Diving in High-Risk Environments

Chapter 4
Surface-Supplied Diving Equipment

Surface-supplied diving is the preferred method for contaminated water diving

operations. In the surface-supplied mode, the divers air supply is pumped through a
hose from the surface. Other hoses and cables may be attached to the breathing air hose,
including (but not limited to) a communications wire, a depth sensing hose (known as a
pneumofathometer), a closed-circuit television cable, and a strength member. This bundle
of hoses and cables may be referred to as the divers umbilical, the divers hose, or the
divers tether. These terms are used interchangeably. Where I refer to a specific hose, such
as a breathing air hose, which is part of the divers umbilical, I will identify it as such.
Many scuba divers have the false perception that diving with surface-supplied
equipment is more dangerous than using scuba. This is not true! Commercial diving,
where the surface-supplied mode is used almost exclusively, is definitely more dangerous
than sport scuba diving, search and rescue diving, and scientific diving. However, the
danger has nothing to do with the diving equipment, but relates directly to the diving
conditions, depths, and heavy construction work involved. Surface-supplied diving in
itself is much safer than diving with scuba gear.
For the working diver, surface-supplied diving has many advantages over scuba gear.
These include:

Unlimited air supply

In the surface-supplied mode, you can stay underwater for an indefinite period (subject
to decompression limitations, of course). As a scuba diver, you must return to the surface
when the limited air supply in your tank is gone. If you have an unexpected decompression
obligation while on scuba you can be in very serious trouble if your air supply is gone.

Redundant air supply

In the rare event the topside air supply should fail, the wise surface-supplied diver
always carries an emergency air supply (bail-out bottle) which is directly connected to the
breathing system.
The surface-supplied diver has an additional air hose, known as the pneumo hose,
which is normally attached to the umbilical. This hose can be used in a non-contaminated
water diving situation as another air source (see Chapter 6).

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Diving in High-Risk Environments
Conversely, if you are using a full-face
mask on scuba and have not rigged a special
bail-out supply, with most masks, there is
no way to breathe without removing your
mask to access your buddys air supply,
a Spare Air or similar system. While
removing your mask is obviously not a
good idea in a contaminated water diving
situation, if you've got to breathe, you may
not have a choice.
Accurate control of depth and time
When you are working underwater
on scuba, it is very easy to forget to look
at your submersible pressure gauge, depth
gauge, watch, or dive computer. In the
surface-supplied mode, all these functions
are monitored continuously on the surface
by the dive supervisor.

Built in search/safety line

In a contaminated water diving
operation, you should always use some type
of safety line if you are limited to using
scuba. In the surface-supplied mode, the
divers umbilical is the search/safety line.
Communications
Communications greatly increase a divers
safety and are essential for contaminated
water diving operations. While wireless
systems are much more reliable than they
used to be, hard-wire communications
are still the most reliable and provide the
highest level of intelligibility.
Head protection
All surface-supplied diving helmets
incorporate a hard fiberglass or metal shell
which provides superior head protection
when working around docks, bridges,
shipwrecks, and similar environments.
Helmet/suit interface
All surface-supplied diving helmets can
be mated directly to a dry suit to totally
encapsulate and keep the diver isolated from
The author, Steve Barsky, worked as a com-
mercial diver in the North Sea using surface-
supplied gear exclusively.
the environment. This is the preferred mode
for diving under ice or in contaminated
water. When the helmet is locked onto the
suit in this manner, it is almost impossible
to accidentally dislodge.
Efficiency
Most underwater tasks can be
accomplished easily by a single person.
In surface-supplied diving, a single diver
can operate efficiently due to the number
of backup systems employed and the use
of communications. This is a far more
productive use of manpower.
Decision making
A diver who is at depth and suffering
from nitrogen narcosis may not always make
the best decisions regarding an underwater
operation. However, in surface-supplied
diving, with direction and feedback from
topside, the same diver has a better chance
of completing the job safely and effectively.

90

Admittedly, there are some disadvan-
tages to surface-supplied diving compared
with scuba. These include:
Expense
Surface-supplied diving systems are more
expensive than scuba systems.
Amount of equipment
Although some surface-supplied diving
systems can fit in the trunk of a car or
operate from an inflatable boat, there is still
more gear involved than in scuba diving.
Diving in High-Risk Environments
a free swimming diver would be more
versatile and could get more work done
than the same diver equipped with a
copper heavy gear helmet and lead boots.
They began development of a series of
swimmable lightweight fiberglass masks
and helmets which are the basis for all
of the diving helmets available today.
Although most divers consider the diving
helmet the central part of the system, other
components are equally essential to conduct
a surface-supplied dive.

