Introduction : eddy currents in the magnetic

Dr Antony circuit :
foreign bodies : damage from vibrating teeth
: end heating caused by eddy currents :

Anderson
problems back-of -core leakage flux :
transient disturbances : interlaminar
capacitance : disassociation of hydrogen :
conclusions.

C.Eng
FIEE
A note on
Generator
Core
Failures
1. Introduction

During the 1960s and early 1970s many large hydrogen-cooled generators of 500 MW and upwards with
water-cooled stator windings were brought into service. A number of these machines - irrespective of
manufacturer - exhibited core end heating problems. [Tavner & Anderson Nov 2005]

On installation of the first 500 MW generators on the CEGB system in 1968 there were some
difficulties in operating at high leading power factor, there were a number of relatively serious core
failures in which parts of generator cores were damaged by melting, and a few generators were
found to have rather unstable end-heating problems which gave rise to long-term operational
restrictions.

A major core failure at Turkey Point No 3 (Florida Power and Light) was reported in 1968 in
which molten metal had been ejected from one of the stator slots over a fault length of 17 feet and
had spilled into the generator housing.

Core failures can be expensive. Firstly, there is the cost of the repair. Secondly, there is the cost of the loss
of revenue while the generator is out of commission. The core failure that occurred at Pacificorp Hunter
Unit I in Utah on 24th November 2000 and which required a complete rebuild of the stator is estimated to
have incurred US$ 270.1 million in net purchased power costs by the time the unit went back into service
on May 8th 2001.
 Failures like the one shown here on the left are rare. This example is notable because
approximately 500 kg of coreplate had melted before conductor bar insulation was sufficiently
damaged to trigger the earth leakage protection system and trip the generator.
Practical investigations of stator core faults and end heating problems have been carried out on a number
of large generators. Various manufacturers heavily instrumented machines to measure end region fluxes,
eddy currents, interlaminar voltages and temperatures. Only a small proportion of this investigative and
experimental work has passed into the public domain.
These notes merely reflect the author's own opinions, formed partly as a result of
examining a number of machines with varying degrees of core end and back-of-core
damage and several machines with extensive core fault damage during the 1970s and
early 1980s, partly as a result of talking with others working in this same field and
typical tooth vent
partly as a result of revisiting the subject area during recent electrical machine failure
duct damage investigations.

2. Eddy currents in the machine magnetic circuit

Eddy currents in electrical machines restrict the rate at which flux can change in the magnetic circuit and
may cause appreciable heating losses. Eddy currents are normally minimised by constructing magnetic
circuits from thin laminations punched from steel strip. These laminations are de-burred, cleaned and then
insulated with varnish before being assembled. The principles of core construction for transformers and
rotating machines are fairly similar.

If the insulation between adjacent laminations should break down, for instance
because of mechanical damage to to a stator tooth, this will result in an increase
in the local eddy currents and perhaps result in a local hotspot. Surface hotspots
can usually be detected by a static ring flux test. Internal hotspots, as for
example where there has been an interlaminar breakdown between lamination
Example of interlaminar surfaces, are much more difficult to detect.
spot weld

In large a.c. machines it is customary to construct stator cores from a number of lamination segments
arranged to form a ring and located in position within a stator frame by means of keybars. The joints in
successive layers of these laminations are offset by typically half or one third of the pitch of a lamination
segment, so that the flux at the butt joints can find an easy path via adjacent laminations and so keep the
overall reluctance of the iron path down.

3. Interlaminar breakdowns caused by foreign bodies

It is not unknown for a metallic foreign body - a nut, a bolt, a washer or a piece of swarf etc. - to find its
way into the rotor/stator gap or into an axial cooling duct in the stator core. Over time this foreign body
may vibrate against the lamination edges and damage the interlaminar insulation, causing adjacent
laminations to come in contact with one another. This may lead to a significant number of laminations
becoming connected together and therefore to a local hotspot.

