JOINING OF MATERIALS

Subject code: PEMT5404

7th Semester B.Tech

Compiled by:
Mr. Jogendra Majhi
Mr. Jyotiranjan Pany
Mr. Jyoti Ranjan Sahoo

Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engg.

INDIRA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

SARANG, DHENKANAL, ORISSA

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 Disclaimer
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a
substitute for prescribed textbooks. The information presented here is
merely a collection by the committee faculty members for their
respective teaching assignments as an additional tool for the teaching-
learning process. Various sources as mentioned at the reference of the
document as well as freely available material from internet were
consulted for preparing this document. The ownership of the
information lies with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this
document is not intended to be used for commercial purpose and the
committee faculty members are not accountable for any issues, legal or
otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The committee faculty
members make no representations or warranties with respect to the
accuracy or completeness of the contents of this document and
specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or
fitness for a particular purpose

JOINING OF MATERIALS (3-00)

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Module I (12 Hours)

Theory and classification of welding processes Gas, arc, resistance, pressure, submerged arc,
TIG, MIG, plasma arc and electron beam welding including spot welding laser welding and
diffusion welding.

Mass and heat flow in fusion welding. Metallurgical effects of the weld thermal cycles.

Module II (14 Hours)

Metallurgy of welding of structural steels, HAZ. Metallurgy of fusion welding of ferritic and
austenitic steels, cast iron etc. welding pool solidification.

Metallurgical principles of welding nonferrous alloys, Cu alloys, Al alloys etc., welding pool
solidification, structure of welds, heat treatment and transformation.

Module III (12 Hours)

Welding stresses and stress relieving treatments.

Design of welded joints, welding defects and their remedies. Inspection and testing of
weldments.

Brazing and soldering. Joining of ceramics and plastics.

Books for reference:

1. Metallurgy of Welding, by J.F.Lancaster, Allen and Unwin.

2. Welding and Welding Technology by R.L.Little, TMH.

3. Welding by A.C. Davies, Cambridge University Press.

4. Metallurgy of Welding by Sefarin, John Wiley.

5. Welding Processes Hadbook, K. Weman, Woodhead.

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 LESSON PLAN
Sub:-Joining of Materials Sem:-7Th B.Tech

Sl.No. Classes Topic covered

1 Lecturer-1 Introduction to Joining of Materials

2 Lecturer-2 Types of joining processes

Types of welding, Advantages and Disadvantages of welding over

3 Lecturer-3 other joining processes

4 Lecturer-4 Chemistry of gas welding, Types of flames

5 Lecturer-5 Arc welding, Single, Double carbon arc welding.

6 Lecturer-6 Fluxed cored arc welding

7 Lecturer-7 Pressure welding, Submerged arc welding.

8 Lecturer-8 TIG, MIG, Difference between TIG and MIG

9 Lecturer-9 Plasma arc welding, Stud welding, Electron beam welding.

10 Lecturer-10 Resistance welding

11 Lecturer-11 Spot, Seam, Projection welding

12 Lecturer-12 Special welding processes

13 Lecturer-13 Electron beam welding, Diffusion welding

14 Lecturer-14 Mass and Heat flow in and around the weld zone

15 Lecturer-15 Metallurgical effects in weld

16 Lecturer-16 Temperature distribution in and around the weld zone, .

17 Lecturer-17 Different types of steel and their properties

18 Lecturer-18 Welding of structural steel, Stainless steel

19 Lecturer-19 HAZ

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20 Lecturer-20 Ferritic and austenitic stainless steel.

21 Lecturer-21 Welding of cast irons(4-types)

22 Lecturer-22 Solidification of weld pool, Characteristics of Al and its alloys

23 Lecturer-23 Welding characteristics of Al and its alloys

24 Lecturer-24 Assignment

25 Lecturer-25 Characteristics of Cu and its alloys

26 Lecturer-26 Welding characteristics of Cu and its alloys

27 Lecturer-27 Metallurgical effects in welding pool solidification

28 Lecturer-28 Weld structure

29 Lecturer-29 Pre and post heat treatment of weld

30 Lecturer-30 Phase transformation in the weld zone.

31 Lecturer-31 Weld joint designs.

32 Lecturer-32 Inspection and testing of weldments (Ferrous and non-ferrous)

33 Lecturer-33 Welding stresses

34 Lecturer-34 Joining of Dissimilar Metals

35 Lecturer-35 Welding stress releiving treatments

36 Lecturer-36 Welding defects and their remedies

37 Lecturer-37 Brazing and soldering

38 Lecturer-38 Joining of ceramics and plastics

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 JOINING PROCESSES

Introduction:
According to the classification made by the American Welding Society, joining processes
fall into three major categories:

Welding
Adhesive
bonding

Mechanical fastening (Bolting, Riveting etc.)

A variety of welding methods exist, including arc and gas welding, as well as brazing and
soldering. Generally welding processes can be classified into three basic categories:

Fusion welding

Solid-state welding

Brazing and soldering

In welding, two or more metal parts are joined to form a single piece when one-part
fabrication is expensive or inconvenient.

Both similar and dissimilar metals may be welded.

The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some diffusion) rather than just
mechanical, as with riveting and bolting.

During arc and gas welding, the work pieces to be joined and the filler material are
heated to a sufficiently high temperature to cause both to melt; upon solidification,
the filler material forms a fusion joint between the work pieces.
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Mechanical fasteners advantages

Fairly easy application

Low capital for equipment needed to apply

Nominal labor and provides good product aesthetics

Dissimilar materials

Different thicknesses

Disadvantages of mechanical fasteners

Higher component costs leads pre-fabricated fasteners inventory

Expensive preparation

Smaller contact limits bond to materials lowers the load performance

Prone to loosening, weakening, rusting increases noise source

High stress around the holes

Adhesive bonding advantages

Permits joining of materials with dissimilar coefficients of expansion and contraction

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 Allows components to be designed with an invisible means of attachment

No localised stresses as in welding-distributes joint stresses

Flexible surface preparation

Can be made electrically conductive or non-conductive

Absorbs vibrations

Reduces the weight of assembly

Fills voids

Disadvantages of adhesive bonding

Complicates quality control of bonds

May not withstand high or low temperatures (most adhesives cannot be used at
service temperature above 300oC)

Bonded joints are weaker under cleavage and peel loading than under tension or shear
(Poor joint design=failure)

Some require mixing of two or more components

Requires careful surface preparation

Parts need to be held in place (fixture) during bond formation

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 Adhesive materials are perishable

Adhesives are susceptible to environmental degradation

Shortage of design data

Lack of code of practice

Lack of confidence in use

Adhesive bonding design guidelines

Maximise these forces:

Shear,

tension or compression

Minimise these forces:

Peel, cleavage
Increase bond area

Wider is better than overlap

Minimise thickness gap

Conventional joining techniques:

Bolting:- A fastening method using a threaded pin or rod with a head at one end (bolt),
designed to be inserted through holes in assembled parts and secured by a mated nut, that is
tightened by applying torque.

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Riveting:- Two or more pieces are joined by inserting a headed shank through a hole and
closed by forming a head on the projecting part of the shank.

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Ref:- www.engineeringyourfuture.com/ www.arnoldsupplyinc.com

We will describe main methods in detail in the following sections.

WELDING:-
Main advantages of welding

Welding has replaced riveting in many applications including:

steel structures, boilers tanks, and motor car chassis

Cost effectiveness

Strong and tight joining

Simplicity of welded structure design

Welding process can be mechanized and automated

Some disadvantages of welding

Internal stresses, distortions and changes of structures in the weld region

HAZ is formed

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 Harmful effects: light, ultraviolet radiation, fumes, high temperature

Permanent joint

Classification of welding processes

As seen from the Figure1, the welding processes fall under larger categories.

Power Density of Heat Sources:

As the power density of the heat source increases, the heat input to the workpiece that is
required for welding decreases.

Variation of heat input to the workpiece with

Variation of weld strength with
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input
 power density of the heat source.

Power density Increases Means:-

Deeper weld penetration

Higher welding speeds

Better weld quality

Less damage to the workpiece.

Oxy-fuel gas welding

OFW is a general term used to describe any welding processes that uses a fuel gas
combined with oxygen to produce a flame.

This flame is the source of the heat that is used to melt the materials at the joint.

The most common gas welding processes uses acetylene, is known as oxy-acetylene
gas welding (OAW).

OAW is used typically for structural-sheet metal fabrication, auto motive bodies and
various repair works.

Type of flames on OAW

Different types of flames obtained from oxyacetylene welding are shown in Figure2.

Neutral flame: Acetylene and oxygen mix at the ratio of 1:1.

Oxidizing flame: A flame with excess oxygen is known as oxidizing flame

Reducing flame: If oxygen is in sufficient for full combustion, the flame is known as
a reducing or carburizing flame

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 Figure2:Schematic illustration of three basic oxyacetylene flames(a-c), (d)The principle of
oxyfuel-gas welding operation (Source : Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Fifth
Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven Schmid. ISBN0-13-148965-8.2006 Pearson
Education, Inc.PP942

Oxy-acetylene welding practice and equipment

Prepare the edges to be joined and establish and maintain their proper position by
using clamps and fixtures

Open main valves

Adjust pressure

Crack open acetylene needle valve.

Ignite,

Adjust flame.

Crack open oxygen needle valve.

Adjust flame. Hold the to rchat 45oand filler ro databout30-40oand control its
movement

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 Shutdown in reverse order; finally, open needle valves to bleed off gases.

Oxy-fuel gas cutting

Thecuttingtakesplacemainlybytheoxidation(burning)ofthesteel;somemeltingalsotakes
place. This process generates akerf. With oxy-acetylene gas, 300600mm and
thickness 1.5to10 mm.

OFC is similar to oxyfuel welding, but the heat source now is used to remove an
arrow zone from a metal plate or sheet. In this process, the metal is preheated with
fuel gas, and oxygen is introduced later.

The higher the carbon content of the steel, the higher the preheating temperature
required

Arc welding

Arc welding processes fall under a larger category labeled as fusion welding, with an
electrical energy source(Figure1).

General characteristics of arc welding processes

These processes are associated with molten metal

Arc welding processes use an electric arc as a heat source to melt metal. The
arc is struck between an electrode and the work piece to be joined. The
electrode can consist of consumable wire or rod,or may be a non-consumable
tungsten electrode.

The process can be manual, mechanized, or automated. The electrode can

move along the work or remain stationary while the work piece itself is
moved. A flux or shielding gas is employed to protect the molten metal from
atmosphere.

If no filler metal is added, the melted weld is referred to as autogenous. If the

filler metal matches the base metal, it is referred to as homogenous. If the
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 filler metal is different from the base metal, it is referred to as heterogeneous.

The common arc welding processes used to weld metals are: shielded metal arc welding or
SMAW, gas metal arc welding GMAW, sometimes called MIG welding; flux cored arc
welding FCAW; submerged arc welding SAW; and gas tungsten arc welding GTAW,
sometimes called TIGwelding.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding(SMAW)

Gas Metal Arc Welding(GMAW)

Flux Cored Arc Welding(FCAW)

Submerged Arc Welding(SAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding(GTAW)

Shielded metal arc welding(SMAW)

Arc is developed between electrode and the component

Flux creates a gas shield and the metal slag prevents oxidation of the underlying
metal.

Typical uses: Pressure vessels, structural steel, and in general engineering

Economics: Versatile and low cost(easy to transport) but cant be automated.

SMAW is the most widely used welding process for joining metal parts because of
its versatility, its less complex, more portable and less costly equipment

Metals commonly welded by SMAW

Carbon and low alloy steels

Stainless steels and heat resistance steels

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 DCEN (Direct Current Electrode Negative) (reversepolarity) can be used of all steels.
Melting and deposition rates are higher than with DCEP(Direct Current Electrode
Positive) (straight polarity).

The multiple-pass approach requires that the slag be cleaned after each weld bed. 3-
20 mm thick

As chematic illustration of SMAW is shown in Figure3. This is typically a manual welding

process where the heat source is an electric arc which is formed between a consumable
electrode and the base material. The electrode is covered by a coating, which is extruded on
the surface of the electrode. During welding, the electrode coating decomposes and melts,
providing the protective atmosphere around the weld area and forming a protective slag over
the weld pool.

Figure3: Schematic illustration of shielded metal arc welding

(Source: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian

and Steven Schmid. ISBN0-13-148965-8.2006 Pearson Education,Inc.PP949

Advantages of SMAW

Equipment relatively easy to use, inexpensive, portable

Filler metal and means for protecting the weld puddle are provided by the covered
electrode

Less sensitive to drafts, dirty parts, poor fit-up

Can be used on carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, cast irons, copper,
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 nickel, aluminum

Disadvantages of SMAW

Discontinuities associated with manual welding process that utilise flux for pool shielding

Slag inclusions

Lack of fusion

Other possible effects on quality are porosity, and hydrogen cracking. These points would be
discussed separately in the welding defects section.

Limitations of SMAW

SMAW has a low weld metal deposition rate compared to other processes. This is because
each welding rod contains a finite amount of metal. As each electrode isused, welding must
be stopped and a new rod inserted into the holder. A12-inch electrode may be able to deposit
a bead 6 - 8 inches long.

The overall productivity of the process is affected by:

Frequent changing of electrodes,

Inter pass cleaning (grinding, brushing, etc.),

Grinding of arc initiation points and stopping points,

Slag inclusions which require removal of the defect and re-welding of the defective area.
The heat of the welding arc is too high for some lower melting metals. And the shielding
of metals that react aggressively with the atmosphere is inadequate.

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Gas metal arc welding(GMAW)

In GMAW, formerly known as metal inert-gas(MIG) welding is an arc welding process in

which the heat for welding is generated by an arc between a consumable electrode and the
work metal. The consumable bare wire is fed automatically through a nozzle into the weld
arc by a wire-feed drive motor. In GMAW, the weld area is shielded by an effectively inert
atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon dioxide or various other gas mixtures. Schematic
illustration of GMAW is illustrated in Figure4.

Figure4: Schematic illustration of GMAW (Source: Manufacturing Engineering and

Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven Schmid. ISBN0-13-148965-8.

2006 Pearson Education,Inc.PP951

Advantages if GMAW

Can weld almost all metals and alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, stainless
steel All positions of welding

DCEP which provides stable arc, smooth metal transfer, relatively low spatter and
good weld bed characteristics

Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the process is referred to as
a semi-automatic. The operator controls only the torch positioning and speed.

No slag produced

High level of operator skill is not required.

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Further advantages of GMAW

High productivity

All positions of welding and reliability

Wide area applications

All ferrous and non ferrous can be welded

Limitations of GMAW

Expensive and non-portable equipment

Less skilled workers can operate this process, how ever this can lead to poor set up
of the welding parameters, in turn this can lead to defects in the finished weld such
as lack of fusion and porosity.

More heat is generated in MIG than TIG; this will mean that the HAZ is larger
around a weld of this type.

Equipment is heavy and not particularly portable; the operator is limited to about 4.5
m to 6 m from the power source due to potential complications with the wire feed.
Extended-reach wire feeders are now available which means the operator can be
upto15 m away from the power source (Smith,1986), but the extra equipment means
that portability is further restricted.

Methods of metal transfer in GMAW

Spray transfer: small, molten metal droplets from the electrode are transferred to the
weld area at a rate of several hundred droplets per second. Spray is achieved at higher
welding currents and voltages with argon or argon- rich gas mixture. Helium based
shielding gas (over 80%Ar). The average current required in GMAW process can be
reduced by using a pulsed arc, which superimposes high-amplitude pulses onto a low,
steady current. Pulsing the current allows for better control for out of position welding. This
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mode produces little or no spatter and is known for the high deposition rate (higher
productivity).

Globular transfer: carbon-dioxide rich gases are utilised, and globules are propelled by the
forces of the electric arc transfer of the metal, resulting in considerable spatter. High
currents are used, making it possible for greater weld penetration and higher welding speed
than are achieved in spray transfer. Heavier sections commonly are joined by this method.

Short circuiting transfer: the metal is transferred in individual droplets (more than 50 per
second), as electrode tip touches the molten weld metal and short circuits. At low current
and voltages, short circuit transfer occurs. The weld is a shallow penetrating weld with low
heat input. Using GMAW in this mode allows welding in all positions since the weld puddle
is so small. In comparison to the other modes of transfer, this method is slowest (low
productivity).Used primarily for sheet metal applications. This mode produces large
amounts of spatter if welding variables are not optimized. This mode is also known as short
arc or dip transfer.