Training
Diving with surface-supplied diving gear
requires additional initial and monthly
training to maintain familiarity with
the system. There are also fewer training
facilities qualified to teach surface-supplied
diving.

Despite these disadvantages, if you must

dive deep, under the ice, in a potable water
system, or in contaminated water, there is
no substitute for a good surface-supplied
diving system.

Evolution of Surface-Supplied
Diving Gear
The surface-supplied diving gear
available today is similar in many ways to
the first commercial equipment developed All diving helmets today evolved from early
in the late 1800s. From the 1800s to the designs like this U.S. Navy helmet.
late 1950s, helmets were made of copper or
bronze.
In the early 1960s, two inventors, Bob
Kirby and Bev Morgan, began designing
their own diving helmets. Kirby was a
former Navy and abalone diver. Morgan
had been a lifeguard, surfer, commercial
abalone diver, and commercial oilfield diver.
Morgan also developed the first organized
public scuba instruction program in the
United States, the Los Angeles County
Underwater Instructors program.
Kirby and Morgan recognized that
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Diving in High-Risk Environments
Components of the
Surface-Supplied Diving System
Every surface-supplied diving system
must include the following minimum
components:
Compressed air supply
The compressed air supply can either be a
low-pressure compressor or a series of high-
pressure bottles.
Divers air manifold box
Some type of control system is required
to monitor the air pressure to the diver,
to regulate high-pressure air at the correct
pressure for the breathing system, and to
provide a connection for a topside backup
supply. The pneumofathometer for checking
the divers depth is usually incorporated
in this box. The manifold also provides a
method for switching from one gas supply
to another.
umbilical which is light weight.
If a high-pressure umbilical is used,
there must be two first stages at the diver.
One first stage is used to reduce the pressure
supplied from the surface. The additional
first stage is used to reduce the pressure in
the bail-out system worn by the diver.
Divers helmet/mask
The helmet (or mask) provides breathing
air and a cavity into which the diver can
speak.
Bail-out system
Every diver should be equipped with an
independent air supply, carried on his back,
to provide emergency breathing air.
Compressed Air Supply
Compressed air for surface-supplied
diving may come from either a low-pressure
or high-pressure supply. Most commercial

Topside communication box

The topside communications box
provides the power and amplification for
communications between topside and the
diver. The communications box may be a
stand-alone unit or may be built directly
into the divers air manifold box.
Divers umbilical
The umbilical includes the divers
breathing hose, communication wire,
and pneumofathometer hose. It may also
include a strength member of polypropylene
line. These components may be fastened
together with plastic fasteners, at a distance
of every 8-12 inches.
Twisted umbilicals that are assembled
without tape are also available that
are excellent for diving in biologically
contaminated water.
High-pressure surface-supplied diving
systems may use only a high-pressure hose Some surface-supplied diving systems are
and depend on a wireless communications designed to solely use a high-pressure supply of
system. This provides a very low-profile air and supply high-pressure to the diver.

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 Diving in High-Risk Environments

Full-face mask
High-pressure manifold

High-pressure gas supply

Emergency
gas supply

First stage regulator

(behind diver's hand, High-pressure
see photo below) umbilical

This diver is using a high-pressure surface-supplied diving system. The main gas supply is from
the two high-pressure cylinders resting on the deck. The gas then feeds to the high-pressure
manifold and from there to the umbilical. The diver wears a small manifold block on his
buoyancy compensator. This block is where the first stage regulator reduces the pressure from
the topside supply, and also allows the diver to select his bail-out cylinders (4500 p.s.i.) as the
emergency gas supply. Communications for this system are wireless rather than hard wired.

Pressure gauge

Bail-out
cylinders With a high-pressure surface-supplied
diving umbilical, the pressure from
the surface must be reduced at the
regulator on the manifold worn by the
Manifold diver. Note the hose connected from
the surface at the diver's right, which
connects to the manifold, tying together
the bail-out cylinder and the full-face
mask. The diver can turn on the reserve
Regulator cylinders at the manifold block.

H.P.
umbilical

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Diving in High-Risk Environments
diving operations use a low-pressure
gasoline or diesel-driven compressor to
supply breathing air for their divers. These
compressors are very reliable and will
run for many hours with a minimum of
maintenance. Unfortunately, they produce
fumes and are extremely heavy, bulky,
expensive, and loud.
For the majority of public safety and
scientific diving operations, a high-pressure
compressed air source is a better alternative.
This can take the form of either large high-
pressure cylinders or ordinary scuba bottles.
Whichever type of cylinders are used, they
are generally filled at a remote station (such
as a dive shop) and transported to the dive
site. In formulating your dive plan, you must
ensure that you have a sufficient quantity
of high-pressure air on hand to complete
the diving operation, and enough extra on
hand to cover unforeseen emergencies.
Low-pressure compressors like this are used for
commercial diving operations.

