09 HMEF5033 - Topic03

Topic The Scope
3 of Comparative
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define key terms related to education;

2. Relate key terms in education to underlying historical, economic and
socio-cultural factors;
3. Gain an international perspective of the development of an education
system; and
4. Evaluate the educational philosophy, policy, planning, structure,
goals and objectives of one or more countries.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we will examine how key features of education such as educational
philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals and objectives may be defined, and
how they are articulated or represented within the context of an educational
system. Using examples from a number of countries, the various sections of
this topic also demonstrate how these concepts may be used in making
comparisons between countries, states or schools of thought. More importantly,
comparisons across countries provide an international perspective on how
historical, socio-historical, political and economical factors shape the development
of the education system in a country. As you read the contents of the pages that
follow, think of the ways in which these terms apply to the education context
where you work or where you are studying.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

42 TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
3.1 KEY CONCEPTS IN EDUCATION

In most countries, the government plays a critical role in providing basic
education to its citizens. The term basic education refers to the many educational
activities that aim to meet basic learning needs of a people. Generally, it
comprises primary and in some cases lower secondary schooling as well as
formal and informal education. (Refer to definitions below for an understanding
of the term basic education.) In addition to the provision of basic education,
the government also oversees wholly, or in part, educational activity in upper
secondary and post-secondary institutions.
The education provided by a government to the general public may be referred

to as public education, national education, government education, state education,
or even free education. It is often based on a national education philosophy
(Figure 3.1), which is then translated into well-articulated education policies,
goals and objectives. The implementation of these policies, goals and objectives
may be done at a national or regional level, but it involves a great deal of
educational planning, and is directly or indirectly realised through the countrys
education structure. The philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals and
objectives apply to basic education provided through primary and secondary
schools, as well as to post-secondary colleges, universities or technical schools.
Figure 3.1: The cornerstones of a national education system

TOPIC 3 THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 43
Often when comparativists analyse one or more aspects of a nations education

system, they take into consideration its educational philosophy, planning activities,
policy, goals and objectives as well as its structure. These key features become
useful points of comparison as related issues are discussed. For example, if you
wish to examine how basic education serves the needs of diverse cultures in
India and in Canada, you can examine related policies in the two countries. On
the other hand, if you wish to look at how the curriculum is structured in a
number of places, you may first wish to study the education philosophy as well
as its goals and objectives.
Table 3.1 gives the definitions of formal, non-formal and basic education.
Table 3.1: Definitions of Formal, Non-formal and Basic Education
Education Definition
Basic Education Refers to a whole range of educational activities that take place in
different settings and that aim to meet basic learning needs as
defined in the World Declaration on Education for All. It thus
comprises both formal schooling (primary and sometimes lower
secondary) as well as a wide variety of non-formal and informal
public and private educational activities offered to meet the
defined basic learning needs of groups of people of all ages.
Formal Education Refers to education provided in the system of schools, colleges,
universities and other formal educational institutions that normally
constitutes a continuous ladder of full-time education for children
and young people, generally beginning at age five, six or seven and
continuing up to 20 or 25 years of age. Formal basic education
usually comprises the primary school grades, but may include
also additional grades (e.g. lower secondary schooling) that are
considered basic.
Non-formal May take place both within and outside educational institutions,
Education and may cater to persons of all ages. Depending on country
contexts, it may cover educational programmes to impart adult
literacy, basic education for out-of-school children, life skills, work
skills and general culture. Non-formal education programmes
do not necessarily follow the ladder system, may have varying
durations, and may or may not confer certification of the learning
achieved. Refer Figure 3.2 for an example of non-formal education
setting.
Source: http://portal.unesco.org/education/

Figure 3.2: A non-formal education class for adults held outdoors

Source: www.scdp.org.np/
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What do the words philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals

and objectives mean to you?
2. How can each of these words be defined in the context of the basic
education provided in your country?
3. Why is it important to study these key features of education?
This topic gives you a number of definitions and examples of the various terms
related to an education system so that you are able to:
(a) Understand what they mean in the context of educational practice; and
(b) Use them in making comparisons between countries, states or schools of
thought.
It is also important to compare how different countries define their educational

philosophy, planning, policy, goals and objectives as well as structure to get an
international perspective on these features. As you make these comparisons, you
will realise that education in different countries is influenced by a number of
historical, socio-historical, political and economical factors.

