EARLY MODERN EUROPE TODAY

t e ie s Editor J. H.Shennan
 -

LY MODERN EUROPE TODAY

s Editor J. H. Shennan m

Radical Enlightenment Dr Margaret Jacob seeks to revise our

tanding of the early decades of the European Ehlightenment
'gues for two cultures,, often at odds with each other; a
^te, Newtonian Enlightenment, mildly deistic, supportive of
utional monarchy and limited religious, toleration; and of
instrumental in spreading the new science, and its
rpart, a radical version of Enlightenment - republican,
ilfstic and pantheistic, hostile to all established churches!
ted toward the publishing trade as a means of propagatingitts
Mther through journals or clandestinem anuscripts and their
tion. Most important, this Radical Enlightenment was
tionai a n y m o r e highly organized than "has ever been
ed. *"y?r
author presents new evidence, from Masonic archives on the
ent, to show the early~subversiph Of Freemasonry by English
cans and French Huguenots engaged in the clandestine book
h e author identifies what is probably theearliest Masonic lodge
Continent and, its role in circulating and inventing the most
us clandestine manuscript of the eighteenth century. the
e on the Three Impostors. New evidence also links at least one
contributors to Diderots Encyclopdie to these Masonic
In this account of the Enlightenm^ntph//osophes like Voltaire
>ut looking strangely co n se rva n ti, while the materialism of
ih Enlightenment is located decadesearlier, in those coteries
lish republicans and French Huguenots with access to the-
press and with Masonic links in the postal system linking the
ands and France. In this account The Hague and its refugee
emerge as central to the early years of the European
enment. The book presents the first..scholarly account in
I of the^origins of European Freemasonry, and incidentally
5 our attention on such related topics as the role of women in
enment culture and-the survival of radicalism between the
Revolution and the French.Revolution. Oneot her nati on estate
tern Europe experienced a revolution in the course of the
nth century, and the author documents^Jhe refe^M fcese ; .p
circles in the Dutch Revolution of 1747.
i . crq/f !
et Jacob carried out her pot-graduate work at both Corn li pj :
2 1
;ity and the University of Leeds, She has lectured at the
;ity of East Anglia and now teaches in the doctoral programme
: : CD
Dity University of New York.,
rly Modern Europe Today sns provides the reader w ith up-
interpretations of history. Some books will concentrate on
sly neglected or uneonsidered material, to reach conclusions
challenge conventional orthodoxies in more established areas;
ly, while others re-examine some of these conventional.
)xies to discover whether, in the light of modern .scholarly ,
, they retain their validity or require more or less drastic re- CA
nent.
:inctive feature of each book in the series is its bibliographical 940.25
which is designed to be of value to readers curious to explore J115
icular topic further and to those seeking information oh a wide
Tthemes associated with it.

ustration reproduced from an engraving by Bernard Picart, 1734,

esy of the author.
Minerva Duce by Bernard Picart, 1722 Teylers Museum, Haarlem.
T h e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n m e n t

Pantheists, Freemasons and

Republicans

M A R G A R E T C . J A C O B

The Graduate Center and Baruch College

City University o f New York

F -

L o n d o n

G E O R G E A L L E N & U N W I N
B o sto n S y d n ey
First p u b l i s h e d in 1981

T h is b o o k is co p y rig h t u n d e r th e B e rn e C o n v en tio n . AH rig h ts

are re s e rv e d . A p a rt fro m an y fa ir d e alin g fo r th e p u rp o s e o f
p riv a te stu d y , re s e a rc h , criticism o r rev iew , as p e rm itte d u n d e r
th e C o p y rig h t A c t, 1 9 5 6 , n o p a r t o f th is p u b lica tio n m ay b e
re p ro d u c e d , s to re d in a re trie v a l sy stem , o r tr a n s m itte d , in an y
fo rm o r by an y m ean s, ele c tro n ic , ele c trica l, ch e m ical, m e c h a n
ical, o p tic a l, p h o to c o p y in g , re c o rd in g o r o th er w is e, w ith o u t th e
p rio r p e rm iss io n o f th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. E n q u irie s sh o u ld be
sen t to th e p u b lis h ers a t th e u n d e rm e n tio n e d a d d re s s:

G E O R G E A L L E N & U N W IN L T D
4 0 M u s eu m S tr e e t, L o n d o n W C 1 A 1 L U

M a rg a re t C . Ja c o b , 1981

B r itis h L ib r a r y C a t a lo g u in g in P u b lic a t io n D a ta

J a c o b , M ar g aret C
T h e rad ical E n lig h te n m e n t. - (E a rly m o d e rn
E u ro p e ; 3).
1. F re em as o n s - H is to ry 2. E u ro p e -
C iv ilizatio n - 1 7 th ^ ceh tu ry
3. E u ro p e - C iv ilizatio n - 1 8 th ce n tu ry
I. T itle II. S eries
9 4 0 .2 5 H S414 8 0 -4 1 8 9 3

IS B N 0 -0 4 -9 0 1 0 2 9 -8

S et in 10 o n 11 p o in t T im es by In fo ru m L td , P o rts m o u th
an d p rin te d in G re a t B rita in
by B illin g a n d Son s L td .,
G u ild fo rd , L o n d o n a n d -W o rc ester
 l_''

q < |0 , Z y

!>s

C o n ten ts

E d i t o r s P r e f a c e page ix

A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts xi

A b b r e v ia t io n s xv

B ib lio g r a p h ic a l E s s a y 1

I n tr o d u c t io n 2 0

1 S c ie n c e a n d th e P h ilo s o p h ic a l O r ig in s o f th e R a d ic a l

E n lig h t e n m e n t 29

2 T h e L egacy o f t h e E n g lis h R e v o lu tio n 65

3 T h e N e w to n ia n E n lig h te n m e n t a n d I ts C r itic s 87

4 T h e O r ig in s o f E u r o p e a n F reem ason ry 1 0 9

5 R a d ic a l W h ig s , M a s o n s a n d K n ig h ts o f J u b ila t io n 1 42

6 T h e S o c ia l W o r ld o f th e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n m e n t,

1 7 1 0 -6 0 182

7 P a n th e is tic R e lig io n , R e v o lu tio n 'a n d th e N ew S c ie n c e 2 15

E p ilo g u e : N ew P a th s to th e H ig h E n lig h te n m e n t 2 5 6

A p p e n d ix 2 6 7

In d ex 3 03

I
 CH APTER 7

P a n th e is tic R e lig io n ,

R e v o lu tio n an d th e N e w S c ie n c e

D o y o u re a liz e th a t if th e th e s e s [o f th e A b b d e P ra d e s ] h a d b e e n
p a sse d a t th e sa m e tim e as th e 10 e n o rm o u s v o lu m e s o f th e
E n c y c lo p d ie , it w o u ld h a v e le d ra p id ly to P a n th e is m ; th e w its,
th e b lu e sto ck in g s, th e lig h t la d ie s, th e d a n d ie s, all th o s e Ita lia n ,
E n g lis h a n d F re n c h d eists a n d a th e ists w o u ld h a v e b e e n rid o f th e
y o k e o f relig io n - n e c es sa ry in so ciety if w e a re n o t to b e s la u g h
te r e d [b y o n e a n o th e r], a n d u se fu l fo r n o th in g e lse b u t th a t is
e n o u g h ; b u t I m u st sto p , I s o u n d lik e le p e tit E n c y c lo p d is te .1
(R o u s s e t to M a rc h a n d , 1 7 5 2 )

