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I I k Sill-RA I 'MAL. SRINIVASNAGAR 0' 0)

2001-2m4
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ABSTARCT

Slope stability analysis is performed in order to assess the safe and functional
design of an excavated slope (e.g. open pit mining, road cuts, etc), and/or the equilibrium
conditions of a natural slope. The analysis technique chosen depends on both site
conditions and the potential mode of failure, with careful considerations being given to the
varying strengths, weakness and limitations inherent in each methodology.

This project presents a review of numerical techniques used in rock slope stability
analysis emphasizing numerical modeling, including a self-developed software package for
the analysis of the slope. This software package is developed to analyze and interpret the
slope with options for suggesting the safety measures based on the nature of the s lope. it
will consider Slip Circle Technique and Tension Crack Technique for analysis. The slope
profile for different factor of safety (FOS) values will be displayed in a pictorial view for
common man understanding. If the FOS is not enough, it will give the suggestive measure.
In case of temporary slopes the only way by which the slope failure can be prevented is by
reducing the slope angle and in such cases it gives the additional volume of material to be
excavated and the additional cost likely to incur from it for various reduced slope angle
also for permanent slopes, option is provided for designing the soil nails (i.e. no. of bolts
required, length, diameter and spacing of the bolt required). Then, at the end the software is
compared with comprehensive commercial software package from Canada (i.e." SLIDE")
and it was found that it is giving very satisfactory results; the variation in terms of FOS
safety is with in 10 per cent.
 1. INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of rock slope analysis in most engineering applications is to

provide with safe and economic design of slopes that can prevent failure for a longer
period.

Slope stability proved to play a major role in planning and design ofopen cast mines.
In order to reduce to a minimum amount of waste rock, which has to be excavated in
recovering an ore body, the ultimate slopes of the mine are generally cut to the steepest
possible angle. Since the economic benefits gained in this .vay can be negate by a major
slope failure, evaluating the stability of the ultimate slopes is an important part of open pit
mine planning.

On the other hand, to provide with safe %%.orking condition if the slope angle is
reduced to an extent greater than that required to stabilize the slope, it leads to excessive
removal of overburden and create complexities in fixation of overall pit limit during
planning stage. hi general, it is established that an error of one degree in selection of poper
slope angle leads to change in volume ofoverburden by four percent.

Keeping these two points in view (i.e. both safety and economy), an optimum slope
angle is to be selected. For this purpose a prior stability analysis of the slope has to be
carried out by considering all the influential parameters. Also stability analysis is routinely
performed in order to assess the safe and functional desigi of excavated slope (e.g. Onen
pit mining, road cuts etc.).

In this project some of the well-known techniques have been made use of to develop
a softNare package for the analysis of circular and plane failure. The report is divided into
3 chapters. Introduction is the first :hapter. The second chapter contains literature revi,:w in
which review of all the failure modes, causes of failure; different modeling techniques and
software packages available for the slope stability analysis are discussed. In the third
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 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is divided further into following categories

I . Types of failure

2 . C a u se s o f fa i l u r e
3 . Slope stability techniques
4 . Software packages for slope stability analysis

2.1 Types of Slope Failures

1. Plane failure.
2. Wedge failure
3. Circular failure.
4. Toppling failure.

2.1.1 Plane failure:

Plane failure occurs when a geological discontinuity such as bedding plane strikes
parallel to the slope face end sips into the excavation at an angle greater than the angle of

Friction (Fig.2.1)

FIG.2.1.PLANE FAILURE
 2.1.2 Wedge failure:
When two discontinuities strike obliquely across elope face and this line of
intersection daylights in the slope face, the wedge of rock resting on these discontinuities
slide down the line of intersection provided that the inclination of this line is significantly
greater than the angle of friction (Fig.2.2)

FIG.2.2 WEDGE FAILURE

2.1.3 Circular failure:

When the material is very weak as in a soil slope, or when the rock mass is very
heavily jointed or broken in waste dump rock, the failure will be defined by a single
discontinuity surface but will tend to follow a circular path. (Fig.2.3)
 FIG.3.CIRCULAR FAILURE
4. Toppling failure:

Toppling. failures of slopes have been observed in a wide range of rock masses and
can occur in both natural and excavated slips. Four principle types of toppling failures,
namely: block, flexural, block flexural and secondary toppling arc recognized.

Flexural toppling is a mode of failure involving the bending of interacting rock

column formed by a single set of steep dipping discontinuities such as regular bedding
planes foliation's or joints. Such a discontinuity system produces a rock mass composed of
a stack of rock columns, wilich can be visualized as an array of interacting cantilever
beams fixed at a certain depth and free to bend into excavation.