Note that subtopics 3.2 to 3.6 contain excerpts of the educational philosophy,
policy, etc. of different countries. To get the full version of each of these
documents you may have to visit the sites that have been identified.
The Use and Abuse of Comparative Education
Although comparative education characteristically

tends to emphasise differences, the basic similarities of
formal education across countries are also of interest.
With increasing speed, beginning about 1860, the
nations of the world have made available the facilities
for formal schooling to ever-larger fractions of their
populations.
The institutional frameworks, the preparation of

teachers, the equipment used, the systems of grading
and examinations, the issuing of certificates and
diplomas all contribute to the basic commonality
of school systems, wherever they are located. Two
main factors have been at work to create this
standardisation: diffusion of educational practices
across national boundaries and ever-greater sharing of
common objectives for expanding resources for formal
education.
Source: Noah, H. J. (1984).
3.2 EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

A countrys philosophy of education refers to the values, aspirations and ideals
underlying the nature of its education. It is usually a broad statement of what
education means to the people of a country, how they hope to achieve the
national agenda through education, and how the people of the country can
benefit from the education that is provided by the government. A philosophy
does not reflect an implementation plan, but is the basis for educational planning
and development of educational policy.

Here are examples of statements reflecting the philosophy of education in two

countries.
(a) Malaysia
Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the

potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to
God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are
knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards, and
who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-
being, as well as being able to contribute to the betterment of the family, the
society and the nation at large. (http://www.moe. gov.my)
(b) South Africa
The framework is intended to develop a higher education system that will:
(i) Promote equity of access and fair chances of success to all who are
seeking to realise their potential through higher education, while
eradicating all forms of unfair discrimination and advancing redress
for past inequalities; and
(ii) Meet national development needs and high-skilled employment needs

presented by a growing economy operating in a global environment
through well-planned and coordinated teaching, learning and research
programmes.
(Adapted from www. polity. org.za/govdocs)
Figure 3.3 illustrates school children from a primary school in South Africa.

Figure 3.3: School children from the Crags Primary School, Plattenberg Bay, South Africa
Source: www.awish.net/Africa/willingworkers
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. The statement on the education philosophy of Malaysia contains the
following lines:
(a) Based on a firm belief in and devotion to God.
(b) Who possess high moral standards.
(c) Contribute to the betterment of the family.
What do these lines tell you about the values and ideals of the
Malaysian people?
2. The following lines are extracted from the higher education

philosophy of South Africa:
(a) Promote equity of access and fair chances of success
(b) Eradicating all forms of unfair discrimination and advancing
redress for past inequalities.
How are these philosophical ideals reflective of the history of South

Africa?
3.3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

This refers to an action plan that a country wishes to undertake to achieve the
goals, objectives and strategies that are consistent with its educational
philosophy. It is usually the result of analysis of a countrys human resource
needs, and encompasses the formulation and the implementation of programmes
that will meet these needs. Educational planning may include whole-nation plans

(e.g. plans to address ICT needs in the whole country) or regional or sector plans
(e.g. plans to address under-education in rural areas).
Educational planning is reflected in the statements presented below.
(a) Malaysia Malaysias Ninth Plan (20062010)
The country must raise the capacity of its people by:
(i) Undertaking comprehensive improvement of the education system,

from pre-school to tertiary level, from the aspects of curriculum
and teaching to school facilities, with a special focus on raising the
standard of schools in the rural areas; and
(ii) Creating more avenues for skills development, training and lifelong
learning for the labour force at all levels and for all ages, including in
ICT.
(Selections from http://www.epu. jpm.my/rm9).
(b) Nepal Nepals Eighth Plan (199197)
In keeping with the needs of the country, emphasis has to be given to

improving the quality of education. For this, it is necessary to increase the
number of trained teachers; improve physical facilities of the schools; focus
on curriculum development and provision of textbooks; and engage in
regular and effective supervision of schools.
(Adapted from http://www.moe.gov.np).
Figure 3.4 illustrates a Nepalese school setting.

Figure 3.4: School children in a Nepalese School

Source: www.traveltalker.co.uk/nepal
ACTIVITY 3.1
Focus on the excerpts from Malaysias Ninth Plan (20062010) and

Nepals Eighth Plan (199197) above. (Note that these Plans were
implemented at different times in the year 2006 in Malaysia and in
the year 1991 in Nepal.)
1. What do you think is meant by each of the following?

