first cause that re-
can be divided into four main led laws: Isaac Newtons law of calls the prime mover of Aristotle
groups: universal gravitation not only from which all phenomena derive.
explains apples falling from trees, This is the most crucial point, and
Loads principles but also to some extent the mo- although we have a complete map-
Training cycles principles tion of the planets around the sun. ping of the human genome, this is
Specialization principles not enough; an individual is not
Proportionality principles There is, however, a problem: the just the sum of their genes, but of
observation itself disturbs the ob- its epigenome, in other words, the
If endless combinations are possi- served system: this phenomenon set of environmental and structu-
ble with seven musical notes, then was realized at the beginning of ral changes in its DNA which can
the numerous rules and princi- the last century in a study of suba- decode sequences contained in
ples can allow us to go crazy in tomic elementary particles; does them to translate them into pro-
an attempt to formulate a theory it not also apply even more so to teins, but cells of the human body
that can guide long term planning a biological system? Over the last do not all contain the same DNA se-
and control. few decades, countless studies quences: in other words, we need
have appeared in dedicated litera- to know its genetic mosaic. Even
But what is a theory? ture extensively explaining the dy- if we did possess all the data, we
A theory should interpret the data namics of the human organisms could never predict events like di-
collected, it must then provide the adaptation under certain condi- seases, accidents and the like, whi-
possibility to make predictions tions, but as yet we do have not a ch would jeopardize the biological
about phenomena that have ne- totally complete and consistent system in evolution, inevitably lea-
ver been observed or measured. If picture. ding to results in probabilistic ter-
these predictions are confirmed, Perhaps in the distant future we ms. The term probabilistic is incor-
the theory is accepted, otherwi- will have all the elements so as to rect, and relates to the resulting
se it is modified or replaced by construct mathematical models randomly predictable phenome-
another in accordance with the that can describe and predict the na; the lottery theory is an exam-
available data. Sometimes, theo- optimal development of perfor- ple. Only 6 numbers between 1 and
ries resist with the introduction of mance factors? They would be 99 come out, the number of possi-
THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION 71

ble combinations is enormous, but cond is that they have a fractional a training theory capable of explai-

N 7 / May-August 2017
in any case, it is finite. In 1917, E.N. as opposed to a full size: fractals. ning, giving scientific advice on
Lorenz opened the doors to a new The human body is full of examples the laws that regulate the bodys
science, the science of chaos, bet- of self-similarity: the shape of the adaptation to the long term inten-
ter defined as deterministic chaos, pulmonary bronchioles, the inte- sive exercise?
concerned with understanding if stinal villi, the capillaries of the cir-
behind phenomena characterized culatory system and the cerebral There are three possibilities:
by absolute unpredictability, there convolutions have all, at different
are concealed detailed rules and levels, a certain degree of geome- 1. there is a basic theory unifying
laws, and to what extent we are tric similarity. all sports, from which you can
able to predict the time evolution attempt to derive and build all
of a complex system, in short, if A chaotic system is typically not the phases of the training pro-
chaos has its own laws. The scien- linear, which means that its evolu- cess;
ce of chaos can be applied to many tion can be described by a pool of
fields: meteorology, stock exchan- equations, at least one of which is 2. there is no single theory, if not
ge trends, the development of a not linear, in other words, it is not in a very general sense. Each
social group, the development of expressed as a linear combination sports category requires dif-
a biological system, the origin of of the variables and of a constant, ferent organic functions that
the universe... At the basis of the as it contains at least one different obey different laws;
chaos theory, there is the property term of degree, such as a squared
of the dynamic systems known as variable or a product of two un- 3. there is no unified theory,
sensitive dependence on initial knowns. This is because chaotic beyond a certain stage of
conditions. The main method of behaviour is not always associated adaptation: further deve-
analysis is to observe the evolu- with the number of variables but lopments can be neither de-
tion of a chaotic behavior in a spa- rather with the specific interaction scribed nor expected, but
ce, called the phase space, marked between even just a few of them. If only assumed in so far as the
by attractors, precisely because we consider the set of factors that methodologies implemented
the system is attracted to them. are the basis of the construction and random disturbing fac-
For example, a pendulum swings of sports performance and the tors lead to completely unpre-
according to back and forth pha- unpredictable events that may dictable results subjected to a
ses, tracing an elliptical path that arise in the longer term, we do not principle that may be defined
becomes a point when the motion have, at least for now, any hope of as the principle of uncertain-
stops. The phases represent the predictability due to both the lack ty.
oscillations and the attractor is of reliable data and the necessary
gravity. By analogy, we can reaso- computing power. The only cer- Supposing that one day scien-
nably assume that the periodiza- tainty, as Antonio Urso wisely and ce will provide us with preci-
tion of training proceeds in terms rightly put it, consists in the un- se instructions, in the face of
of loading and unloading phases certainty of the result. What can be everything being predictable and
attracted by the bodys increasin- suggested to those involved in the certain, what will become of mans
gly evident tendency to functio- world of sports training is to start hopes, fears and illusions?
nal reduction. Chaotic systems, from conceptual understanding, Would we really want to know just
however, have particular proper- because knowledge always prece- how much time we have left?
ties and their attractors are called des know-how, the contextualized
strange attractors. They have understanding and vice versa,
two features: the first is the scale with the continuous monitoring of
invariance or self similarity; the se- cause and effect. Will there ever be
72 THE PERIODIZATION OF TRAINING IN PRACTICE, SCIENCE AND SCIENCE FICTION
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