High-pressure bottled air has a decided advantage during contaminated water diving
operations, particularly if the hazards are chemical and fumes are present. High-pressure
compressed air that has been bottled off site will generally be free of all contaminants. The
use of a low-pressure compressor on-site presents the distinct possibility that noxious fumes
will be sucked into the divers air supply.
Some types of diving helmets operate in the free-flow mode only, in which a constant
stream of air flows through the helmet and diving suit. If you use this type of diving helmet
you must use a very large, low-pressure diesel-driven compressor to supply a sufficient
volume of air, or have an extremely large supply of bottled compressed air on hand.
For most professional diving, a diving helmet that operates in the demand mode is
preferred. This type of helmet must have a low-pressure gas supply and a high-performance
second stage regulator mounted on the helmet.

The Divers Air Manifold Box: Surface-Supplied Diving

The divers air manifold box includes a number of valves and gauges to control the air
supply to the diver. These boxes will generally accept air from one or more high-pressure
sources and a low-pressure source at the same time. At any given time, however, the diver
will only be breathing off one of the sources.
If a high-pressure supply is used, the box must include a valve to permit the operator/dive
supervisor to change out high-pressure bottles as each cylinder is drained. A high-pressure
regulator is also required somewhere in the system to break down the high pressure from
the source to an intermediate pressure acceptable for satisfactory operation of the second

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 Diving in High-Risk Environments
H.P. cylinder
KMDSI. All rights reserved.

connection
Communications box

Diver #2 pneumo-
fathometer gauge

Diver #1 pneumo-
fathometer gauge
Diver #1 umbilical
connection

Diver #2 umbilical
connection

Diver #2
Pneumo hose
connection

Umbilical pressure H.P. supply L.P. air supply

H.P. cylinder
control knob pressure gauge connection
selection valve

Layout of a typical diver's air manifold box. This system will accept both high-pressure and
low-pressure air supplies, but only supplies low-pressure air to the diver.

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Diving in High-Risk Environments

Mask and manifold illustrations KMDSI. All rights reserved.

Air
Surface-Supplied Air System Manifold
Box Yanmar

Remote Tape Diver Select Crosstalk

Speaker Out
eaker Push to
Sp Talk Switch
Diver 1 Diver 2
On/Off
Volume
Diver Diver
Headset Earphone Earphone
Headset Earphone
Mic Jack Jack
Charging Port Power Indicator
Diver Mic Diver Mic
Jacks Jacks

1999 S. Barsky

Communications
box
Low pressure
compressor;
including volume
High-pressure supply
tank and filtration

Full-face mask

Umbilical

Bail-out bottle &

harness

Diagram of a typical surface-supplied system. Note that this system can use either low-pressure
or high-pressure air, but the air pressure sent to the diver is always low-pressure.
stage regulator on the diving helmet (if so equipped). Usually this pressure will be at least
115 p.s.i. over the bottom pressure at the divers depth. The regulator will be manually
adjusted by the dive supervisor/manifold box operator.
A gauge connected to the low-pressure side of the box gives an exact reading of the
air pressure as it is reduced by the regulator. Think of the high-pressure regulator in the
manifold box as equivalent to a first stage scuba regulator, the divers umbilical as the
hose coming from the first stage, and the regulator on the helmet performing like a scuba
second stage regulator.

Pneumofathometer System
The pneumofathometer system, or pneumo, is usually contained in the divers air
manifold box. It uses a small volume of the low-pressure air to measure the divers depth.
The system includes a valve that is connected to a gauge by a T fitting. The other end
of the T fitting connects to the pneumofathometer hose, which is part of the divers
umbilical. The divers end of the pneumo hose is open.
By opening the valve for the pneumofathometer system, the dive supervisor/manifold
operator flows air through the gauge and down the hose, since air pressure in the hose is
the same as the pressure from the divers regulator. When the air bubbles out the end of the
hose the diver will usually notice and tell topside that he has bubbles. Once the valve is
closed, the air pressure trapped in the hose will read out on the gauge and give a constant

96
 Diving in High-Risk Environments
reading of the divers depth. When moving Compressor or other air supply
deeper, the diver must inform the topside
crew and a new pneumo reading must be
taken. At the end of the dive, as the diver Yanmar

ascends, the air will expand in the hose,

bubble out the end, and automatically track
the diver moving toward the surface.
Pneumofathometer systems are very
simple, but quite accurate. The gauges Depth gauge
usually are accurate to within 1/4 of 1
100

50 150

percent of the full scale of the gauge. 0

Accuracy to 1/10th
of 1% of scale 200

Needle valve controls air flow

Topside
Left photos KMDSI. All rights reserved.