In such cases, the rock column bend forward under their own weight and transfer
load to the underlying column, this giving rise to tensile and compressive bending stress.
Failure of initiated where the tensile bending stress in the column under the tensile strength
of the rock (Fig.2.4)

5
 FIG.4. TOPPLING FAILURE.

2.2 Causes of Slope Failures:

2.2. 1. Geological factors.

a. Hydrological features: The hydration and dehydration connected with wetting of

walls and slopes lead to decrease the frictional resistances which hold the particulate
material in equation and as a mechanical strength of strata are reduced drastically. Further
some particular type of stratum when come in contact of water their propert ies get changed
due to action of water and consequently disintegration of stratum takes place.

b. Lack of dehydration: Lack of dehydration leads to rise in the hydrostatic gradient and
causes washouts, falls, break-off and saturation of pit wall strata. In extreme cases, this
type of saturation helps in reducing the mechanical strength of the strata and leading to
failure or collapse.
c. Structural disturbances. Presence of extensive structural discontinuities like faults,
joints etc. help for accelerated failure.

6
 2.2.2 Rock properties:
a. Cohesion.
h. Friction angle.
c. Porosity
d. Compressive and tensile strength.
e. Elasticity.
II Porosity.
g. Hardness.

2.2.3. Drilling and blasting: Fine cracks are produced after blasting due to back break,
which sometimes reduces the strength of the strata close to the face edges by 20 to 30
percent and thus helps for slope instability in unconsolidated or soft strata. Similarly cracks
are also developed due to drilling of large diameter vertical holes near the face and hence
cause slope failure in soft strata.

2.2.4. Seismic effect: The sandy strata and some soft strata get crushed and acquire fluid
condition by seismic effect. This condition when created in pit walls and benches
accelerates the slope instability.

2.2.5. Excavation techniques uied: In highly mechanized mines, deploying heavy

machineries like BWE, Dragline etc the chances of slope failure is more.

2.2.6. Height of bench:

If the height of the bench exceeds a certain value (that is critical height) stability is
reduced.

2.2.7. Depth of working pit:

When the depth of the working pit exceeds the critical level, the strength of the wall,
forces of cohesion and the coefficient of friction etc are reduced drastically and cause
failure.

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 TABLE.1. SOLI AND ROCK PROPERTIES
DESCRIPTION Unit weight Friction Cohesio
Type Material (IcN/m3) angle n kPa
Loose 19/14
sand, cal uniform 28-34
grain size Dense sand, 21/17
ai
32-40
uniform grain size
Cohesionless

co

C5
Gravel 22/20 34-37
Uniform grain size. 19/17 45-48
Chalk 13/10 30-40
Granite 21/17 45-50
Limestone 19/16 35-40
Sand stone 17/13 35-45
Shale 20/16 30-35

Soft bentonite 13/6 7-13 10-20

Very soft organic clay 14/6 12-16 10-30
Soft, slightly organic clay 16/10 22-27 20-50
Soft glacial clay 17/12 27-32 30-70
Stiff glacial clay 20/17 30-32 70-150

.a)
Hard igneous rocks- graphite 35000-
0 25 to 30 35-45
U basalt, porphyry 50000
30-40
Metamorphic rock- 28 to 28 20000-
C.)
0 quartzite,gneiss,slate 40000
23 to 28 35-45 10000-
hard sedimentary rocks-
limestone,sandstone,dolamite 30000
 2.3 SLOPE STABILITY TECHNIQUES

The different slope stability analysis techniques are:

. Conventional methods

2. Physical modeling.
3. Numerical modeling.

2.3.1. Conventional methods:

a. Limit equilibrium.
b. Rock fall simulation.

a. Limit Equilibrium:
Limiting equilibrium techniques share a common approach based on comparison of
resisting forces/moments mobilized and the disturbing forces/moments. Methods vary
however, in the assumptions adopted in order to achieve determinate solutions. Graphical
analysis using stereo net techniques can also be carried out using block theory tech niques
to assess critical key blocks. The stability of such key blocks can then be assessed using
limit equilibrium'methods.

b. Rock fall simulation:

Rock fall simulators, another conventional form of analysis, include tools used to
assess hazards of individual falling blocks. Programs such as ROCFALL analyze the
trajectory of falling blocks based on changes in velocity as rock blocks roll and bounce
over a given slope geometry. Other factors solved for include block velocity; bounce height
and endpoint distance, which can be analyzed statistically over a repeated number of
simulations to aid in a risk assessment. Rock fall simulators can also assist in determining
remedial measures by calculating the effectiveness and kinetic energy of impact on
barriers. Similar developments that deal wit!) failed rock blocks and rapid slides include
Hungr's DAN code, which proposes a dynamic analysis tool suited for the prediction of
flow and run out behaviors.
 2.3.2 Physical Modeling:
These are the true models and are the best available means of studying
progressive fitilure of slopes in open pit mines. In this study design aspects of slope, first a
bench is created with almost true field conditions to correlate rock properties, then the
model is subjected to different load condition and studied.