VITO LEONARDI
Graduated in Sports Science and former professor at the ISEF of Naples (College
of Physical Education) and at the Parthenope University of Naples, he has also
collaborated with University St. Antipolis in Nice. He is an FGI international referee
and has held several positions within the same federation, in addition to creating
coaching programs. Leonardi was the Director of SRDS of Campania from 2002
to 2008, he is a national lecturer and Chairman of the FIPCF Regional Committee of
Campania. He has published four books and numerous works in federal journals,
and has been a speaker at various conferences.

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Furthermore, the Author or Authors of the
that the second constitutes a lifestyle and ethics texts submitted for publication must have ex- 8. The Authors of the texts are invited to use
entrusted to skilfully and thoroughly trained perience and knowledge in the given area en- non-sexist language and to show that they are
professionals with vast knowledge of the facts, abling them to declare themselves experts in sensitive to the appropriate semantic descrip-
as well as specific competence. Since its first the field and to ensure credibility to their find- tion of people with chronic illness and disabili-
appearance, SM has had the ambitious goal of ings and their recommendations. SM strongly ty (as pointed out - for example - in an editorial
bridging the gaps and misunderstandings be- recommends the presentation of material that of Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise,
tween the scientific laboratory and those work- illustrate methodologies to advance the studies 23 (11), 1991). As a general rule, only abbre-
ing in the field, enhancing both the practical on muscle strength and overall training of the viations and codified symbols should be used.
experience of the coaches and the results of same. If unusual abbreviations are used, they must
research, especially applied research. For this be explained from their first appearance in the
reason, it makes - as an editorial rule - constant text. The names of trademarks must be writ-
reference to the practice and the inclusion of GUIDELINES FOR THE PRESENTATION ten with a capital letter and their spelling is to
recommendations for the implementation of OF ORIGINAL RESEARCH WORK TO BE be carefully checked. The names of chemical
research results in the practice of movement PUBLISHED compounds and generic names must precede
and sport. the trade name or abbreviation of a drug the
1. A portion of the texts published by SM, as a first time that it is used in the text.
The process of improving the overall psycho- specific editorial choice, are versions in Italian
physical condition through the implemen- of highly accredited work already published
tation of appropriate exercise programmes elsewhere, carefully selected among the many
covers a wide range of people: from children to papers available in literature. It is also an ed-
senior citizens, through all ages, from novices itorial policy to include research from young
to professional athletes, at all possible levels. up and coming Authors or those in training.
For the professional it is important to have an Articles may be submitted by e-mail, in the
in-depth knowledge of the process of training form of files in Microsoft Word format (.doc),
and to realise how it can be supported by other to dir@calzetti-mariucci.it, following the in-
77

PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS It is recommended that statements such as 8. Tables