Underwater

Pneumofathometer hose

Air bubbles out of the

end of the hose

Schematic of a typical pneumofathometer

system.

Diver's manifolds are available in many dif-

ferent configurations. These models all accept
both low-pressure and high-pressure air.
Right column photo Amron International. All right reserved.

97
Diving in High-Risk Environments
If the diver is using a high-pressure surface-supplied system there may be no pneumo
hose and the diver must rely upon a dive computer. In this situation, the diver should
always carry a back-up dive computer.

Topside Communications Box

The hard-wire communications boxes used with surface-supplied air are identical to
those described in Chapter 3. The system may be of either two-wire or four-wire design.
Wireless communications are less commonly (but occasionally) used when diving with
surface-supplied equipment, since the diver is always connected by an umbilical to
topside.

Divers Umbilical
Divers umbilicals can be delivered in any length your dive team may need, but as
the hose grows longer it becomes more expensive, requires more deck space, and is much
heavier. Beyond the basic fittings on the hose, you pay for diving hose by the foot.
The minimum length umbilical for practical operation is probably 250 feet, although
commercial diving companies use hoses 600 feet long or longer. The length of your diving
hose is determined by identifying your maximum diving depth and your distance to the
divers work site from the divers air manifold box. In a contaminated water diving operation,
the divers air manifold may be located quite a distance from the water, requiring many feet
of hose to be laid out topside and unavailable to the diver.
The most critical element in your selection of a diving umbilical is the type of hose
for the divers air supply. The breathing hose is usually the single heaviest component of
the umbilical. Another important consideration is the change in length of the hose when
pressurized (some hoses get longer). This should be minimal.
Hoses are typically specified by their inside diameter (I.D.), their rated pressure, and
their operating temperature range. The internal diameter determines the volume of air that
will flow through the hose. It must be large enough to supply you with air at the maximum
depth you will be diving without leaving you starved for something to breathe. To provide
an adequate volume of air to a hard working diver at depth will usually mean a 3/8-inch
hose must be used. The rated pressure of the hose should be at least 50 percent higher than
the maximum pressure your regulator will require at your maximum diving depth.
Oil resistance is another important consideration for any hose that will need to be used
around running machinery. The hose should not kink shut when twisted to its minimum
bend radius. In particular, any hose used for breathing purposes must not contain, or off-
gas, any material which could be toxic.
In the past, the commercial divers hose of choice has typically been a Gates hose,
3/8-inch I.D., with the designation C3 or 33HB. The industry specification for this hose
is the Society of Automotive Engineers 100 R3 (SAE 100 R3). This is a very heavy, bulky,
sinking rubber coated hose which can be difficult for the novice surface-supplied diver
to use. Since the hose is negatively buoyant, it lays on the bottom and the diver must be
constantly aware of obstacles which could cause the hose to entangle. (See Appendix C for
chemical compatibility testing of hoses.)
Today there are several alternatives to sinking hose, including polyurethane hoses.
Some of the new hoses are much lighter and actually float. Floating umbilicals are much
easier for the novice diver to use since the hose usually will be suspended directly above

98
 Diving in High-Risk Environments
Photo courtesy of Hunter Diving

Note the twisted umbil-

ical that is being used
by this diver. This type
of umbilical is excellent
for use in contaminated
water. It is not as-
sembled with tape and
the hose has excellent
chemical resistance.

the diver in an arc, provided there is sufficient umbilical length for the hose to lay on
the surface. If you are at the end of your umbilical at a fair distance from the divers air
manifold box, the hose will be stretched in a diagonal line through the water.
Floating hose can present a hazard if there is unexpected or uncontrolled boat traffic
through your diving area. Divers have died as a result of a propeller entangling or severing
a diving hose.
Floating hose is normally much lighter weight than sinking hose. While older versions
of floating hose did not usually have the same kink resistance or high operating pressures
as sinking hose, many newer hoses offer more satisfactory characteristics in these areas.
Twisted umbilicals are a good choice for working in biologically contaminated water.
No tape is used to assemble the umbilical which includes a breathing hose, communications
wire, and a pneumo hose. The hoses are made from polyurethane, which is a very rugged
material. Depending on the configuration, the hoses will float in salt water. Whatever hose
you choose must be approved for breathing air purposes.
The fittings on the divers breathing hose are normally brass and are reusable. Some
divers prefer oxygen fittings, which are specified as a 9/16-inch thread, 18 threads per inch.
The fittings seal with a metal-to-metal seat; no O-ring is required. The quill that helps lock
the fitting inside the hose must be appropriate for the internal diameter of your hose.

