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    Abel Dem
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    It is a book on the design of Hydraulic structures

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    It is a book on the design of Hydraulic structures

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    Hydaulic Structre

    Загружено:

    Abel Dem
    It is a book on the design of Hydraulic structures

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Скачайте в формате PDF или читайте онлайн в Scribd
    Отметить как неприемлемый контент
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    8, Petry Lecture Notes HH509/02/1 N. Lukovac Hydraulic Structures Hydraulic Structures Table of Contents: 1_GENERALITIES 1.1 ABOUT THESE LECTURE NOTES 1.2 INTRODUCTION 1.3 BRIEF LIST OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (INCLUDING THOSE OUT OF THE SCOPE OF THESE LECTURE NOTES) 2 2 ECTION AND EVALUATI 5 2.1 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS 5 2.2 GEOLOGY 6 2.3. HYDROGEOLOGY 1 2.4 SEISMOLOGY 7 2. METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY 1 2.6 HYDROLOGICAL ASPECTS AND RELATED HYDRAULIC ASPECTS 8 2.6.1 RIVER DISCHARGE SERIES (FLOW SERIES) 8 262 FLOODS 8 2.6.3 ROUTING OF HYDROGRAPHS. 10 3_SPILLWAYS. 13 CONCEPT ~ HYDRAULIC STRUCTURE DESIGNED TO RELEASE WATER IN EXCESS FROM A. RESERVOIR TO A RIVER STRETCH DOWNSTREAM OF ADAM 13 3.2 COMPONENT WORKS AND CLASSIFICATION 1B 3.3 SPILLWAY TYPES 14 3.4 DATA FOR SPILLWAY DESIGN 7 3.8 DETAILED HYDROLOGIC DATA 17 3.6 DETAILED HYDRAULIC DATA - SUPPORT OF HYDRAULIC DESIGN 18 3.7 SELECTION CRITERIA AND PROCEDURE 18 3.8 DESIGN METHODOLOGY 9 3.9 HYDRAULIC PROBLEMS (SEE HYDRAULIC DESIGN CRITERIA) 19 3.10 CONTROL GaTES 2 4_ OUTLET WORKS. 25 4.1 CONCEPT — HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES USED TO CONVEY WATER FROM A RESERVOIR TO ‘A POINT DOWNSTREAM OF A DAM. 25 (CLASSIFICATION: COMPONENTS. 25 4.3. INLET AND OUTLET CHANNELS 27 4.4 INTAKES 27 4.5 CONTROL STRUCTURE 27 4.6 CONVEYANCE STRUCTURE 28 4.7 TERMINAL STRUCTURES 29 4.8 HYDRAULIC PROBLEMS AND THEIR PREVENTION 29 ENERGY DISSIPATERS. 31 ENERGY DISSIPATION ON SPILLWAYS 31 5.2. SKIJUMP AND FLIP BUCKET 31 5.3. STILLING BASINS 32 5.4 DOWNSTREAM EROSION 34 5.5 DISSIPATION AT BOTTOM OUTLETS 36 6_NAVIGATION LOCKS 39 Concert 39 6.2 TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION 39 63 LOCKCYCLE 40 6.4 RELEVANT HYDRAULIC ASPECTS 4 7_ PUMPING STATIONS AND PIPELINE CONVEYANCE 45 7.1 PUMPING STATIONS 45 7.1.1 USAGE AND CLASSIFICATION 43 7.12 PUMP PARAMETERS 46 7.13 DESIGN AND SELECTION oF PUMP, SUMP AND MAINS 48 7.14 PRESSURE TRANSIENTS 49 7.2 PIPELINES 51 7.2.1 HYDRAULICS 31 722 Loads 33 7.2.3. PLACEMENT CONSIDERATIONS 34 8_SPECIAL STRUCTURES 57 8.1 FisH LADDERS AND PASSAGES 37 8.2. SPAWNING CHANNELS 58 8.3. SELECTIVE INTAKES 6 1 Generalities 1.1 About These Lecture Notes ‘These lecture notes are written as brief guide to make it easier to follow the course on Hydraulic ‘Structures. They should also serve as remainder for future reference conceming the lectures as well as references listed for each subject covered. Appendixes provided in form of handouts, mainly selected excerpts from useful references, should serve as extension of lecture notes and guidance for further more detailed studies 1.2 Introduction In various textbooks on Hydraulic Structures one can find different contents. That is mainly due to different perceptions about what the hydraulic structures are. The broadest definition is that: these are “all structures in contact with water” ~ that would include structures such as bridges, hydraulic tunnels, docks, coastal and offshore structures ete. However, in this course curriculum is limited only to hydraulic structures of interest for River Engineering and River Basin Development, and only those that are not given elsewhere. For instance: dams are given in “Engineering of Dams”, and river diversion structures in “River Diversions and Headworks”. Most other structures that are not related to River Engineering and River Basin Development are covered in other Masters Programmes of IHE especially in Hydraulic Engineering. Therefore, in this course the emphasis is given to structures that are, in one way or the other, elated to Dams like: Outlets, Spillways, Navigation Locks and the like. Part of these lecture notes will be repeated in “Engineering of Dams” as a reminder, since some of the structures given here can not be neglected in that course as they are inseparable parts of most of the dams. Humankind built hydraulic structures, in different forms, since the earliest days of known history, in order to solve problems that could not be solved otherwise. Hydraulic structures are as old as Civilization. There could not be a developed civilization without water management, and if one looks back, one can see that all major settled civilizations were using water supply systems and irrigation. At first, small diversion dams were used (there are records about the dam built on the Nile River before 4000 BC) with water conveyance lines and irrigation networks. The oldest known aqueduct was built near Nineveh, the capital of Assyria in 703 BC. The first Roman aqueduct was Aqua Appia opened in 312 BC and it was supplying the city of Rome with water. Well-preserved remains and remnants of some of those structures can still be seen. Some hydraulic structures as old as 400-500 years are still in use Need, for hydraulic structures in order to solve water management problems is ever present, and it will not be exhausted in foreseeable future ~ if ever. These lecture notes will provide some references that may help in proper planning, investigation, design and construction. It is not intended here to provide a “recipe cook book” but rather basic considerations of major aspects, giving the clue where ‘and how to search for answers to questions that may arise in practice. Even then all the answers will not be found. To try to find some of them, at least in special non-standard cases, further research may be required. 1.3 Brief List Of Hydraulic Structures (including those out of the scope of these lecture notes) ‘© Dams (given in “Engineering of Dams”) © Intakes (partly given here partly elsewhere in the programme of this branch) © Outlets (given here) ‘© Spillways (given here) + Energy Dissipaters: Stilling Basins, Plunge Pools, Flip Buckets, Ski Jumps, Aprons (given here) ‘+ Navigation structures locks, ship-lifts and inclined planes (given here), inland ports ‘+ Pumping stations (briefly given here) ‘+ Canals, (navigation and water conveyance) (Spawning Canals — given here) ‘+ Other conveyance structures like pipelines (briefly given here) ‘+ Drop structures, culverts and siphons * Steel structures like gates, valves, air-vessels, air vents, silt outlets etc, (partly given here) ‘Diversion work structures ~ diversion dams and weirs, river intakes, settling basins, drop structures etc. (given in “River Diversions and Headworks”) ‘Fish ladders and passes (given in “River Diversions and Headworks”) ‘© Barriers ~ weirs and barrages, bottom withdrawal or Tyrolean intakes (given in “River Diversions and Headworks”) Check dams ‘+ Hydro power stations of various types (given in “Hydropower Development”) + Earth retaining structures ~ like sheet-piles, retaining walls, gabions, etc. (partly given elsewhere in the programme) © Piers, jetties, groynes (groins) - for river training and/or shore protection. (partly given elsewhere in the programme) © Other river training structures like sills, cascades etc. . (partly given elsewhere in the programme) © Bridges, viaducts, aqueducts + Tunnels . (partly given elsewhere in the programme) © Drainage shuices ‘+ Inrgation structures ‘Levees and canal dikes (embankments) + Revetments Docks © Caissons ‘* Fendering and mooring structures ‘* Dikes (sea-dikes, and flood control dikes in river training) Coastal structures — breakwaters, shore protection works + Sea outfalls and intakes * Offshore pipelines * Offshore structures + Man-made islands Even this list is not exhaustive as one can think of even more structures that could be called “hydraulic”. However, some of them, that are most important for program in River Engineering and River Basin Development, are dealt with in this course. They are marked above, as well as other structures that a taught elsewhere in the programme. Most of the others are covered in other two programmes (branches) of Hydraulic Engineering at [HE, SOME IMPORTANT REFERENCES ON HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 1. Hydraulic Structures ~ P, Novak (and others) 2. Handbook of Applied Hydraulics ~ C.V. Davis Design of Small Dams ~ United States Bureau of Reclamation 4, Advanced Dam Engineering — Jansen 5. Hydraulic Design Criteria - U.S. Corps of Engineers 6. Proceedings of Intemational Conferences - COLD 7. Proceedings of Intemational Conferences - IAHR 8, Intemational Water Power and Dam Construction. 9. Hydropower and Dams (International Journal on...) 10. Water Power Manual ~ U.S. Corps of Engineers In addition to that there is. ‘+ A large variety of technical periodicals in a variety of languages with papers on hydraulic structures (Russian — Chertousov, Agroskin and Chugayev, then other books in English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese, ec.) ‘© A large variety of other texts (books, periodicals) on subjects related to hydraulic structures, NOTE: Lists of good references can also be found in the appendices of several publications cited above. 2 Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data In order to carry out reliable engineering activities of hydraulic structures there are major aspects that could be regarded as basic “INPUT” data that must be carefully studied. Topography and geomorphology, geology and hydrogeology, meteorology and climate, hydrology and hydraulics are among those. “Raw” data must be collected, analyzed or investigated, tested and processed in other ways to obtain suitable and reliable data for further activities. Extent of data collection and processing usually depends upon current stage of the project. These would be discussed more into detail in the lecture notes and course on Dam Engineering, but here just a brief list is included as a reminder. Most of those data depend on the purpose of the structure, whether it is part of more complex structure (Dam or the like) or “stand alone” structure, ‘and they also depend on stage of the project. In a word: quantity and quality of data depends on the aim of the present project stage, but they can also be limited by physical availability. 21 Topographic Surveys No engineering work can be done without topographic maps. Most of the countries in the world have ready- ‘made maps for all or most of the area up to certain scale (usually ~ 1:25000 and, for areas of higher interest, even better maps). Those, if existent, can be used for preliminary studies. However, more detailed ‘maps are required for cach particular project, and those are to be done on purpose, covering the areas determined by a project team. They are required to present the landscape as accurately as needed (and possible), so that future structures could be projected in “real world” terrain configuration, + Methods © Acrial surveying (used both for preparation of maps and for different analysis of the area such as ‘geological, geo-morphological, topographical, etc.) * Ground surveying (scale maps, ground profiles ~ sections...) Different scale maps are used in the course of different phases. They depend upon the phase (of planning, ‘design or construction), and sometimes upon the importance of the structure. In some cases there may be limitations in time or in site accessibility (related to technological availability of sophisticated ~ laser beam ‘based — surveying instruments in “inaccessible” gorges). Generally, the following are the minimum requirements for scale maps: ¢ Masterplan 1:100000, 1:50000, 1:25000, 1:20000, 1:10000 (for presentation purposes even 1:250000 or more can be used) + Pre-feasbility 110000, 1:5000, 1:2500, 1:2000, 1:1000, © Feasibility 1:2500, 1:2000, 1:1000, 1:500 ‘¢ Final (detailed design) 1:500, 1:250, 1:200, 1:100, 1:50 2.2 Geology Apart from terrain shape, its geological and geomechanical characteristics should be known and described in order to determine appropriate foundations and to study available natural construction materials. In addition, relation of water and geological formations must be studied as well as possible seismo-tectonic activities, ¢ General ~ regional geological conditions (both plan view ~ maps, and elevation — profiles to be presented) ¢ Engineering Geology ‘* Foundation considerations ‘© Rock foundations Soil foundations ‘© Not-uniform foundations (combination of those above, gypsum, organic materials...) © Construction materials Availability ‘Quantities Quality (types — gradation and mineral content, properties and characteristics - shear strength, permeability, workability, compressibility, penetration resistance). Suitability for: ‘+ Exploration and Investigation methods (both for foundation and construction materials) Surface explorations ‘Geophysical (surface) explorations Subsurface explorations ‘Sampling methods Logging Explorations Field and Laboratory Tests 2.3 Hydrogeology + Ground water levels (piezometric stages for different seasons) Ground water - surface water relationships (different seasons) Permeability (porosity, fissures, cracks, joints, faults, caves) and groutability Ground water seepage paths and connections ‘Mechanical and chemical actions of water on geological formation Springs, sink-holes, underground reservoirs Inter-relation of different hydrogeological formations (barriers, conductors, anticlines, synctines...) 2.4 Seismology In areas with higher seismological risk, special design and construction techniques must be applied in order ‘to meet required safety. For preliminary studies regional data, if any, can be used. However, for feasibility study and onwards much more detailed seismic studies must be carried out to provide reliable data for design, 2.5 Meteorology and Climatology + + ‘General type of climate in the area Temperatures Precipitation © Rainfall © Snow ‘Humidity Solar radiation ‘Wind distribution and magnitude 2.6 Hydrological Aspects and Related Hydraulic Aspects 2.6.1. River Discharge Series (Flow Series) ‘¢ Basic data ~ Streamflow records at various locations along the river (preferably at section of interest). ‘Area correlations ‘+ Rocord of precipitations (snowmelt) at different locations of basin + Completing discharge series ‘+ Rainfall-runof models; transformation of precipitation in run-off + routing (SSAR, HEC) ‘+ Snowmelt ~ runoff models; transformation of (Snow + ice) in run-off + routing (DAD, etc.) ‘Basin transposition techniques; correlations between adjacent basin. ‘+ Regression models; statistical correlation ‘+ Stochastic models, stochastic hydrology 26.2 Floods Determination of spillway capacity and river diversion capacity + Risks Let Tr. - period of retum of flood considered (years) N - lifetime of structure (years) dam—N = 50, 100, or larger diversion —N= 1, 2,3, years - risk = probability of exceeding a flood having a retum period Tr R=1-(1- VT) Ta | 10 20 50 100 1000 10000 N 1 10.0 30 20 2 19.0 97 40 ‘Not usual 3 ex 96 10 = = 183 96 10 On 30 = 49 05 100 Not usual oS 95 10 200 : S27 181 2.0 Rin%) + Determination of design floods + Envelope curves for river basins ~ Myers, Creager, Crippen Qmax = CA * Observation of floods ~ flood hydrographs + Statistical distribution - Gummbel, Log. Pearson, other distributions + Empirical methods based on runoff, precipitations, and basin characteristics. * Unit hydrographs techniques + Stonm patterns, PMP/PMF techniques, ‘¢ Usual design procedure ~ application of several methods. More and more widespread use of PMP/PMF approach; checked against statistical methods, ¢ PMP/PMF methodology Divide drainage basin in meteorologically homogencous sub-basins. —> Study applicable maximum moisture content of atmosphere —> Evaluate worst antecedent condition (soil, moisture, base flow, etc..) > Define most possible storm pattem -> Route storm in each sub-basin with probable max. precipitation —> Route through main channel system —> Analyze response sensitivity to different data and parameters —> Compare with statistical methods. ‘¢ Important factors to be taken into account © Antecedent conditions ~ moisture of ground, previous precipitations, base flow ‘Sources of runoff; rainfall, snowmelt ‘+ Intensity, duration, geographic distribution of rainfall '* Storm pattems, hydro-meteorological condition © Routing through channel system. 2.6.3 Routing Of Hydrographs, Basic equations s-5-22(¥) 1% & & 2g) gat © Continuity equation ph, pv. At BS BI = ¢ Methods ‘* Full hydraulic method ~ complete equations ‘© Diffusion method =5,-% Sp= SoZ Ow I inflow O-outflow _S - storage O= fi(S) or S = £(0) Muskingum O(t)= ON ()=h O(t)=O ()=b O2= O1+ Ci(L1-O1)+ C2121) -— let) __ OO FRA M= (t=) Con lta 2K K - travel time parameter X-- storage in reach parameter ‘+ Averaging and lagging — empirical 12 3 Spillways One of the major aspects of dam safety during the operation of the dam is safe release (evacuation) of ‘excess water (mainly floods) from the reservoir behind the dam itself. The structures that are specially designed and built to meet this goal are called spillways. Here they are referred to as complete set of structures needed to convey the excess water from head water to tail water in safest possible way, having in ‘mind economical and other aspects such as optimized fitting in general lay-out of the dam with its other auxiliary structures, 3.1 Concept — Hydraulic structure designed to release water in excess from a reservoir to a river stretch downstream of a dam eS a og. - at a i 3.2 Component Works and Classification Classification according to use + Service splays frequent use, no damages + Ausliary spillways ~infequent use, some damages ‘+ Emergency spillways ~ reserve protection, damages Spillway capacity: Q = 2/3-C, -./2g -b-H*” (neglecting approaching velocity; H is spillway head, b is net width — or can be considered as length — of the spillway crest, C, is spillway coefficient), or: O=C,-2g-b-H® =C,-b-HY? B 4 According to shape: ‘© Sharp-crested NOTCH weir (C;=0.62; C3=0.413; C;=1.83) © Broad Crested (C)=1/V3 — for abstract case (for optimal practical shape it is about 94% of this, and it can be taken down to 83% of that in worst case); C:=0.385; Cy=1.707) ‘© Practical profile OGEE spillway (C:=0.745 for design head; C:=0.497; Cs=2.201), Here the head measured from the crest is less compared to one from the corresponding notch! Shape (Creager), for instance, can be expressed as: y=0.5x8 HO For Hya=1.65Hsip cavitation occurs and actual head should never exceed this value. For this case C=0.81, . According to flow conditions: © Overfall spillway from a reservoir (Ogee, Moming Glory...) * Control weir (flow measurements, water level maintenance, other regulating functions) © Side channel spillway (spilling from a water body into a side channel — spatially varied flow in channel) ‘+ Side weir (Spilling from channel laterally into another channel or basin ~ spatially varied flow in main channel and on the spillway crest) ‘Most of them can have free flow or submerged flow, affected from downstream by talwater conditions. . Control structure - component of spillway providing partial or complete control of discharges ~ gated or ungated control structures (Conveyance structure — conduction of flow Terminal structures ~ structure at end of spillway providing adequate back flow of discharges to downstream river channel 3.3 Spillway Types Control (regulation) Control (inlet) Conveyance ‘Terminal A B c D SLUICE GATE OVERFALL (ogee, notch, and FREE FALL STILLING BASIN sill.) RADIALGATE COLLECTING CHANNEL CASCADE SKIJUMP FLAP GATE. SHAFT SPILLWAY SPILLWAY CHUTE WATER CUSHION FUSE PLUG SIPHON FREE SURFACE UNREGULATED CULVERT PRESSURE TUNNEL 4 mers] B\ yn al MS 4 Al Bi A2 = aw * ES Table (and sketch) above represents only major representatives of each group and it allows to make 375 ‘combinations out of which 190 are possible and “only” ca. 65 MEANINGFUL. Considering, say, different types of silling basins as separate groups, then D1 could be split into more groups allowing for more combinations. Some examples follow: Control structures © Straight, curved - BI ‘© Side channel, double side channel - B2 une sen owing ore Ring-gote-y ‘Owyhee Dam Sections “-Dam (a right cbutment) SPILLWAY PROFILE 16 © Drop + Labyrinth crest, orifice ~ BI, BS ‘© Siphon, Stepped spillway - B4 ¢ Conveyance structure © Chute~ C3 © Conduit © Tumnel-C4, C5 © Free fall- Cl ¢ Terminal structures (Energy dissipaters): ‘© Hydraulic jump stilling basin — D1 Roller bucket, stilling basin - D1 ‘© Flip bucket, deflector bucket - D2 ‘Plunge pool ~ D3 ‘© Combination flip bucket + jump ~ D2 * Direct discharge 3.4 Data for Spillway Design ¢ Topography — influence on type, layout, downstream inundation ¢ Geological conditions — foundations, rock mass downstream ‘+ Hydrological data - floods, discharge series Hydraulic data ~ flow conditions upstream, downstream ‘Project requirements, special requirements Reservoir flood detention capacity ‘Downstream developments Other data — structural, water quality, environment 3.5 Detailed Hydrologic Data Stream flow records ~ discharges, volumes, peaks. ¢ Flood studies 7 + Floodplain inundation maps + Tail-water curves. Backwater effects. Morphological studies 3.6 Detailed Hydraulic Data — Support of Hydraulic Design + Reservoir inflow, storage, sedimentation, trash load, ice problems, operation, water quality + Downstream requirements, releases, flow profiles Upstream backwater 3.7 Selection Criteria and Procedure + Safety: ‘High operation reliability + Structural safety ‘© Control of releases — dam safety Adequate evaluation of downstream hazard Adequate design flood Function: + Adequate release capacity + Compatibility with typeof dam * Satisfy project requirements ‘© Compatibility with site topography and geology ‘© Economic considerations ‘+ Frequency and magnitude of releases ‘Selection procedure 4. Determine outflow and surcharge (elevation of storage level) to accommodate design flood b. Select altematives, «Combine components . Compare altematives — technical, costs ¢. Select best altemative 3.8 Design Methodology a. Allocate reservoir volume for sediment deposits, live storage, surcharge and freeboard b. Define spillway crest elevation (trial and error) ¢. Select design flood d. Flood routing through reservoir, for different spillway altemative dimensions and types ¢. Layouts ~ costs — cost comparison 3.9 Hydraulic Problems (see hydraulic design criteria) + Discharge capacity + Geometry of rest ¢ Geometry of gates ¢ Energy dissipation + Hydraulic pressures ‘¢ Cavitation (see sketch on next page) flow vapour cavities /t <0 (convex) Cavitation index: hv? ¥ g g 3 3 rd x v/2g atmospheric pressure Pe. y= vapor pressure specific weight of water acceleration of gravity radius of curvature Cavitation criterion: > 6 Y 8 r critical value for incipient cavitation o== aeration If.6 5 ce cavitation may occur. A good control of cavitation is aeration of flow For fairly smooth surfaces 6 = 0.25 + 20 Ap =pressure Buckingham theorem: F (q/a, Fr, Eu, Re, We, tga, tg4, vh) = 0 Igcometry \ 4. specific air discharge (sf) q= vh- specific water discharge Fr=v/gh - Froude number — Inertia/Gravity Eu = w/Ap/p - Euler number — Inertia/Pressure difference We =v vpL - Weber number —Inertia/Surface tension force ‘<= surface tension Re = vh/wp - Reynolds number —Inertia/Viscous forces See numerical values pp. 630 - 632 Advanced Dam Engineering, ai 3.10 Control Gates Plane: © Slide -low pressure + Roller - medium pressure ~high pressure ‘* Pressurized hydraulic hoist (oil driven piston) ‘Rough estimation of weight for different type of gates can be done using correlation-derived formulae compiled by Davis. Values can be used in very preliminary phases of projects and can be considered as slightly conservative, but nonetheless useful in first assessment of the cost estimate, Radial inter) gates: Woke) =25: (len) Hew”) Gives the weight of moving part ofthe gate, while weight of embedded parts like anchorage, sills and ste! plates ‘can be taken as 35% of this (actually varying from 10% to 50% for small and large gates respectively). ‘Weight of fixed-type hoist can be roughly estimated as W (kg)=300-Capacity (tons), where capacity may vary from 75% to 150% of the gate leaf weight. For traveling type hoists W (kg)=167-Capacity (t)'** ‘Vertical-ift (sliding) gates: W(kig)=25.9-(Lop* Ho”) Gives the weight of moving part ofthe gate, while weight of embedded parts like anchorage, sills and ste! plates can be taken as 35% of this (actually varying from 10% to 50% for small and large gates respectively. 2 ‘Weight of two-drum hoist can be roughly estimated as W (kg)=225-Capacity (tons), where capacity may vary from 120% (for fixed-wheel gates) to 150% (for sliding gates) ofthe gate leaf weight. Capacity exceeds the ‘weight ofthe gate leaf by 10-20 % for lifting beam and the rest is difference due to friction. For single drum hoists W (kg)=68-Capacity () Rolling gates and Hoists: Wk) = $5.9-(Lop\? Ho) Gives the weight of moving part ofthe gate, while weight of embedded pars like anchorage, sills and steel plates can be taken as 20% of cylinder weight. In average loading condition (depending on submergence of the gate) the ‘weight of the fixed-hoist unit with lifting chains can be taken as 30% of the cylinder weight, Drum gates: W (ba) =332-(Loy How)” Gives the weight of the gate including moving and embedded parts, operating mechanisms and piping. Travelli Crane (Given in Anglo-American system of units) Enclosed TVA type: W=59.5-£(W)"™ (in tons) Open utility type W=28.9-F0W)"* ——(intons) ‘S= span runway rails, f; ‘A and B = respective lengths of upstream and downstream legs of crane (ft), measured from runway ral to hoist platform or trolley rails, For more details on this matter consult “Handbook of Applied Hydraulics” by Davis, fourth edition 1993, ‘McGraw-Hill, New York, 23 4 4 Outlet Works As the spillways convey excess water from the reservoir in order to maintain safety of the dam, outlet ‘works convey required water to fulfill demand(s) downstream such as water supply, irigation, hydropower, etc... In other words, outlet works are “responsible for safe delivery of the project’s product” which is water that should meet demand(s) in terms of both quantity and quality. In many cases outlets are used for ‘water evacuation, like during flushing operations or reservoir emptying, or can contribute to increase evacuation capacity during floods. 4.1 Concept — hydraulic structures used to convey water from a reservoir to a point downstream of a dam. (Outlet works ~ embankment dams, shuices ~ concrete dams) 4.2. Classification: Components According to function © Irigation ‘© Municipal (potable), industrial water Flood control © Power generation © River flows ‘+ Additional spillway capacity ‘+ Diversion during construction ‘+ Emergency drawdown — emptying time of the reservoir for given constant inflow: 25 H, = steady reservoir level for given inflow c= discharge coefficient (can be assumed constant) at Warde ‘Where f is friction head loss coefficient (can be obtained from Moody diagram or assuming highly developed turbulent flow for hydraulically rough pipes ~ quadratic region ~ and equating Darcy-Weisbach and Manning's formulae for given nf =124.6n7/¥/D). For details on this consult lecture-notes “Basic Hydraulics or chapter 7 ofthese lecture-notes. Here ¢ = 2& is sum of local head loss coefficients (such as trash rack, intake, bends, contractions, expansions, branching, tc, ~ including exit loss coefficient which is equal 1.0 if outflow isto still or slow-flowing water or ai). ‘© Combination of functions + Type of flow + Pressure flow * Free surface (gravity) flow ‘© Combination ¢ Components — all or some of the following: — 7 (2) 3 Gate Chamb Intake or Conduit vate Chamber inlet Intake oa Inlet Channel r | Waterway Downstream Gate (structure Structure (7 (Outlet Channel 6 Energy Dissipator + Conveyance - (1), (3), (5), (1) © Control - (2), (4) ‘+ Energy dissipation - (6) 26 43 Inlet and Outlet Channels Consideration of following important points + Clogging (sliding or deposition of rock masses or Plugging sediment) + Adequate location ‘+ Stabilization of slopes ‘© Adequate operation + Sediment transport (erosion, abrasion) © Channel lining ‘© Channel stabilization + Traps 4.4 Intakes Important points ¢ Location with respect to water levels, Control or not (gates) . ‘Special functions (for instance, selective withdrawal — multiple level intakes for water supply) Provision of trash-racks (in most cases) . Shape of hydraulic passages 4.5 Control Structure [Important points: + Location of structure (intake, mid-structure, downstream) ¢ Type of gates, valves © Plane gates: + Slide + Roller 27 Variations © Radial gates: + Tainter ‘Top-seal radial © Valves: Noodle valves, tube valves (Can operate submerged, expensive, unstable for small openings — cavitation) Hollow jet, C=0.7 (not suitable for submerged outflow) Butterfly Howell-Bunger (Cone) up to 250 m of head, A~0 84g C=0.85-0.9; beter dissipation with ring (fixed large hollow cylinder) placed downstream of the cone — ring jet valve > C=0.75-0.80 + Gate valves Spherical valves + Operational safety ~ redundancy operation gate, revision gate, operation, maintenance + Planning all operations with gates ~ assembly, erection, disassembly, removal © Structure + Intake structure Gate shaft or tower + Gate chamber 4.6. Conveyance Structure ‘Important points: ‘¢ Cavitation (due to high velocities), aeration ¢ Shape of transitions, slots + Lining 28 4,7 Terminal Structures Important points: Energy dissipation + Stillng basin (special case impact structure) © Dispersion of jet ‘¢ Plunge pool, flip bucket ‘No energy dissipation + Shapes of hydraulic passages 4.8 Hydraulic Problems and Their Prevention © Cavitation: ‘Improvement of shape of water passages ‘© Increase of pressure in affected areas © Acration ¢ Abrasion: ‘© Special lining (concrete, stel) ‘© Particular problem in stilling basins + Scouring: Lining, ‘© Rockfill protection 4 Structural vibration: ‘Influence on supports of elements ‘+ Elastic properties © Masses (Ex. Trash-racks) + Vortices: ‘+ Design modifications of intakes 29 © Anti-vortex devices Other problems + © Back current. ‘© Hydrodynamic loads 30 5 Energy Dissipaters Energy dissipation process can be considered in 5 separate stages: 1. On the spillway (outlet) surface 2. Inthe free falling jet (if any) 3. At impact into the downstream pool 4. Inthe stling basin (bucket, poo!) 5. At the outflow into the river. 5.1 Energy Dissipation on Spillways ‘The energy loss on the spillway surface: e=Eav"/2g where v’ is velocity at the end of the spillway, a is the Coriolis coefficient, and & is the head loss coefficient related to the velocity coefficient @ (ratio of actual to theoretical velocity) as: 1 214E Relative head loss: gale ‘After Novak and Cabelka (1981) for S/H<30 and smooth spillways: g.=1- 0.01558 The value of & can be increased (@ decreased) by using rough spillway surface (e.g., stepped spillway, or bafiles). Aeration should be provided to prevent cavitation damages 5.2 Ski-jump and Flip Bucket Ski-jump can be used at the end of chute or tunnel spillway. Most of energy dissipation is achieved along 1-3 Gpillway surface, jet, impact) and if jet is conveyed far enough in geologically suitable condition, “stilling basin” (usually plunge pool for ski-jump spillways) can be avoided by letting the jet to do pool “excavation” (by erosion) as needed. Ski-jump is used in 1951 for the first time, and its use is growing ever since, ‘Head loss in the jet up to 12%, 31 ‘© Can be enhanced by more jets colliding ‘+ Impact (phase 3) provides main benefit in energy dissipation ‘+ _Intensively aerated jet before impact increases efficiency ‘* Optimal dissipation in the jet itself is obtained for S'/S ~ 0.6 + Best results are for “disintegrated” jet, which occurs at distance L ~ 6q"° from the crest. ‘© Theoretical throw distance of the jet =29-H,- of Nein? g 4 S205» L=29*-H, soapy sin? p+ snp) Where Hy=S+H-S'—y/2 energy to the middle of the off-taking jet. Bis take-off angle ‘And y= depth at the off-take of the ski-jump «pcan be assumed approximately as 1.0 Flip bucket is special version of the ski-jump usually placed at river bottom. Main parameters are R, (radius) and B (take-off) angle. ‘+ At low flows bucket acts as stilling basin — downstream protection against erosion is necessary Proper operation for high flows with a jet ‘+ For v<20 m/s air resistance can be neglected For v= 40 m/s throw distance reduction up to 30% ‘+ Theoretical throw distance L = (v*/g) sin 2B. * Major concer is to throw the jet as far as possible from the structure ‘© Protection against retrogressive erosion ‘© 3-D forms of flip bucket to skew jet into desired direction * Tailor made — hydraulic scale models 5.3 Stilling basins ‘+ Hydraulic jump stilling basins 32 ‘+ Type I-IV Stilling basins with chute blocks and baffles (USBR) ‘+ Plain or slotted roller buckets (USBR) ‘* Spatial hydraulic jump basins (change in width, change in depth, flow from lateral channels) Hydraulic jump stilling basin: Depth of water entering stilling basin y; can be obtained from: Bayt 4 and then second conjugate depth for rectangular basin: 9 Y; H g y=} 14 firs de wale ford) Depth of the stilling basin respecting need for certain “submergence” as safety measure: D=o-y2-yo > Yo is normal depth inthe river downstream of the stilling basin usually obtained for computation from tail ‘water flow-rating curve is submergence coefficient and should be grater than 1.10, ie., downstream conjugate depth should be ‘more than 10% submerged. This is stilling the jump surface and preventing cavitation on the apron slab. ‘As with computation of required depth, available energy for computation of y, changes (increases) ‘computation should be iterated until all values fit Length of the stilling basin can be adopted as: L = K (yz~ yi), where 4.5 Fr, 2 3 respectively. ‘Above formulae are valid for rectangular basin with horizontal bed. At the end of basin simple end sill can be provided with slope of 1:3, where the basin length includes this sloped sill, Basin has to be safe for whole range of discharges (not only the high design flow). ‘+ Better efficiency for higher Froude Number. * Efficiency for low Froude number can be as low as 50% ‘© Fluctuation of pressure in the basin (cavitation, forces on apron slab) Structural concems * Uplift - drainage, anchorage, weight © Abrasion 33 © Vibration © Cavitation Design flow for stilling basin computation need not necessarily be equal to that of the spillway (and/or outlet), Lower flows can be considered for economical reason, allowing some damage of the basin itself and just downstream in very exceptional cases. However, spillway structure (or dam) should be designed for higher flows. Above there are two examples of USBR stilling basins. Although those types allow shallower and somewhat shorter basins — therefore saving in terms of excavation and sometimes concrete as well, they have some serious disadvantages compared with simple hydraulic jump stilling basins. Construction of bafile teeth-blocks requires “filigree” work in terms of reinforcement and formworks. In operation, however, these types of stilling basins have proven to be vulnerable to devastating cavitation effects partly induced by teeth themselves. Extensive repair works might be required usually involving use of expensive epoxy-materials, 5.4 Downstream Erosion © After stilling basin No stilling basin can dissipate 100% of the incoming energy. Erosion downstream of stilling basins or flip- buckets and ski-jumps is to be expected, '* Control of the position and magnitude of erosion + Rip-ap © Concrete aprons Expected erosion (scour depth) can be roughly estimated using Novak's expression: 34 y, = 059 ourqe( 2) ~% doy Where His difference between upstream and downstream levels, Yo is tailwater depth is specific discharge per meter width doo is 90% grain size of sediment in the river bed Required length of downstream riprap (or apron) bed protection for low head structures after US War Department: H, = H+S (available energy — see figure at the beginning of the chapter), ys = ‘tail water depth, and v is tail water velocity. (this formula gives rather high values) © After s ‘Scour of (in the) plunge pools can be expressed in general by equation of Locher & Hsu: CatHe Bp" Ve ae Ye C= coefficient 0.65 R= "/z is Hydraulic radius of the pipe. v is kinematic coefficient of fluid’s Viscosity (for water: = 20° v= 1.01"10%ms, and t= 10° v= 1.3°10%m*%s) ‘+ For Re<2320 there is laminar flow regime in the pipe, and then Darcy's coefficient is: 64 16 I> Re Re, + In turbulent flow there are three regimes: © Hydraulically smooth pipes (Re<27(D/e)*”, approximately — ¢ is absolute average pipe wall roughness) 31 ‘Among many used formulae (like Nikuradze, Prandtl-Karman, etc.) Colebrook’s formula is given here as probably the most practical Re =1.8log—— los ‘© Transition turbulent flow (27[D/e]*” < Re < 21.6 Cie, where C is Chezy coefficient = V[8e/f]) ‘Then another formula of Colebrook can be used: toe 251 4_£ Reyf 37D. * For even higher values of Re f = f(e) and does not depend on Re itself anymore (quadratic region of flow resistance). Then for instance Nikuradze’s formula can be used: 0.25 flog@.715 D/e)F For all regions with limited accuracy (+ 5%) for e/D<0,01 and f<0.05, Moody's formula can be used: S255 wo°f+y 2-10 @D+10"/Re) Material and the state of pipe © (10°m) Concrete ~ rough 13 Concrete — smooth 03-08 Steel (welded) — new 0.04-0.1 ‘Steel (welded) — used, stained, incrusted 015-15 Cast iron 0.25-1.5 (4) More detailed list can be obtained from different handbooks. As most practical problems in hydraulic (civil) engineering occur in the region of quadratic resistance (full turbulence), even manning formula could be applied with reasonable accuracy. Then better known values for n can be used and/or converted to f. As sven before for this case: =124.6n?/VD. ‘* Minor or local losses are calculated based on experience and experiments. Some coefficients to calculate local losses are given here: © Entrance: sharp - &=0.5, rounded - &=0.2, bell-mouth ~ &=0.05, pipe sticking into reservoir ~ 52 © Sudden expansion: a? D, = (-(2) } in regard to in-flowing velocity. If expansion is gradual then this coefficient would be diminished (by multiplier k<1) depending on the angle of expansion (for 5° ~ k=0.13, 15° -k=0.27, 25° ~ k-0.62...) Dt D, * Sudden contraction: £ = , (based on out-flowing velocity) for gradual contraction coefficient would depend on angle and ratio of diameters © Elbe L[p a Dy* 0.15 J— or => —| 0.13 +185] — where L is length, R is bend RVR # (a) } nase . radius, D is pipe diameter, and a is deflection angle of the curve. © Valves and gates: if open 0.05

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