The interlaminar voltage in the main part of the core is modest - typical figures for 0.35 mm laminations
being of the order of 50 mV for a large two pole machine. Therefore only if the damage were to occur
over sufficient laminations and if the core-to-frame contact were to be consistently good, could a runaway
fault condition occur. Usually the damage - visible as a polishing of tooth surfaces - is detected during a
routine inspection and, in most cases, the lamination insulation can be restored.

One method of restoration used is to etch the lamination edges electrolytically using phosphoric acid,
clean surfaces and then apply a penetrating epoxy resin that is drawn between the laminations by
capilliary action.

4. Interlaminar breakdowns caused by vibrating stator teeth

One of the most difficult aspects of core building is to ensure that the core is tightly and uniformly packed
and that no part of an individual lamination - a stator tooth for example - is free to vibrate axially.

The main reason for poor packing is that laminations are not of uniform thickness. The steel strip from
which they are punched is always thinnest at the edges and thickest in the middle. Since large lamination
segments are nearly always cut so that the yoke portion is aligned with the direction of rolling, the teeth
and the back of core are always thinner than the portion just below the bottom of slot. Therefore unless
sufficient measures are taken to compensate for the cumulative difference of thickness during core
building, or unless the core is bonded, it is likely that somewhere in the core there will be loose tooth
laminations.

If these loose tooth laminations happen to be near a radial vent duct, they will be subject to axial forces
tending to separate them from the mass of the core. Given time, a portion of lamination may fatigue and
break off, leaving space for the adjacent laminations to vibrate and in due course fatigue and break off in
the same way. Eventually a whole portion of tooth may disappear. The broken portions may cause further
damage in the same way as any other foreign body.

5. End Region Heating due to eddy currents

Within the main active section of the magnetic circuit of a conventional type of a.c. machine the flux has
radial and circumferential components. Towards each end of the core, as a result of the circumferential
components of excitation current from the end windings, there will be axial flux components in the stator
core which will tend to set up circulating eddy current in the plane of the laminations.

In large a.c. rotating electrical machines, the axial fluxes caused by circumferential currents flowing in
the rotor and stator end windings are sufficiently great to induce significant eddy currents in the
laminations at each end of the stator core and in the core clamping plates. These circumferential/radial
eddy currents give high losses, particularly in the bottom of slot regions and especially in large turbine
generators. because of their very high specific power outputs.

The end region losses are highest when operating far in the leading power factor region.

Various methods are used to minimise eddy current losses in the core end regions. (1) conducting screens
on the core end plates to act as flux divertors (2) profiling the end of the core, i.e. locally increasing the
reluctance of the rotor/stator gap (3) segmentation of the laminations (4) the use of narrow slits - "pistoye
slots" - in the rotor teeth to lengthen the path taken by the eddy currents, thereby increasing the path
resistance and decrease the current/losses (5)use of extra coatings of insulating varnish on the laminations
. Core end region design is therefore a compomise between keeping the eddy current losses small yet
maintaining adequate magnetic, thermal and mechanical properties.

Attention to overall design would be of little effect however without equal attention to the detail: use of
low-loss steel for the laminations ; maintenance of punch and die quality ; adequate deburring after
punching ; cleaning after deburring ; cleanliness of the varnish insulation process ; the appropriate
segmentation and lapping of laminations; careful core-building ; maintenance of adequate and uniform
core pressure, both during core build and later in operation.

Even with careful attention to design, interlaminar voltage levels at the ends of cores may be as much as
40 or 50 times as high as in the main body of the core under steady state conditions and higher still under
transient conditions. As a consequence, the core ends are extremely vulnerable to the slightest
imperfection in interlaminar insulation.

An indication of significant core end heating having occurred at some time is often provided by
discolouration of varnish on the outermost laminations behind the slot. Typically, heat discolouration
contours will be visible behind most slots and at both ends of the machine. In addition there may be signs
of more localised overheating, for example at the butt joint positions and sometimes between surfaces
away from lamination edges. See also the possible role of transients in damaging the interlaminar
insulation, see note below.