Shielded gases

Contamination of the weld pool, by the atmosphere, can cause weld defects. These
defects can have an adverse effect on the joint efficiency, which may lead to failure.
Therefore, the weld pool should be protected from the atmosphere until it has completely
solidified. The primary purpose of shielding gases is to protect the molten weld metal and
the HAZ from oxidisation and other contamination.

Shielding gas forms a protective atmosphere over the molten weld pool to
prevent contamination

Inert shielding gases, argon or helium, keep out oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases
Active gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are some times added to
improve variables such as arc stability and spatter reduction

Shielding gas can be a single pure gas or a mixture of two or more gases.

Inert gases, as the name implies, do not react with the weld metal. Argon is often
used in the flat and horizontal position, since it is heavier than air. Helium can be
used in the overhead position, since it is lighter than air. Helium has a
characteristic of producing a hotter arc than argon.

Active gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are often added to inert gases

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 in order to improve arc properties. These properties include arc stability and
spatter reduction.

Shielding gases should be free of moisture, which decompose to hydrogen and

oxygen in the arc. Moisture in the gas can result in porosity, and in steels,
hydrogen can lead to cracking.

Main shielded gases used in GMAW

Argon: Argon is 38% heavier than air, which is advantageous for welding in flat and
horizontal fillet positions. Pure argon virtually can be used in all metals.

Helium: It is lighter than air and because of this, high gas flow rate must be used to
maintain adequate shielding. Helium is used primarily on Aluminum, magnesium
and copper.

Carbon-dioxide: This is widely used in the welding of steel by the short circuiting
mode of metal transfer.

Mixtures: Argon-carbon dioxide mixtures, argon helium mixtures, argon oxygen

mixtures, helium-argon-carbon dioxide mixtures.

Flux-cored arc welding(FCAW)

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) (Figure5) uses a tubular wire that is filled with a
flux. FCAW is similar to GMAW, except the electrode is tubular in shape and filled with
flux (hence the termflux-cored). The arc is initiated between the continuous wire electrode
and the work piece. The flux, which is contained within the core of the tubular electrode,
melts during welding and shields the weld pool from the atmosphere. Directcurrent,
electrode positive(DCEP) is commonly employed as in the FCAW process. Cored electrode
produces a more stable arc, improve weld contour, and produce a better mechanical
properties of the weld metal.

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 Figure5: Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process

(Source: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian

and Steven Schmid. ISBN0-13-148965-8.2006 Pearson Education, Inc.PP952

The FCAW process combines the versatility of SMAW with the continuous and automatic
electrode-feeding feature of GMAW. A schematic illustration of FCAW is shown in Figure6.

Advantages of FCAW

Specific weld-metal chemistries can be developed

By adding alloying elements to the flux core, all alloy composition can be
produced

Easy to automate and readily adaptable to flexible manufacturing and robotics

Disadvantages of FCAW

The slag formed during welding must be removed between passes on multi pass
welds. This can reduce the productivity and result in possible slag inclusion
discontinuities. For gas shielded FCAW, porosity can occur as a result of in
sufficient gas coverage.

Large amounts of fume are produced by the FCAW process due to the high
currents, voltages, and the flux inherent with the process. Increased costs could be
incurred through the need for ventilation equipment for proper health and safety.

FCAW is more complex and more expensive than SMAW because it requires a

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 wire feeder and welding gun. The complexity of the equipment also makes the
process less portable than SMAW.

Submerged-arc welding(SAW)

In SAW, the weld arc is shielded by a granular flux consisting of lime, silica,
manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds. A schematic illustration of
submerged-arc welding process is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Schematic illustration of submerged-arc-welding (Source: Manufacturing

Engineering and Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven Schmid.
ISBN0-13-148965-8.2006 Pearson Education,Inc.PP950)

Characteristics of submerged-arc welding

The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity through a nozzle:

The functions of the flux:

Prevents spatter and sparks;

Suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes characteristics of the SMAW.
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 It acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration of heat in to the work
piece.

The un used flux can be recovered, treated and reused.

The filler metal is a continuously-fed wire electrode like GMAW and FCAW. However,
higher deposition rates can be achieved using SAW by using larger diameter electrodes and
higher currents (650-1500Amperes). Since the process is almost fully mechanized, several
variants of the process can be utilized such as multiple torches and narrow gap welding.

Because of the flux is gravity fed, the SAW process is limited largely to welds in flat
or horizontal position

This process can be automated and use to weld a variety of carbon and alloy steel and
stainless steel sheets or plates as high as 5 m/min.

The quality of weld is very high, provides high productivity in ship building and for
pressure vessels.

Advantages of submerged welding (SAW)

This process can be automated and use to weld a variety of carbon and alloy steel and
stainless steel sheets or plates as high as 5m/min.

The quality of weld is very high, provides high productivity in ship building and for
pressure vessels.

High deposition rates

No arc flash or glare

Minimal smoke and fumes

Flux and wire added separately-extra dimension of control Easily

automated

Joints can be prepared with narrow grooves

Can be used to weld carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, chromium-
molybdenum steels, nickel base alloys

SAW has the highest deposition rate of the entire deep penetrating arc welding
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 processes making it ideal for thick section and multi-pass welding. Variations of the
process can utilize dual arc welding, twin arc welding, multiple torches, and narrow
groove welding to increase productivity.

Since the arc is completely submerged in the flux, there is no arc radiation. Screens
or light filtering lenses are not needed. Additionally, the smoke and fumes are
trapped within the flux and thus minimizing smoke and fumes.

Since the process is simple to mechanize and easily automated, it is extremely

consistent once a procedure is qualified. And it can be used on a wide variety of
materials.

Limitations of submerged welding (SAW)

Because of the flux is gravity fed, the SAW process is limited largely to welds in flat
or horizontal position

The flux which shields the arc and weld pool in SAW also obstruct the operators
view of the joint and molten weld pool. This makes observation of the pool and joint
impossible during welding; thus, correction of problems during welding can be very
difficult.

Because of the high current levels common to this process, it is normally not suited
for thinner materials.

Due to the presence of a granulated flux, submerged arc welding is limited to the flat
and horizontal positions. As with SMAW and FCAW, SAW produces a slag which
must be completely removed after each pass.

Finally, additional flux handling equipment is required.

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), formerly known as TIG welding (for tungsten inert
gas), the filler metal is supplied from a filler wire as shown in Figure7.In non-consumable-
electrode welding process, the electrode is typically a tungsten electrode.

An externally supplied shielding gas is necessary because of the high

temperatures involved in order to prevent oxidisation of the weld zone.
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 Typically direct current is used, and its polarity is important.

Figure7: Schematic illustration of GTAW (Source: Manufacturing Engineering and

Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven Schmid. ISBN0-13-148965-8.

2006 Pearson Education,Inc.PP951

TIG is an arc welding process in which the heat is produced between a non-
consumable electrode and the work metal.

Because the tungsten electrode is not consumed in this operation, a constant and
stable arc gap is maintained at a constant current level.

The filler metals are similar to the metals to be welded, and flux is not used.

The shielding gas is usually argon or helium(or a mixture of the two).

TIG welding process is used for a wide variety of metals and applications.

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 Metals that can be welded by TIG are aluminum, magnesium, titanium and copper
and its alloy.

Applications of GTAW welding

TIG welding process is used for a variety of metals and applications in all industrial sectors.
TIG is especially for welding aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and refractory metals. It is
suitable for welding thin metals. The cost of the inert gas makes this process makes more
expensive than SMAW but provides welds with very high quality and surface finish.

Advantages of GTAW

Uses a lower temperature than either MIG or gas welding (Finch,1997) subsequently
this will produce a smaller HAZ(Heat Affected Zone) within which defects and
weakness can occur.

Produces very high quality welds of satisfactory quality for even the rigorous
standards set by the aero space industry.(Pritchard,1996)

Suitable for welding thin materials due to the lower temperature and the precise
nature of the process.

The equipment used is smaller than that of MIG and is subsequently more portable
and thus more versatile. Also can weld in any position i.e. flat, horizontal, or
overhead.

Limitations of GTAW

The process is manual and requires a highly skilled operator, of which there is a
shortage in the work force(Smith,1986).

TIG cannot be automated and is significantly slower than MIG welding and
therefore less suitable for mass production.

Electrodes for arc welding

Electrodes for consumable arc-welding processes are classified according to:

Strength of the deposited weld metal

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 Current(AC or DC)

Type of coating

Electrodes are identified by numbers and letters or by colourcode, particularly if they are
too small to imprint with identification. Typical coated-electrode dimensions are in the
range of 150 to 460 mm in length and 1.5 to 8 mm in diameter.

A specification for electrodes and filler metals for welding According to American
Welding Society(AWS) is presented inTable1.

Table1: AWS A5.1-69 and A5.569 designations for manual electrodes

a. The prefix E designates arc welding electrode.

b. The first two digits of four-digit number sand the first three digits of five-digit
numbers indicate minimum tensile strength:

E60XX 60,000 psi minimum tensile

strength E70XX 70,000 psi minimum
tensile strength E110XX 110,000 psi
minimum tensile strength

c. The next-to-last digit indicates

positions: EXX1X All positions

EXX2X Flat position and horizontal fillets

d. The last two digits together indicate the type of covering and the current to be
used. The suffix (Example: EXXXX-A1) indicates the approximate alloy in the weld
deposit:

-A1 0.5%Mo

-B1 0.5% Cr, 0.5%Mo

-B2 1.25% Cr, 0.5%Mo

-B3 2.25%Cr,1%Mo

-B4 2% Cr,0.5%Mo

-B5 0.5%Cr,1%Mo
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 -C1 2.5%Ni

-C2 3.25%Ni

-C3 1%Ni, 0.35% Mo,0.15%Cr

-D1andD2 0.25-0.45%Mo,1.75%Mn

-G 0.5% min.Ni,0.3%min.Cr,0.2%minMo,0.1%min.V,1%min.
Mn(only one element required.

Source: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian

and Steven Schmid. ISBN0-13-148965-8.2006 Pearson Education, Inc.PP955

Type of electrodes for arc welding

Gas shielded (cellulosic) electrodes

Rutile electrodes

Iron-oxide / silicate electrodes

Basic electrodes

Factors to be considered while selecting the electrodes

Compromise between the requirements of weld quality and the overall cost of
fabrication.

Skill of the operator and the conditions of the electrode storage and uses must also be
considered.

For the highest quality weld in mild steel and low alloy steel, basic electrodes are
selected.

Metal arc welding electrodes consist of a core wire surrounded by a flux coating. The flux
coating on arc welding electrode serves a number of purposes:

To provide a gaseous shield for the weld metal and preserve it from contamination by
the atmosphere whilst in a molten state

To provide a steady arc

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 To remove oxygen from the weld metal
Control the rate at which the electrode melts

Add alloying elements to the weld zone to enhance the properties of the joint

Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

FSW is a relatively new process developed and patented in England by The Welding
Institute of Cambridge (TWI UK). The process works by lowering the pin of a shouldered
tool into the gap between the two materials to be welded at a high rotational speed and under
significant down force (see Figure 8). This creates friction between the tool and work,
generating enough heat for the metal to change to a plasticized state. Subsequently the
plasticized shaft of metal around the pin is stirred together to create a forged bond, or weld,
between the materials (NASATechnology Applications Team, 2001).

Figure 8: Schematic diagram of FSW (Nicholasetal2002)

Advantages of FSW

Since gravity has no influence on the solid-phase welding process, it can be used in all
positions, viz:

-31-
 Horizontal
Vertical
Overhead
Orbital

The process advantages result from the fact that the FSW process (as all friction welding of
metals) takes place in the solid phase below the melting point of the materials to be joined.
The benefits therefore include the ability to join materials which are difficult to fusion weld,
for example 2000 and 7000 aluminium alloys. Friction stir welding can use purpose-
designed equipment or modified existing machine tool technology. The process is also
suitable for automation and adaptable for robot use.

Main characteristics / advantages of FSW

The FSW process works below the melting temperature of the weld material in the
solid state phase (Nicholasetal,2002). This means that the work has a significantly
smaller heat affected zone (HAZ) than conventional fusion welding techniques where
weld defects can occur.

In tests by TWIUK, the fatigue performance of butt welds in aluminium alloys has
been found to be comparable to that of the parent material(Nicholasetal,2002).

Post-process natural ageing of 7000 series aluminium also led to FSW welds having
an average of 95% of the tensile strength of the parent material (Nicholasetal,2002).
FSW creates a very strong bond between materials. In shear testsd one by USC
Research in the USA riveted panels failed at a load of approximately 32,300 lbs,
whereas the equivalent FSW panels failed at an average of 35,100 lbs (USC
Research and Health Sciences). FSW can weld alloys that were previously very
difficult to weld using the established welding techniques of the time.

FSW can be easily automated and subsequently can be programmed to perform

complex shape welds (NASA Technology Applications Team,2001). This also
means that FSW is not as dependent on highly skilled operators.

Defects such as solidification cracking and gas porosity caused by absorption of

hydrogen during welding do not occur in FSW, although they are common in fusion
welding processes (Lealetal,2004)

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Limitations of FSW

Two drawbacks to the FSW procedure are the requirement for different length pin tools
when using the process on materials which vary in thickness, and the fact that a keyhole is
left at the end of the weld where the welding tool is removed. This is particularly a problem
when welding cylindrical items such as pipe which require a continuous weld. However,
NASA Marshall have developed a retractable pin tool which removes the pin at the end of
the weld, leaving no keyhole (NASATechnology Applications Team,2001). The work piece
in FSW also requires to be clamped rigidly. If metal deposition is required, this process is
not good.

Electron - Beam Welding (EBW)

In EBW, developed in 1960s, the heat used for welding the two materials is generated by
high velocity narrow-beam (concentrated) electrons is fired through the work, this transfers
kinetic energy to the particles of metal causing them to heat up and melt to form a weld. A
schematic illustration of EBW is shown in Figure9. EBW process requires special equipment
to focus the beam on the work piece, typically in a vacuum. The higher the vacuum, the
more the beam penetrates, and the greater the depth-to-width ratio can be achieved. There
are three methods in EBW as far as vacuum is concerned:

EBW-HV (for highvacuum)

EBW-MV (medium
vacuum) EBW-NV (no
vacuum)

-33-
 Figure 9: Schematic illustration of Electron Beam Welding (EBW) (Source: MAS2007)

Some characteristics of EBW

In aircraft industry alloy grade Ti isused. Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is

extensively employed. TIG welding is adopted only in a few cases.

Much better joints can be obtained by EBW of alloy grade Ti. By welding in a
vacuum chamber, gas absorption is prevented.

The HAZ is very narrow and influence of welding on structure is minimal.

Complicated work-pieces can be welded without distortion.

Components with large wall thickness as well as thin walled components can also be
successfully welded.

Advantages of EBW

Narrow welds can be made on thicker sections with deeper penetration with minimal
thermal disturbances.

This makes the process suitable for welding in titanium, niobium, tungsten, tantalum,
beryllium, nickel alloys and magnesium, mostly in aero space and space research
sectors.

Because welding is performed in a vacuum, there is no atmospheric contamination;

accurate control of welding parameters is possible by controlling the electron beam
power and accurate beam focus.

Excellent welds can be made even on more reactive metals.

-34-
 Lack of thermal disturbance in the process means that there is minimum shrinkage
and distortion.

EBW is suitable for welding many materials which are either complicated or impossible to
weld using fusion welding techniques such as titanium, magnesium, tungsten, and aluminium
alloys (MAS,2007).

Both very thin and very thick work pieces can be welded by EBW in just a single pass, with
a very high depth / width ratio compared to TIG welding as shown in Figure 10 (Electron
Beam Industries,2007). A small HAZ means that there are fewer defects in materials welded
by EBW than there would potentially be in an equivalent fusion weld. The process can be
automated in order to produce complex and intricate welds.

Figure 10: Comparison of the size of weld beads: (a)Laser beam or electron
beam welding (b) Tungsten arc welding (Source: Manufacturing Engineering
and Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven Schmid.