A social w o rld as rich a n d co m p lex , n o t to m e n tio n as se c re tiv e , as th a t

o f R o u s s e t, M a rc h a n d a n d th e ir frie n d s m u st o n ly h a v e b e e n s u s ta in e d
by stro n g c o m m o n in te re s ts as w ell as b y stro n g ly h e ld c o m m o n b e lie fs.
W e c a n n o t k n o w ex a ctly h o w m an y f r r e s s u b sc rib e d to th e p a n
th e ism o f T o la n d , R o u s s e t a n d th e ir frie n d s b u t th e r e is ric h e v id e n c e
th a t as y o u n g p u b lis h e rs a n d p ro p a g a n d is ts th e K n ig h ts in v e n te d o n e
o f th e m o st d a n g e ro u sly p a n th e is tic m an u sc rip ts o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t,
th e fa m o u s Trait des trois im p o ste u rs. A t e v e ry tu rn a c ce ss to th e
p rin tin g p re ss, a n d th e c la n d e s tin e c h a n n e ls o f c irc u la tio n g a v e im p o r
ta n c e to su ch p ro je c ts fa r in ex cess o f th e re la tiv e ly sm a ll so cial n ex u s
th a t su sta in e d th e m . B u t p a n th e is m lay n o t sim p ly in th e p r o p a g a tin g ,
b u t e q u a lly in th e liv ing o f th is c u rio u s ly m eta p h y sic a l, y e t im m en se ly
se c u la r, if n o t p o litic a l, c re e d .
T h e a tte m p t to d isse m in a te p a n th e is m , c o u p le d w ith a c o m m itm e n t
to th e p ro p a g a tio n o f n e w sc ien tific id ea s, a n d in th e ca se o f R o u s s e t,
an ab ility to e n g a g e in scie n tific e x p e rim e n ts, e n tw in e d w ith a relig i
o u sly h e ld , a n d w e c a n a lso say , p ra c tis e d c re e d . T h e ritu a ls a n d
c e re m o n ie s o f th e M a so n ic lo d g e , w ith its e m p h a sis o n a co m m o n
p r ie s th o o d a n d fra te rn ity , c o u ld d o u b tle ss ex p re ss a v a rie ty o f c re e d s,
C h ristia n b u t ju s t as lik ely , h e re tic a l. L ik ew ise , th e M a so n ic lo d g es
m u st h a v e p ro v id e d im m e n se ly u se fu l o u tle ts , as well a s su b sc rib e rs,
216 TH E R A D IC A L E N L IG H T E N M EN T

fo r th e v a rio u s in te lle c tu a l a n d lite ra ry p ro je c ts , e sp ecially th e j o u r

nals, w ith w hich th e K n ig h ts w ere in v o lv ed , a n d a lso p o ssib ly fo r th e
sale o f D id e ro ts E n c y clo p d ie - a p ro je c t to w h ich R o u s s e t, if n o t his
o th e r f r r e s , g av e a w h o le h e a rte d e n d o rs e m e n t. M u ch o f o u r e v i
d en c e fo r th e m e a n in g o f th is c re e d , as w ell as fo r th e v a rie ty o f p o litica l
a n d in te lle c tu a l in te re s ts ta k e n u p by th es e ra d ic als, c o m e s fro m R o u s-
s e ts p riv a te le tte r s to M a rc h a n d (as well as fro m o th e r c o rre sp o n d e n c e
in M a rc h a n d s p a p e rs ). L ik e th e e x c e rp t u sed to o p e n th is c h a p te r,
w hich reveals R o u s s e ts c o n c ern th a t th e F re n c h a u th o ritie s , g o a d e d
by th e Je su its, will su c ce e d in su p p ressin g th e E n c y clo p d ie , th es e
le tte rs a re ex p licit a n d fra n k b e c a u se , as h as b e e n in d ic a te d , in th is
p e rio d o f ex ile a fte r 1 7 4 9 R o u s s e t w as ab le to se n d th e m to M a rc h a n d
th ro u g h th ir M aso n ic frie n d s in th e B elg ian p o s t o ffice.
T o d e scrib e th e se p a n th e is ts sim ply as a th e ists , as in d e e d th e y w ere
in th e ey es o f th e g o d ly , m ig h t b e to m iss th e c o n s ta n t in siste n c e fo u n d
in th is lite r a tu r e fo r o r d e r , h a rm o n y , a n d m e a n in g in th e n atu ra la n d
h u m an o rd e r. In 1 7 3 4 , C o u n t R a d ic a ti, th a t itin e ra n t Ita lia n p a n th e is t,
p u t it su ccin ctly :

B u t to say th a t D eists a re A th e is ts is false ; fo r th e y a re so called by

th e V u lg a r, a n d by th o se w h ose in te re s t it is to d e c ry th e m ; [th e y ]
a d m it a first ca u se u n d e r th e n am es o f G o d , N a tu re , E te rn a l B ein g ,
M a tte r, u n iv ersal M o tio n o r So ul. S uch w ere D e m o c ritu s, E p ic u ru s,
D ia g o ra s, L u c ia n , S o c ra te s, A n a x a g o ra s, S e n e c a , H o b b e s , B lo u n t,
S p in o z a, V a n in i, St. E vrem o n d * B a y le, C o llin s.2

In en listin g so m an y a n d d isp a ra te a n c ie n t a n d m o d e rn p h ilo so p h ers,_

R a d ic ati w as try in g to e sta b lis h th e in te lle c tu a l lin e a g e o f th is n ew
n a tu ra lis m . B a y le w o u ld d o u b tle ss h av e b e e n h o rrifie d , to see h im se lf
listed alo n g w ith S p in o za, a n d v a rio u s o th e r w o rth ie s o n th e list w o uld
h av e s p u rn e d th e a sso c ia tio n . Y et th e rad icals w e re try in g to give a
p a n th e istic in te rp re ta tio n to th e fre e th in k in g tra d itio n , a n d o n a
p o lem ical level th ey su c ce e d e d by 1 7 5 0 in sh iftin g th e d e b a te in to th e ir
q u a rte r a n d in c re a tin g th e m o st v iru le n t fo rm o f p h ilo so p h ic a l h e re sy
in a c e n tu ry p lag u e d by th e d isease.
T w o tex ts se rv e d to p ro p o u n d th e p a n th e ism o f th e rad icals:
T o la n d s L etters to S e ren a , p u b lis h e d in E n g lish , b u t q u ick ly tra n s la te d
in to F re n c h (a m an u sc rip t tra n s la tio n w e n t to V ie n n a in E u g n e o f
S av o y s lib ra ry ); a n d m o re im p o rta n t, b e c au se o f its m u c h /w id e r
circ u latio n , th e Trait des trois im posteu rs (1 4 3 ). T o la n d s tre a tis e
a lth o u g h o p e n ly p u b lis h e d , w as also th e m o re o v e rtly p h ilo so p h ic a l
an d tu rg id o f th e tw o ; its p rac tic a l a p p lic atio n s, e x c e p t fo r a d v o c atin g
an e n d to p re ju d ic e s , re m a in larg ely im plicit. Y e t th e m ate ria listic
d efin itio n s it c o n ta in e d w e re c le a r a n d as such u se fu l, all th e m a tte r in
 R EL IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A N D T HE NEW S CIE NC E 217