(a) Raising the standard of schools in the rural areas.
(b) Creating more avenues for skills development.
(c) Improving the quality of education.
(d) Engaging in regular and effective supervision of schools.
2. Find examples of situations in Malaysia where these four assertions

apply. For example, if you think we need to raise the standard of
schools in rural areas in Malaysia, what would you like to see
changed? What do you think needs to be done in rural schools so
that we can raise the capacity of the Malaysian people, as stated in
the 9th Malaysian Plan?

3.4 EDUCATIONAL POLICY

Education policy refers to a guiding principle or a course of action that steers a
countrys educational programmes or decisions. Commonly, a government
devises a policy after deliberation and discussion among lawmakers, educationists,
social scientists and other interested parties. Education policies often circumscribe
a countrys national educational philosophy, and usually include a justification
for a course of action that has been/will be taken.
The following statements are related to education policy in two countries:
(a) India
Indias commitment to the spread of knowledge and freedom of thought

among its citizens is reflected in its Constitution. The Directive Principle
contained in Article 45 enjoins the State shall endeavour to provide within
a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free
and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years. Article 29 provides that any citizen having a distinct
language, script, special care of the economic and educational interests of
the underprivileged sections, particularly, the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes is laid down as an obligation of the State under article 46.
(http://www.education.nic.in)
Table 3.2 shows the education profile of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
the rest of the population in India.

Table 3.2: The Education Profile of Scheduled Castes (SC),

Scheduled Tribes (ST) and the Rest (Rest) of the Population in India
Source: Business Line, Tuesday, May 16, 2006
(b) Singapore
The bilingual policy is a fundamental feature of the Singapore education

system. It ensures that children learn at least two languages in schools
English and their mother tongue. English is essential as it is the language
of commerce, technology and administration. The learning of the mother
tongue, which could be Chinese, Malay or Tamil, enables the children to
keep in touch with their heritage and cultural values.
(www.education18.com).

ACTIVITY 3.2
1. The information in the above section tells us that both Singapore

and India have made provisions for the needs of diverse groups of
people who form part of their citizenry. To gain an understanding
of how these two countries have addressed issues of diversity, find
out more about educational provisions related to the following:
(a) Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India.
(b) Bilingual policy and mother tongue education in Singapore.
2. Read the excerpt below on policies related to ICT in education in

Malaysia. Have these policies been implemented in your school or
district? Why, or why not?
The concept of ICT in education, as seen by the Ministry of

Education, Malaysia, includes systems that enable information
gathering, management, manipulation, access, and communication
in various forms. The Ministry has formulated three main policies
for ICT in education.
(a) The first policy is that of ICT for all students, meaning that
ICT is used as an enabler to reduce the digital gap between
the schools.
(b) The second policy emphasises the role and function of ICT in
education as a teaching and learning tool, as part of a subject,
and as a subject by itself. Apart from radio and television as a
teaching and learning tool, this policy stresses the use of the
computer for accessing information, communication, and as
a productivity tool.
(c) The third policy emphasises using ICT to increase

productivity, efficiency and effectiveness of the management
system. ICT will be extensively used to automate and
mechanise work processes such as the processing of official
forms, timetable generation, management of information
systems, lesson planning, financial management, and the
maintenance of inventories.
Chan Foong-Mae, unpan1.un.org/intradoc

3.5 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

In order to implement educational plans and to realise educational policy,
educationists and administrators of a country normally devise a list of goals and
objectives. One way of differentiating between goals and objectives is to see them
as part of a hierarchy. Goals are statements of a vision, specifying what is to be
achieved. On the other hand, objectives are statements of the specific activities
required to achieve the goals. The following comparison is offered by Lewis
(1996):
(a) Goals are broad; objectives are narrow.
(b) Goals are general intentions; objectives are precise.
(c) Goals are intangible; objectives are tangible.
(d) Goals are abstract; objectives are concrete.
(e) Goals cannot be validated as is; objectives can be validated.
It is important to remember that statements reflecting educational goals are often

accompanied by objectives. In the following example (Figure 3.5), note that the
goal is stated in general terms while the objective is more specific.
Figure 3.5: The goal and the objective stated

Here are some statements reflecting educational goals and objectives:
(a) European Union
Ministers of education agreed on three major goals to be achieved by 2010

for the benefit of the citizens and the EU as a whole:
(i) To improve the quality and effectiveness of EU education and training
systems;
(ii) To ensure that they are accessible to all; and
(iii) To open up education and training to the wider world.
To achieve these ambitious but realistic goals, [EU Ministers] agreed on

thirteen specific objectives covering the various types and levels of
education and training (formal, non-formal and informal) aimed at
making a reality of lifelong learning. Systems have to improve on all
fronts: teacher training; basic skills; integration of Information and
Communication Technologies; efficiency of investments; language
learning; lifelong guidance; flexibility of the systems to make learning
accessible to all, mobility, citizenship education, etc.
(http://europa.eu.int/comm /education /policies)

(b) United States of America
The Congress declares the following as the National Education Goals:
SCHOOL READINESS: By the year 2000, all children in the United States
will start school ready to learn. The objectives for this goal are that:
(i) All children will have access to high-quality and developmentally

appropriate pre-school programs that help prepare children for
school; and
(ii) Every parent in the United States will be a childs first teacher and
devote time each day to helping pre-school child learn, and parents
will have access to the training and support they need.
(Adapted from: www.ed.gov/legislation)
Goals are general directions, somewhat nebulous,

that are not specific enough to be measured. Think of
the word go. It has no end.
Objectives, on the other hand, are specific and

measurable. They can be output objectives, or they
can be attitudinal or behavioural; but most of all,
they can be measured. They are concise and specific.
Think of the word object. You can touch it. It is

there, it is actual and it is finite. Think of the goals
as the treasure at the top of a stairway, and the http://www.buythemonk
objectives as the stairs. ey.com/images/wedding
/staircase
(http://www.geocities.com/wallstreet)

ACTIVITY 3.3
Read the following pairs of statements and identify the statements that
reflect goals and those that reflect objectives.
1. (A) To improve literacy rates across the country by assuming a

national leadership role through the Ministry of Education.
(B) To allow all Canadian teachers to acquire deepened

knowledge of literacy through a one-year or two-year
training programme.
2. (A) To build the best system of support for children with

disabilities and special needs so that they can participate
more fully in their communities.
(B) To remove administrative and physical barriers that hinder

children with special needs and providing greater access
to all forms of learning services such as computers and
counselling.
3. (A) To improve access to information through public library

initiatives designed to simplify user access to a broader range
of information.
(B) To make Malaysia the best educated and most literate

country in Southeast Asia.
4. (A) To provide young Australians with the skills and knowledge

for the advancement of learning and the dissemination of
knowledge.
(B) To provide adequate funding for instruction and research in

engineering and technology.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES REGULATING THE NATIONAL EDUCATION

SYSTEM OF THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY
The general goals of the National Education System are:
1. To raise all individuals as citizens who are committed to the principles and
reforms of Atatrk and to the nationalism of Atatrk as expressed in the
Constitution, who adopt, protect and promote the national, moral, human,
spiritual and cultural values of the Turkish Nation, who love and always
seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and
responsibilities towards the Republic of Turkey which is a democratic,
secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on human
rights and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the Constitution, and
who have internalised these in their behavior;
2. To raise them as constructive, creative and productive persons who are

physically, mentally, morally, spiritually and emotionally balanced, have
a sound personality and character, with the ability to think freely and
scientifically and have a broad worldview, that are respectful for human
rights, value personality and enterprise, and feel responsibility towards
society;
3. To prepare them for life by developing their interests, talents and

capabilities and providing them with the necessary knowledge, skills and
attitudes and the habit of working with others and to ensure that they
acquire a profession which shall make them happy and contribute to the
happiness of society
Figure 3.6: General principles regulating the national education system

of the Republic of Turkey
Source: http://www.meb.gov.tr/
3.6 EDUCATION STRUCTURE

The education structure refers to the way in which teaching and learning in
schools and tertiary institutions are organised in a country. Generally, the
structure tells you more about the following:
(a) The order or sequence in which institutions providing basic education are
to be attended, e.g. attending primary school before secondary school or a
post-secondary institution;

(b) The number of years one spends at each level, e.g. six years or seven years
at the primary school; and
(c) The pathways to admission and graduation, e.g. attending primary school
at the age of seven or how one can qualify for admission to an institution of
higher education such as a university.
Let us now take a look at the educational structure of China and Brunei.
(a) China
Chinas education mainly comprises of the following stages:
(i) Pre-school
Children of 3 to 5 years old receive pre-school education at
kindergartens.
(ii) Primary School

For children of 6 to 11 years old. Primary schools are generally run by
local government. Some are run by enterprises and individuals.
(iii) Secondary School

For teenagers of 12 to 17 years old. Secondary schools are generally
run by local governments and educational departments. Secondary
schools include common middle schools, vocational schools and
specialised secondary schools. Common middle schools include junior
schools and senior schools, each with three-year period of schooling.
Some junior middle school graduates are accepted by senior middle
schools while some go to vocational schools and specialised
secondary schools, with a schooling period of three to five years.
(iv) Higher Education

Including two to three years short higher education, undergraduate
education and graduate education.
(http://www.china culture.org/gb)

(b) Brunei
The formal school system in Brunei Darussalam has adopted a 7-3-2-2

pattern.
(i) Primary Education

In Brunei Darussalam it takes seven years, including one year at
pre-school level. Primary education is divided into three stages:
pre-school, lower primary and upper primary.
(ii) Lower Secondary

The duration of schooling at lower secondary level is three years. At the
end of the third year, students sit for the Penilaian Menengah Bawah
(PMB) or Lower Secondary Assessment examination. On completion of
the PMB examination, students have the following options:
To pursue two to three years of upper secondary education leading

to the Brunei Cambridge General Certificate of Education (GCE O
Level) examination or the GCE N level examination; or
To pursue craft and basic technical level courses at technical or

vocational institutions or enter the employment market.

(iii) Upper Secondary

Based on performance in the PMB examination, students will be
channeled into a Science, Arts or Technical stream. The duration of
schooling at this level is either two or three years. At the end of
the second year, high academic achievers may sit for the Brunei-
Cambridge GCE Ordinary level (GCE O Level) examination.
Pre-tertiary and Higher Education

Those students with adequate and relevant O Level passes may
proceed to do a two-year Pre-University course leading to the Brunei-
Cambridge Advanced Level Certificate of Education examination (GCE
A Level). Others may decide to opt for employment or undertake
education and training programmes at the Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah
Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, technical colleges,
vocational schools, the nursing college or study abroad.
(http://www.moe.gov.bn/organisation)
Figure 3.7: The picture above shows three Brunei girls of a water village, waiting for a
water taxi to take them to the Muslim afternoon school.
Source: http://www.wunrn.com.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Examine the brief description of the Indonesian and Malaysian

education structure presented below:
Indonesian Education
Malaysian Education
The Indonesian education system
Primary education consists of 6
recognises two different paths of
years (Year 1-6) while secondary
education: school education and
education consists of 5 years of
out-of-school education.
schooling (Form 1-5). Primary
Indonesia adopts a 6-3-3-4 school
education is offered in three
education system, which consists
tracks: national, Tamil and
of 6 years of primary, 3 years of
Chinese. Students from Tamil
junior secondary, 3 years of senior
and Chinese primary schools
secondary and 4 years of tertiary
often spend an extra year
education. Basic education
(Remove Class) at the secondary
consists of primary and junior
level. At the end of Form 5,
secondary school education.
students take the Sijil Pelajaran
Senior secondary schooling
Malaysia (Malaysian Certificate
consists of two streams: general
of Education) examination,
and technical/ vocational.
before graduating from
(Adapted from: secondary school.
http://www.ginie. org / cstudies
(Adapted from: http://en.
/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm)
wikipedia.org /wiki/
Education_in_Malaysia)
1. What are some of the key differences that you can identify between
the two systems?
2. Make a list of questions you would like to ask an Indonesian

education expert about the structure of education in his/her
country.

3.7 A CASE STUDY

Let us now examine the various features of an education system with respect to
one country, the Republic of Seychelles. As shown in the map (Figure 3.8),
Seychelles is made up of 115 tropical islands located in the Indian Ocean. It has a
population of about 90,000 and the official languages of its people are Creole,
English and French. Education in the Republic is compulsory through grade 10
and is offered through public and private schools. To get a more comprehensive
view of the education system in Seychelles, read the appended article entitled
Education
in Seychelles: An overview by Marie-Therese Purvis (2004: 46-51; Source:
http://www.seychelles.net/smdj). The article (Appendix 1) gives you a
description of the education system in Seychelles, its main characteristics and its
major achievements.
Seychelles culture is a mixture of French and African (Creole) influences. Creole

is the native language of 94% of the people; however, English and French are
commonly used. English remains the language of government and commerce.
About 88% of the adult population is literate, and the literacy rate of school-aged
children has risen to well over 98%. Increases are expected, as nearly all children
of primary school age attend school, and the government encourages adult
education.

Figure 3.8: Seychelles

Source: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/

ACTIVITY 3.5
CASE STUDY: REPUBLIC OF SEYCHELLES
After you have read the article, make notes on some of the key features
of education in the Republic of Seychelles. Use the following questions
as a guide.
1. Why does the author begin with an outline of historical events?
2. Which lines give you information about the philosophy or

fundamental principles that guide education in Seychelles today?
3. How is the education structure in Seychelles different or similar to

that in your own country?
4. What are some of the policies that were implemented with respect
to reforms introduced in the 1990s? How are these similar or
different from the policies introduced in the 1970s and 1980s?
5. What are some of the main concerns raised by the author?

Elaborate on the comments related to education quality, language
policy, teacher supply and assessment.
6. Would you have difficulty teaching in Seychelles? Why, or why
As governments play a key role in providing basic education to its people,

they are also responsible for the formulation of a nations educational
philosophy, planning activities, policy, structure, goals and objectives. These
features are common to education in most countries and are useful for
drawing comparisons about educational practice in different countries.
A countrys philosophy of education refers to the values, aspirations and

ideals of its people. It is a reflection of what education means to the people of
a country, how it is related to the national agenda and how the people of the
country can benefit from education.

Educational planning refers to an action plan that a country wishes to

undertake to achieve the goals, objectives and strategies that are consistent
with its educational philosophy. Planning is usually congruent to a countrys
human resource needs.
Educational policy refers to a guiding principle or a course of action that

steers a countrys educational programmes or decisions.
Goals and objectives help a nation to implement educational plans and realise
educational policy. Goals are statements of a vision, specifying what is to be
achieved while objectives are statements of the specific activities required to
achieve the goals.
Education structure refers to the way in which teaching and learning in

schools and tertiary institutions are organised in a country. Specifically it
shows the way institutions providing basic education are ranked, the number
of years one spends at each level and/or the pathways to admission and
graduation from school or an institution of higher education.
Aspirations Goals
Comparativists Ideas
Education philosophy Objectives
Education planning Policies
Excerpts Values
Purvis, M. T. (2004). Education in Seychelles: An overview. Seychelles Medical

and Dental Journal, Special Issue, Vol. 7, No 1, 4651. Available from:
http://www.seychelles.net/smdj.

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Topic The Scope

1. Define key terms related to education;

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

3.1 KEY CONCEPTS IN EDUCATION

The education provided by a government to the general public may be referred

Figure 3.1: The cornerstones of a national education system

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Often when comparativists analyse one or more aspects of a nations education

Table 3.1: Definitions of Formal, Non-formal and Basic Education

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 3.2: A non-formal education class for adults held outdoors

1. What do the words philosophy, policy, planning, structure, goals

3. Why is it important to study these key features of education?

It is also important to compare how different countries define their educational

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The Use and Abuse of Comparative Education

Although comparative education characteristically

The institutional frameworks, the preparation of

Source: Noah, H. J. (1984).

3.2 EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

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Here are examples of statements reflecting the philosophy of education in two

Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the

(b) South Africa

The framework is intended to develop a higher education system that will:

(ii) Meet national development needs and high-skilled employment needs

(Adapted from www. polity. org.za/govdocs)

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2. The following lines are extracted from the higher education

How are these philosophical ideals reflective of the history of South

3.3 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

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Educational planning is reflected in the statements presented below.

(a) Malaysia Malaysias Ninth Plan (20062010)

The country must raise the capacity of its people by:

(i) Undertaking comprehensive improvement of the education system,

(Selections from http://www.epu. jpm.my/rm9).

(b) Nepal Nepals Eighth Plan (199197)

In keeping with the needs of the country, emphasis has to be given to

(Adapted from http://www.moe.gov.np).

Figure 3.4 illustrates a Nepalese school setting.

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Figure 3.4: School children in a Nepalese School

Focus on the excerpts from Malaysias Ninth Plan (20062010) and

1. What do you think is meant by each of the following?

2. Find examples of situations in Malaysia where these four assertions

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3.4 EDUCATIONAL POLICY

The following statements are related to education policy in two countries:

Indias commitment to the spread of knowledge and freedom of thought

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Table 3.2: The Education Profile of Scheduled Castes (SC),

Source: Business Line, Tuesday, May 16, 2006

The bilingual policy is a fundamental feature of the Singapore education

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1. The information in the above section tells us that both Singapore

2. Read the excerpt below on policies related to ICT in education in

The concept of ICT in education, as seen by the Ministry of

(c) The third policy emphasises using ICT to increase

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3.5 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

It is important to remember that statements reflecting educational goals are often

Figure 3.5: The goal and the objective stated