N 7 / May-August 2017
further research will be necessary, etc. etc...
1. Title page be avoided. Tables should be typed double-spaced on sepa-
rate pages and include a short title. Ensure that
The title page should include the title of the pa- Practical applications. In this section, it is es- there is adequate space within the tables and
per, the current title in short, the laboratory or sential to indicate to the coach or the sports use the least possible number of layout rules of
laboratories where the research was conduct- professional how to apply and use the data the rows. When tables are necessary, the infor-
ed, the full name of the Author or Authors, the contained in the article. It is a distinctive fea- mation must not be a duplicate of data already
department, the institution, full postal address ture of SM, also in compliance with the editori- in the text. All figures and tables must include
of the corresponding Author, phone number, al mission (see above), to try to bridge the gaps standard deviations or standard errors.
fax number and email address; furthermore, between the professional laboratory and the
a declaration of any funding received for the professional field. Costs for Authors
work carried out must be included.
5. Bibliography SM does not charge the Authors with any fees
Title page without the name of the Authors for presentation or per page. It is precisely for
All references must be listed in alphabetical or- this reason that it is assumed that once the
A second page should be enclosed containing der by last name of the first Author and num- manuscript has been accepted for publication
only the title of the paper. This page will be bered. References in the text must be made and sent to the printers, it is in its final form.
used to send the paper to the Reviewers for the with numbers [e.g. (4, 9)]. All bibliographic
double-blind review process. entries listed should be cited in the paper Terminology and measurement units
3. Summary and Keywords and indicated by numbers. Please carefully Under the terms of the Scientific Committee
check the accuracy of the bibliography, main- of SM and in order to promote uniformity and
A separate sheet must contain a summary of ly to avoid - during the preparation of proofs clarity in all scientific journals, the Authors are
the paper in not more than 250 words, fol- - changes in bibliographic entries, especially invited to use the standard generally accepted
lowed by a minimum of 3 to a maximum of regarding the numerical order in which the terms in the field of sports sciences and sports.
keywords, not used in the title. The summa- citations appear. The Scientific Committee of SM accepts the
ry must be structured in sentences (not titles) use of the following terms and units. The units
related to the purpose of the study, methods, 6. Acknowledgements
used will be those of the International System
results, conclusions and practical applications In this section, information may be included of Units (SI). Exceptions allowed: heart rate:
arising from the work presented. regarding identification of funding sources, beats per minute; blood pressure: mm Hg;
4. Text updated contact information of the Author gas pressure: mm Hg. The Authors may refer
and acknowledgements to others involved in to the British Medical Journal (1: 1334-1336,
The text must be composed, as a rule, of the the execution of the experiment, if it was an ex- 1978) and the Annals of Internal Medicine
following sections with titles in uppercase and periment. In this part of the document, infor- (106: 114-129, 1987) to properly express oth-
in the following order: mation must be included relating to conflicts er units or abbreviations. When using units of
A. Introduction. This section is a careful de- of interest. In particular, the Authors should: measurement, please place the multiplication
velopment of the hypotheses of the study that 1) declare the professional relationship with symbol in the middle of the line to avoid con-
led to the implementation of the survey. It is other companies or producers who benefit fusion with a full stop; e.g. ml min-1 kg-1.
advisable not to use subtitles in this section from the findings of the study and 2) cite the
specific grant funding in support of the study. Among the simple units and those derived
and try to limit it to 4-6 paragraphs, written in most commonly used in research reports of
a concise manner. Failure to disclose such information could re-
sult in the rejection of the article submitted for this magazine are:
B. Methods. The following subtitles are re- publication. Mass: gram (g) or kilograms (kg); force: New-
quired in the Methods sections in the following ton (N); distance: metres (m), kilometre (km);
order: Experimental approach to the problem, 7. Figures
temperature: degree Celsius ( C); energy, heat,
where the Author or Authors of the study show The legends of the figures should be submit- work: joule (J) or kilojoules (kJ); power: watt
that the approach can prove the hypotheses de- ted on separate pages, and each figure should (W); time: Newton per meter (N m); Fre-
veloped in the introduction, and can offer some appear on a separate page. Each work should quency: hertz (Hz); pressure: Pascal (Pa); time:
basic principles for the choices made regarding be accompanied by a set of figures. Electronic second (s), minutes (min), hours (h); volume:
the independent and dependent variables used photographs copied and pasted in Word and litre (l), millilitre (ml); and the quantity of a
in the study; Subjects, where the Authors in- PowerPoint will not be accepted. The images particular substance: moles (mol), millimoles
sert the approval of their project by the control must be scanned at a minimum of 300 pixels (mmol).
bodies, if any, and the appropriate informed per inch (ppi). The Line art should be scanned
consent obtained. All the characteristics of the at 1200 ppi. Please specify the file format of the Conversion factors selected:
subjects that are not dependent variables of graphs. TIFF or EPS formats will be accepted 1 N = 0.102 kg (force);
the study are to be included in this section and for both Macintosh and PC platforms. We also
not in the Results; Procedures includes the accept image files in the following native appli- 1J = 1 N m = 0.000239 kcal = 0.102 kg m;
methods used, bearing in mind the concept of cation file formats:
the possibility of a replication of the study; 1 kj = 1000 N m = 0.239 kcal = 102 kg m;
Statistical Analysis, is the section that clearly Adobe Photoshop (.psd) 1 W = 1 J s-1 = 6.118 kg m min.
states the statistical approach to the analysis of Illustrator (.ai)
the series or of the data series. It is important When using the nomenclature for the types of
to include the level of significance (e.g., P PowerPoint (.ppt) muscle fibres, please use the following terms.
0.05). Authors are requested to include in the The types of muscle fibres can be identified us-
paper the statistical power for the size and re- QuarkXPress (.qxd) ing the methods of histochemical classification
liability of the measures used with intra-class If a digital camera is used to take pictures for or by gel electrophoresis. The histochemical
correlation coefficient (ICC). Additional subti- printing, maximum resolution with less com- staining of the ATPase is used to separate the
tles may be used, but their number must be as pression must be set. As digital camera man- fibres in the forms of type I (slow-twitch), type
limited as possible. ufacturers use terms and different file formats IIa (fast-twitch) and type IIb (fast-twitch). The
for capturing high-resolution images, please work of Smerdu et al. (AJP 267: C1723, 1994)
C. Results. The results of the study are present- indicates that the fibres contain the type IIb
ed in this section. The most important findings refer to the manual of the actual camera used
for more information. myosin heavy chain type IIx (typing fibres by
must be presented in the form of tables and fig- gel electrophoresis). To meet the need for con-
ures and the less important should be included Layout. Ensure that all figures and tables have tinuity and to reduce confusion on this point,
in the text itself. Do not insert data that are not been mentioned in the text. Indications must it is recommended that the Authors use IIx to
part of the experimental project or have been be given as to their position between para- indicate what were called IIb fibres (Smerdu V,
already published. graphs, for example: Figure 1 is to be inserted Karsch-Mizrachi I, Champion M, Leinwand L,
D. Discussion. In this section, the results of the at this point, or the Table 1 in the latter; etc. and S. Schiaffino , Type IIx myosin heavy chain
study are elaborated. They must be related to transcripts are expressed in type IIb fibers of
the literature that currently exists; all hypothe- human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 267 (6 Pt
ses therefore must be covered. 1): C1723-1728, 1994).
78

ABSTRACTS

S
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation

panish resumenes
SUMINISTRO DE CATEGORAS DE PESO ciona la necesidad de hacer un control
COMPLEMENTOS CORPORAL EN EL y un seguimiento del estado de salud
PROTENICOS Y RENDIMIENTO LEVANTAMIENTO DE general.
DE FUERZA Y POTENCIA PESAS. COMPARACIN DE
Jay R. Hoffman LOS RESULTADOS DE LOS
SM (ing), n. 7, ao III, mayo-agosto JUEGOS OLMPICOS Y LOS LA PERIODIZACIN DEL
2017, pgs. 4-17 CAMPEONATOS MUNDIALES Y ENTRENAMIENTO ENTRE
Est bien aceptado que los deportistas EUROPEOS ENTRE 2005 Y 2016 PRCTICA, CIENCIA Y CIENCIA
de fuerza y potencia entrenados ten- F. Javier Flores y Juan C. Redondo FICCIN
gan una mayor ingestin de protenas. SM (ing), n. 7, ao III, mayo-agosto Vito Leonardi
La mayora de los dietistas haran hin- 2017, pgs. 22-44 SM (ing), n. 7, ao III, mayo-agosto
capi en el consumo de protena para El principal objetivo del presente ar- 2017, pgs. 56-80
lograr estos objetivos; no obstante, tculo es hacer un anlisis descriptivo El autor aborda el tema de la periodi-
la mejor forma de proporcionar pro- por categoras de los resultados de los zacin del entrenamiento, uno de los
tenas en determinados momentos Juegos Olmpicos y los campeonatos ms consolidados de toda la proble-
alrededor del entrenamiento es me- mundiales y europeos desde 2005, mtica del proceso de entrenamien-
diante un aporte complementario. Es cuando las normas de la competicin to, al que estudiosos y entrenadores
interesante la atencin que se ha dado establecan una progresin mnima dedicaron una gran atencin en los
recientemente al momento de aportar de 1,0 kg tras los intentos exitosos ltimos decenios del siglo pasado, con
las protenas; asimismo, existen prue- del mismo deportista, hasta los Jue- la intencin de definir las dificultades
bas que respaldan su eficacia. Sin em- gos Olmpicos de 2016, celebrados en de organizar las cargas de entrena-
bargo, los datos relativos al deportista Ro. La idea que subyace a este anlisis miento en el tiempo, comprender la
experimentado no son concluyentes y descriptivo es tomar una instantnea esencia y el significado de las mismas,
la informacin reciente indica clara- de los ltimos resultados obtenidos y llevar a la prctica los principios, a
mente la importancia de ingerir pro- durante las competiciones ms im- fin de cumplir el objetivo fundamental
tenas varias veces al da para mante- portantes de levantamiento de pesas de determinar la forma del deportista
ner un nivel constante de sntesis de en Europa, observando las mejores y en el momento ms importante de la
protenas en los msculos. las peores categoras y competiciones, temporada de competicin.
y la evolucin de los resultados alcan- Comienza mencionando estudios his-
zados durante el perodo estudiado tricos sobre la periodizacin, teori-
(2005-2016). zada en la Unin Sovitica, desde los
LA IMPORTANCIA DEL primeros trabajos de Matveev que
FEEDBACK EN EL APRENDIZAJE posteriormente continuaron otros,
DEL DEPORTISTA debatindose entre la adhesin y la
Monica Paliaga RENDIMIENTO DEPORTIVO: crtica, a veces feroz, a este autor que,
SM (ing), n. 7, ao III, mayo-agosto SIM, ESTRS E INFLAMACIN por otro lado, con el tiempo modific
2017, pgs. 18-21 CRNICA LEVE de forma importante su pensamiento
El autor examina brevemente el signi- Dario Boschiero inicial.
ficado y la utilidad del feedback en el SM (ing), n. 7, ao III, mayo-agosto Asimismo, el autor hace referencia
entrenamiento y la competicin, dis- 2017, pgs. 46-55 a los estudios y los estudiosos euro-
tingue entre el feedback intrnseco y El autor expone de forma resumida el peos, incluso con respecto a temas
el extrnseco, y describe, en relacin significado de rendimiento deportivo, que solo guardan relacin con el de
con este ltimo, los dos aspectos que de SIM (sntomas inexplicables mdi- la periodizacin, y se detiene en estu-
inciden en el resultado y el rendimien- camente) y de relacin e interdepen- dios clsicos como los de Hill, Selye,
to. A continuacin, describe de forma dencia entre los sistemas nervioso, en- Verchoshansky y Jakovlev, entre otros
sucinta algunas caractersticas impor- docrino e inmunitario. Despus pasa muchos, para poner en comn los dis-
tantes del feedback: la frecuencia, la a exponer el concepto y las fases del tintos planteamientos en una visin
precisin y el momento ms oportuno estrs, que enmarca en las etapas de del entrenamiento como proceso que
para darlo. adaptacin y de entrenamiento en vis- integra aspectos innumerables y com-
ta del rendimiento deportivo, y men- plejos.
79

ABSTRACTS

N 7 / May-August 2017
ussian
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Jay R. Hoffman .

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2005-2016
F. Javier Flores and Juan C. Redondo Vito Leonardi
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The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation
80

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