ISBN0-13-148965-8.2006 Pearson Education,Inc.PP957)

Limitations of EBW

The process usually takes place in a vacuum; this means that the work piece must be
set up in a vacuum chamber which then must be evacuated before the welding can

-35-
 take place. This can be time consuming and reduces the production efficiency of the
system.

The work force must be protected while the system is in process due to the radiation
which is generated by the electrons impacting with the work piece(MAS, 2007).

Expensive safety measures must be in place.

Electron beam equipment is very expensive compared to conventional welding

equipment.

If welding in a vacuum the size of the material to weld must be smaller than that of
the vacuum chamber, meaning larger and more expensive equipment is required to

weld large pieces (Wikipedia,2007).Welding in a chamber also means that the welding
hardware is not easily portable.

The pumps required to remove the air from the vacuum chamber completely are
expensive (Wikipedia,2007).

Laser Beam Welding(LBW)

LBW utilizes a high-power laser beam as the source of heat, to produce a fusion weld.
Because the beam can be focused on to a very small area, it has high energy density and
deep-penetrating capability. A schematic illustration of laser welding of titanium allows is
shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Schematic illustration of laser welding (Sergio and Lima2005)

-36-
 Advantages of LBW

LBW produces welds of good quality with minimum shrinkage and distortion

Laser welds have good strength, generally low hardness (ductile) and free of porosity
The process can be automated

Narrow welding seam

Low energy input per seam length

Reduced heat affected zone (HAZ)

Very high welding speed (ranges from 2.5 m/min to as high as 80m/min)

Resistance welding (RW)

Resistance Welding is a welding process in which work pieces are welded due to a
combination of a pressure applied to them and a localized heat generated by a high electric
current flowing through the contact area of the weld.

Different metals and alloys such as low carbon steels, aluminium alloys, alloy steels, medium
carbon and high carbon steels can be welded by resistance welding. However, for high carbon
contained steels, the weld bed can be harder (less brittle).

Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle body parts, fuel tanks, domestic
radiators, pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine blades, railway tracks.

Weld Cycle
A typical resistance weld is broken down into several distinct periods such as:

The Squeeze Time is when the weld heads (electrodes) come together and build up to a
specified amount of force before the current is fired.

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 The Weld Time is when the current is actually passing through the workpieces. This is
when the metals are being heated enough to melt and fuse together to form what is called a
weld nugget.

During the Hold Time, electrode force is still applied, even after the weld current has
ceased. During this period, the weld nugget cools and the metals are forged under the force of
the electrodes. The continuing electrode force helps keep the weld intact until it solidifies,
cools, and the weld nugget reaches its maximum strength.

Critical Factors in Welding

Understanding the resistance weld process requires an understanding of the main

factors involved and how they work together. This section will review current, voltage,
resistance, and power, as well as the various functions of the electrodes and how they affect
surface contact and current density.

Current

Current, usually measured in Kilo-Amperes (KA one Kilo-Amp is equal to 1,000

Amps), is one of the most important factors. A resistance weld cannot be made unless there is
sufficient weld current. According to the RWMA, the typical amount of current needed to weld
low-carbon steel, for example, is about 10,000 Amps (10 KA) at about 5 Volts. To put this in
perspective, a normal household or office outlet provides a maximum of 15-20 Amps (0.015-
0.020 KA) at 120 Volts, while a power circuit in a factory may only be capable of providing
200 Amps (0.200 KA) at 500 Volts to a welder. The factory's 200 Amps is then converted to
the 10,000 Amps needed to weld by means of a welding transformer.

A transformer consists of two coils of wire, called the primary and the secondary,
wound around an iron core. Power is transferred from primary to secondary via the magnetic
properties of the iron. The factor by which the current and voltage is stepped up or down is
equal to the ratio between the number of turns of wire in the coils forming the primary and
secondary windings of the transformer. Consider the steel that needs 10,000 Amps (10 KA) of
current to be welded in a factory that can only provide 200 Amps (0.200 KA). If the welding
transformer had 100 turns on the primary and 2 turns on the secondary, the 'turns ratio' would
be 100 to 2, or more simply, 50 to 1. The 200 Amp current in the primary would then be
converted (stepped up) to 10,000 Amps (200 Amps x 50 turns = 10,000 Amps) in the
secondary, which would yield enough amperage to make a weld.
-38-
Voltage

If current is the amount of electricity flowing, then Voltage (measured in Volts) is the
pressure or force that's causing the flow. A good analogy is water flowing through a pipe. A
larger voltage will result in greater water pressure, which will cause more water (current) to
flow through the pipe. Using the transformer example above, after the 200 Amps at 500 Volts
on the primary passes through the transformer coils, the secondary amperage increases to
10,000 Amps, but the voltage actually drops to 10 Volts. This decrease in voltage occurs
because the amount of power coming out of a transformer isn't actually increased, but more
accurately exchanged.

Power

Power is Voltage multiplied by Current, and is measured in Watts, or KVA (KVA

stands for Kilo-Volt-Amperes. Watts and KVA will be used interchangeably in this text). This
means that the amount of current flowing times the pressure that's causing it to flow equals the
amount of power generated. A basic law to bear in mind is that the power going into a
transformer will always equal the power coming out of it. Returning to the transformer
example, 200 Amps coming in at 500 Volts (200 x 500 = 100,000 KVA) on the primary with a
50 to 1 turns ratio in the transformer will be converted into 10,000 Amps at 10 Volts (10,000 x
10 = 100,000 KVA) going out. As the math illustrates, the results are the same. The initial and
final amperage and voltage may be different, but because the ratio is the same, the total amount
of power is also the same.

Resistance

As mentioned earlier, resistance is defined as the opposition that a substance offers to

the flow of electric current. Resistance is calculated by dividing the Voltage by the Current,
and is measured in Ohms. (When written, Ohms are represented by the Greek letter Omega: .).
Since resistance to the current is what generates the heat in the workpiece, it is critically
important that the area with the greatest resistance be at the interface between the two parts
being joined. This interface is also known as the faying surfaces. Remember that the heat is
where the resistance is, and the resistance is where the heat will be. If the area with the most
resistance is, for example, where the lower bus bar connects to the transformer of the welder
and not at the faying surfaces of the workpieces, then that's where the heat will go. Likewise, if
-39-
the greatest resistance is at the contact area between the electrode tip and the workpiece, the
heat generated there will cause the tip to weld directly to the workpiece.

Electrodes

Typically made of copper alloys, electrodes actually have three separate functions: to
conduct current to the workpieces being welded, to transmit the proper pressure or force to
those workpieces to produce and forge a good weld, and to help dissipate heat from the area
being welded. To ensure that all three of these functions are executed properly, it is important
to regularly maintain the electrodes, keeping them clean and in good condition. A reprint of an
RWMA chart describing various types of electrode materials and their different uses may be
found on page 11-36 in the Appendices of this manual.

Conducting Current

The first of these functions is purely electrical fire weld current through the
workpiece. Taking into account the relationship among current, voltage and resistance, it
becomes important to pay attention to the type of electrodes used. For example, it wouldn't be
wise to select electrodes made entirely from a

high resistance material, since they would get so hot they'd melt before the current even had a
chance to flow to the workpiece. It is also important to make sure that the electrodes are the
right size for the application; proper electrode sizing is largely dependent on the amount of
force being used on the workpieces.

Transmitting Force

The second function of the electrodes is mechanical. The amount of force needed to
make a good weld varies, depending on the type of metal being welded and other factors, but a
general figure would be about 600-800 lbs. Because electrodes are typically on the small
side roughly from about the size of an acorn to the size of a plum, it is also important to
choose electrodes that are able to withstand the force needed to make a good weld.

A key point to understand is that force and resistance have an inverse relationship:
more force will result in less resistance, and vice-versa. The equation has to do with surface
contact, which refers to the specific area on the workpieces touched by the electrodes. Surface
contact will be covered further in the next section, but the following example will begin to
illustrate this relationship: if you examine your fingertip under a magnifying glass, what first
appears to be a smooth surface is actually a mass of rough-looking ridges and bumps. The

-40-
same is true of electrodes and workpieces. The tips of the electrodes and the surfaces of the
workpieces may look to be smooth and in good condition, but in reality their surfaces are quite
rough, especially if the electrodes are old and worn or if the workpieces are dirty. By applying
pressure to these rough surfaces, any microscopic inconsistencies (e.g., dirt or grease on the
workpiece and/or pits and cracks in the electrodes) are compressed and the surface actually
evens out. This results in improved (increased) surface contact between the electrode tips and
the workpiece, and between the workpieces themselves. When the surface contact is increased,
current can flow more readily from the tips through the workpieces, which means that the
resistance has been lowered.

Force also is what helps to keep the weld intact as it's being formed. As the current
generates heat, the workpiece metal begins to melt. A good analogy to this process is a child
eating a popsicle on a hot summer day. When the popsicle melts, it doesn't remain on the stick-
- it drips everywhere. When metal melts it wants to do the same thing, however because it's
molten metal and not a runny popsicle, it doesn't simply drip. It explodes out of the workpiece.
This is why proper weld force is so important: it literally forces the molten metal to stay put, so
it can then cool to form a weld nugget. Without sufficient force, the metal will do what it wants
to do, which is what causes expulsion. Expulsion is nothing more than little pieces of molten
metal exploding out of the weld because they're not being properly held in. The problem with
expulsion is that all the metal flying out of the weld is metal that's not going in to the weld; a
weld cannot be made stronger by removing metal from it. Determining the proper amount of
force is entirely application dependent. The RMWA can be contacted for additional
recommendations and guidelines.

Cooling the Workpiece

Electrodes get considerably hot with 10-20 KA or more repeatedly flowing under
hundreds of pounds of force. Although most welders have an internal water cooling system that
allows water to circulate through the tips of the electrodes while welds are being made, a
common problem is a lost, damaged or improperly sized cooling water tube. Without anything
to cool off the tips, heat can quickly build up to the point where the electrodes will eventually
weld to the workpieces. To correct this problem, the water tube should be placed so that the
incoming

cold water strikes the hottest part of the tip first, as shown in figure 1-2.

-41-
Surface Contact

The ultimate goal of the weld process is for the weld current to generate sufficient heat
between the workpieces being welded so that the metal will melt, fuse together and form a
weld nugget. For this to happen, the surface contact must be maximized. The following
experiment may sound silly, but proves an important point: take a piece of Scotch tape and
stick it to a clean piece of paper. Assuming that the tape was clean beforehand, it probably
sticks very well. Now sprinkle some salt on the piece of paper. Stick another piece of tape to
the paper with the salt on it. Depending on how much salt is there, the tape probably sticks
somewhat to not at all. Lastly, stick a third piece of tape to some carpeting, then pull it off.
Now try to stick that same tape to the paper. The third piece probably doesn't stick at all.
Compare the electrodes to the tape and the workpiece to the paper. The clean tape sticks best to
the clean paper, just like well-maintained, clean electrodes have the best contact with a clean
workpiece. The tape sticks so-so to the paper with the salt on it, just like electrodes will have a
so-so contact with the workpiece if it's dirty, greasy, etc. Lastly, the tape that has been stuck to
the carpet and then restuck to the paper probably doesn't stick well at all, just like worn or
pitted electrodes don't have very good contact with the workpiece. By maximizing the surface
contact, current density is increased. Both of these factors play key roles in ensuring that
enough heat is generated to reach that ultimate goal of forming a weld nugget.

Current Density

Current density describes how much current is being delivered to a specific area. In
other words, it describes the concentration of the current in a small area of the workpiece
namely, the area where the weld is. To calculate current density, the amperage (how much
current) is divided by the surface area (area of contact between the electrode and the
workpiece).

Ohm's Law and Joule's Laws

The following laws are widely thought to be what make or break resistance welding.
While it is true that these laws are very important to resistance welding, there are a few details
that should be clarified.

Ohm's Law states that V (Voltage) = I (Current) x R (Resistance).

What does this mean in real-world terms? Returning to the pipe example, the more water
pressure there is in a pipe (more voltage), the more water can flow through that pipe (more
current). If the size of the pipe decreases (more resistance), then the water flow will decrease
(less current) but the pressure drop along the pipe will increase (more voltage).
-42-
Joule's Law states that H (Heat) = I (Current) x V (Voltage) x T (Time the current is allowed
to flow).

Or, written differently,

H (Heat) = I2 (Current squared) x R (Resistance) x T (Time the current is allowed to flow).

Note: V (Voltage) = I (Current) x R (Resistance), so the two equations are the same, just stated
differently. The second version of this law is probably more common in the field.

The most popular methods of Resistance Welding are:

Spot welding

Flash welding

Resistance butt welding

Seam welding

Advantages of resistance welding

High welding rates;

Low fumes;

Cost effectiveness;

Easy automation;

No filler materials are required;

-43-
 Low distortions.

Disadvantages of resistance welding

High equipment cost;

Low strength discontinuous welds;

Thickness of welded sheets is limited -upto 6mm.

Resistance Spot welding (RSW)

Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding process, in which two or more over lapped metal
sheets are joined by spot welds. The method uses pointed copper electrodes providing
passage of electric current. The electrodes also transmit pressure required for formation of
strong weld. Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 3- 12 mm. Spot welding is widely
used in automotive industry for joining vehicle body parts.

-44-
Flash welding

Flash Welding is a Resistance welding process, in which ends of rods(tubes, sheets) are
heated and fused by an arc struck between them and then (brought into a contact under
apressure) producing a weld. The welded parts are held in electrode clamps, one of which is
stationary and the second is movable.

Flash Welding method permits fast (about1 min.) joining of large and complex parts.
-45-
 Welded parts are often annealed for improvement of toughness of the weld. Steels,
Aluminium, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys and Nickel alloys may be welded by flash
welding. Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, and air craft landing gears are produced
by Flash Welding.

Resistance butt welding

Resistance Butt Welding is a Resistance Welding process, in which ends of wires or rods are
held under a pressure and heated by an electric current passing through the contact area and
producing a weld. The process is similar to Flash Welding however in Butt Welding pressure
and electric current are applied simultaneously in contrast to Flash Welding where electric
current is followed by forging pressure application.

Resistance seam welding

Seam welding is a Resistance Welding process of continuous joining of overlapping sheets

by passing them between two rotating electrode wheels. Heat generated by the electric
current flowing through the contact area and pressure provided by the wheels are sufficient
to produce a leak-tight weld.

Friction welding

Friction welding uses pressure and frictional heat caused by mechanical rubbing, usually by
rotation. In this process, the parts are rotated at high speed and brought together. The heat
generated on contact causes the parts to fuse together.

Typical use: Automotive components, agriculture equipment, joining high speed steel ends
and twist drills.

Process can be automated. Economics: Capital costs are high but tooling costs are low.

Heat Flow in Welding

Heat flow during welding, can strongly affect phase transformations during welding and thus
the resultant microstructure and properties of the weld. It is also responsible for

weld residual stresses and distortion.

-46-
Heat Source Efficiency

The heat source efficiency h is defined as

..........................(1)

where Q is the rate of heat transfer from the heat source to the workpiece, Qnominal the nominal
power of the heat source, and tweld the welding time. A portion of the power provided by the
heat source is transferred to the workpiece and the remaining portion is lost to the
surroundings. Consequently, h < 1. If the heat source efficiency h is known, the heat transfer
rate to the workpiece, Q, can be easily determined from above Equation. In arc welding with a
constant voltage E and a constant current I, the arc efficiency can be expressed as

........................................(2)

Equation (2) can also be applied to electron beam welding, where h is the heat source
efficiency. In laser beam welding, Qnominal in Equation (1) is the power of the laser beam, for
instance, 2500W. It should be noted that in the welding community the term heat input often
refers to Qnominal, or EI in the case of arc welding, and the term heat input per unit length of
weld often refers to the ratio Qnominal/V, or EI/V, where V is the welding speed.

The weld joint and quality of welding

There are three distinct zones formed in a typical weld joint.

Fusion zone

The area of base metal and filler metal that has been completely melted

Weld interface

A thin area of base metal that was melted or partially melted but didnot mix with the
filler metal

Heat affected zone

-47-
 The surrounding area of base metal that did not melt, but was heated enough to affect
its grain structure

The metallurgy and properties of the heat affected and weld quality greatly depend on the
type of metals joined, the particular joining process, the filler metals used (if any), and
welding process available. Characteristics of typical fusion weld zone in oxy fuel-gas and
arc welding is shown in Figure12.