99
Diving in High-Risk Environments

J.I.C. fitting (left) and oxygen fittings

(right) are not interchangeable.

Other divers prefer to use J.I.C. fittings, which have a 37 degree flare to the metal-
to-metal seat where the male and female fittings join. J.I.C. fittings are specified in 16ths
of an inch. For example, a #6 J.I.C. fitting for a 3/8-inch internal diameter diving hose is
actually 6/16 (3/8) of an inch. Both types of fittings are designed to swivel on the hose for
attachment.
Your choice of fittings may be determined for you by what fittings are supplied as
standard with your divers air manifold. Whichever type of fittings you select, be sure to
have extras on hand and the tools required to attach them. Fittings do crack and need to
be replaced on occasion.
Oxygen fittings and J.I.C. fittings do not mate properly with each other to form an
airtight seal. Despite the fact that the threads are similar and a male oxygen fitting can
be joined to a female J.I.C. nut, they are not to be used together. Pipe threads (plumbing
fittings) that are tapered and require Teflon tape for assembly are also not acceptable for
joining the divers hose to the manifold or divers helmet.
If you are diving in chemically contaminated water, you will need to ensure that your
diving hose, and every other piece of equipment that goes in the water, is compatible with
the chemicals you will encounter.
Some dive teams have experimented with smaller diameter hoses for the divers
breathing air. While 1/4-inch I.D. hoses have been used for this purpose, they should
be employed with caution, particularly in longer length umbilicals (over 250 feet). If you
need to work very hard underwater, you could find yourself starved for air with a small
I.D. umbilical.

Air Supply Hose

Communications Wire
For surface-supplied diving with a
low-pressure system, the umbilical
will typically include an air supply
hose, communications wire, and a
pneumo hose. The umbilical may
be twisted or assembled with non-
absorbent waterproof tape.
Non-absorbent
waterproof tape
Pneumo Hose

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 Diving in High-Risk Environments
The pneumo hose is most commonly a
1/4-inch I.D. low-pressure, thermoplastic
hose. Synflex is the brand name of the hose
most commonly used, with a part number of
3600-04. Similar hoses will perform just as
well. The working pressure of pneumo hose
need be no higher than 250 p.s.i. Synflex
3600-04 is not compatible with aromatic
hydrocarbons, ketones, and chlorinated
solvents. A snap hook like this one is essential to con-
The topside end of the pneumo hose nect the diver's umbilical to his harness. By
should have a brass fitting attached to it using this device, you can avoid having a
to provide the connection to the pneumo direct pull on the diver's mask or helmet by
system. This fitting will normally be a #4 the tender.
J.I.C. fitting, either reusable or crimp-on.

The communications wire and connectors are as described in Chapter 3.

A strength member of polypropylene is a wise addition to the divers umbilical. In the
event the diver becomes unconscious, it may be necessary to lift him from the water by the
umbilical hose. Adding a strength member of polypropylene also increases the buoyancy
of the umbilical for those teams who desire a floating hose.
Approximately four feet from the divers end of the hose there should be a stainless
steel ring attached to the umbilical bundle. This ring provides an attachment point for the
divers hose to the divers harness. A stainless steel snap shackle on the left D ring of the
harness hooks into the ring on the divers hose.
The snap shackle may be attached to the divers hose with a special hose block. The
snap shackle then hooks into the D ring on the divers harness directly. Either location is
acceptable.
When the divers tender pulls on the divers hose, he will be pulling against the harness
and not directly on the hose attachment to the mask (or helmet). If this shackle is not
installed, the tender could pull the divers mask off, if he is equipped with just a mask.

Full-Face Masks: Applications in Surface-Supplied Diving

Lightweight masks can very readily be used for surface-supplied diving. For safety, you
must also use an auxiliary bail-out block since neither mask is equipped to directly accept
a bail-out supply. The bail-out block serves as a junction point for the divers umbilical, the
bail-out supply, the low-pressure inflator hose for the dry suit, and the divers mask.
The lightweight masks are generally not recommended for diving in contaminated water
except where Level C protection is acceptable. This confines their use principally to waters
with only low-level biological contamination. For high levels of biological contamination,
or any chemical environment, it is much safer to use a helmet.

Manifold block for full-face mask diving

If you plan to use a light-weight full-face mask for surface supplied-diving, you will
need to use some type of manifold block to enable you to properly access your emergency
breathing gas or "bail-out" supply. Typically, this manifold block will be mounted on
101
Diving in High-Risk Environments
Emergency gas supply Umbilical hose connects here

KMDSI. All rights reserved.

connects here
Emergency gas supply
control knob
Emergency gas supply
valve body

This bail-out block is designed

to be used with a full-face
mask for surface-supplied
diving.

Mounting
plate
Low-pressure
port

your diving harness. The bail-out block is designed to be a connection point for the diver's
umbilical, dry suit inflator hose, and supply hose for the full-face mask.

Diving Helmets Provide the Most Protection in

Contaminated Water Diving
Many commercial diving companies use free-flow diving helmets for contaminated
water diving operations. Their rationale for this is that a free-flow helmet will keep any
contaminants from entering the helmet. These types of helmets require greater skill to
use, particularly when used in conjunction with a dry suit, since the helmet is open to
the interior of the suit. Varying the flow of air in and out of the helmet controls your
buoyancy since this changes the volume of the suit as well. This type of gear is much more
complicated to use than a helmet equipped with a demand regulator, which is the principal
subject of this book. It is also more expensive and requires more logistical support.
Demand diving helmets, i.e., those which incorporate a demand regulator, are preferred
by some commercial diving companies, public safety divers, and scientific dive teams using
high-pressure bottled air as their compressed air source. These helmets enable the dive
team to economize their air supply and are much simpler to learn to use than a free-flow
helmet when used with a dry suit. Although these helmets operate in the demand mode,
all of them include a free-flow valve to provide a continuous stream of air if desired.
Communications systems with any diving helmet are typically of better quality and
more reliable than with a full-face mask. This is because the communications components
in the helmet are always kept completely dry and the earphones are not transmitting sound
through a hood or water. Communications with a demand helmet are superior to those
with a free-flow helmet since the diver need not compete with the air flow in the helmet to
be heard. It is not uncommon for a diver in a free-flow helmet to shut off the air supply at
the helmet to hear or be heard.

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 Diving in High-Risk Environments
Handle Head
KMDSI. All rights reserved.

Face port
Rear weight cushion

Port
Helmet retainer
shell

Free-flow valve Equalizing device

knob
Emergency gas
supply valve
Regulator
adjustment knob

Non-return
valve

Sideblock

Demand regulator
Locking pin
Redundant exhaust system Features of a demand diving helmet.
whisker
The major disadvantage of a demand helmet in contaminated water diving is that every
time you inhale, you create a slight negative pressure inside the diving helmet. This can allow
water to leak into the helmet. Contaminants can also enter the helmet through the exhaust
valve unless it has been specially modified. To prevent any back-flow of contaminants into
the helmet, a redundant exhaust system must be used.
The redundant exhaust system most commonly used is a series of exhaust valves in
which two exhaust valves are placed in line with each other. Any contaminant that makes
it past the first exhaust valve will usually be stopped by the second one.
When you select a diving helmet, you should look for the following features:

Neutral buoyancy and balance

The helmet should be designed to be neutrally buoyant in the water. Helmets that are
negatively buoyant will cause neck strain. The helmet should be well balanced in the
water.

Non-return valve
The helmet must include a non-return valve in the breathing system. This prevents air from
rushing back out of the helmet if there is a break in the diving hose.

Emergency Gas Supply valve

The helmet must be equipped with a valve for the connection of a bail-out system for
emergency breathing air.

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Diving in High-Risk Environments

Photo by S. Barsky. KMDSI. All rights reserved.

Bottom end of a demand
diving helmet

Adjustable locking
Rear hinge collar

Head cushion

Helmet sealing surface

where neck dam and
suit yoke interface with Chin strap
helmet

Exhaust whisker

Defogger (Free-flow valve)

The helmet should be equipped with some means of directing air across the lens to defog
it underwater.
Shatter resistant faceplate
The lens should be made from a material such as Lexan to resist breakage.

Neck yoke assembly

The helmet should be equipped with a mechanism to prevent accidental removal.

Regulator Performance
The helmet should be able to provide sufficient air for heavy work loads with no carbon
dioxide build-up.

Equalizing device
The helmet should be equipped with some mechanism for equalizing air pressure in the
divers ears.

Communications quality
The helmet must provide excellent communications.

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 Diving in High-Risk Environments
KMDSI. All rights reserved.

Regulator
Mount Nut

Whisker
Clamp Port whisker
Water Dump
Valve Exhaust
valve

Tie wrap
Thrust
Washer
Helmet
Shell Exhaust
Main Body
Regulator body
Valve seat

Exhaust valve

Cover

Diaphragm
Starboard Whisker

Washer
Cover
Retaining Ring

Redundant exhaust systems like the one used in this helmet help to prevent a back-flow of
contaminants into the breathing system.
Rugged exterior shell
The shell of the helmet must be made from a rugged material to withstand physical impact
and chemicals. Fiberglass and stainless steel are two very popular materials used to build
diving helmets.

Redundant exhaust system

Every diving helmet should be equipped with either a redundant exhaust system or a
"reclaim system" (see the latter part of this chapter).
A redundant exhaust system is particularly important for divers who are using a
demand diving helmet. When the diver exhales, there is always the possibility that some
contaminants will back-flow into the helmet during the very short time period when the
exhaust valve seals between exhalation and inhalation. By having a secondary exhaust
valve, this helps to prevent any contaminants from entering the breathing system.

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 Diving in High-Risk Environments
G200SS, Inc.
KMDSI. All rights reserved.

Diving helmets come in a variety of different styles,

finishes, and designs. The top two helmets here are
both made from stainless steel and are demand hel-
mets. The helmet on the lower right is made from
fiberglass and is a free-flow helmet.

Most diving helmets weigh about 30 pounds and

can be uncomfortable to wear out of the water, par-
ticularly if they are not well balanced. Underwater,
a helmet should have neutral or slightly negative
buoyancy.

Every Diver Needs a Bail-Out System

For surface-supplied diving with a demand helmet, a bail-out is
considered standard equipment. The bail-out system consists of the
following items:

Bail-out bottle
The bottle should be of a sufficient size to provide a minimum of
five minutes of breathing air at your maximum dive depth.

First stage regulator

A high-flow, high-performance scuba first stage regulator is mounted
on the valve of the bail-out bottle.

Divers harness
The harness serves as an attachment point for the divers hose and
bail-out bottle. In function, it is similar to a scuba backpack but is
The bail-out bottle size should be appropriate for your diving depth.
Bail-out bottles can't supply sufficient air for free-flow helmets.

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Every surface-supplied diver
must be equipped with some
type of harness.
This relief valve is designed
to vent the first stage bail-out
regulator to prevent the hose
from rupturing.
Dry suit hose restrictor.
Quick disconnect fittings.
Diving in High-Risk Environments
both more flexible and more rugged. The harness is also
equipped with an additional D ring to give the diver a
place to hang tools, lights, or other equipment.
Many public safety divers wear a buoyancy compensator
along with their divers harness. This is not a common
practice in the commercial diving field.
Relief valve
The bail-out bottle is normally left on at all times while the
diver is in the water, but the auxiliary (emergency) valve on
the helmet is turned off. To breathe the emergency air, the
diver opens the auxiliary valve on the helmet. This allows
the bail-out supply to flow into the breathing system.
If the bail-out regulator develops a first stage leak into
the low-pressure whip connecting it to the emergency valve,
pressure will build continuously as long as the emergency
valve is turned off. If this pressure is not relieved, the whip
will burst and the diver will lose the entire bail-out supply
almost instantly. In addition, the whip will swing about
wildly and could injure the diver.
A small relief valve is normally attached to one of the
low-pressure ports on the first stage regulator. This valve is
pre-set to bleed off high pressure before the whip ruptures.
The valve will reset itself once the pressure drops below its
adjustable relief point.
Bail-Out System and Helmet Accessories
Restrictor
This device screws into the sideblock on most diving
helmets and the dry suit inflator hose attaches here. In the
event of a dry suit inflator hose failure, the restrictor will
help to prevent the air supply from being rapidly depleted.
Most modern dry suit hoses have restrictors built into them
so you may not need this device on your system.
Submersible pressure gauge
A submersible pressure gauge should be connected to the
bail-out regulator so the diver can monitor the bail-out
supply.
Quick disconnect whip/low-pressure whip
A low-pressure whip with a quick disconnect fitting (similar
to a BC low-pressure hose connection) links the bailout
regulator to the emergency valve on the divers helmet.
The hose should have a locking sleeve to prevent accidental
disassembly. Quick disconnects make the system easier to
assemble and disassemble.
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Diving in High-Risk Environments
Mating Dry Suits
Mating dry suits are equipped with
special yokes to attach the diving helmet
directly to the suit to keep the diver
completely dry. The suits are basically the
same as the suits used with full-face masks or
scuba, but are almost always of the thickest
material available.
Dry suits used with helmets equipped
with demand regulators must include a
neck seal to isolate the suit from the helmet.
Without a neck seal, you would need to
breathe all of the air out of the suit before
the demand regulator would operate. Since
the helmet is separate from the suit, the
system must provide a means to inflate the
dry suit.
Helmets mate to dry suits with special yokes.
Each helmet requires its own style of yoke.
This is a free-flow helmet used by many com-
mercial divers for contaminated water dives.

Note the different shape and configuration of

each of the helmet yokes on the suits shown on
this page.
Hunter Diving

Heavy duty dry suits used for contaminated diving

are typically made from thick material. Note the
attached boots.

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 Diving in High-Risk Environments
Steel-toed boots
Commercial divers who work on the
bottom and don't do much swimming,
or those who work in particularly viscous
environments, sometimes prefer to wear
steel-toed boots rather than fins. The boots
provide better support and toe protection
from heavy objects.
Steel-toed boots help provide protection
from crushing injuries. Commercial divers
who use high-speed water blasters should
be equipped with "metatarsal guards"
which may extend further up the foot than
a normal steel-toed boot. More than one
commercial diver has punched a hole in
their foot while using a high pressure water
blaster.
G200SS, Inc.

Reclaim Systems
In deep diving, over 190 FSW, rather
than using air, commercial divers use
special mixtures of helium and oxygen or
heli-ox. Since helium is very expensive,
and logistically difficult to transport to
distant operations, divers searched for a
means to reuse the helium, which is not
metabolically consumed during respiration.
Reclaim systems were originally designed as
a method for conserving expensive helium-
Reclaim helmets completely isolate the diver's oxygen mixtures.
breathing system from the environment. A helium reclaim system operates very
much like a topside mounted rebreather.
When you exhale, instead of your exhalation venting to the water, a special hose connected
to the diving helmet carries the exhaust gas topside. On the surface, special pumps circulate
the gas through a scrubber that removes the carbon dioxide and adds fresh oxygen. The
mixture is then pumped back down to the diver. You may also hear these systems referred
to as push-pull systems and return-line systems.
Since most contaminated water diving operations take place in relatively shallow water,
if you use a reclaim system designed for shallow water, there is no need to reclaim the
breathing mixture, which would normally be ordinary air. However, special hardware is
needed on the helmet and topside to help prevent the possibility of the diver suffering from
a squeeze if the system accidentally vented to atmospheric pressure topside. This could
kill a diver.

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Diving in High-Risk Environments

Reclaimed gas is vented

Breathing Air Manifold to atmosphere

Inlet Reclaim System Inlet

Vacuum Pump Supply

Vacuum Pump Supply

Outlet Outlet

Vacuum Vacuum Pump Vacuum

Air Supply
Crossover

Vacuum Pump Vacuum Pump

1998 S. Barsky

Reclaim Helmet

Bail-Out
System

Reclaim systems provide the most protection for the diver's breathing apparatus from contami-
nated water. This system is designed for shallow water, where the "reclaim" hardware is not
designed to reuse the diver's exhaled gas. Instead, the "reclaim" hardware provides a system to
exhaust the gas to topside without subjecting the diver to a squeeze.

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 Diving in High-Risk Environments

Case History Diving in Mexico Citys Sewers

In Mexico City, there is a team of divers whose job it is to dive in the citys sewers
on a daily basis, to ensure that the sewers do not stop flowing. Four divers work each
day to unplug the pipes, repair pumps, and pull bodies, shopping carts, car parts, and
plastic bottles from the black waters.
Unlike most U.S. cities that have separate waste and storm water systems, Mexico
city has a single system that can fill to the bursting point during heavy summer rains.
This fact makes it essential that the sewer system must run freely at all times. In ad-
dition, with little environmental enforcement, factories and hospitals regularly dump
hazardous materials down the sewers.
Some of the items that the divers have recovered include half of a Volkswagen,
furniture, trees, mattresses, and the bodies of dogs, pigs, cows, and people.
Most human wastes that enter the system have not been properly treated. Of course,
this is an overhead environment where the diver must navigate long stretches of pipe
in zero visibility. There are over 6,000 miles of pipes and canals that the divers must
maintain.
The divers wear vulcanized rubber dry suits, attached dry gloves, and full-cover-
age surface-supplied diving helmets. Despite the dangerous nature of their work, they
have managed to do their jobs for many years with only minor injuries and eye infec-
tions, and one fatality. The divers are paid about $300.00 per month.

The sewers in Mexico City would overflow all the time if divers did not keep them clear.

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The dive supervisor should review the
dive plan with the other members of
the team prior to setting up any gear.