N a tu re , e v e ry P a r t a n d P a rc e l o f it, h a s b in e v e r in m o tio n , a n d c a n
n e v e r b e o th e rw is e (T o la n d , p. 1 6 9 ). L o c k e w as e n lis te d fo r v e rific a
tio n o f a m eta p h y sic to w h ich h e d id n o t su b s crib e, a n d so to o w as
N e w to n , all th e p a rtic u la r o r lo cal M o tio n s o f M a tte r a re b u t th e
se v era l D e te rm in a tio n s o f its g e n e ra l A c tio n (p p. 1 7 6 - 7 ) . B u t
T o la n d s d e fin itio n o f m a tte r , in d ire c t o p p o sitio n to N e w to n s, s tr e s
sed n o t o n ly its in h e re n t m o tio n b u t a lso its in fin ity a n d its e te r n ity , th e
, W o rld , w ith all th e P a rts a n d K in d s th e re o f, c o n tin u in g a t all tim e s in
th e sa m e c o n d itio n (p p . 1 9 0 - 1 ). U sin g his k n o w le d g e o f th e n e w
scien ce fro m b io lo g y th ro u g h p hy sics, a n d co m b in in g b o th w ith a
rev iv a l o f th e m id -c e n tu ry se c ta ria n h e re sy o f m o rta lism , T o la n d
a rtic u la te d th e m eta p h y s ic s o f e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry p a n th e is m .
T o la n d s a tta c k o n th e n o tio n o f th e s o u ls im m o rta lity - it f la tte r e d
M en w ith th e H o p e s o f w h a t th e y w ish a b o v e all th in g s w h a ts o e v e r,
n a m e ly , to c o n tin u e th e ir e x is te n c e b e y o n d th e G r a v e ; th e r e b e in g b u t
few th a t ca n b e a r th e v e ry T h o u g h ts o f e v e r ceasin g to liv e s o m e
w h e re , a n d m o st P e o p le c o m m o n ly ch o o sin g to b e m is e ra b le , r a t h e r
th a n n o t to b e a t a ll (p. 1 5 3 ) - c o n ta in e d a so cial m es sa g e t h a t th e
Trait a n d o th e r p a n th e is tic a n d m a te ria lis tic tra c ts w o u ld sp e ll o u t.
T h e w o rs h ip o f n a tu re e n ta ils in e ffe c t th e w o rsh ip o f th e h e r e a n d n o w ,
o f civil so cie ty ; th e r e is n o a fte r-life , n o sp iritu a l so c ie ty b e y o n d o u r
o w n . In an a n o n y m o u s 1 7 4 3 p u b lic a tio n o f e a rlie r c la n d e s tin e m a n u
sc rip ts, a c o lle ctio n d e d ic a te d to th e m em o ry o f A n th o n y C o llin s, th e
p o in t is m ad e ex p licitely : th e p h ilo s o p h e , a n d it is fro m th is e a rly
e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry tra c t th a t w e g e t th e w o rd u se d a s a p a r tic u la r
d e sc rip tio n o f th e m an o f e n lig h te n m e n t, k no w s th ar* th e~ x isten ce o f
G o d is th e m o st w id e sp re a d a n d d e e p ly e n g ra in e d o f all th e p r e
ju d ic e s . In its p lac e th e p h ilo s o p h e p u ts civil so c iety , it is th e o n ly
d iv in ity th a t h e will rec o g n iz e o n e a r t h .3 T his n e w d iv in ity , p ro c la im e d
in a co lle ctio n o f tra c ts w h o se m etap h y sic al a m b ia n c e is e x p lic itly
p a n th e is tic a n d m a te ria listic , m u st b e e x to lle d a n d h o n o u r e d b y h a r d
w o rk a n d p ro b ity A lth o u g h th e r e is n o d ire c t m e n tio n o f T o la n d in th is
c o lle ctio n h e w o u ld u n d o u b te d ly h a v e a g re e d w ith th e se c u la r p o s tu r e
o f le p h ilo so p h e .
Y e t b y fa r th e m o st fa m o u s - o r in fa m o u s - a n d w id ely r e a d c la n d e s
tin e tra c t o f th e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n m e n t w as th e so -c a lle d T rait des
trois im p o ste u rs. S h ro u d e d in m y ste ry fo r c e n tu rie s, th e s u b je c t o f
e n d le ss m o n o g ra p h s a n d essay s, th e m a n u sc rip ts o rig in s in th e e a rly
e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry w ere p u rp o se ly o b lite ra te d (6 ). W e n o w k n o w w h o
m a s te rm in d e d th is o b fu sc a tio n a n d th e tra c t itself.
L a te in th e ir liv es, G a s p a r F ritsc h , th e fo rm e r g ra n d m a s te r, a n d
M a rc h a n d , th e o rig in a l s e c re ta ry o f th e K nights o f J u b ila tio n , r e s u m e d
th e ir c o rre s p o n d e n c e . T h e s e a re fairly cau tio u s le tte rs ; m u c h tim e h a s
p a sse d . F ritsc h still c le a rly h o ld s M a rc h a n d , a lth o u g h n o t a ll th e ir
 2 18 THE R A D IC A L EN LIG H TEN M EN T

b r o th e r s , in h ig h re g a rd , In F e b ru a ry 1 7 3 7 , h e th a n k s M a rc h a n d fo r
h a v in g e n lig h te n e d h im a b o u t L a V ie et L E sp rit de S p in o z a , as th e
Trait w as o fte n ca lled ;4 I n fac t o n th is su b je c t, th e irs w as a m u tu a lly
e n lig h te n in g c o rre s p o n d e n c e , b u t u n fo rtu n a te ly o n ly F rits c h s p o r tio n
h as su rv iv e d . I n O c to b e r o f th a t sa m e y e a r F ritsc h re v e a le d , in th e
le tte r p r in te d in th e a p p e n d ix , th a t L e v ie r g o t th e Trait fro m R o u s s e t
d e M issy a n d th a t L e v ie r c o m b in e d it w ith L a Vie de S p in o z a , a
m a n u s c rip t h e c o p ie d in th e lib ra ry o f B e n ja m in F u rly . T h e n in 1 7 4 0
w h e n M a rc h a n d w as c o m p ilin g n o te s fo r h is o w n D ictionn aire o n th e
T raity F ritsc h w rites:

I w ill se n d y o u th e r o u g h d ra ft fo r y o u r essay o n T he Three Im p o s

tors [ p ro b a b ly th e o n e e v e n tu a lly p u b lis h e d in M a r c h a n d D ic tio n
naire (1 7 5 8 )]. I t is q u ite tr u e th a t o n e c o u ld d o n o th in g w ith o u t y o u .
B u t th is es sa y is p e rh a p s su ch th a t y o u sh o u ld d isav o w a n y h a n d in it
w h e n y o u m a k e it p u b lic ; w h ile n o t fo rg e ttin g th e sad sp e cta cle o f
th e b a n n in g o f L a V ie et L E sp rit de S p in o za [by th e W a llo o n
c h u rc h e s].

F ritsc h th e n re m in d s M a rc h a n d o f h is y o u th fu l tra n s g re s s io n : F ritsc h

h a d a r r a n g e d f o r h is ; b r p th e r to c a rry L a V ie , th e m a n u sc rip t fro m
F u r ly s lib ra ry , to L e v ie r *s h o u se w h e re h e c o p ie d it v e ry q u ick ly . I
k e p t th e co p y m y se lf . . . S u b se q u e n tly h e h a s r e p e n te d th e fa c t th a t
h e sh o w e d th a t m a n u s c rip t to a v a rie ty o f p e o p le , a n d w as d o in g so as
la te a s 1 7 3 6 : T a llo w e d th e m to co p y a s m u ch as th e y w a n te d , e n tire ly
fre e o f c h a rg e T lt w as to ta l ru b b is h . S in ce th e n , I h a v e c o m e to th in k
m o re s e rio u s ly th a n I d i d . A s th e le tte r la te r in d ic a te s F ritsc h , n o w
o ld e r a n d s tric k e n w ith g o u t, h as c lea rly c o m e a ro u n d to b e lie v in g lif
G od.
F ro m th e s e le tte r s c e r ta in co n clu sio n s a b o u t th e o rig in s o f th e Trait
p r e s e n t th e m s e lv e s : L a V ie w as clea rly a s e p a r a te m a n u sc rip t fro m
L E sp rit. I n d e e d th e r e is n o e v id e n c e th a t L E sp rit e v e r e x is te d as a
te x t p r io r to th e T rait y a n d in th e c o p y o f L a V ie et L E sp rit fro m
H o h e n d o r f s lib ra ry a n d h e n c e q u ite p o ssib ly fro m th e K n ig h ts,
L E sp rit a p p e a r s to b e id e n tic a l w ith th e Trait. A n d L e v ie r g o t it fro m
R o u s s e t d e M issy .6 F rits c h sto n g ly im p lie s th a t R o u s s e t w as its a u th o r ,
a lth o u g h th is is n o t to d e n y th a t th e tre a tis e m ay h a v e b e e n b o rro w e d
a n d c o n c o c te d fro m a w h o le h o st o f c la n d e stin e m a n u sc rip ts (p o ssib ly
fro m o n e c a lle d L E s p r it d e S p in o z a ), b u t a ls o a n d n o t le a s t o f all
fro m L e T h e o p h r a s tu s re d iv iv u s ( 1 6 5 9 ) w h ich w as F re n c h in o rig in
a n d w h ic h H o h e n d o r f h a d in his lib ra ry w h e re M a rc h a n d saw it. S o m e
y e a rs a g o , w ith o u t th is n e w e v id e n c e , D o n C a m e ro n A lle n su g g e ste d
R o u s s e t d e M issy as a lik e ly c a n d id a te fo r th is e x e rc is e in im p iety , a n d
th a t w as a v e ry g o o d su rm ise (1 4 5). W h a t is n o w also clea r is th a t th e
 R E L IG IO N , R E V O LU T IO N A N D T H E N EW SC IE N C E 219