Figure12: Characteristics of typical fusion welding (Source: Manufacturing Engineering

and Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven Schmid. ISBN0-13-
148965-8.

2006 Pearson Education,Inc.PP960)

Heat affected zone

The heat-affected zone is the narrow region of the base metal adjacent to the weld
bead, which is metallurgically altered by the heat of welding. It has a microstructure
different from that of base metal prior to welding.

The heat-affected zone is usually the major source of metallurgical problems in

welding.
-48-
 The width of the heat-affected zone depends on the amount of heat in put during
welding and increases with the heat input.

The properties and microstructure of the HAZ depends on the rate of heat input and
cooling and the temperature to which this zone was raised.

Effect of HAZ

If the work piece material was previously cold worked, this HAZ may have
experienced recrystallization and grain growth, and thus a diminishment of strength,
hardness, and toughness. The strength and hardness of HAZ depend partly on how
the original strength and hardness of the base metal was developed prior to
thewelding.

Upon cooling, residual stresses may form in this region that weakens the joint.

It can also lead to loss of corrosion resistance in stainless steels and nickel-base
alloys.

For steels, the material in this zone may have been heated to temperatures
sufficiently high so as to form austenite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the
microstructural products that form depend on cooling rate and alloy composition

For plain carbon steels, normally pearlite and proeutectoid phase will be present

For alloy steels, one micro-structural product phase may be martensite, which is
ordinarily undesirable because it is so brittle

Failures of welded joints

Weldment failures may occur due to various reasons. One of the main reasons of failure in
welding arises as a result of thermal cycling and its attend ant microstructural changes,
causing to develop various discontinuities. Failures in service may arise from fracture,
-49-
wear, corrosion or deformation. Poor workmanship and improper selection of welding
procedures and filler-metal composition account for numerous arc-weld failures.

According to Glover and Hauser [ ], some discontinuities that can serve as failure origins of
arc welded parts are found only in welds made by a particular process, but most
discontinuities may be produced by any of the welding processes.

The major discontinuities found in arc welded joints are:

Slag inclusions
Porosity

Grove over fill or under fill

Cracks

Lamellar tears
Embrittlement

Slag inclusions

Slag inclusions are compounds such as pieces of slag trapped inside solidified weld pool;
may result from excessive stirring in weld pool, or failure to remove slag from prior weld.
If shielding gases are not effective during welding, contamination from the environment
also may contribute to such inclusions.

Slag inclusions can be prevented by:

Cleaning weld bed surface before the next layer deposited

By providing sufficient shielded gases

Proper designing of joints

Porosity

Porosity or fine holes or pores within the weld metal can occur by absorption of evolved
gases and chemical reaction. Metals susceptible to porosity are those which can dissolve

-50-
large quantities of gas contaminates (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc) in the molten weldpool
and subsequently reject most of the gas during solidification. Aluminium alloys are more
susceptible to porosity than any other structural material.Weld cooling rates substantially
affects the volume of porosity.

At fast cooling rates, the level of porosity can below

Similarly, at slow cooling rates, porosity is minimal because bubbles coalescence,

float, and escape from the weld pool.

At intermediate cooling rates, the greatest volume of porosity in a weld is observed,

as conditions are optimum for both formation and entrapment of virtually all of the
evolved gases in the weld.

Types of porosity

According to According to Glover and Hauser[], porosity can be grouped into three different
types:

Isolated: caused by a phenomenon similar to boiling when the arc power is too far above the
ideal level.

Linear: caused from interaction of components of the shielding gas, such as oxygen,
hydrogen, or carbon dioxide, with the weld puddle to evolve a gas, such as hydrogen
sulphide.

Cluster: caused when cover of shielding gas is inadequate or when welding is done on wet
base metal.

Sources of porosity:

Moisture, oils, paints, rust, mill scale, oxygen and hydrogen and their chemical reaction are
the major sources of porosity.

How to avoid porosity

-51-
 Following standard of workmanship

Following standard welding codes

Improved welding techniques such as preheating the weld area and increasing the
rate of heat input

Reduce welding speed to allow gas to escape

Electrodes are dried

Incomplete fusion and penetration

In complete fusion is termed as fusion which doesnot occur over the entire base metal
surfaces intended for welding and between adjoining weld beads. Incomplete fusion can
result from insufficient heat input or the improper manipulation of the welding electrode.
While it is a discontinuity more commonly associated with weld technique, it could also
becaused by the presence of contaminants on the surface being welded. Incomplete
penetration occurs when the depth of welded joint is insufficient. A schematic illustration of
various discontinuities in fusion welds is shown in Figure13.

Figure13: Examples of various discontinuities in fusion welding (Source: Manufacturing

Engineering and Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven Schmid.
ISBN0-13-148965-8.2006 Pearson Education,Inc.PP963)

Incomplete fusion and penetration can be improved by:

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 By raising the temperature

Cleaning the weld area before welding

Modifying the weld design

Providing sufficient shielding gases

Reducing the travel speed during the welding

Cracks

Cracks in welding occur is various locations and directions in the weld area as a result from hot
tearing or cold cracking.

Hot tearing or hot cracks (solidification crack) occurs when shrinkage during
solidification tears mushy(liquidsolid) weldphysical constraints against shrinkage
may exacerbate the problem. Hot cracking results from internal stress developed on
cooling following solidification. This defect occurs at a temperature above the solidus
of an alloy.

Cold cracking or hydrogen cracking typically occurs after weld freezes, and residual
stresses are sufficient to cause crackshours/days later.

Cause of crack formation

by welding fixtures that do not permit contraction of the weld during cooling,

by narrow joints with large depth-to-width ratios,

by poor ductility of the deposited weld metal,

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 or by a high coefficient of thermal expansion coupled with low-heat conductivity in
the parent metal

Methods to minimize hot cracking

Maintenance of adequate manganese-to-sulfur ratio

Reduction of sulfur, phosphorus, carbon and niobium to minimal amounts

Reduction of the tensile restraint exerted on the weld

Hydrogen cracking or cold cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone of some steels as
hydrogen diffuses into this region when the weld cools. Hydrogen cracking is caused by
atomic hydrogen.

The sources of atomic hydrogen are

organic material,

chemically bonded water in the electrode coating,

absorbed water in the electrode coating,

and moisture on the steel surface at the location of the weld

Methods of minimising hydrogen cracking

Using low-hydrogen electrodes, which includes baking and storing them in a low-
temperature oven

Preheating the surface of the steel before welding to remove moisture

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 Post-weld heat treating immediately to force the hydrogen to escape

Peening immediately after each pass is also beneficial because it induces compressive
stresses and off sets the tendency toward cracking.

Under cut and under fill

Under cut combination of under fill and overly aggressive arc; leaves a sharp- edged hole in
surface. Under fill in sufficient filler metal used in welding; may result from excessive
welding velocity.

Residual stresses

Due to localised heating and cooling during welding, the expansion and contraction of the
weld area causes residual stresses. At completion of the weld thermal cycle the weldament
either distorts or if restrained will contain residual stress. Residual stress fields are complex,
Stresses may need to be removed by a stress relief heat treatment process.

Structural Steel Welding

The basic factors every engineer should know about structural steel welding. It is
important to have an understanding of the potential problems and critical parameters that need
to be taken into account in joining steels. This course will enable the designer to become
familiar with the typical weld terminology, understand the metallurgical changes that occur
during welding.

The effect of carbon equivalent:

Generally, the higher the carbon content of a steel, the lower the critical cooling rate
and the greater the necessity for preheating and using low hydrogen electrodes. Carbon,
however, is not the only element that influences the critical cooling rate. Other elements in the
steel are also responsible for the hardening and loss of ductility that occur with rapid cooling.

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The carbon equivalent (C.E.) may be one of the most significant factors to be considered when
determining preheat need and estimating the preheat temperature. The higher the carbon
equivalent of a steel, the greater the tendency to form a hard and brittle heat affected zone
(HAZ). One of the various empirical formulas used to determine carbon equivalent that
represents the sum of the effects of various elements on hardenability is given in the Structural
Steel Welding Code (AWS D1.1) as follows:

%C.E. = %C + % (Mn+Si)/6+ % (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + % (Ni+Cu)/15

The approximate recommended preheat temperatures based on C.E. are:

For up to 0.45%preheat is optional

0.45-0.60%200-400F

Over 0.60%....400-700F

Usually a steel that requires preheating must also be kept at this temperature between
weld passes. The heat input of the welding process is adequate to maintain the required
interpass temperature on most weldments. On massive components this may not be the case
and torch heating between passes may be required. Since the purpose of preheating is to reduce
the quench rate, the same slow cooling rate must be accomplished for all passes.

Besides the widely used carbon equivalent criteria, the following factors should also be
considered when determining the need for preheat/post weld heat treat: code requirements,
section thickness, restraint, ambient temperature, filler metal hydrogen content and previous
cracking problems.

Stress Relief (Post Weld Heat Treatment-PWHT):

Stress relieving is defined as heating to a suitable temperature (for steel, below the
critical transformation temperature), holding long enough at that temperature, and then cooling
slowly. PWHT is done to accomplish the following: 1) Reduce residual stresses, 2) Improve
the microstructure and fracture toughness of the HAZ, and 3) Remove hydrogen from the
welded zone and therefore prevent cracking. Heating and cooling should be done slowly and
uniformly to avoid additional stresses to develop in the welded component. In general the
greater the difference between the maximum and minimum thickness of the component parts,
the slower should be the rate of temperature change. The rates are typically specified in the
applicable codes and may be defined as 400F/hour max. Temperatures may be monitored by
thermocouples mounted on the part during the heat treatment. The stress relief range for most
carbon steels is 1100-1200F, and the soak time is usually one hour per inch of thickness.

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Temperature range is higher for alloyed steels. PWHT may have detrimental effects on low
alloy steels since they are susceptible to loss of fracture toughness (temper embrittlement)
when heated through certain ranges of temperatures.

Basic Metallurgy of Fusion Welding:-

A typical fusion welded joint varies in metallurgical structure from the fusion
zone to the base material with consequential variations in mechanical properties. This is
because of the fact that fusion welding processes result in melting and solidification with very
high temperature gradient within a small zone with the peak temperature at the center of the
fusion zone. In general, a weld can be divided in four different zones as shown schematically
in Figure 15.

Figure 15. Schematic presentations of several zones in a fusion welded joint

The fusion zone (referred to as FZ) can be characterized as a mixture of completely

molten base metal (and filler metal if consumable electrodes are in use) with high degree of
homogeneity where the mixing is primarily motivated by convection in the molten weld pool.
The main driving forces for convective transport of heat and resulting mixing of molten metal
in weld pool are: (1) buoyancy force, (2) surface tension gradient force, (3) electromagnetic
force, (4) friction force. Similar to a casting process, the microstructure in the weld fusion zone
is expected to change significantly due to remelting and solidification of metal at the
temperature beyond the effective liquidus temperature.

The weld interface, which is also referred to as mushy zone, is a narrow zone
consisting of partially melted base material which has not got an opportunity for mixing. This
zone separates the fusion zone and heat affected zone.

The heat affected zone (HAZ) is the region that experiences a peak temperature that is
well below the solidus temperature while high enough that can change the microstructure of
the material. The amount of change in microstructure in HAZ depends on the amount of heat

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input, peak temp reached, time at the elevated temp, and the rate of cooling. As a result of the
marked change in the microstructure, the mechanical properties also change in HAZ and,
usually, this zone remains as the weakest section in a weldment.

The unaffected base metal zone surrounding the HAZ is likely to be in a state of high
residual stress, due to the shrinkage in the fusion zone. However, this zone does not undergo
any change in the microstructure.

The fusion zone and heat affected zone of welded joints can exhibit very different
mechanical properties from that of the unaffected base metal as well as between themselves.
For example, the fusion zone exhibits a typical cast structure while the heat affected zone will
exhibit a heat-treated structure involving phase transformation, recrystallization and grain
growth. The unaffected base metal, on the other hand, will show the original rolled structure
with a slight grain growth. Figure 16 shows how different zones of a steel weldment can be
indicated on an iron-carbon equilibrium diagram.

Figure 16. Different zones in a steel weld vis--vis Iron-Carbon equilibrium diagram

The weldability of steels

The weldability of steel materials can be studied in typical Graville
diagram as shown in Figure 17. The Graville diagram presents the susceptibility of hydrogen
induced cracking of different class of steels based on the corresponding carbon content and
carbon equivalent (C.E). Equation (1) gives the C.E. equation.

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 (1) 5)V%Mo%Cr(%15)Cu%Ni(%6)Si%Mn(%C%.E.C+++++++=

In Fig. 17, the steels in Zone 1 confirm to low carbon content and low hardenability that reduce
their susceptibility to hydrogen cracking during welding [1]. In contrast, the class of steels in
Zone 3 (in Fig. 17) confirms to both high carbon content and high hardenability, and, is
susceptible to produce crack-sensitive microstructures during fusion welding [1]. The class of
steel in Zone 2 (Figure 17) has higher carbon levels with lower hardenability. The
susceptibility of hydrogen induced cracking in these steels can be avoided during welding by
restricting the cooling rate in HAZ through control of heat input and to a minor extent, with
preheat [1].

Figure 17. Graville diagram for steels [1].

Corrosion-Resistant Materials: Stainless Steels

Stainless steels are widely used in various industries because of their resistance to
corrosion.The welding of stainless steels, especially the austenitic grades, is important in
energy-related systems, for instance, power generation and petrochemical refining systems.
Table 18.1 summarizes typical welding problems in stainless steels and some recommended
solutions. The problems associated with the fusion zone and the partially-melted zone have
been addressed in previous chapters.This chapter focuses on HAZ phenomena in stainless
steels.

CLASSIFICATION OF STAINLESS STEELS

Stainless steels are a class of Fe-base alloys that are noted for their high corrosion and
oxidation resistance. They usually contain from 12 to 27% Cr and 1 to 2% Mn by weight, with

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the addition of Ni in some grades. A small amount of carbon is also present, either deliberately
added or as an unavoidable impurity. As shown in Table 18.2, stainless steels can be classified
into three major categories based on the structure: ferritic, martensitic, and austenic.

Ferritic Stainless Steels: These are composed mainly of a bcc phase. Chromium (bcc) tends to
stabilize -Fe (bcc) and its high-temperature counterpart -Fe (bcc), which merge to form the
so-called closed g loop, as shown in Figure 18.1 (2). It can be said that ferritic stainless steels
have metallurgical characteristics similar to those of FeCr alloys containing sufficient (more
than about 12%) Cr to remain outside the g loop.They are essentially ferritic over the whole
solid-state temperature range. To avoid forming an excessive amount of the brittle s phase,
however, the maximum Cr content of ferritic stainless steels is in general kept below 27%.

Martensitic Stainless Steels: These stainless steels can be said to behave like FeCr alloys
containing less than about 12% Cr (inside the g loop). These alloys solidify as d-ferrite and
transform to austenite during cooling. When the cooling rate is sufficiently by rapid, as in the
case of welding, the austenite that forms transforms into martensite. It should be emphasized
that the FeCr phase diagram can be used only as a convenient basis for distinguishing the
above two different structural categories of stainless steels. The presence of minor elements,
especially carbon, can significantly displace the boundaries of the austenite and ferrite ranges.
These effects will be considered later in this chapter.

Austenitic Stainless Steels: The addition of Ni (fcc) into FeCr alloys, as shown in Figure
18.2, tends to widen the range over which austenite (fcc) exists and increase its stability at low
temperatures (3). Generally speaking, austenitic stainless steels contain at least 15% Cr and
enough Ni to maintain a stable austenitic structure over the temperature range from 1100C to
room temperature without the formation of martensite (4). For instance, for a stainless steel
bearing 1516% Cr, about 68% Ni is required.The most widely used stainless steel is 304
stainless steel. It is also known as 18-8 stainless steel because of its composition of 18% Cr and
8% Ni.