6. Problems caused by back-of-core leakage flux

An additional source of troublesome eddy currents in the stator core end regions of large
machines is caused by the "back-of-core leakage flux", which is the small component of
armature flux that is not contained by the core and which permeates the space behind the
core and tends to be drawn into circumferential members of the core frame. The axial
members of the core frame are exposed to this leakage flux and act as a squirrel cage, with
the circumferential members of the core frame at the ends of the machine providing return
paths.

At least, this would be the situation were it not for the fact that the core is often in direct contact with the
frame via the axial keybars which communicate the torque reaction to the core frame. Because the
laminated core represents a lower impedance path than the frame, there is a tendency for the back of core
currents to complete the circumferential path at the core ends via the core and not the frame.

Conduction of back-of-core currents circumferentially via the back of core would not
be a problem if the core was not subject to torque reaction and ovalising forces. The
relative movement that results can cause intermittent core to keybar contacts and
consequential arcing at the back of core.
Some manufacturers have attempted to overcome the problem by placing a copper strip between
 each keybar and the frame and joining these to circumferential copper strap, one at each end of the
core, to form a true squirrel cage. This is on the basis that the circumferential currents will prefer
the copper strip to either the core frame or the core.

Other manufacturers have chosen to weld the keybars to the back of core in order to guarantee that
the currents will always take the back of core path provided for them.

Yet others go for a semi-insulated core with one keybar earthed to provide earth leakage protection
in the event of a bar to core insulation breakdown.

No clearcut answer can be given as to which of the many possible solutions is best.

In most cases, arcing at the back of core merely results in local core to frame welding and, in
consequence, and in time, the whole of the core becomes well grounded and arcing will cease. However
when back of core arcing takes place damage may not be confined to the back of core. The interlaminar
insulation may be stressed and an interlaminar breakdown may occur as a point of weakness well away
from the back of core - for instance, on a tooth, at the bottom of slot or in an axial vent duct. Given
sufficient energy fed into interlaminar breakdown, this may cause significant local damage. Over time a
number of these interlaminar breakdowns may occur and cause a significant rise in the core end losses.

7. Exacerbating factors 1 : The role of transient disturbances

Under transient conditions - sudden short circuit, line clashing, pole slipping etc. - the stator currents may
well rise to several times their steady state value. This will not produce significant changes in the main
flux because the moment that the stator flux starts to rise, eddy currents will spring up in the rotor damper
winding tending to keep the flux linkages constant. However in the end regions the end winding ampere
turns and the damping currents in the rotor damper winding tend to augment each other rather than cancel
each other out. The result is a considerable increase both in axial flux and in the back of core leakage flux
at the ends of the core. As a result the interlaminar insulation will be more highly stressed and therefore
more likely to break down at points of insulation weakness.

The situation is complicated by relative vibration between core and frame which will clearly be greatest
under transient conditions and will cause a greater degree of intermittent contact between the core at its
ends and the core frame keybars than under steady loads.

8. Exacerbating factors 2 : interlaminar capacitance.

A feature of many generator cores that have been in service is the existence of small spit marks -
sometimes so small that they may be missed altogether - that may be found at lamination edges in the end
regions. These may be found at the back of core, on the teeth, in the slots in vent ducts and between
surfaces, indeed anywhere where there might be points of insulation weakness. These turn out usually to
be microscopic spot welds. Sometimes the welding extends over several laminations.

A possible explanation lies in considering the core end laminations in their pristine state to be a large
parallel plate capacitor whose plates are short-circuited by the core to keybar contacts.Whenever the core
to frame contacts are broken the inductive currents continue to flow into the open-circuited capacitor,
giving rise to a rapid rise in voltage across the laminations. This process of capacitative charging will
continue either until there is an interlaminar breakdown, when all the capacitative energy is discharged
into the fault, or until the stored capacitative energy equals the initial inductive energy and the conditions
for an oscillatory discharge are established.

On the basis of this argument, the better the interlaminar insulation, the bigger the build up of stored
charge between the laminations before breakdown takes place and the greater the capacity for causing
significant interlaminar damage.