K n ig h ts w e re d e e p ly in v o lv e d in c re a tin g th e Trait y in c o p y in g a n d
d isse m in a tin g it. L e v ie r, a p p a re n tly w ith th e a ssista n c e o f T o la n d s
p u b lis h e r, T h o m a s J o h n s o n , d id an e x tre m e ly r a r e 1 7 1 9 e d itio n o f it;
B h m d id a s h o rte n e d , p e rh a p s so m e w h a t d iffe re n t 1 7 2 1 e d itio n -
b o th a p p e a r n o t to h a v e su rv iv e d . I t is n o w p o ssib le to r e c r e a te th e
sto ry o f h o w th is m a n u sc rip t cam e to ex ist.
A c c o m p a n y in g m an y c o p ie s o f th e Trait is a b r ie f e x p o s itio n o f its
c o n te n ts , c o m m o n ly c a lle d th e R p o n s e , w hich w e n o w k n o w to b e
w ritte n b y R o u s s e t a n d w hich w as p u b lis h e d se p a ra te ly a n d a n o n y
m o u sly in 1 7 1 6 b y H e n ri S c h e u rle e r. F o r d e c a d e s p r io r to 1 71 1 (th e
y e a r R o u s s e t g a v e th e Trait to L e v ie r) th e ru m o u r h a d c irc u la te d th a t
s o m e o n e h a d w ritte n a w o rk in w hich it w as c la im e d th a t M o se s, Je su s
a n d M o h a m m e d w e re im p o sto rs . V a rio u s c a n d id a te s f o r th is fin a l
im p ie ty w e re alw ays b e in g p ro p o se d : A r e tin o , G io r d a n o B r u n o , W il
lia m P o ste l, S e rv e tu s, B o n a v e n tu re D es P rie rs, C a m p a n e lla , H o b b e s
a n d S p in o z a. T h e list w as fairly d istin g u ish e d a n d e n d le ss. A s m ig h t b e
e x p e c te d , p h ilo s o p h e rs in d e b te d to th e H e rm e tic tra d itio n o f te n fo u n d
a p la c e o n .it, as d id th in k e rs w h o se id ea s c o u ld b e in te r p r e te d as
te n d in g to n a tu ra lis m . A m id all th e se a c c u sa tio n s a n d g o ssip a jo u r n a l
ist n a m e d d e la M o n n o y e p u b lis h e d in 1 6 9 4 an essay in w h ich h e
c o n c lu d e d co n fid e n tly th a t n o such tre a tis e o n th e th re e im p o s to rs h a d
e v e r b e e n w ritte n .
T h a t essay w as w id ely c irc u la te d a n d c o m m e n te d u p o n in th e first
d e c a d e o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , a n d p e rh a p s th e ch a lle n g e w as m o re
th a n R o u s s e t a n d h is frie n d s, w ith access to th e s u p e rb lib ra ry o f
h e re tic a l w o rk s in B e n ja m in F u rly s h o m e , c o u ld res ist. I t is ju s t
p o ssib le th a t th e id e a th a t th e fo u n d e r o f C h ristia n ity h a d b e e n an
im p o s to r h a d b e e n h a tc h e d o u t w ith T o la n d ; th e r e is a m a n u s c rip t
a m o n g his p riv a te p a p e rs , o n ly its ta b le o f c o n te n ts su rv iv e s, w hich
cla im s to sh o w th a t Je su s w as a m ag ic ian .7 W h a t b e tte r , in lig h t o f all
th e p u b lic ity , th a n to w rite , o r to d o c to r sig n ifica n tly a p a n th e is tic tra c t
a n d to fo cu s its a tta c k a g a in st C h ristia n ity a ro u n d th e c h a rg e o f
im p o s tu re ? W h a t b e tte r p o le m ic a l d e v ic e b y w h ich to h e ra ld th e b irth
o f th is n ew c re e d a n d to so u n d th e d e a th k n e ll fo r its o ld e r, m o re
e s ta b lis h e d , riv a ls? In 1 7 1 6 R o u s s e t p ro c la im e d to th e w o rld in his
a n o n y m o u s R p o n se to d e la M o n n o y e , w hich F ritsc h k n o w s R o u s s e t
to h a v e w ritte n , t h a t h e h a d se en w ith h is ow n e y e s a n d p o sse sse d in his
c a b in e t th is fa m o u s little tre a tis e .
O f co u rs e , w e n o w k n o w th a t R o u s s e t w as in d e e d te llin g th e tru th .
H e p ro c e e d e d to g ive an ex a ct d e sc rip tio n o f th e m a n u sc rip t, b y
c h a p te r a n d p a ra g r a p h , o n e th a t c o n fo rm s p rec is ely w ith m o st e x ta n t
co p ie s. H e f u r th e r in v e n te d th e fictio n th a t h e g o t th e o rig in a l L a tin
m a n u sc rip t in F ra n k fu rt-a m -M a in a n d th a t a G e rm a n o ffic er, T ra w -
s e n d o rf, a n d a s tu d e n t in th e o lo g y , F re c h t, h a d b e e n in v o lv e d in th e
 220 THE R A D IC A L ENLIGHTENM EN T

tra n sa c tio n . A s F ritsc h n o te s to M a rc h a n d th a t w as a c o m p le te f a b ric a

tio n .
B u t R o u sse t d id n o t sto p th e re . In effe c t his R p o n se is a b rie f
e x p lic atio n o f th e Trait th a t lin k s it d irec tly to B r u n o s Spaccio - th e
sam e b o o k o f w hich T o la n d h a d p u b lish e d a tra n s la tio n in E n g lish a
few y e ars a g o .8 O f c o u rse , T o la n d h a d c a rrie d th e Sp accio all o v e r
E u ro p e d u rin g his v a rio u s fo ra y s, a n d th e E n g lish tra n s la tio n h a d
a p p e a re d in 1 7 1 3 . F u r th e r m o r e , R o u s s e t lin k s th e Trait v e ry p rec isely
w ith his o w n b e lie fs: it gives an id e a o f G o d th a t r a th e r c o n fo rm s to th e
sy stem o f th e P an th eists , saying th a t th e w o rd G o d re p re s e n ts to us an
in fin ite b e in g o f w h o m o n e o f th e a ttrib u te s is to b e an e x te n d e d
su b s ta n c e , a n d b y c o n se q u e n c e e te rn a l a n d in fin ite (R o u s s e ts ita l
ics).9 R o u sse t, in tu rn , th e n su m m a rise s th e v a rio u s c h a p te rs o f th e
T rait , in d ic a te s in g e n e ra l th e c o n te n ts a n d o ffe rs n o in d ic a tio n o f
d isa p p ro v a l. H is R p o n se w as, in tu rn , a n sw e re d by d e la M o n n o y e in
M m oires de L ittra ture (1 7 1 6 ) e d ite d by d e S a lle n g re a n d p u b lish e d
by H e n ry d u S a u z e t. A ll o f th is a d d e d p u b licity in th e p a g e s o f th e
M m oires u n d o u b te d ly in c re a s e d cu rio sity an d in d e e d th e f r r e s a n d
th e ir frie n d s w e re , a fte r all, b u sin e ssm e n . Y e a rs la te r, M a rc h a n d
p o sth u m o u sly p u b lis h e d D ictio nna ire histo rique (1 7 5 8 ) c o n ta in e d a
lo ng essay o n th e TraU w hich r e p e a te d m an y o f th e fa b ric a tio n s, y e t
w hich is to th is d a y orife o f th e m a jo r so u rce s o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th a t
tra c t.10
N o o n e e v e r th o u g h t to a sk h o w o r w hy M a rc h a n d h a d g o t to k n o w
so m u ch a b o u t th a t p a rtic u la r m a n u sc rip t. T h e c irc u la tio n o f c la n d e s
tin e m an u scrip ts^w as a d a n g e ro u s b u sin ess a n d id e n titie s i i a d to b e '
o b sc u red . A ll th e co p ies I h av e s e e n , fro m v a rio u s lib ra rie s in clu d in g
V ie n n a ra n d th e H o h e n d o r f c o lle ctio n , a re n e a tly w ritte n b y v a rio u s
h an d s. N e v e r h a s a fa m iliar p ie c e o f h a n d w ritin g a p p e a r e d ; in a lm o st
ev ery case, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th a t in itial tra n sm issio n d e sc rib e d b y
F ritsch , th e te x t m u st h a v e b e e n c o p ie d by h ire d sc rib es.
Im ag in e h o ld in g such a m a n u sc rip t in y o u r h a n d s. In F ra n c e y o u
w ou ld h av e b e e n im p ris o n e d if c a u g h t d o in g so , a n d in n o c o u n try w ere
its c o n te n ts leg a l. O n its v ery first p a g e th e r e a d e r is in fo rm e d th a t m o st
m en b e liev e in th e v ain a n d th e rid ic u lo u s, th a t is, D iv in ity , th e S ou l,
S pirits, in s h o rt all th e o th e r o b je c ts w hich m a k e u p R e lig io n . T h e y
h av e b e e n c a jo le d in to th is la m e n ta b le ig n o ra n c e by re lig io u s im p o s
to rs, Je su s, M o ses a n d M o h a m m e d . T h is c o n fid e n c e tric k w as
p e rp e tra te d first b y M o ses, ev en th o u g h m an y o f th e p ro p h e ts /k n e w
p erfe ctly w ell th a t G o d is a p u re ly c o rp o re a l b e in g ,11 a n d th e n M oses
u sed his a rm y to m ak e th e lie stick . W h y a re p e o p le so g u llib le ? W ell,
as H o b b e s sa id , it is fe a r - th o se w h o a re ig n o ra n t o f p h y sical cau ses
h av e a n a tu ra l fe a r . . . a n d th is c h im e ric fe a r o f in visib le p o w e rs is th e
so urce o f all th e s e R e lig io n s. I n d e e d , so m e m en a re so p a ra ly se d by
 R E L IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A ND THE NEW SC IE N C E 221