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Welding of Steels:
Weld Decay

The HAZ of austenitic stainless steels containing more than about 0.05% C can be
susceptible to a form of intergranular corrosion called weld decay. Figure 18.3 shows the
microstructure in the HAZ of a 0.05% C 304 austenitic stainless steel subjected to an
accelerated corrosion test (5). The preferential attack at the grain boundaries is evident.

Figure 18.1 FeCr phase diagram Figure 18.2 Phase diagrams: (a) FeC; (b)
FeCr; (c) FeNiCr at 70% Fe. (3).
Courtesy of American Welding Society.

A. Cause Weld decay in austenitic stainless steels is caused by precipitation of Cr carbide at

grain boundaries, which is called sensitization. Typically, the Cr carbide is Cr-enriched
M23C6, in which M represents Cr and some small amount of Fe. Within the sensitization
temperature range carbon atoms rapidly diffuse to grain boundaries, where they combine with
Cr to form Cr carbide. Figure 18.4a shows a TEM micrograph of Cr carbide particles along a
grain boundary of a 316 stainless steel that has been sensitized at 750C for

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 Figure 18.3 Intergranular corrosion in HAZ of a 304 stainless steel containing 0.05% C.

of the carbides, about 600850C for Cr23C6 and up to about 1100C for TiC. Chromium
carbide dissolves at temperatures above its solvus curve. Upon cooling slowly from above the
solvus temperature, Cr carbide can precipitate again. However, if the cooling rate is high, Cr
carbide may not have enough time to precipitate and the material can be supersaturated with
free carbon.

Weld decay does not occur immediately next to the fusion boundary, where the peak
temperature is highest during welding. Instead, it occurs at a short distance away from it, where
the peak temperature is much lower. This phenomenon can be explained with the help of
thermal cycles during welding, as shown in Figure 18.4. At position 1 near the fusion
boundary, the material experiences the highest peak temperature and cooling rate (Chapter 2).
Consequently, the cooling rate through the precipitation range is too high to allow Cr carbide
precipitation to occur. At position 2, which is farther away from the fusion line, the retention
time of the material in the sensitization temperature range is long enough for precipitation to
take place. At position 3, outside the HAZ, the peak temperature is too low to allow any
precipitation. Figure 18.9 shows thermal cycles measured during the welding of 304 stainless
steel and the location of the resultant weld decay (13). Consider the microstructure of a 304
stainless steel weld shown previously in Figure 14.6. At position c, which is away from the
fusion boundary, the thick, dark grain boundaries are the evidence of weld decay due to grain
boundary precipita-tion. At position e, which is immediately adjacent to the fusion boundary,
there are no signs of grain boundary precipitation.

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Figure 18.4 Sensitization in austenitic stainless steel: (a) phase diagram; (b) thermal cycle; (c)
precipitation curve; (d) microstructure.

Figure 18.5 Thermal cycles and weld decay in 304 stainless steel weld.

Ferritic Stainless Steel:-

The most commonly used ferritic stainless steel perhaps is the 430 type, which usually
contains about 17% Cr and 0.050.12% C. Figure 19 is a vertical section of the FeCrC phase
diagram at 17% Cr.

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 Figure 19. Vertical section of FeCrC phase diagram at 17% Cr.

Sensitization

Sensitization of ferritic stainless steels (such as 430 and 446) is quite different from that
of austenitic stainless steels (unstabilized, such as 304). The sensitizing range for ferritic
stainless steels lies above 925C, and immunity to intergranular corrosion is restored by
annealing in the range of 650815C for about 1060min. These temperatures are essentially
the opposite of those applying to austenitic stainless steels. Because of the high sensitization
temperature range, the weld decay in ferritic stainless steels occurs close to the weld metal,
rather than at a distance away, as in the case of austenitic stainless steels. Furthermore, unlike
in austenitic stainless steels, lowering the carbon content is not very effective in preventing
weld decay in ferritic stainless steels. In fact, a 430 stainless steel with a carbon content as low
as 0.009% C was found still susceptible to weld decay. As in the case of austenitic stainless

steels, addition of Ti or Nb was found helpful. Because the diffusion rates of C and Cr are
much higher in ferrite (bcc) than in austenite (fcc), rapid cooling from above 925C during
welding does not really suppress precipitation of Cr carbide at grain boundaries in ferritic
stainless steels. For the same reason, lowering the carbon content does not effectively prevent
Cr carbide from precipitating, unless the carbon content is extremely low (e.g., 0.002% in 446
stainless steel). According to Uhlig, postweld annealing in the range of 650815C encourages
diffusion of Cr atoms to the Cr-depleted region adjacent to Cr carbide precipitates and thus
helps reestablish a uniform Cr composition to resist intergranular corrosion.
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Martensite Formation and Grain Growth

Figure 20 shows the microstructure of 430 stainless steel in the base metal and the
HAZ. Position b (away from the fusion boundary) reaches the austenite formation ranges (d +
g + C1 and d + g) of the phase diagram (Figure 19 at about 0.08%C). Here, austenite formed
along grain boundaries and, upon fast cooling during welding, transformed into martensite
(Figure 20b). Little grain growth took place. Position a (near the fusion boundary), on the other
hand, reaches the d-ferrite range and excessive grain growth takes place at high temperatures
(Figure 20a). During cooling through the austenite formation ranges, a considerable amount of
austenite formed at the grain boundaries. The austenite appears needlelike because of the large
grain size and the high cooling rate. During further rapid cooling to room temperature, the
austenite transforms into needlelike martensite. Because of excessive grain coarsening and
formation of needlelike martensite at grain boundaries, the notch toughness of as-welded 430
stainless steel

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 Figure 20.Microstructure of 430 stainless steel (magnification 212): (a) near fusion
boundary; (b) near base metal; (c) base metal.

is poor. Postweld heat treatment at 800C (martensite tempering) significantly improves the
notch toughness. Suppressing martensite formation by adding 0.5% Ti or 1% Nb also helps (4).
This is probably because both Ti and Nb increase the stability of d-ferrite, thus suppressing the
formation of austenite. Furthermore, as mentioned previously, they tend to form carbides at
high temperatures. Therefore, the carbon content is reduced and the tendency to form
martensite decreases. Excessive grain growth can be avoided, of course, by using lower
welding heat inputs. It has also been suggested that nitride and carbide formers such as B,
Al,V, and Zr can be added to ferritic stainless steels to suppress grain growth during welding.

MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS

Phase Diagram

Martensitic stainless steels are employed because of the combination of high strength
and good corrosion resistance. The commercial 13% Cr steel containing more than 0.08% C is
the most widely used martensitic stainless steel. Figure 21 shows a vertical section of the Fe
CrC at 13% Cr (4). This diagram is somewhat similar to that shown in Figure 19 at 17%
Cr.The temperature and composition ranges of the austenite phase (g), however, are much
wider in the case of 13% Cr steel.

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 Figure 21. Vertical section of FeCrC phase diagram at 13% Cr.

Underbead Cracking

The hardness of martensitic stainless steels increases rather significantly with

increasing carbon content. For 12% Cr steel quenched from 1050C, for instance, the hardness
increases from 364 HV at 0.07% C to 620 HV at 0.60% C (4). Consequently, martensitic
stainless steels with higher carbon contents are rather susceptible to underbead cracking,
especially when hydrogen is present during welding. Because of the internal stresses induced
by the volume increase associated with the austenite-to-martensite transformation, underbead
cracking can still occur even if relatively low restraint is employed during welding. As a result,
martensitic stainless steels with a carbon content above 0.250.30% are not normally
welded.

WELDING OF CAST IRON

Cast irons, like steels, are essentially alloys of iron and carbon, but whereas the
carbon content of steel is limited to a maximum of 2%, cast irons generally contain more than
2% carbon.To facilitate a better understanding of these materials, they can be divided into five
groups, based on composition and metallurgical structure: white cast iron, malleable cast iron,
grey cast iron, ductile cast iron and alloy cast iron.

White Cast Iron

White cast iron derives its name from the white, crystalline crack surface observed
when a casting fractures. Most white cast irons contain <4.3% carbon, with low silicon
contents to inhibit the precipitation of carbon as graphite. It is used in applications where
abrasion resistance is important and ductility not required, such as liners for cement mixers,
ball mills, certain types of drawing dies and extrusion nozzles. White cast iron is generally
considered unweldable. The absence of any ductility that can accommodate welding-induced
stresses in the base metal and heat-affected zone adjacent to the weld results in cracking
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during cooling after welding.

Microstructure white Cast Iron (x200)

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable cast iron is produced by heat treating white cast iron of a suitable
composition. Iron carbide can decompose into iron and carbon under certain conditions. This
reaction is favoured by high temperatures, slow cooling rates and high carbon and silicon
contents

Ferritic Malleable Cast Iron

At room temperature, the microstructure therefore consists of temper carbon nodules in

a ferrite matrix, generally known as ferritic malleable cast iron. The compact nodules of temper
carbon do not break up the continuity of the tough ferritic matrix, resulting in high strength and
improved ductility. The graphite nodules also serve to lubricate cutting tools, which accounts
for the very high machinability of malleable cast iron.

Microstructure of ferritic malleable cast iron (x200)

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Ferritic malleable cast iron has been widely used for automotive, agricultural and railroad
equipment; expansion joints and railing castings on bridges; chain-hoist assemblies;
industrial casters; pipe fittings; and many applications in general hardware.

Pearlitic Malleable Cast Iron

If full graphitisation is prevented and a controlled amount of carbon remains in the iron
during cooling, finely distributed iron carbide plates nucleate in the iron at lower temperatures.
This can be achieved by alloying with manganese, or by replacing the second-stage anneal by a
quench (usually in air or oil).

Microstructure of pearlitic malleable cast iron (x200)

Due to the presence of iron carbide in the microstructure, the strength and hardness of these
castings are increased over those of ferritic malleable cast iron.

Grey Cast Iron

Grey cast iron is one of the most widely used casting alloys and typically contains
between 2.5% and 4% carbon and between 1% and 3% silicon. With proper control of the
carbon and silicon contents and the cooling rate, the formation of iron carbide during
solidification is suppressed entirely, and graphite precipitates directly from the melt as
irregular, generally elongated and curved flakes in an iron matrix saturated with carbon.

When a grey iron casting fractures, the crack path follows these graphite flakes and the fracture
surface appears grey because of the presence of exposed graphite.
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 Microstructure of grey cast iron (x200)

The strength of grey cast iron depends almost entirely on the matrix in which these
graphite flakes are embedded. Slow cooling rates and high carbon and silicon contents
promote full graphitisation, and the majority of the carbon dissolved in the iron at high
temperatures is deposited as graphite on the existing flakes during cooling. The structure
then consists of graphite flakes in a ferrite matrix, referred to as ferritic grey cast iron. If
graphitization of the carbon dissolved in the iron at high temperatures is prevented during
cooling, iron carbide precipitates out and the matrix is pearlitic (referred to as pearlitic
grey cast iron). Ferritic grey cast iron is normally soft and weak.

Ductile Iron

Ductile cast iron, also known as nodular iron or spheroidal graphite (SG) iron, is very
similar in composition to grey cast iron, but the free graphite in these alloys precipitates from
the melt as spherical particles rather than flakes. This is accomplished through the addition of
small amounts of magnesium or cerium to the ladle just before casting. The spherical graphite
particles do not disrupt the continuity of the matrix to the same extent as graphite flakes,
resulting in higher strength and toughness compared with grey cast iron of similar composition.

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 Microstructure of SG cast iron with bull eye ferrite (x200)

Typical applications are agricultural (tractor and implement parts); automotive and diesel
(crankshafts, pistons and cylinder heads); electrical fittings, switch boxes, motor frames and
circuit breaker parts; mining (hoist drums, drive pulleys, flywheels and elevator buckets);
steel mill (work rolls, furnace doors, table rolls and bearings); and tool and die (wrenches,
levers, clamp frames, chuck bodies and dies for shaping steel, aluminium, brass, bronze and
titanium).

Mechanical Properties

Due to the low toughness and ductility of cast iron (especially white and grey cast
iron), standard tensile and impact toughness tests have limited applicability, and elongation
and absorbed energy values are not always available. Some of the mechanical properties of
the different types of cast iron are shown in the table below. The wide variation in mechanical
properties within a particular class of cast iron, as shown below, can be attributed to a
variation in microstructure.

The machinability of grey, malleable and ductile cast irons is superior to that of carbon
steel, and these alloys even outperform free-cutting steel. The excellent machinability can be
attributed to the lubricating effect of the graphite particles in the microstructure. Grey cast iron
has a very high damping capacity (ability to quell vibrations) and is therefore well suited for
bases and supports, as well as for moving parts.

Welding
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 Cast irons include a large family of ferrous alloys covering a wide range of chemical
compositions and metallurgical microstructures. Some of these materials are readily
weldable, while others require great care to produce sound welds. Certain cast irons are
considered unweldable. A major factor contributing to the difficulty of welding cast iron is its
lack of ductility. If cast irons are loaded beyond their yield points, they break rather than
deform to any significant extent. Weld filler metal and part configuration should therefore be
selected to minimise welding stresses. MMA, flux cored arc, MIG, TIG and gas welding
processes are normally used with nickel-based welding consumables to produce high-quality
welds, but cast iron and steel electrodes can also produce satisfactory welds in certain
alloys.Iron castings are generally welded to:

repair defects in order to salvage or upgrade a casting before service,

repair damaged or worn castings, and

fabricate castings into welded assemblies.

Repair of defects in new iron castings represents the largest single application of
welding cast irons. Defects such as porosity, sand inclusions, cold shuts, washouts and shifts
are commonly repaired. Fabrication errors, such as inaccurate machining and misaligned
holes, can also be weld repaired. Due to the widely differing weldability of the various
classes of cast iron, welding procedures must be suited to the type of cast iron to be welded.

White Cast Iron

Because of its extreme hardness and brittleness, white cast iron is considered
unweldable.

Malleable Cast Iron

During welding, the ductility of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of malleable cast iron
is severely reduced because graphite dissolves and precipitates as iron carbide. Although

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post-weld annealing softens the hardened zone, minimal ductility is regained. Despite these
limitations, malleable cast irons can be welded satisfactorily and economically if precautions
are taken. Because most malleable iron castings are small, preheating is seldom required. If
desired, small welded parts can be stress relieved at temperatures up to 550C. For heavy
sections and highly restrained joints, preheating at temperatures up to 200C and a postweld
malleabilising heat treatment are recommended. However, this costly practice is not always
followed, especially when the design of the component is based on reduced strength
properties of the welded joint. Ferritic malleable grades display the best weldability of the
malleable cast irons, even though impact strength is reduced by welding. Pearlitic malleable
irons, because of their higher combined carbon content, have lower impact strength and
higher crack susceptibility when welded. If a repaired area must be machined, welding
should be performed with a nickel-based electrode. MMA welding cast iron, using low-
carbon steel and low-hydrogen electrodes at low currents, produces satisfactory welds in
malleable iron. If low-carbon steel electrodes are used, the part should be annealed to reduce
the hardness in the weld (due to carbon pick-up) and in the HAZ.

Grey Cast Iron

As grey cast iron contains graphite in flake form, carbon can readily be introduced into
the weld pool, causing weld metal embrittlement. Consequently, techniques that minimise base
metal dilution are recommended. Care must be taken to compensate for shrinkage stresses, and
the use of low strength filler metals helps reduce cracking without sacrificing overall joint
strength.

Grey cast iron welds are susceptible to the formation of porosity. This can be
controlled by lowering the amount of dilution with the base metal, or by slowing the cooling
rate so that gas has time to escape. Preheat helps reduce porosity and reduces the cracking
tendency. A minimum preheat of 200C is recommended, but 315C is generally used.

The most common arc welding electrodes for grey cast iron are nickel and nickel-iron
types. These electrodes have been used with or without preheating and/or postweld heat
treatment. Cast iron and steel electrodes must be used with high preheats (550C) to prevent
cracking and the formation of hard deposits.
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Ductile Cast Iron

Ductile cast irons are generally more weldable than grey cast irons, but require
specialised welding procedures and filler materials. Pearlitic ductile iron produces a larger
amount of martensite in the HAZ than ferritic ductile iron and is generally more susceptible to
cracking.

MMA, using nickel-iron electrodes, is the most common welding technique for
welding ductile iron. Most castings do not require preheating, but preheats of up to 315C
are used on large components.

Electrodes should be dried to minimise hydrogen damage and porosity. If machinability or

optimum joint properties are desired, castings should be annealed immediately after welding.

WELDING OF NONFERROUS ALLOYS

1. Weldability of aluminum and aluminum alloys

1. Introduction
Nowadays, aluminum and aluminum alloys are extensively used for various
applications such as household utensils, autos, railroad cars, buildings, bridges, aircrafts,
spacecrafts, ships, chemical equipment, water gates, and storage tanks, because of the inherent
advantages of high strength-to-weight ratio, high notch toughness at cryogenic temperatures,
excellent corrosion resistance, ease in extrusion, and good fabricability.

Aluminum and its alloys are readily joined with most of the known joining processes
including welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, and mechanical fastening. Of these
joining processes, welding is most widely used. The welding processes used for aluminum and
its alloy assemblies are arc welding, stud welding, electron beam welding, laser beam welding,
resistance welding, solid-state welding, and oxyfuel gas welding. Of these welding processes,

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arc welding is most extensively used. The arc welding processes used commonly in the
assemblies are gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and gas shielded metal arc welding with
solid wires (refer to as GMAW hereinafter).

Basically, aluminum and its alloys can successfully be arc welded by using
conventional GTAW/GMAW equipment and techniques used for other metals, provided the
welding procedure is suitable. However, occasionally specialized equipment or techniques, or
both, are required due to the inherent unique physical and mechanical characteristics of
aluminum and its alloys.

This section focuses on GTAW and GMAW of aluminum and its alloys and discusses
diverse types of such metals and their weldability, suitable welding equipment, proper filler
metals and welding procedures, and provides tips for sound welds.

Weldability of aluminum and aluminum alloys

Aluminum and its alloys can readily be arc welded except specific types of aluminum
alloys; however, their inherent physical and metallurgical characteristics should sufficiently be
understood in order to implement successful arc welding. Following are typical characteristics
of aluminum and its alloys that can be drawbacks in arc welding.

(1) Higher specific heat, latent heat of fusion, and thermal conductivity

Aluminum and its alloys feature lower melting point but higher specific heat, latent
heat of fusion and thermal conductivity compared with steel; therefore, a larger amount of heat
is needed in a short time to fuse aluminum and its alloys relative to steel.

(2) Stronger oxide film

Aluminum and its alloys produce strong oxide films on their surfaces when heated at
high temperatures and fused, unless the surface is shielded sufficiently with an inert gas. The
oxide film prevents fusion between the base metal and the filler metal.

(3) Larger distortion

Welding aluminum and its alloys causes much more distortion compared with welding
steel because the expansion coefficient of aluminum and its alloys is larger than that of steel.

(4) Softening of heat-affected zone

The heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the base metal (except the annealed type) features
lower hardness thus lower strength than that of the nonheat-affected zone because the
effects of work hardening and aging (precipitation hardening) of the base metal can be
cancelled by the heat of arc. That is, the HAZ becomes annealed condition, which is generally
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called softening.

Figure 1.1 shows schematically how the softening can occur in the HAZ of a nonheat-
treatable aluminum alloy (3003-type base metal; 1100-type filler metal). Softening of the
work-hardened aluminum alloy occurs in the weld zone heated at temperatures over 250;
consequently, the hardness (or strength) of the weld decreases to the same level as that of the
annealed type. The width of the softened zone increases as the degree of work hardening
increases. In contrast, the annealed type aluminum alloy exhibits even hardness across the
weld.

1 2

Figure 1.1. variations in weld hardness distribution of nonheat-treatable aluminum, 2.2.Weld

hardness distribution of heat-treatable aluminum of Alloy 6061-T4 (230A, 63 cm/min, after
aging).
In the case of heat-treatable aluminum alloys, the weld hardness exhibits a complicated
distribution as shown in Fig. 1.2 according to the microstructure affected by the temperature at
which individual zone was heated. The solid solution zone can be formed at where heated at
the solution treatment temperature (450-550) or higher. In this zone, precipitates are
dissolved in

the matrix, thereby causing coarse crystal grains. The softened area can be created, at where
heated at the temperatures higher than the aging temperature range (150-250 ), by excessive
precipitation and partialannealing.

The softening phenomenon causes the weld joint tensile strength of aluminum and its alloys in
the as-welded condition to fall in a certain level according to the alloy system regardless the
degrees of work hardening and heat treatment.
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The degree of softening varies depending on the type of aluminum alloy and the amount of
heat input. In the case of Al-Zn-Mg alloys (e.g. Alloy 7N01), the weld softened zone can be
gradually recovered increasing its hardness according to the time elapsed after welding due to
excellent natural age hardening characteristic.

(5) More Sensitive to hot working

Hot cracking is the most noticeable type of cracking in welding aluminum and its
alloys, which may occur in the welds at temperatures close to the solidus of the base metal and
filler metal during the weld cooling cycle, if the welding procedure (including type of base
metal, type of filler metal and welding parameters) is inappropriate. Hot cracking in the welds
is caused mainly by the segregation of alloying elements and low-melting-point constituents at
the grain boundaries.

In general, pure aluminum offers the lowest crack susceptibility among aluminum and
its alloys. In contrast, Cu-bearing aluminum alloys exhibit higher crack susceptibility. For
instance, aluminum alloys with high copper content, such as Alloy 2024 (Al-4.5%Cu-
1.5%Mg), also known as super duralumin, and Alloy 7075 (Al-1.6%Cu-2.5%Mg-5.5%Zn),
also known as extra super duralumin, are not acceptable for arc welding. The amounts of other
alloying elements such as Mg, Zn and Si affect crack sensitivity.

(6) More likely to cause porosity

The arc welding of aluminum and its alloys is more likely to cause porosity in weld metals,
relative to welding other metals. It is reported that the main cause of porosity is hydrogen in
the weld metal.

2. Weldability of Copper and Copper alloys

Introduction
Copper and copper alloys possess distinctive electrical and thermal conductivity,
corrosion resistance, metal-to-metal wear resistance, and aesthetic appearance. Copper offers
high electrical and thermal conductivity; therefore, it is widely used for electrical conductors
and other electrical equipment. Copper exhibits excellent corrosion resistance against
atmosphere, seawater, chemicals, and foods. This is why copper is also used for various
applications such as water supply tubes and tanks, chemical containers, brewing equipment,
food-processing equipment, and components of ships. Copper alloys possess the electrical and
thermal conductivity inferior to copper, and their corrosion resistance varies depending on their

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chemical compositions. However, they offer higher strength over copper, and therefore they
are used for structural components such as water tubing, valves, fittings, heat exchangers,
chemical equipment, and bearings.

Copper and its alloys can be joined by welding, brazing, and soldering. The welding
processes used for joining copper materials are arc welding, oxyfuel gas welding, laser
welding, electron beam welding, ultrasonic welding, resistance welding, flash welding, friction
welding, and pressure welding. Among arc welding processes, gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) and gas shielded metal arc welding with solid wires, referred to as gas metal arc
welding (GMAW), are most extensively used due to better performances, although shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) can be used for many non-critical applications.

This textbook discusses various types of copper and copper alloys and their weldability,
suitable filler metals, welding procedures, and tips for sound welds and safe practices.

2.1. Weldability and welding procedures

Most copper and copper alloys are arc weldable but at a lower degree than in steel. The
difficulties in arc welding copper and its alloys can be attributed to the following reasons. First,
high thermal conductivity tends to cause insufficient fusion. Second, high thermal expansion is
apt to cause distortion and cracking. Third, low melting point can cause slag inclusions in
SMAW because the melting temperature of the slag can be higher than that of the weld metal.
Forth, the coarse crystal grains of weld metal degrade the mechanical properties. Fifth, added
elements such as Pb, Sn, Bi, and P can cause cracking and embrittlement, and Zn vapors can
cause insufficient fusion.

2.2.1 Copper

Copper features extremely high heat conductivity (eight times that of steel); therefore,
the heat of arc can rapidly be spread from the weld through the base metal. Consequently,
sufficient penetration can hardly be obtained and, in turn, insufficient fusion may occur.

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 Figure 2.1 Effects of process, shielding gas, and metal thickness on preheat requirements for
welding copper.
The arc welding of strictly-restrained thick work of oxygen-free copper and deoxidized
copper tends to cause hot cracking. Blowholes may also occur in copper weld metals, caused
by hydrogen dissolved during welding. Electrolytic tough pitch copper that contains a high
amount of oxygen has inferior weldability than low-oxygen copper metals because it is more
likely to cause hot cracking and blowholes than low-oxygen coppers.

GTAW, GMAW and SMAW can be applied by using the matching filler metals of
ERCu and ECu, respectively. Copper alloy type filler metals such as ERCuSi-A, ERCuSn-A,
ECuSi, ECuSn-A and ECuSn-C are also used where good electrical or thermal conductivity is
not a major requirement. Such copper alloy filler metals, unlike the copper type, possess lower
heat conductivity and therefore better fusion can be obtained with a lower preheating
temperature. However, the electrical resistivity of the silicon- and phosphor-bronze weld
metals is higher than that of the copper base metal. GTAW and GMAW can establish higher
heat concentration over SMAW, thereby obtaining better fusion and penetration.

In GTAW and GMAW, argon gas is generally used for shielding. The use of helium
gas can decrease the minimum preheating temperature. In general, GTAW is suitable for thin
metals up to 6 mm, while GMAW is used for thicker metals over 6 mm. The high thermal
conductivity of copper requires preheating to achieve complete fusion and adequate joint
penetration. Preheat requirements depend on material thickness, the welding process, and the
shielding gas as shown in Figure 2.1.

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 Figure 2.2 Effects of shielding gas and preheat temperature on weld bead penetration in
copper when gas tungsten arc welded with 300A DC at a travel speed of 3.4 mm/sec).

Figure 2.2 illustrates the effects of preheat temperature on penetration in copper with
argon and helium shielding gases. Helium produces a more fluid weld pool that is cleaner, and
the risk of oxide entrapment is considerably reduced. Mixtures of argon and helium result in
intermediate welding characteristics. A mixture of 75%He-25%Ar produces a good balance
between the good penetration of helium and the easier arc starting and greater arc stability of
argon.

Design of Welded Joints

Various kinds of welding joints designs are:

1. Design of a butt joint:

The main failure mechanism of welded butt joint is tensile failure. Therefore the
strength of a butt joint is

P = STlt

where ST=allowable tensile strength of the weld material.

t=thickness of the weld

l=length of the weld.

For a square butt joint t is equal to the thickness of the plates.

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 Figure 1: Design of a butt joint

2. Design of transverse fillet joint:

Consider a single transverse joint as shown in figure 2. The general stress distribution
in the weld metal is very complicated. In design, a simple procedure is used assuming that
entire load P acts as shear force on the throat area, which is the smallest area of the cross
section in a fillet weld. If the fillet weld has equal base and height, (h, say), then the cross
section of the throat is easily seen to be hl/2. With the above consideration the permissible
load carried by a transverse fillet weld is

P = SSAthroat

where SS-allowable shear stress

Athroat=throat area.

For a double transverse fillet joint the allowable load is twice that of the single fillet joint.

Figure 2: Design of a single transverse fillet

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3. Design of parallel fillet joint:

Consider a parallel fillet weld as shown in figure 3. Each weld carries a load P/2. It is
easy to see from the strength of material approach that the maximum shear occurs along
the throat area (try to prove it). The allowable load carried by each of the joint is ssAt.
where the throat area At = lh/2. The total allowable load is

P = 2ssAt

Figure 3: Design of a parallel fillet joint

In designing a weld joint the design variables are h and l. They can be selected based on
the above design criteria. When a combination of transverse and parallel fillet joint is
required (see figure 4) the allowable load is

P = 2ssAt + ssAt'

where At=throat area along the longitudinal direction.

At'=throat area along the transverse direction.

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 Figure 4: Design of combined transverse and parallel fillet joint

4. Design of circular fillet weld subjected to torsion: Consider a circular shaft

connected to a plate by means of a fillet joint as shown in figure 5. If the shaft is
subjected to a torque, shear stress develops in the weld in a similar way as in parallel
fillet joint. Assuming that the weld thickness is very small compared to the diameter of
the shaft, the maximum shear stress occurs in the throat area. Thus, for a given torque the
maximum shear stress in the weld is

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 Figure 5: Design of Fillet weld for Torsion.

5. Design stresses of welds: Determination of stresses in a welded joint is difficult because

of

Inhomogeneity of the weld joint metals

Thermal stresses in the welds
Changes of physical properties due to high rate of cooling etc.

The stresses in welded joints for joining ferrous material with MS electrode are tabulated
below.

Table 1.

Type of load Bare electrodes Covered

(Static load) electrodes (Static

load)

Butt weld Tension (MPa) 91.5 112.5

Compression 105.4 126.5

(MPa)

Shear (MPa) 56.2 70.3

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 Fillet weld Shear (MPa) 79.5 98.5

Testing & Inspection MethodsTesting Methods

Tests must be made to qualify the process(es) and the operators.

Inspection usually involves the examination of completed welds to establish their

quality and their confirmation to specifications.

Thus, testing and inspection determines whether or not the quality stand arts of
materials and workmanship are being met.

In welded joints, the complexity is further increased by the nature of the joint which is
far from homogeneous, metallurgically or chemically. In addition to the base metal, the
welded joint consists of weld metal and a heat-affected-zone. A variety of properties
are thus to be expected throughout the welded joint.

Mechanical tests are used to qualify welding procedures, welders, and welding
processes, and to determine if electrodes and filler metals meet the requirements of the
specification.

Welds in weldments are often tested for soundness, strength, and toughness by
mechanical tests.

Mechanical tests are destructive tests since the weld joint is destroyed in making the
test. The test specimen (coupon) may be taken from a completed joint in a welded
structure or from a test piece welded at the same conditions.

Weld Tension test

Welding results in metallurgical (and often compositional) differences in the
weld joint, and it is important to know the effects of these changes on,
mechanical properties.

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 The tension testing of welds is somewhat more involved than for base metal
because the weld test section is heterogeneous in nature, composed of the
deposited weld metal, the HAZ and the unaffected base metal.

Tensile test specimen can be either transverse or longitudinal depends on the

loading on the welded joint.

In tension test, strength, elongation and reduction area are of primary

importance.

Transverse weld specimen preparation

Weld Tension Test

If the weld metal strength exceeds that of the base metal, most of the plastic strain
occurs in the base metal, with resultant necking (local reduction in area of the cross-
section by stretching) and failure outside of the area. In such a case, the test does not
give and indication of the weld ductility.

When the weld strength is considerably lower than that of the base metal, most of the
plastic strain occurs in the weld.

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 Transverse weld specimens may provide a measure of joint efficiency in terms of
strength, but do not provide a good ductility measurement of the weld. But, however,
transverse specimen is generally used.

Tension-shear tests may be used to evaluate the shear properties of fillet welds. Such
tests are usually intended to represent completed joints in weldments and so are
prepared using similar procedures.

The tension-shear test is the most widely used method for determining

Tension Test Specimen

Weld Hardness Test:

Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers and Knoop hardness tests can be applicable to welds.

Hardness measurements can provide information about the metallurgical changes

caused by welding. In construction steels, for example, rapid cooling from high HAZ
temperature may cause the formation of martensite of much higher hardness than the
base metal.

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 Hardness values in a welded joint are usually sensitive to such conditions of welding, as
the process used, heat input, preheat pass temp, electrode compositions, and plate
thickness.

Hardness testing of welds is performed on ground, polished, or polished and etched

cross-section of the joint area.

Indentations are made in the specific areas of interests, including the weld center line,
face or root regions of the deposit, the HAZ, and the base metal.

Which hardness test is used depends primarily on the hardness or strength of the
material, the size of the welded joint, and the type of information desired.

The Brinell test produces a large indentation, typically 2 to 5.6 mm in diameter, and it
is thus suited on for large welds.

The Rockwell test produces a much smaller indentation more suited for hardness
traverses.

The Vickers and Knoop tests make relatively small indentations and thus are well-
suited for hardness measurements of the various regions of the HAZ and for fine-scale
traverses.

Weld Bend tests:

Various types of bend tests are used to evaluate the ductility andsoundness of welded
joints.

Bend specimens may be longitudinal or transverse to the weld axis and may be bent in
simple three-or four-point bending (free bend) or around a mandrel of specified
diameter (guided bend).

The top and bottom surfaces of a welded plate frequently designated as the face and
root surfaces, respectively.

Face bends have the weld face on the tension side of the bend specimen; with root
bends, the weld root is on the convex side.

In bend testing of thick plates, transverse slices are usually cut from the welded joint
and bent so that one of the cut side surfaces becomes the convex side of the bend
specimen, these are referred to as side bends.

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 Weld bend test specimen preparation

Weld Bend Test Diagram

Transverse bend tests are useful in qualifying welders and welding operators because
they quite often reveal the presence of defects (lack of root fusion or penetration) that
are not detected in tension tests.

The transverse bend test is sensitive to the relative strengths of the weld metal, the
HAZ, and the base metal.

It is normal to machine or grind, flat the face and root of a weld bend test coupon to
reduce the stress raising effect that these would have

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 Weld joints with non-uniform properties such as dissimilar metal joints or where the
weld and parent metal strengths are substantially different can result in 'peaking' of the
bend coupon. This is when the most of the deformation takes place in the weaker of the
two materials which therefore experiences excessive localized deformation that may
result in premature failure.

Visual inspection:
It is the most widely used nondestructive testing technique. It is extremely effective and
is the least expensive inspection method.

The welding inspector can utilize inspection visual inspection throughout the entire
production cycle of a weldment.

It is an effective quality control method that will ensure procedure conformityand will
catch errors at early stages.

Visual inspection methods can be divided into three sub-groups:

Visual examinations prior to welding: drawings, material specifications, edge

preparation, dimensions, cleanliness of the welding joint etc.

Visual examination during welding: welding process, electrode selection,

operating conditions, preheat requirements, welder performance etc.

Visual examinations of the finished weldment: weld size (using weld gauges),
defects (surface cracks, creater cracks, surface porosity, incomplete root penetration,
undercut, underfill), warpage, base metal defects etc.

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Nondestructive testing (NDT)

Nondestructive testing is also known as nondestructive examinations or evaluation

(NDE) or inspection.

These techniques use the application of physical principles from the detection of flaws
or discontinuities in materials without impairing their usefulness.

In the field of welding, four nondestructive tests are widely used:

Dye-penetrant testing and Fluorescent-penetrant testing

Magnetic particle testing

Ultrasonic testing

Radiographic testing.

Weld Penetrant examination:

Liquid-penetrant examination is a highly sensitive, nondestructive method for detecting
minute discontinuities(flaws) such as cracks, pores, and porosity, which are open to the
surface of the material being inspected.

It may be applied to many materials, ferrous and nonferrous metals, glass and plastics.

The applied surface must be cleaned from dirt and film. So, discontinuities must be free
from dirt, rust, grease, or paint to enable the penetrant to enter the surface opening.

A liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the part to be inspected. The penetrant
remains on the surface and seeps into any surface opening. The penetrant is drawn into
the surface opening by capillary action. The parts may be in any position when tested.
After sufficient penetration time elapsed, the surface is cleaned and excess penetrant is
removed.

The penetrant is usually a red color; therefore, the indication shows up brilliantly
against the white background. Even small defects maybe located.

Liquid-penetrant examination is used to detect surface defects in aluminums,

magnesium, and stainless steel weldments when the magnetic particle examination
method cannot be used.

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 It is very usefull for locating leaks in all types of welds. Welds in pressure and storage
vessels and in piping for the petroleum industry are examined for surface cracks and for
porosity

Fluorescent Penetrant Examination:

The penetrant is fluorescent and when it is exposed to ultraviolet or black light it shows
a glowing fluorescent type of read-out.

It provides a greater contrast than the visible dye penetrants.

Used for leak detection in magnetic and nonmagnetic weldments.

A fluorescent penetrant is applied to one side of the joint and a portable ultraviolet light
is then used on the reverse side of the joint to examine the weld for leaks.

Inspect the root pass of highly critical pipe welds.

Radiographic examinations:
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 Radiography is a nondestructive examination method that uses invisible X-ray, or
Gamma radiation to examine the interior of materials.

It gives a permanent film record of defects that is relatively easy to interpret.

Although this is a slow and expensive method of nondestructive examination, it is a

positive method for detecting porosity, inclusions, cracks, and voids in the interior of
castings, welds, other structures.

X-ray generated by electron bombardment of tungsten, and gamma rays emitted by

radioactive elements are penetrating radiation whose intensity is modified by passage
through a material.

The amount of energy absorbed by a material depends on its thickness and density.
Energy not absorbed by the material will cause exposure of the radiographic film.
Those area will be dark when the film is developed.

Areas of material where the thickness has been changed by discontinuities, such as
porosity or cracks, will appear as dark outlines on the film.

All discontinuities are detected by viewing shape and variations in the density of the
processed film.

Applications:
It is used for examination of weldments in all types of materials.

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 Pipeline industry to ensure proper weld quality.

Ultrasonic examinations:
It is a nondestructive examination method that employs mechanical vibrations similar
to sound waves but of a higher frequency.

A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed into the specimen to be examined. This beam
travels through a material with only a small loss, except when it is intercepted and
reflected by a discontinuity or by a change in material.

Ultrasonic examination is capable of finding surface and subsurface discontinuities.

The system uses a transducer, which changes electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The transducer is excited by a high-frequency voltage that causes a crystal to vibrate
mechanically. The crystal probe becomes the source of ultrasonic mechanical
vibrations.

These vibrations are transmitted into the test piece through a coupling fluid, usually a
film of oil, called a couplant.

When the pulse of ultrasonic waves strikes a discontinuity in the test piece, it is
reflected back to its point of origin.

The transducer serves as a receiver for the reflected energy.

The initial signal or main bang, the returned echoes from the discontinuities, and the
echo of the rear surface of the test material are all displayed by a trace on the screen of
a cathode-ray oscilloscope.

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Equipment:-Transducer, pulse rate generator, amplifier, timer, and cathode ray oscilloscope
(all are portable).

Applications:- Practically any metal or material, Restricted only very complex weldments and
joining of plates with thicknesses of 10mm to 12mm or more, Cracks, gas pockets, and slag

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 Summary:-

RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stresses are stresses that would exist in a body if all external loads were
removed. They are sometimes called internal stresses. Residual stresses that exist in a body that
has previously been subjected to nonuniform temperature changes, such as those during
welding, are often called thermal stresses.

5.1.1 Development of Residual Stresses

A. Three-Bar Arrangement The development of residual stresses can be explained by

considering heating and cooling under constraint. Figure 5.1 shows three identical metal bars
connected to two rigid blocks. All three bars are initially at room temperature. The middle bar
alone is heated up, but its thermal expansion is restrained by the side bars (Figure 5.1a).
Consequently, compressive stresses are produced in the middle bar, and they increase with
increasing temperature until the yield stress in compression is reached. The yield stress
represents the upper limit of stresses in a material, at which plastic deformation occurs. When
heating stops and the middle bar is allowed to cool off, its thermal contraction is restrained by
the side bars (Figure 5.1b). Consequently, the compressive stresses in the middle bar drop
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rapidly, change to tensile stresses, and increase with decreasing temperature until the yield
stress in tension is reached. Therefore, a residual tensile stress equal to the yield stress at room
temperature is set up in the middle bar when it cools down to room temperature. The residual
stresses in the side bars are compressive stresses and equal to one-half of the tensile stress in
the middle bar.

B. Welding Roughly speaking, the weld metal and the adjacent base metal are
analogous to the middle bar, and the areas farther away from the weld metal are analogous to
the two side bars (Figure 5.1c). This is because the expansion and contraction of the weld
metal and the adjacent base metal are restrained by the areas farther away from the weld metal.
Consequently, after cooling to the room temperature, residual tensile stresses exist in the weld
metal and the adjacent base metal, while residual compressive stresses exist in the areas farther
away from the weld metal. Further explanations are given as follows.

Figure 5.2 is a schematic representation of the temperature change (DT) and stress in
the welding direction (x) during welding. The crosshatched area MMc is the region where
plastic deformation occurs. Section AA is ahead of the heat source and is not yet significantly
affected by the heat input; the temperature change due to welding, DT, is essentially zero.
Along section BB intersecting the heat source, the temperature distribution is rather steep.
Along section CC at some distance behind the heat source, the temperature distribution
becomes less steep and is eventually uniform along section DD far away behind the heat
source.

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Figure 5.1 Thermally induced stresses: (a) during heating; (b) during cooling;
(c) residual stresses in weld.

Figure 5.2 Changes in temperature and stresses during welding.

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 Consider now the thermally induced stress along the longitudinal direction, sx. Since
section AA is not affected by the heat input, sx is zero.Along section BB, x is close to zero
in the region underneath the heat source, since the weld pool does not have any strength to
support any loads. In the regions somewhat away from the heat source, stresses are
compressive (x is negative) because the expansion of these areas is restrained by the
surrounding metal of lower temperatures. Due to the low yield strength of the high-temperature

metal in these areas, x reaches the yield strength of the base metal at corresponding
temperatures. In the areas farther away from the weld x is tensile, and x is balanced with
compressive stresses in areas near the weld.

Along section CC the weld metal and the adjacent base metal have cooled and hence
have a tendency to contract, thus producing tensile stresses (x is positive). In the nearby areas
x is compressive. Finally, along section DD the weld metal and the adjacent base metal have
cooled and contracted further, thus producing higher tensile stresses in regions near the weld
and compressive stresses in regions away from the weld. Since section DD is well behind the
heat source, the stress distribution does not change significantly beyond it, and this stress
distribution is thus the residual stress distribution.

5.1.2 Analysis of Residual Stresses

Figure 5.3 shows typical distributions of residual stresses in a butt weld. According to
Masubuchi and Martin (3), the distribution of the longitudinal residual stress x can be
approximated by the equation

where m is the maximum residual stress, which is usually as high as the yield strength of the
weld metal. The parameter b is the width of the tension zone of x (Figure 5.3a).

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Figure 5.3 Typical distributions of longitudinal (x) and transverse (y) residual stresses in butt
weld.

The distribution of the transverse residual stress y along the length of the weld is
shown in Figure 5.3b. As shown, tensile stresses of relatively low magnitude are produced in
the middle part of the weld, where thermal contraction in the transverse direction is restrained
by the much cooler base metal farther away from the weld.The tensile stresses in the middle
part of the weld are balanced by compressive stresses at the ends of the weld. If the lateral
contraction of the joint is restrained by an external constraint (such as a fixture holding down
the two sides of the workpiece), approximately uniform tensile stresses are added along the
weld as the reaction stress (1).This external constraint, however, has little effect on x.

Figure 5.4 shows measured and caculated distributions of residual stresses x in a butt
joint of two rectangular plates of 5083 aluminum (60 cm long, 27.5 cm wide, and 1cm thick)
welded by GMAW. The calculated results are based on the finite-element analysis (FEA). The
measurement and calculation of weld residual stresses have been described and will not be
repeated here. Residual stresses can cause problems such as hydrogen-induced cracking and
stress corrosion cracking. Post weld heat treatment is often used to reduce residual stresses.
Figure 5.5 shows the effect of temperature and time on stress relief in steel welds. Table 5.1 list
the temperature ranges used for post weld heat treatment of various types of materials (2).
Other techniques such as preheat, peening , and vibration have also been used for stress relief.
-
100
-
 Figure 5.4 Measured and calculated distributions of residual stress in butt joint of

5083 aluminum.

Figure 5.5 Effect of temperature and time on stress relief of steel welds.

5.2 DISTORTION
5.2.1 Cause

Because of solidification shrinkage and thermal contraction of the weld metal during
welding, the workpiece has a tendency to distort. Figure 5.6 illustrates several types of weld
distortions. The welded workpiece can shrink in the transverse direction (Figure 5.6a). It can
also shrink in the longitudinal direction along the weld (Figure 5.6b). Upward angular
distortion usually occurs when the weld is made from the top of the workpiece alone (Figure
5.6c).The weld tends to be wider at the top than at the bottom, causing more solidification
shrinkage and thermal contraction at the top of the weld than at the bottom. Consequently, the
resultant angular distortion is upward. In electron beam welding with a deep narrow keyhole,
the weld is very narrow both at the top and the bottom, and there is little angular distortion.
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When fillet welds between a flat sheet at the bottom and a vertical sheet on the top shrink, they
pull the flat sheet toward the vertical one and cause upward distortion in the

Figure 5.6 Distortion in welded structures.

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 Figure 5.7 Distortion in butt welds of 5083 aluminum with thicknesses of

6.438mm.

flat sheet (Figure 5.6d). Figure 5.7 shows angular distortions in butt welds of 5083 aluminum
of various thicknesses. As shown, angular distortion increases with work piece thickness
because of increasing amount of the weld metal and hence increasing solidification shrinkage
and thermal contraction.

Joining dissimilar materials

Metallurgical limitations

As aluminium is more frequently applied in industrial products, the joining of aluminium

to itself as well as to other materials becomes increasingly important. In the table (below)

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the ease of joining aluminium to other metals by fusion welding processes is indicated. It
shows that aluminium is in general difficult to weld to other materials. It is for this reason
that the joining of aluminium to different materials is concentrating mainly on other
joining processes.

Improved possibilities to produce lightweight products are a main driving force for
exploring methods to join aluminium to steel. However, in fusion welding aluminium to
steel brittle intermetallic phases FeAl2 and Fe2Al5 are being formed, which result in poor
welds. Joining techniques using cold processes such as adhesive bonding and mechanical
joining do not suffer from these drawbacks and have proved to open possibilities in mixed-
material joining over the last decade.

Example:- Methods for joining aluminium to steel

Processes suitable for joining aluminium to steel are:

Adhesive bonding

Mechanical joining (bolting, riveting, clinching)

Laser brazing

Explosive welding

Friction welding

Magnetic pulse welding

Electron beam welding

Laser assisted roll-cladding

Like adhesive bonding and mechanical joining, also processes such as explosion welding,
friction welding and magnetic pulse welding can be placed in the category of non-melting
joining processes.

Laser brazing and electron beam welding are processes in which the aluminum is molten and
joined to the solid steel. The growth of intermetallic phases is kept limited by a fast and well
controlled heating cycle and low heat input. Many of these newer technologies have to prove
their applicability in practice.
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Advantages and limitations of joining methods
Advantages of the various methods

The technical suitability to apply these techniques in automotive products depends on

the design requirements of the component or construction. As in tailor welded blanks the
formability is relevant, e.g. in BIW applications, where crash and stiffness are decisive factors.
In using mechanical joining the static shear strength and crash properties are assets. The
stiffness and fatigue properties are, however, much better in continuous joints made by
adhesive bonding, laser brazing and electron beam welding processes. The non-electrical
contact made in adhesive bonding is an advantage concerning the corrosion properties.

Limitations of joining dissimilar materials

Not only the difficulty in the joining process itself, but also the different physical properties
of aluminium and steel can be of concern and therefore can limit the use of aluminium-steel
joining in products, regardless of the joining technique.

Problems could arise from differences in:

electrochemical potential (corrosion behaviour)

thermal expansion coefficient

Applications
The number of newly applied techniques for multi-material joining shows this as a
rapidly evolving field. Therefore, the number of applications is still limited.

Currently early applications using aluminium-steel joints can be found in:

Car body manufacturing

Drive shafts

Aluminium pilothouses on steel ship decks

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 Fig: 14 - Welding of Dissimilar Metals.

Defects in Welding
Introduction:
The performance of welded structure in service depends on presence or absence
of defects in weld joints. Weld defects impair the strength of welded joints and may results
in the failure of a complete assembly / structure in service. In a general sense, the term
weld defect refers to any departure in welded structure or welded joints from the specified
requirements. According to the International Institute of Welding, the weld defects are
classified into six groups as follows: (a) Cracks, (b) Cavities (blowholes, porosity,
shrinkage, etc.), (c) Solid Inclusion, (d) Incomplete fusion, (e) Imperfect Shape, (f)
Miscellaneous defects.

Cracks : Cracks are the most dangerous amongst all types of defects as it
reduce the performance of a welded joint drastically and can also cause catastrophic
failure. Depending on the position, location and orientation these can be categorised as

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longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks, crater cracks, under-bead cracks, and toe cracks.
These cracks are usually visible and hence, referred to surface defects in weld joints. In
general, the cracks in weld joints occur due to high concentration stresses during
solidification of weld, poor fit-up and incorrect welding procedures, and poor edge quality.
Formation of cracks can be controlled by preheating the joints, reducing the cooling rate,
taking proper precautions during post weld heat treatment. Figure 1 schematically shows
some of the significant weld cracks.

Blowholes and porosities: These are usually subsurface defects in weld

joints and are actually voids, holes or cavities formed by the entrapped gases by the
solidified weld metal. The source of the trapped gas may be uncleaned rust, dirt, paint,
etc. on the parent metal or electrode, damp flux (in shielded metal or submerged arc
welding), impurities and moisture in the shielding gas. Normally, porosity is not considered
as serious a defect as cracks since the porosity cavities usually have rounded ends which
are not expected to propagate as cracks. However, porosities in weld joints are usually
not permitted for pressurized containers intended for storage and transportation of liquid,
gaseous or inflammable liquids. The best way to avoid porosity or blowhole in weld joints
is to use perfectly clean base materials and baked electrodes.

(a) Longitudinal Crack (b) Under-Bead Crack

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 (C) Transverse Crack

Figure 1. Different Types of Cracks

Shrinkage Cavity: It is referred to the cavities which are formed due to

shrinkage of weld metal during its solidification. The shrinkage cavity usually occurs
during welding of thick plates in a single pass using submerged arc welding or electroslag
welding processes. Proper amount of filler material has to be supplied for compensation
during shrinkage to avoid this king of defect.

Slag Inclusion: The slag inclusion refers to the solidified flux comprising of
oxides, phosphorous compounds and nitrides, which fail to float out to the surface and get
entrapped in the weld. When gas tungsten arc welding is carried out with direct current
electrode positive polarity and at high current, tungsten inclusion from the tungsten
electrode into the weld can occur. Such inclusions can be continuous, intermittent or very
randomly paced. Slag inclusions reduce the mechanical strength, in particular, the
ductility, of the welds.

Incomplete Fusion and Penetration: Incomplete fusion can occur due to

inadequate welding current, offset of electrode from the axis of the weld, too high a weld
speed, improper joint preparation and fit-up. It occurs between the parent metal and the
weld metal and also between intermediate layers in multi-pass welding reducing the weld
strength. Lack of penetration or inadequate penetration usually occurs at the root of the
weld and also becomes a built-in crack, which can run through the base metal or weld
metal or heat affected zone in actual service condition.

Imperfect Shape: Dimensional deviations, undercut, under fill, overlap,

excessive reinforcement, excessive penetration, bead shape are the examples of
Imperfect shape. Underfills and Suckbacks refer to uneven depression (such as a
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concave contour) respectively, on the face or on the root surface of the weld extending
below the surface of the adjacent base metal. Both of these defects reduce the cross-
sectional area of the weld below the designed amount and thus, a point of weakness and
or stress raiser where failure may occur. Excessive penetration and / or reinforcement are
also undesirable in weld joints. Both are usually caused by poor fit-up, too wide a root gap
or too small a root face, improper welding technique and excessive welding current.
Excessive reinforcement tends to stiffen the weld section and make notches that would
create stress concentration. Figure 2 schematically represents different types of welding
defects.

Figure 2. Schematic sketch of various fusion welding defects.

Postweld Heat Treatment

Postweld heat treatment (PWHT), defined as any heat treatment after welding
primarily to improve the microstrustural and mechanical properties of the weldment and
heat affected zone, is often used to improve the properties of a weldment. In concept,
PWHT can encompass many different potential treatments; however, in steel fabrication,
the two most common procedures used are post heating and stress relieving. Post
heating is used to minimize the potential for hydrogen induced cracking. Stress relief heat
treatment is used to reduce the stresses that remain locked in a structure as a
consequence of manufacturing processes. Different causes and effects of residual

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stresses are described in the previous lecture. Some design guidelines for PWHT are
given below:

1. Welding of carburized or hardened steels requires controlled conditions and proper

equipment and supplies. Designers should not specify such welding unless it is
unavoidable.

2. Welding removes or reduces the hardness of carburized or nitrided steels in the area of
welding. So, if it is possible, hardening has to be done after the welding.

3. Carbon in welded areas will affect the physical and chemical characteristics of the weld
bead, resulting in possible cracking or weld failure in or adjacent to the weld.

Postweld Inspection:From the above discussion it clear that it is very

difficult to produce a perfect welded joint free from any defect. So, it is very important to
detect the weld defects and to accept or reject the final component depending on its
application. For example, if a weld joint is subjected to light structural load, then porosity
or slag inclusion can be accepted upto a certain limit. But in case of pressure vessel
application, such as boiler or pressurized chemical container, these types of defects are
not at all acceptable. To detect such defects without damaging the weld, several
techniques are employed, known as non-destructive testing (NDT). Some commonly
used NDT methods are outlined below.

Visual Inspection: It is the simplest and cheapest of all techniques. In this

method the weld is inspected visually by an authorized personal to detect flaws, cracks
appearing on the surface on the weld. Sometimes special equipment is used to guide the
inspector. The disadvantages of this method are: micro sized cracks cannot be detected
by humans, sub-surface defects remain undetected, and there are always chances of
human error.

Liquid Penetrant based Inspection: In this process a liquid with high

surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to
seep into surface breaking defects. After removing the excess liquid, a developer
(powder) is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on the
surface where it can be seen. The penetrant used contains fluorescent material and starts
glowing when exposed to UV light. The principle is shown schematically in Figure 3. This
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procedure is sometimes called as die penetration test when the liquid penetrant used is a
die. In this case upon application of developer, the die comes out from the crack and
becomes visible to eye. This method can detect micro sized cracks that are not visible to
naked eye but cannot detect sub surface defects.

Figure 3. (1) Crack, (2) Penetrant applied, (3) Developer applied, (4) Crack Visible

Magnetic Particle inspection: This methods is based on the principle that

magnetic lines change their paths whenever discontinuity is encountered in the path. The
first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected. After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet
suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be
attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the
inspector can detect. It is a very simple procedure but applicable only for Ferromagnetic
materials. Often the material has to be demagnetised after performing the test.

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 Figure 4. Principle of Magnetic particles Inspection.

Radiographic Testing : Radiographic Testing is a non-destructive testing

method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength
electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials. In this
method the part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. A pattern will
be generated on the film depending on the thickness of the inspected part. Where ever
there is a defect, the amount of radiation absorbed will be different and corresponding
pattern will be generated. Detection of subsurface defects is the major advantage of this
test but proper safety measures have to be taken to prevent exposure to these radiations.
Figure 5 schematically shows a typical radiographic testing set-up.

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 Figure 5 Schematic of Radiographic Testing.

Ultrasonic Inspection : Ultrasonic testing uses the basic physical property

that sound waves travel at known constant velocities through any medium. By measuring
the time for a sound wave to travel through a material it can be determined how far that
wave has travelled. In this way sound waves can be used to measure distances. So, in an
ultrasonic inspection, a high frequency sound wave is passes through the material to be
inspected. Presence and position of any defects can be detected by analysing the sound
wave reflected by the flaw. Figure 6 schematically shows a set-up for ultrasonic testing of
defects.

Various advantages of ultrasonic testing include (a) high penetrating power

leading to the detection of flaws deep in the part, (b) high sensitivity, (c) greater accuracy
than other non-destructive methods in particular in determining the depth of internal flaws,
(d) capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects, (e) non-
hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel. Besides these advantages it has few
disadvantages too such as (1) manual operation and hence, requires careful attention,
(2) experienced personnel are required, (3) surface must be prepared by cleaning and
removing loose scale, paint, etc.
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 Figure 6. Principle of Ultrasonic Testing.

Brazing and Soldering

Brazing:- Brazing is a joining process, which produces coalescence of materials by

heating to a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal (often referred to as braze) having a
0
liquidus temperature above 450 C and below the solidus temperature of the base material. The filler
metal is drawn into the gap between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary action. To
achieve a perfect joint, the filler and the parent materials should be metallurgically compatible and
the design of the joint should incorporate a minimum gap into which the braze filler metal will be
drawn. The joints must be properly cleaned and protected by the flux or protective atmosphere
during the heating process to prevent excessive oxidation. There are many ways of brazing, and
they all differ in the method of applying heat to the braze assembly, in particular, the joint area.
These include torch brazing, furnace brazing, induction brazing, dip brazing, and resistance
brazing.

Different types of brazing are:-

Torch brazing: In torch brazing, the heating of the joint is accomplished using the
flame of a single or multiple gas torches. Multiple torches are used to obtain a uniform heating
throughout the joint area. The brazing filler metal may be preplaced at the joint in the form of
rings, washers, strips, slugs, powder, or it may be fed manually. Torch brazing is very useful
on assemblies that involve heating sections of different mass. Manual torch brazing is

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particularly useful for repair work. Torch brazing is used when the part to be brazed is too
large, or of complex shape, or cannot be heated by the other methods.

Furnace brazing: In furnace brazing, the parent materials / parts are cleaned and
placed in a furnace. The parts should be self-jigging and assembled, with the filler materials
already placed near or in the joint. The brazing filler material may be in the form of wire, foil,
fillings, slugs, powder, paste, tape, and so on. The furnaces are usually of electrical resistance
type. Fluxing is employed except when an atmosphere is specifically introduced in the furnace
to perform the same function. Furnace brazing is often done without the use of flux by the use
of special atmospheres (hydrogen and other special gases helium and argon-) in the brazing
furnace. Furnace brazing is also performed in vacuum during the fabrication of aerospace and
nuclear components where entrapped fluxes are not tolerable.

Furnace brazing operation.

Induction brazing: In induction brazing, the heat necessary for brazing is obtained by the
induction heating principle. The components to be brazed are placed in the magnetic field of a
water cooled coil carrying a high frequency current. This current induces eddy currents in the
components. The induced current flow in the surface skin of the body and are concentrated in the
area closest to the coil. The depth of the heating depends on the current frequency used. High
frequency current produces skin heating in the components while lower frequency current results in
deeper heating and is thus recommended for brazing heavier sections. The heating effect is given
by the equation

H=I2R
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where H, I and R refer to heat produced, induced current and electrical resistance of the material,
respectively. In induction brazing, fluxing may or may not be employed and the filler metal is
usually preplaced at the joint.

Typical induction brazing coils and plates.

Dip brazing: Dip brazing is accomplished by immersing clean and assembled parts
into a molten bath contained in a suitable pot. Dip brazing is classified into chemical bath dip
brazing and molten metal bath dip brazing. In chemical bath dip brazing the filler metal, in a
suitable form, is preplaced and the assembly is dipped in a bath of molten salt.

Resistance brazing: In resistance brazing, the heat to melt the filler material is
obtained by Joules heating (i.e. resistive heating against the flow of an electrical current
through the parts being brazed). The parts become a part of the electrical circuit through
electrodes made of copper alloys or carbon-graphite. The parts to be brazed are held between
two electrodes, and proper pressure and current are applied. The pressure is maintained until
the joint has solidified. In some cases both the electrode are located on the same side of the
joint with a suitable backing to maintain the required pressure. Resistance brazing is normally
used for low volume production where heating is localized at the area to be brazed.

Protective atmosphere in brazing: Even though flux is required to control the

formation of oxides during brazing, a controlled atmosphere still may be desired to extend the

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useful life of a flux and to minimize the cleaning of the joint area after the brazing process. In
controlled atmosphere applications, the post-braze cleaning is not necessary. Hence controlled
atmosphere brazing is extremely help in the cases where the cleaning of the flux entrapment is
difficult, such as heat exchangers, thrust chambers, and honeycomb sandwich structures.
Controlled atmospheres are used in furnace, induction and resistance brazing processes. The
controlled atmospheres are of three types

Reducing atmosphere

Inert atmosphere

Vacuum atmosphere

Soldering: Soldering is a joining process, which produce coalescence of material

by heating them to the soldering temperature and by using a filler metal (solder) having
liquidus temperature not exceeding 450C and below the solidus temperature of the base
metals. Similar to brazing the filler metal is drawn into the gap between the closely fitted
surfaces of the joint by capillary action. Usually, a nonferrous alloy is used as solder material.
There are many ways of soldering, and alike brazing, they also differ in the method of applying
heat to the solder assembly, in particular, the joint area. The main soldering variants include
soldering iron, torch soldering, dip soldering, wave and cascade soldering, induction soldering,
resistance soldering.

Soldering iron :The soldering iron with copper tip is the traditional soldering tool. The
heat required to melt the solder is generated by the electrical resistance heating of the copper
tip. The other methods of heating the copper tip are by using oil, coke or gas burners. The life
of the copper tip is enhanced by coating it with solder wettable metal like iron. This iron
coating decreases the dissolution of copper in molten solder. Soldering iron is most often used
for installation, repairs, and limited production work in electronics assembly.

Torch soldering: Similar to torch brazing, the necessary heat required to heat the joint
is supplied by the flame of a gas torch. The solder is applied manually. Torch soldering is
widely used in the plumbing trade for soldering copper tubing to copper fitting.

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 Dip soldering: In dip soldering a bath of molten solder provides adequate heat and
solder to the work to produce a solder joint. The joint is obtained by dipping the parts to be
joined in a molten solder bath. An entire unit comprising of any number of joints can be
soldered in one operation after proper cleaning and fluxing. The operation needs the fixtures to
maintain proper joint clearances during solidification of solder. It is one of the cheapest
methods to solder and is extensively used in the small scale industries. Dip soldering is widely
used in electronic industry exclusively for making through-hole printed circuit assemblies and
surface mount.

Wave and cascade soldering: In wave and cascade soldering also a bath of molten
solder provides adequate heat and solder to the work to produce a solder joint. Figure 4.4.6(a)
depicts the procedure used to produce solder joint in wave soldering process. Single, double
and series of waves are generated by pumping the molten solder out of a narrow slot. The
soldering joint is produced by moving the parts to be joined over the generated waves. The
procedure used to generate soldering joints in cascade soldering. In this process, the molten
solder flows down a trough by gravity and the parts to be joined or work to be soldered moves
in the opposite direction. Further, the molten solder is returned by pump to the upper reservoir.
This is a high production soldering process. Wave and cascade soldering processes are widely
used in electronic industry particularly for the production of electronic circuit boards.

Induction soldering: Similar to induction brazing, the heat necessary for soldering in
this process is obtained by the induction heating principle. The components to be soldered are
placed in the magnetic field of a water cooled coil carrying a high frequency current. This
current induces eddy currents in the components. The induced current flow in the surface skin
of the body and are concentrated in the area closest to the coil. The depth of the heating
depends on the current frequency used. High frequency current produces skin heating in the
components while lower frequency current results in deeper heating and is thus recommended
for soldering heavier sections. The primary advantage of the induction soldering is its localized
heating which minimizes oxidation, good appearance and constantly high joining quality. It is
readily automated and hence leads to large scale production of solder joints of comparatively
simple design.

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 Resistance soldering: The heating principle is similar to that of the resistance brazing.
Resistance soldering is widely applied to attach lugs to welding cables, manufacturing
electrical machinery involving soldering joints and soldering plumbing fittings.

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References:

1. S.Kalpakjian,S.R.Schmid: Manufacturing Engineering & Technology, 5thedition,Prentice-

Hall International,2006.

2. E.Paul Degarmo, J. R.Black, R.A.Kohser; Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,

9thedition, JohnWiley & Sons, Inc, 2003.

3. M.M.Farag: Materials Selection for Engineering Design, Prentice Hall,1997.

4. A.G.Glover: Failures of Weldments, Welding Institute of Canada, (ASM

International1996).

5. J.F. Lancaster: Metallurgy of Welding, 5thedition, Chapman & Hall, 1993

6. B.Hayes, Classic brittle failures in large welded structures

Engineering Failure Analysis,vol3, no2.1996.pp.115-127.

7. Milton Sergio and Fernandesde Lima: Laser beam welding of Titanium Nitride coated
Titanium using pulse shaping; Materials Research,Volume 8,No.3,323-328,2005.

8. NASATechnology Applications Team.(2001). Companies License NASA's Advanced

Friction Stir Welding Technology. Available:

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