The inductive/capacitative phenomenon can be simply demonstrated in a controlled manner in the

laboratory with two laminations connected as the plates of a capacitor across a switch that is connected in
series with a battery and an inductance. Opening the switch will produce a breakdown at the weakest poin
of insulation. By inserting insulation at the point of breakdown, and repeating the switching, a breakdown
will occur at the next weakest point : this time the flash will be slightly brighter, and so on. Eventually the
energy input will be sufficient to cause welding at the point of breakdown.

The experiment may be varied to show, for example, the modifying effect of oil, which increases the
dielectric strength at the point where breakdown formerly occurred and shifts the breakdown elsewhere.

Video clip
demonstrations
of artificially
induced
interlaminar
voltages

Interlaminar
voltage
breakdown demo
1
Circuit used to artificially induce interlaminar voltages
Interlaminar
voltage
breakdown demo
2

[Copywright
Antony
Anderson 2007]

9. Exacerbating factors 3 : The possible effect of hydrogen disassociation

The coolant in large generators is usually hydrogen gas, which when subject to the high temperatures of
an electric arc disassociates into atomic hydrogen H, which is extremely reactive. This disassociation may
provide a possible link between the localised core burning at the ends of machines - including the spitting
mentioned above - and a full scale core fault.
Hydrogen arcs are localised (see Langmuir, G.E. Review XXIX No 3 152 March 1926) and are
characterised by a very high rate of heat transfer which cannot be accounted for by conduction, convection
or radiation. A process of disassociation takes place in which the molecule H2 is converted into atomic
hydrogen H, with the absorption of heat from the arc. Subsequently the hydrogen atoms recombine in the
presence of a catalyst, giving up their heat to the catalyst in the process. Metals such as iron are good
catalysts and may be heated to incandescence or be melted at some distance from the arc (3-5 cm). Heat
transfer rates are about 11 times greater than might be expected from Hydrogen in its molecular form.
Large quantities of hydrogen gas are not required to transfer large quantities of heat. The efficiency of the
heat transfer process is high (82% 3mm from a metal surface to 55% at 35mm). The energy is transferred
preferentially to metal in the vicinity of the arc causing greater damage than might be expected in air.

Whilst the disassociation of hydrogen is well understood and indeed is exploited in the hydrogen arc
welding process, it has not been proven definitively to be a factor in core fault propagation. Nevertheless
the core failures in large machines have involved arcing in a hydrogen atmosphere and therefore it is
entirely logical to believe that disassociation of hydrogen does play a part.

Discussion and Conclusions

The specific power output in a large turbogenerator is some 70 MW per metre of active length of core and
the heat content of 1 gram of silicon steel at its melting point is approx 1330 J/gm. Therefore if the energy
output from 1m length of core were to be diverted into a single core hotspot the core could, in theory, melt
at a rate of 54 kg/second, ignoring radiation, convection and conduction losses. Core faults are known in
which several hundred kg of core have been melted. It is salutory to realise that even such large scale
melting may have occurred in just a few seconds.

We have seen that there are mechanisms capable of producing transiently very high interlaminar voltages
and causing localised breakdowns, both in the form of spot welds or meandering breakdowns.

Furthermore it is clear that hydrogen gas, the stator coolant on large machines, can act as an extremely
efficient heat transfer medium if it disassociates in the presence of an arc.

Bearing in mind the high energy densities present in the stator core and the possibility of the presence of
inter-laminar breakdowns causing increased eddy currents, localised heating and further breakdown, it is
remarkable how relatively infrequent major core failures are. Generally speaking, design and
manufacturing techniques are fit for purpose and only exceptionally does some particular set of
circumstances lead to a truly dramatic fault of the kind described in this working paper. One moment's
relaxation in preparation of the laminations, a little lack of attention in core building, careless insertion
and wedging of the conductor bars and it might be a different story. If you haven't yet experienced a core
fault, then it may be your turn tomorrow. And by the way, like troubles and London buses, core faults
seldom come singly, they like to keep one another company!

References on aspects of Generator Core Faults / Core Failures including: