2 programs have been developed! ns. Digital comput is} one such program is deseribed making this analy Seetion 5. Lateral or whirling vibration of the shafting can result increased bending loads in the shafting. However, vce the shafting system is designed to avoid whirling tieals in the upper operating range, bending loads vm shaft, whirling vibration are not considered when signing the shafting. 3.6 Radial Loads. Radial loads in shafting are used by driving the propeller onto the shaft taper, rink-fitting sleeves on the shafting, and shrink-fitting nnovable flange couplings. ‘The radial compressive ‘esses resulting from these loads are normally of in- MARINE ENGINEERING significant magnitude and are not considered in determi ng the shait factor of safety. However, these Joads ean be of importance in that they give rise to fretting corrosion when coupled with bending loads and alternating torsional loads that cause minute relative movement of the mating surfaces. Fretting corrosion can be controlled by limiting the relative motion and by cold-rolling the mating shafting surface. Cold-rolling of shafting surfaces is diseussed in Section 4.5. Another consideration is that if the radial load is applied abruptly, a stress concentration ean oceur ‘Therefore, design’ details should be developed so as to minimize sudden changes in radial loads caused by shrink oF press fits. Section 4 Shafting Design 4.1. Shaft Materials. With the exception of naval ssels and merehant vessels of very high power, mild ‘cl is used for both inboard and outboard shafting. In e case of high-powered ships, the inboard shafting may made of high-strength stecl; however, high-strength cl is not recommended for outboard applications. seause of the seawater environment and fretting corro- 1m eonditions that exist at shaft sleeves and the pro- lier interface, the fatigue limit of high-strength steel not reliably greater than that of mild steel, nor is the durance limit in a fretting corrosion condition better an that of mild steel Considerations in the selection of shafting materials c: fatigue characteristics, weldability, the nil-ductility mperature, and the energy absorption capability. An ray of chemistry and physical property standards has .en established for marine shafting materials that pro- des a range from which shafting materials can be se~ sted. Chapter 22 contains more specific information garding shafting materials 4.2. Computation of Shaft Diameters. Shafting for erchant vessels is required to meet the minimum andards set by the classification society which classes @ vessel. Classifieation societies use rather simple rmulas to compute the minimum. shaft diameters nese formulas normally contain coefficients whieh are ranged from time to time in recognition of experience ‘advancements in technology. The American Bureau Shipping (ABS) line shaft diameter formula is of the lowing form [18] 6) here a minimum line shaft diameter, in. shaft, horsepower N = shaft rpm ¢ = constant for type of shaft EK. = constant relating to operating environment It may be noted that equation (6) neglects bending loads, alternating loads, and stress risers. Furthermore, it presupposes that the shaft will be a solid forging of mild steel and that no unusual eircumstanees exist However, despite the factors not. explicitly considered, equation (6) does provide sound basis for designing line shafts. This is because the predominant torsional shear stress is properly considered. The level of torsional shear stress corresponding to equation (6) ean be de- termined by observing that Shp 180 _ 520,900 ae ads By substituting equation (6) into equation (7) and setting K = 64, whieh is the case for oceangoing vessels (8) S.= @ Tf ¢ were specified as 0.95 (ax was the ence for « period before 1965), the corresponding allowable steady tor- sional shear stress would be 5849 psi; with a ¢ value of 0.875 (which was adopted in 1965), the corresponding torsional stress become: ‘When the allowable torsional shear stress of 7486 psi is compared with the material minimum tensile yield stress of 30,000 psi, itis seett that adequate margin is allowed for the seconds! influences which appear to be neglected. Only vessels to be navigated in ice require special consideration. ‘The stern tube shaft diameter required by ABS for merchant ships is directly proportional to the line shalt diameter. The propeller shaft. diameter is related to the line shaft diameter and the diameter of the propelle The ABS propeller shaft diameter formula is of the following formPROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS @ where T = minimum propeller shaft diameter ky = constant d = required line shaft diameter P = propeller diameter C = constant relating to propeller shaft environment Although the formula for the tailshaft diameter is simple, it docs recognize that bending stresses from propeller weight and off-center thrust exist and relates these important factors directly to the propeller diameter. It has been expressed by some designers that classifica tion rules for tailshafts are not adequate because the level of bending stross is not controlled [19, 20}. A designer should review his own design against the im- portant parameters and against his experience. Classi- fication rules should not be accepted without question, particularly for unusual designs since the formulas are set primarily by past experience In any ease, the propeller shaft is customarily manu- factured with a diameter approximately 3 percent larger (10 percent stronger) than the minimum classification requirements in order to provide an additional margin of safety as well as to make provisions for removing # small amount of surface metal in the event. the shafts become superficially damaged. Reference [21] reports on a service life comparison of 15 oversized shaits (74 percent. greater section modulus than required by ABS) with 15 shafts of normal size (11.5 percent greater section modulus). ‘The comparison showed that the mean expected service life of the over- sized shafts was less than the shafts of normal size. Al- though the statistical sample was small, the study clearly showed that propeller shaft problems are not necessarily solved by simply making the shaft larger. ‘The approach used to establish the size of naval shaft- ing is considerably different from that used with mer- chant shafting. ‘The procedure used to determine the size of naval shafting is delineated in reference [22]. As may be noted from the reference, an effort is made to assess all significant. shafting loads in each particular ase, although some loads are by necessity handled in an approximate manner. For example, in order to allow for the effects of off-center thrust and abnormal Joadings due to rough weather and the like, the propeller shaft bending stress due to the statie weight of the propeller is Multiplied by a factor of 3 for single-serew ships and 2 for multiple-screw ships. An additional difference between merehant and naval criteria of seceptance. In naval prac- areused. actors ofsafety are specified for all shafting and, in addition, a specific bending stress 'imit is specified for the propeller shaft. The reason for tie latter requirement is that fatigue tests run on models Of propeller shaft assemblies and crank pins [13] showed 'at bending stress levels in’ surface rolled (cold-rolled) 373 shafts in excess of 6000 psi would result in shaft cracks ‘Therefore, it is not prudent to design with normal operating bending stresses in excess of this stress level. Furthermore, the endurance limit of a propeller shaft assembly can be essentially independent of the fatigue limit of the material in air. If seawater contacts the steel shaft, no endurance limit exists and it is only a matter of time before cracks will occur followed by ultimate failure. 4.3 Bearing Locations. In the past, bearing loca- tions have been determined by eriteria such as “each shait span shall have two bearings” or by intuitive judg- ment. With these criteria, problems due to unloading of bearings, excessive rates of weardown, shaft whirling, and gearing misalignment were not rare. Problems were frequently related to the system having too many bearings. In order to better understand the optimum locations for bearings, designers began analyzing shafting as a continuous beam. However, the time required to analyze one shafting system configuration by hand cal culations precluded complete analyses. The develop- ment and general dissemination of digital computer programs, such as reference [23], made it feasible to routinely conduct in-depth studies to optimize shafting systems as well as diagnose recurring problem areas Factors to be considered in determining the number and location of shaft bearings are: Ship's fixed structure and arrangement. Equality of line shaft bearing reactions. Bearing unit loads and L/D ratios. Shafting flexibility. Lateral vibration natural frequencies (shaft whirl) Ship's fixed structure such as bullzheads and stanchions will usually require compromises in the shafting arrange- ment. Also maintenance and overhaul must be con- sidered before final bearing locations are set. From a cost and interchangeability standpoint, all line shaft bearings should be identieal. Therefore, the bearings should be spaced such that the bearing reactions are approximately equal. If this is done, the total num- ber of beatings in the run of shafting is set by the total shaft weight, permissible design unit load, and the acceptable L/D limits. ‘The number of line shaft. bear ings required to support a run of shafting can be tenta- tively determined as follows: R Ww PpD*LiD (10) where W = total weight of shafting to be supported (note that gear and stern tube bearings moy carry some line shaft weight) p = design bearing pressure (maximum permissible pressure less 5 to 10 psi to allow for varin- tions) based on projected area D = shaft diameter in way of journal (normal practice is to inerease the shaft diameter 3g-14 in. in way of bearings)74 MARINE ENGINEERING Table 6 Bearing Reaction Influence Numbers for Shafting Arrangement Shown in il of Vertical Displacement) (Pounds per Fwd After Slow. Slow- Fwd Spood Speed Line Line fear ar Shait Shaft 1 2 3 4 1 8530-1125 336 2 1125 1506 = 493 3 336 = 493, 250 4 =81 141 ~1i6 & 21 =30 35 8 “6 10 -15 % a -3 4 8 - 1 -1 8 7 = = = ates: ‘The numbers tabulatod above represent he efecto raising wiv |, the forward siow-speed gear bearing reaction increases 336 © shaft bearing increases 250 Ib, ete. L/D = bearing length/diameter ratio After tentatively selecting the number of bearings and acing them approximately equally, a detail analysis of e bearing loads under all normal operating conditions made. ‘The operating eonditions of primary impor- nee are the cold start-up condition, the hot operating ndition, and bearing weardown and misalignment nitions Involved in this analysis is the influence of ¢ shafting on the reduction gear bearing loads or diesel vgine bearing loads resulting from the thermal change the position of these bearings when going from the Id to the hot operating condition. Criteria for aligning ¢ propulsion unit to the shafting are developed on the sis of this analysis A parametric study of minimum line shaft bearing acing was carried out and reported in reference [24]. ne conclusion renehed was that for shafting arrange- ents having one or more line shaft bearings the min lum span ratio (i.e., ratio of bearing center distance to aft diameter) should be 14 for shafts with diameters in ¢ range of 10 to 16in. and 12 for shaft diameters of i to 30 in, ‘The maximum span ratio could be in the nge of 20 to 22 but the final determination must. be ‘sed on strength, shaft slope at the bearings, and vibra- on characteristics. 4.4 Shafting System Calculation Output. ‘The im- tant output from most shafting calculations ineludes ¢ following in addition to the required shaft diameters (a) Line-in-line reactions. (0) Slope of shafting at discrete points. (c) Deflection of shafting at diserete points. (@) Moments in shafting at diserete points. (c) Lateral natural frequeney of shafting. (J) Bearing reaction influence numbers. The significance of the shafting line-in-line reactions, caring reactions with all bearings set concentric), shaft ypes in way of bearings, shaft deflections, shaft mo- ents, and lateral natural frequency of the shafting. is Tan Li ite St ne ne fine Stern Shafi Sale Sink Tube . ° 7 3 2 ~6 m bo 10 15 -118 es = we ils 1 15 UR 1m a 38-1 ti 1 =i 2m -18 1 4 fa 3 en bearing one mil; eg if heforannd line shaft hearing is rsed on the aiter siow-speed bearing reaction decresses 498 Ib, the forward apparent; however, the importance of bearing reaction infiuence numbers is not as readily appreciated. Table 6 is a tabulation of the bearing reaction influence numbers for the shafting arrangement shown in Vig. 1. The numbers given in Table 6 represent the change in the magnitucle of the bearing reaction of the various bearings asa result of raising any bearing one mil. Through the application of these influence numbers, which refieet the shafting system flexibility, it is possible to investigate the influence of shafting misalignment caused by thermal expansion, weardown, and other such effects. Align- ment requirements are developed on the basis of the bearing reaction influence numbers. Also, the principles employed with the hydraulic jack method of checking shaft alignment (see Section 4.12) originate with the bearing reaction infiuence numbers. 4.5 Gear-to-Shaft Alignment. Particular care must be taken in selecting the aftermost and forwardmast line shaft bearing locations to ensure that adequate shafting flexibility is provided. These bearings are subjected to a varying alignment in service. Weardown of the stern tube bearing alters the load on the aftermost. bearing; the thermal expansion of the reduction gear structure changes the load on the forwardmost bearing, ‘These cficcts may be noted from the tabulation given in Table 7. When the propulsion plant goos from the eold to the operating condition, the slow-speed gcar bearings may rise 15 to 30 mils relative to the line shaft bearings. This rise can significantly alter the reactions of the slow- speed gear bearings and the forward line shaft. bearings Of particular concern is the fact that the static load on the forward slow-speed gear bearing decreases while that on the after bearing increases. As can be seen from the typical reduction gear bearing reaction diagram shown it Chapter 9, this causes the slow-speed gear to assume ® crossed-axis position relative to the slow-speed pinion’ which are not similarly affected. As a result, the tooth load will tend to be more heavy on one end of each helix. i Reference [25] contains 1 detailed discussion of the effee™®