2.3.3. Numerical methods of slope analysis:

Many rock slope stability problems involve complexities relating to geometry,
material anisotropy, non-linear behaviour, in situ stresses and the presence of several
coupled processes (e.g. pore pressures, seismic loading, etc.). Advances in computing
power and the availability of relatively inexpensive commercial numerical modeling codes
means that the simulation of potential rock slope failure mechanisms could, and in many
cases should, form a standard component ola rock slope investigation. Numerical methods
olanalysis used for rock slope stability may be conveniently divided into three approaches:

a. Continuum modeling (finite element, finite difference methods).

b. Discontinuum models (e.g. discrete element, difference element).
c. Hybrid/coupk..d method.
d. Tension crack technique
e. Slip circle technique.

a. Continuum modeling:
Continuum modeling is best suited for the analysis of slopes that are comprised of
massive, intact rock, weak rocks, and soil-like or heavily fractured rock masses. The
continuum approaches used in rock slope stability include the finite-difference arid finite-
element methods. The salient advantages and limitations have found widespread use in
rock slope analysis.

Allows for material deformation and failure, can model complex behaviors and
mechanisms, capability of 3-D modeling, can model effects of ground water and pore
pressures. Also it is able to assess effects of parameter variations on instability. Recent
 advances in computing hardware allow 'complex models to be solved on PC's with
reasonable run times,

b. Discontinuum modelling:
Allows for block deformation and movement of blocks relative to each other, can
model complex behaviors and mechanisms (combined material and discontinuity behaviors
coupled with hydro-mechanical and dynamic analysis). Also it is able to assess effects of
parameter variations on instability.

c. Hybrid method:
Hybrid approaches are increasingly being adopted in rock slope analysis. This may
include combined analyses using limit equilibrium stability analysis and finite-element
groundwater flow and stress analysis such as adopted in the GEO-SLOPE suite of software.
Hybrid numerical models have been used for a considerable time in underground rock
engineering including coupled boundary-/finite-element and coupled boundary-/distinct-
element solutions. Recent advances include coupled particle flow and finite-difference
analyses using FLAC3D and PFC3D. These hybrid techniques already show significant
potential in the Investigation of such phenomena as piping slope failures, and the influence
of high groundwater pressures on the failure of weak rock slopes. Coupled finite-/distinct-
element codes are now available which incorporate adaptive re meshing. These methods
use a finite-element mesh to represent either the rock slope or joint bounded block. This is
coupled with a discrete -element model able to model deformation involving joints. If the
stresses within the rock slope exceed the failure criteria within the finite-element model a
crack is initiated. Re meshing allows the propagation of the cracks through the finite-
element mesh to be simulated. Hybrid codes with adaptive re meshing routines, such as
ELFEN, have been successfully applied to the simulation of intense fracturing associated
with surface mine blasting, mineral grinding, retaining wall failure and underground rock
caving. The authors are currently exploring the use of this code in the modelling of varied
rock slope failure processes.

Coupled finite-element / distinct element models able to simulate intact fracture

 propagation and fragmentatior of jointed and bedded media.

d. Slip circle technique:

Assuming the failure to occur along a rotational arc of sliding The center 'o', the length of
sliding arc is located as the worst possible case for the Given bank geometry.
The radius of arc is r and the length of the sliding surface 1, the depth of plane of
weakness along which failure occurs is h. We represent the bank weight by two
components W1 and W2 each acting at a lower arm (1 1&12) and creating a moment (Will
and w212). The two act in opposite directions, will, being an overturning moment and w212,
resisting moment. In addition there is another resisting moment, the shear strength(s),
acting along the length ofthe sliding (1) at a lower arm (r).
Summing the moments enables us to determine if the bank is stable.
Will < = W2 * 11 S * L *r,
F.O.S = (WI * + s * L * r) / (W I *11 ).
Numerically values of W1 and W: are determined most easily by measuring the areas and
converting them to weights per unit of bank width by multiplying the soil unit weight.
Lever arms II and 12 can be approximated by geometric construction or by cutting out
cardboard. Replicas of each bank component W 1 and W2 and locating their centroids by
suspending them freely on a pin. Location of worst-case rotational center 'o' is better
pursued by computer graphics, which can likewise be used to determine the weight and
lever arm as well. (Fig.5)
 0, center of
r , radius -otation

Base Failure

L, !ength of sliding
arc

s, shear
strength

Plane of weakness.
FIG.5. SLIPA CIRCLE TECHNIQUE.

e. Tension crack technique:

Consider the case of the block resting on the inclined plane, but, in this instance,
assume that the block is split by tension crack, which is filled with water. The water
pressure in the tension crack increases lineally with depth and a total force due to this water
pressure on the rear face of the block. Assuming the water pressure is transmitted across
the intersection of the crack and the base of the block. This water pressure distribution
causes an uplift force U, which reduces the normal force acting across the surface.(Fig.6)