fe a r th a t th e y h a v e c o m e to b e lie v e th a t th e ju d g e m e n ts o f G o d a re
in c o m p re h e n s ib le . T h a t e r r o r h a s h a p p ily b e e n d e s tr o y e d b y
m a th e m a tic s, p h ysics a n d so m e o f th e o th e r sc ie n c es .12
T h e n e w scie n c e p ro v id e s th e e sca p e ro u te fro m ig n o ra n c e ; it
te a c h e s th a t all fin a l ca u se s a re o n ly h u m a n fic tio n s a n d t h a t n a tu ra l
ca u se s ca n b e f o u n d fo r all n a tu ra l p h e n o m e n a . M en s e e k to e sta b lis h
o r d e r in n a tu r e , b u t th a t o r d e r is n o th in g else th a n a p u re e ffe c t o f th e
h u m a n im a g in a tio n . I t is a b s u rd to th in k th a t G o d p u ts it t h e r e . W ith
e x tra o rd in a ry so p h is tic a tio n a b o u t th e m ea n in g an d u se s o f sc ie n tific
k n o w le d g e , th e m a n u sc rip t tells u s th a t th e o rd e r in n a tu r e d is c e rn e d
by th e n e w scien c e is a n e c es sa ry a n d v a lu a b le im p o sitio n o f th e h u m a n
m in d ; scie n c e d o e s n o t s u p p o rt th e d esig n a rg u m e n ts a n d th e p r o vi -
d e n tia lism e x tra c te d fro m it by th e N e w to n ia n s (an d in d e e d b y N e w to n
h im self). W h a t th e n is th is G o d o f th e th e o lo g ia n s a n d th e im p o s to rs ?
A d o p tin g a p e rso n a l style th e a u th o r say s, T re sp o n d t h a t th is w o rd
re p re s e n ts to us a u n iv e rsa l b e in g in w h ich , to sp e a k as S a in t P a u l, w e
h a v e life, m o v e m e n t a n d b e in g . T h is G o d is n a tu re , all is in G o d .13
Such a n o tio n fu lfils th e C a rte s ia n c rite rio n o f tru th - it is c le a r a n d
sim p le.
B u t th e r e a re p le n ty o f m en a ro u n d w h o h a v e a v e s te d in te r e s t in
re ta in in g th e g o d o f th e im p o sto rs. T h e v u lg a r (le p e u p le g ro ssie r )
w a n t a g o d w h o re s e m b le s th e k in g s o f th e e a rth , c o m p le te w ith p o m p
a n d c e lestia l co urtesan s*. T h e law s o f th is v u lg ar g o d a r e h u m a n
fic tio n s in v e n te d n o t b y d e m o n s o r evil g en ies b u t by th e p o litic s o f
P rin c es a n d P rie s ts . T h e su rv iv al o f m o n a rc h ie s a n d c h u rc h e s d e p e n d s
v itally o n th e su rv iv al o f r e lig io n ,T o r th ro u g h its law s p rin c e s h a v e
w a n te d to give g r e a te r w e ig h t to th e ir a u th o rity w h ile p r ie s ts h a v e
w a n te d to e n ric h th e m se lv e s b y th e sale o f a fin fin ity o f c h im e ra s
w h ich th e y sell d e a rly to th e ig n o r a n t.14
T h e a u th o r o f th is m a n u s c rip t w o u ld h a v e us jo in in th e w o rk o f
d e stro y in g th e o ld re lig io n , f o u n d e d o n fe a r, re p u g n a n t to g o o d se n se
a n d to r e a s o n , y e t so a p p e a lin g to th e ig n o ra n t, th a t is to say th e
g r e a te r p a r t o f m a n k in d . C le a rly th is is a d a n g e ro u s e n te r p r is e ; p o liti
cal p o w e r is a t s ta k e h e re . D o e s R o u s s e t a d v o c ate a r e v o lu tio n ? In fa c t,
h e re m a rk s , th e se e d o f relig io n (I w a n t to say h o p e a n d f e a r ) fe d b y
th e d iv e rs e p a ssio n s a n d o p in io n s o f m e n , h as p ro d u c e d a g r e a t n u m b e r
o f b iz a rre b e lie fs w h ich a re th e c a u se s o f th e ills (m a u x ) a n d all th e
re v o lu tio n s th a t o c c u r in S ta te s . S o p rie sts a re th e tru e r e v o lu tio n a rie s ,
a n d th e m in iste rs o f g o d s, th e s e c u n n in g m e n , h av e a g r e a t s ta k e in
p re se rv in g th e lie ; th e y h a te th e t r u th .15 T h e cle ar im p lic a tio n h e re ,
a lth o u g h o n e th e tra c t sto p s s h o rt o f ad v o c atin g , is th a t a n e w k in d o f
re v o lu tio n (p e rh a p s first in m e n s m in d s) will b e n e c e ssa ry b e f o r e th e
p o w e r a c cru in g to p rie s ts , a n d b y im p lic a tio n p rin c es, w ill b e e r a d i
c a te d .
 222 THE R A D IC A L EN LIG HTENM EN T

T h is will b e n o easy ta s k . L e g isla to rs sin ce p a g a n tim e s h a v e b e e n

u sing th e law s, c u lts a n d c e re m o n ie s o f th e g o d s to n u r tu r e w h a te v e r
fan aticism th ey w a n te d to e sta b lis h , a n d M o ses, Je su s a n d M o h a m m e d
m erely fo llo w e d in th is tra d itio n . T h e a u th o r d w ells a t p a rtic u la r le n g th
on th e d u p lic ity o f M o ses. H e w as th e so n o f a m ag icia n w h o w as
a d m itte d in to th e p r ie s th o o d o f th e E g y p tia n s, m en o f g r e a t le a rn in g
c o m p a ra b le in th e ir so c ia l ro le s to th e D ru id s in G a u l. A s a re su lt
M o ses b e c a m e in his tim e a v ery g r e a t p o litic ia n , a v e ry le a rn e d
N a tu ra lis t a n d a v e ry fa m o u s M a g ic ia n . H e u se d his p r e te n d e d M a g ic
to rally th e d is c o n te n te d p e o p le s o f th e k in g d o m , in clu d in g th e H e b
rew s w h o w e re b y fa r th e m o st c re d u lo u s , b u t w h o h a d also b e e n
tre a te d m o st u n ju stly b y th e E g y p tia n k in g s. T h r o u g h h is k n o w le d g e o f
n a tu ra l fo rce s M o ses c o n triv e d m ira cle s a n d h o o d w in k e d his fo llo w e rs
in to re v e rin g h im lik e a g o d - h e h a d le a r n e d w ell th e le sso n s ta u g h t
b y th e P h a r o a h a n d h is p r ie s ts .16
J e su s fo llo w e d in th e fo o ts te p s o f M o ses - h e w as n o t ig n o ra n t o f th e
p re c e p ts n o r sc ie n c e o f th e E g y p tia n s . A s th e n u m b e r o f fo o ls is
in fin ite , Je su s C h rist fo u n d his s u b je c ts a m o n g th e m . In p e rh a p s th e
m o st im p io u s p o r tio n o f th e tre a tis e , th e a u th o r lab e ls Je su s as th m o st
c u n n in g im p o s to r o f th e m all. H e p ro m is e d n o t to d isru p t, to r e n d e r to
C a e sa r th e th in g s t h a t w e re C a e s a r s; in o th e r w o rd s, h e a c te d lik e
th o se p r in c e s w h o p r n iis e th e ir s u b je c ts all so rts o f p riv ileg es u n til
th e ir p o w e r is w ell e s ta b lis h e d a n d th e n th e y re n e g e o n th e ir p r o m
ise s.17 In s h o rt, J e su s is p o r tr a y e d as a k in d o f M a ch iav ellian w h o saw
th e e x tre m e c o rr u p tio n o f th e Jew ish R e p u b lic a n d w h o c o n triv e d ,
w ith th e a s sis ta n c e o f h is a m b itio u s fo llo w e rs, to c a u s e th o s e re v o lts
th a t c o n tin u e d u n til th e e n tir e d e s tru c tio n o f th e a n c ie n t R e p u b li o f
th e ~ H e b re w s . T o se al his la b o u rs , Je su s a n d h is fo llo w e rs, w h o se
b e lie fs a re ju s t a s a b s u rd as th o se o f w o m e n a n d id io ts ta u g h t th a t th is
n ew s e t o f law s p o s s e s s e d e te r n a l v a lid ity .18 I f R o u s s e t is th e a u th o r o f
th is p a rtic u la r p a s sa g e , r a th e r th a n its c o p ie r, th e n as th e o p e n in g
q u o ta tio n fo r th is c h a p te r w o u ld su g g e st, ag e a n d e x p e rie n c e ta u g h t
h im to m o d ify c o n s id e ra b ly his m iso gy ny . S ig n ifican tly , fro m th e p e r
sp e c tiv e o f R o u s s e ts la te r p o litica l in v o lv e m e n ts, h e assails Je su s h e re
as a c o r r u p to r o f re p u b lic s. Y e t th e a u th o r m u st a d m it th a t th e r e is
so m e m e rit in th e m o ra lity o f Je su s. O f c o u rse , h is p re c e p ts ca n all b e
f o u n d in th e w ritin g s o f th e a n c ie n t p a g a n s; o n e d o e s n o t fin d a n y th in g
m o re u sefu l o r m o re su b lim e in th e p o litics a n d m o ra ls o f C h rist th a n
in th e w ritin g s o f th e a n c ie n t P h ilo s o p h e rs .18
M a h a m e ta n ism c o n tin u e s th is p a tte r n o f su b v e rs io n a n d u p
h e a v a l, a lth o u g h th e a u th o r is slig h tly less h a rs h o n M o h a m m e d
th a n h e is o n M o ses a n d Je su s. M o h a m m e d is p u s h e d in to a ro le
o f le a d e rs h ip , b u t n e v e rth e le s s th e p a tte r n o f d e c e it a n d im p o s tu re
h o ld s tru e f o r h e w a s o n e o f th e th r e e c e le b ra te d le g isla to rs w h o se
 R ELIG IO N , R EV O LU TIO N AND THE NEW SC IEN CE 223

relig io n s h a v e s u b ju g a te d a g r e a t p a r t o f th e u n iv e rs e .20
I f all th e m a jo r relig io n s a re b u ilt u p o n a tissu e o f lies, w h a t a r e th e
a lte rn a tiv e s ? C le a rly m en m u st h a v e a n e w g o d , a n d t h a t m u st b e
n a tu r e , o r, if o n e w a n ts, th e g a th e rin g o f all b ein g s, o f a ll th e p r o p e r
tie s a n d all th e e n e rg ie s . . . a c a u se im m in e n t a n d n o t d is tin c t fro m its
e ffe c ts . T h e r e c a n b e n o G o d s , n o h e ll, n o sp irits, n o d e v ils - all th a t
ex ists is th e w o rld a ro u n d us - h e a v e n is n o th in g else b u t th e c o n tin u a
tio n o f th e a ir in w h ich w e liv e, a flu id in w hich th e p la n e ts m o v e .21
In th e Trait R o u s s e t, p o ssib ly in c o n ju n c tio n w ith s o m e p re v io u s
a u th o r , le a v e s h is re a d e r s w ith th e f o u n d a tio n o f a n e w re lig io n o f
n a tu r e . L ik e so m e m o d e rn c o m m e n ta t o r s a n d B ib lical s c h o la rs, th e s e
e a rly e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry p a n th e is ts h a v e c o n c lu d e d th a t J e s u s w as a n
im p o s to r , a rn ag ic ia n , b u t u n lik e th e m th e y h a v e g o n e f u r th e r a n d
o ffe re d in p la c e o f th e tra d itio n a l W e ste rn relig io n s a n e w c re e d , b a s e d
u p o n scie n c e, b u t a lso u p o n a n a tu ra lis m first p r o c la im e d b y th e
a n c ie n t p a g a n s .22 T h e a u th o r a tta c k s D e sc a rte s f o r n o t a d m ittin g th a t
th e so u l is m a te ria l, a lth o u g h h e u se s h is a rg u m e n ts a b o u t m o tio n in
a n im a ls to. co n c lu d e th a t w h a t D e s c a rte s o b se rv e d w as th e ir a c tu a l
p a rtic ip a tio n in th e u n iv e rsa l so u l o f th e w o rld .23
S u d d e n ly it is a s if w e h a v e c o m e fu ll circle. H a v in g a b a n d o n e d th e
s p irits o f tra d itio n a l C h ristia n ity w e o n c e ag a in e n c o u n te r a fo rm o f
sp irit - it is c e rta in th a t th e r e is in th e U n iv e rs e a v ery su b tle flu id o r a
v ery th in m a tte r [u n e m a ti re tr s-d li e ], alw ays in m o tio n , w h o se
so u rc e is in th e s u n . L ife a n d m o v e m e n t co m e fro m th is se m i-m a te ria l
so u l o f th e w o rld ; w h a t th e p o e ts a n d T h e o lo g ia n s to ld u s a b o u t
a n o th e r w o rld is c h im e ra .24 A few stro n g m in d s aTid sin c e re m e n h a v e
p e rc e iv e d th is n e w tr u th a n d in sp ite o f p e rse c u tio n th ey a r e cry in g o u t
a g a in st th e a b s u rd itie s o f th e ir tim e - ancTso th e y h a v e g iv en u s th is
sm all tre a tis e .25
T h e r e fe re n c e to th e e th e r as w ell as to th e su n c o n ju r e s u p th e
lite r a tu r e o f m ag ic, o f a stro lo g y a n d alch em y . I t is also o n e p o ssib le
id ic a tio n o f th e in flu e n c e o f th e F re n c h sp in o zist a n d p a rle m en ta ire
m e n tio n e d in C h a p te r 5, th e C o m te d e B o u la in v illie r. H e is a lm o st
c e rta in ly n o t in v o lv e d in th e Trait d ire c tly ; his sp in o zism w as f a r less
e x tre m e th a n th a t p u t fo rw a rd b y th is rad ic al c a d re , a n d o f c o u rs e
B o u la in v illie r w as n o t a re p u b lic a n .26 Y e t his sp in o z ist c o m m e n ta rie s ,
re p le te w ith h is re fe re n c e s to a stro lo g y , w ere c e rta in ly a ll o v e r th e
c la n d e stin e c irc u it. A n d th e r e is so m e th in g else to b e le a r n e d fro m
th e se re fe re n c e s: p a n th e is m , a lth o u g h so p ro fo u n d ly s e c u la r in its
o r ie n ta tio n , c o u ld slip , lo n g b e fo re th e R o m a n tic s g o t h o ld o f it, in to
th e la n g u a g e a n d m e ta p h o r o f m y sticism . T h e d isc o v e ry o f n ew
g o d s, o r e v e n o f a n e w G o d , th e G r a n d A rc h ite c t, a n d o f n ew
o b jec ts o f so cial w o rsh ip e n ta ile d , fo r b o th N ew to n ian s a n d p a n th e ists
a lik e , n o t o n ly ritu a ls b u t a lso a p ro fo u n d ly e m o tio n a l re v e re n c e
224 T H E R A D IC A L E N L IG H T E N M E N T

w hich le n t itself, p e rh a p s in ev ita b ly , to m ystical ex p re ssio n .

In th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , th e a n ti-M a so n a n d h isto ria n B e r n a rd F a y
saw in B o u la in v illie r a n d his circle o n e o f th e m ain sp rin g s o f E u r o p e a n
F re e m a so n ry . F a y s p a ra n o id re a d in g o f th a t h isto ry , b a se d u p o n little
c o n c re te e v id e n c e , c o n ta in s a few h a lf-tru th s w o rth n o tin g in re la tio n
to th e e v id e n c e w e n ow p ossess. F a y saw sp in o z ism , o f o n e v a rie ty o r
a n o th e r, as clo se to th e h e a rt o f M aso n ry , ig n o re d e n tire ly th e C h ris t
ian a p o lo g e tic s o f th e N e w to n ia n s, a n d th o u g h t th a t h e c o u ld fin d an
in d ig e n o u s a ris to c ra tic F re n c h M aso n ry . If F ay h a d s to p p e d his p o l
em ics lo n g e n o u g h to d o so m e h a rd re s e a rc h in th e N e th e rla n d s h e
m ig h t h a v e se en th a t w ith in a t lea st o n e M aso n ic c ircle th e su b v ersiv e
id eas h e d isc e rn e d in so m e la te e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry F re n c h M aso n s h a d
a n te c e d e n ts in th e s e H u g u e n o t a n d E n g lish re p u b lic a n c irc les.27
T h e Trait su m m a rise d a living c re e d ; it w as n o t sim p ly an e x tr a p o la
tio n fro m B ru n o o r S p in o za. It p ro c la im e d a u n iq u e a tte m p t to a rriv e
a t a n ew relig io n o f n a tu r e b a s e d u p o n th e o ld n a tu ra lism a n d also u p o n
th e n ew n a tu ra l p h ilo so p h ie s in h e rite d fro m th e S cien tific R e v o lu tio n .
It h a d m ystical e le m e n ts ; b u t it w as n o t a n ti-sc ie n tific - a lth o u g h
sh o rtly w e m u st fo cu s o u r a tte n tio n o n th e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n m e n ts
ex a ct d e b t to th e S cien tific R e v o lu tio n . P a n th e ism w as, m o re o v e r,
d irec tly lin k e d , as I h a v e in d ic a te d , to re p u b lic a n ism . T h is s p irit-in
m a tte r p h ilo so p h y m u st b e se e n , w ith in th o se circles at le a st, as th e
p h ilo so p h ical f o u n d a tio n fo r re p u b lic a n a n d e v e n d e m o c ra tic
p h ilo so p h ie s o f g o v e rn m e n t. If th e w o rld o f o rd in a ry p e o p le a n d d aily
e v e n ts is r e n d e r e d , in e ffe c t, sa cre d th e n sy stem s o f g o v e rn m e n t ju s
tified b y l e c o u r s e to s u p e rn a tu ra l a u th o rity , e v e n if r e in f o r c e d 'b y
h u m a n c o n tra c ts, lo se all v alid ity . In th is s e c u la rism - u n d e rs to o d as
a n o th e r fo rm o f relig io sity - to w hich p a n th e ism in e v ita b ly lea d s w e
h av e also ta k e n a ste p c lo se r to e v o lu tio n a ry th e o rie s o f d e v e lo p m e n t,
n o t o n ly o f p la n ts a n d a n im als b u t also o f m en a n d in stitu tio n s. B y
im p lica tio n , p e o p le can im p o se o r d isp o se o f e s ta b lis h e d a u th o ritie s ;
by th e logic o f c irc u m sta n c e s th ey ca n m u ch m o re easily (th a n by
re c o u rse to p ro v id e n tia l d e sig n ) ju stify re v o lu tio n a ry a c tio n .
B y lin k in g th e Trait d ire c tly w ith th is c o te rie o f F re n c h re fu g e e s
n ew c h a n n els in to th e e a rly E n lig h te n m e n t a re o p e n e d . R e lig io n ,
n a tu ra l p h ilo so p h y , o r in a m o re g e n e ric se n se sc ie n c e, a n d p o litics a re
fu sed in th e p ro g ra m m e in itia te d by a n in te rn a tio n a l so cial w o rld th a t
w as sm all b u t c o h e siv e , w ith access to th e p rin tin g p re ss a n d h e n c e to
th e w ho le o f F re n c h -re a d in g E u ro p e . Its m e m b e rs p lie d th e ir tra d e o n
a v a rie ty o f lite ra ry p ro je c ts , b u t w h e re v e r p o ssib le , th es e p a n th e is ts
a n d re p u b lic a n s so u g h t access to p o litic a l p o w e r. T h e y c irc u la te d
a ro u n d th e c o u rt o f E u g n e o f S av oy in T h e H a g u e , a n d y e a rs la te r
R o u sse t to ld th e A u s tria n m in ister, th e C o m te d e C o b e n z l, in w h o se
serv ice h e w as th e n e m p lo y e d , th a t h e h a d o n m an y o ccasio n s d u rin g
 i

R EL IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A ND T H E NEW S C IE N C E 2 25

th e W a r o f S p an ish S u c ce ssio n g iv en ad v ice to t h a t p rin c e .28 A f te r h is

d e p a r tu r e , s o m e o f th e s e re fu g e e s a p p e a r to h a v e s e rv e d a s a g e n ts f o r
th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t; b y th e 1 74 0 s, as w e sh all se e, R o u s s e t a n d
so m e o f h is M a so n ic frie n d s h a v e b e c o m e av id O ra n g is ts a s w ell as
a d v o c a te s o f d e m o c ra tic re fo rm .
A n d fin ally th e re is th e c o n n e ctio n b e tw e en th e K nights, th e ir lite ra ry
so c ie ty a n d F re e m a s o n ry . A risto c ra tic , N e w to n ia n , s y c o p h a n tic o f
c o u rts a n d k ing s in th e m a in , y e t F re e m a s o n ry w as a p o te n tia lly
d a n g e ro u s in stitu tio n c a p a b le o f h o u sin g re p u b lic a n s a n d p a n th e is ts
a n d o f n u rtu rin g th e ir fa n ta s ie s fo r so cial e q u a lity a n d p o litic a l r e f o r m .
P e rh a p s n o w w e c a n se e w h y , in th e la te e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y a n d w ell
b e y o n d , a t a tim e o f re v o lu tio n a ry u p h e a v a l, p ro p o n e n ts o f t h e a ncien
rgim e fa s te n e d th e ir p a r a n o id th e o rie s o f c o n sp ira cy a r o u n d t h a t v e ry
in stitu tio n . T h e r e w as n o M aso n ic co n s p ira cy to su b v e rt th e e s ta b
lish e d o r d e r ; b u t th e r e c e rta in ly w e re F re e m a s o n s w h o f ro m th e e a rly
e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry o n w a rd s b ro u g h t th e ir d isc o n te n t w ith th e p o s t
re v o lu tio n a ry o r d e r in E n g la n d o n to th e C o n tin e n t a n d e x p o r te d in to
n o r th e r n E u r o p e a n in stitu tio n th a t c o u ld p ro v id e a so cia l n e x u s fo r
d isp la c e d id ea lists, p o litic a l a g e n ts a n d su b v ersiv e th in k e rs. D u rin g th e
D u tc h R e v o lu tio n o f 1 7 4 7 , R o u s s e t d e M issy, a lth o u g h a lo y a l O r a n -
g ist, u ltim a te ly sid e d w ith its rad ic al a n d re fo rm in g a rtisa n c o n tin g e n t
(see p p . 2 33 et seq. ). A f te r h is exile fro m P a ris, th e A b b Y v o n , w h o
w ro te m an y o f th e a rtic le s th a t c o v e rtly e x p lic a te d m a te ria lis m f o r
D id e r o ts E n c y clo p d ie , tu r n e d u p in A m s te rd a m a n d b e c a m e a n
o ffic er in o n e o f its M aso n ic lo d g es. I n d e e d , fo r m id -c e n tu ry ra d ic a ls ,
w h e th e r in te lle c tu a l o r p o litic a l, p a n th e is tic T naterialisrif, o f th e s o rt
f o u n d in th e Trait , r e m a in e d a d o m in a n t c re e d a n d M a so n ic lo d g e s
o ffe re d an o b v io u s p la c e f o r its e x p re ssio n .
W e sh all n e v e r k n o w w h a t all th e K n ig h ts o f J u b ila tio n th o u g h t
a b o u t th e lite ra ry m a s te rp ie c e p e rp e tr a te d b y R o u sse t a n d L e v ie r . Y e t
th e r e is o n e clu e th a t m ay h e lp to r e la te it to th e ir p a rtic u la r c irc u m
sta n c e s as F re n c h re fu g e e s w ith d e c id e d p o litic a l in te re s ts a n d t r a d i
tio n s. M a rc h a n d k e p t a c o p y o f R o u s s e ts R p o n s e , w h ic h u su a lly
a c c o m p a n ie d th e T rait , in h is v e ry p riv a te lib ra ry . H is la r g e r lib r a ry ,
d o n a te d to th e U n iv e rsity o f L e id e n w as (a n d still is) g ra n d in d e e d ; h is
m u ch sm a lle r p riv a te o n e n o ta b ly c o n ta in e d a h ea v y d o se o f p a n th e is
tic a n d n a tu ra lis tic w o rk s, b y A r p e a n d a b o u t S p in o z a, b y T o la n d a n d
C o llin s, as w ell as tra n s la tio n s o f A lg e rn o n S id n ey , a n d N e w to n ia n
w o rk s b y s G r a v e s a n d e .29 M a rc h a n d w as a b rillia n t b ib lio g ra p h e r
w h o se u n iq u e sy ste m o f c lassifica tio n , c o -fo u n d e d w ith h is P a ris ia n
a s so c ia te , G a b rie l M a rtin , c o n tr ib u te d decisiv ely to th e e n c y c lo p a e d ic
m e th o d o f c a ta lo g u in g k n o w le d g e la te r re fin e d b y D id e r o t a n d
d A le m b e rt ( 1 3 1 ,1 5 - 1 6 ) . H is o w n lib ra ry w as m eticu lo usly c a ta lo g u e d
a c c o rd in g to s u b je c t m a tte r a n d v o lu m e size. A s h is p r e s e r v e d
 226 T H E R A D IC A L E N L IG H T E N M E N T

c a ta lo g u e s in d ic a te , w h e n h e classified a b o o k h e d id so in te n tio n a lly

a n d w ith k n o w le d g e o f its c o n te n ts. W h a t th e n w as his lo g ic in sin gling
o u t R o u s s e ts R p o n se fo r sp ecial classificatio n in his p riv a te lib ra ry
w h e re it w as a c c o m p a n ie d by on ly o n e o th e r b o o k , a n d b o th u n d e r th
h e a d in g b o o k s o f p o litic s ?
T h e c o m p a n io n v o lu m e , th e V indiciae contra T y ra n n o s (B asle,
1 5 7 9 ), w as o n e o f th e m o st rad ical p o litica l tre a tis e s o f th e six te e n th
c e n tu ry , a n d it o p e n ly a d v o c a te d re b e llio n a g a in st ty ra n n ic a l a u th o rity
( 1 2 3 ,3 0 5 ) . T h is s ta rtlin g lin k , b e tw e e n th e Trait a n d th e V ind ic ia e , as
p e rc e iv e d b y M a rc h a n d , p ro v id e s v a lu a b le h isto ric a l b a c k g ro u n d fo r
th e p o litic a l th o u g h t o f th e R a d ic al E n lig h te n m e n t, a n d also ex p lic ate s
th e p o litic a l m e a n in g o f th e Trait. T h e se F re n c h P r o te s ta n t re fu g e e s
in T h e H a g u e , e x ile d a n d b itte rly h o stile to w a rd s L o u is X IV a n d his
a b s o lu tis t re g im e , p r o b a b ly d id n o t a rriv e th e r e as p o litic a lly n av e as
th e tra d itio n a l a c c o u n ts o f th e ir p lig h t m ig h t im p ly . In o n e sen se th e y
d id n o t n e e d th e E n g lis h C o m m o n w e a lth m e n to te a c h th e m to th e o rise
a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f ty ra n n y a n d its p o litica l c o rre c tiv e , re b e llio n . T h e
V in dic ia e h a d b e e n w ritte n b y a. F re n c h P r o te s ta n t le a d e r d u rin g th e
re lig io u s w ars o f th e la te s ix te e n th c e n tu ry . I t sp o k e to a g ro w in g
re a lis a tio n w ith in H u g u e n o t circles a t th e tim e ( 1 5 7 4 - 5 ) th a t in th e
w a k e o f th e S t B a r th o lo m e w s D ay M assac re (1 5 7 2 ) th e p re s e rv a tio n
o f P ro te s ta n tis m in F ia n c e w ou ld re q u ire o p e n re b e llio n a n d th a t p o lit
ical c o m p ro m ise w ith m n a rc h y itself a p p e a re d in creasin g ly im po ssible.
Q u ite p ro b a b ly w ritte n by P h illip p e d u P lessis-M o rn ay (1 5 4 9 -1 6 2 3 )
b u t a im e d a t a circ le t h a t in c lu d e d his y o u n g a n d d e v o te d frie n d ,
'H u b e r F L a n g u e t, as w ell as o th e r re v o lu tio n a rie s su c h as F ra n o is
H o tm a n (1 2 5 , 2 2 7 , 2 7 4 ) , th e V in dic ae a n n o u n c e s th a t th e r e is n o
ju stific a tio n f o r th a t p re p o s te ro u s se rv ility th a t th e sy co p h an ts" o f
p rin c e s u rg e u p o n th e sim p le -m in d e d (1 2 4 , 1 45 ). K ings rece iv e th e ir
p o w e r to ru le fro m th e p e o p le w ith w h o m th e y h a v e a c o v e n a n t to
r u lq ju s tly a n d to p r o te c t tru e re lig io n , th a t is th e law s o f G o d . If a k in g
b e c o m e s a t y r a n t a n d p e rs e c u to r , th e p e o p le , th ro u g h th e ir m ag is
tr a te s , h a v e a r ig h t to ris e u p a g a in st h im . C e n tra l to th e a rg u m e n t o f
th e V in dicia e is th e ro le o f th e m a g is tra te , th o se p u b lic m en to w h o m
th e p e o p le h a v e tr a n s f e r r e d th e ir p o w e r a n d w h o c o u ld b e fo u n d in a
v a rie ty o f in s titu tio n s , a s le a d e rs o f th e to w n s a n d citie s, as ju d g e s in
th e p a rle m en ts , as m e m b e rs o f th e E s ta te s . T h o s e m a g istra te s a lo n e
h a v e th e r ig h t a n d a u th o r ity to le a d a re b e llio n , a lth o u g h th e V indiciae
d o e s g ra n t t h a t a t c e rta in tim es G o d m ay in sp ire p riv a te p e rs o n s to
in itia te re s is ta n c e if th e y a re sp ecially su m m o n e d fo r th a t p u r p o s e .
U tm o s t c a re m u st b e e n lis te d , h o w e v e r, to g u a rd a g a in st falsely
in sp ire d le a d e r s ; w e s h o u ld a t le a s t lo o k fo r th e s e in te r n a l signs . . .
a b se n c e o f all a m b itio n , g e n u in e a n d e a rn e s t z e al, c o n sc ie n tio u sn e ss
a n d fin ally le a r n in g . . . (1 2 4 , 1 5 6 ).
 R EL IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A N D TH E NEW S CIEN C E 2 27

In d e e d th e V indiciae n o t o n ly a s se rts th e rig h t o f re b e llio n , it m ay

a lso b e in te r p re te d as a r e p u b lic a n tr a c t in th a t it a sse rts th a t th e k in g
is lik e a p r e s id e n t a m o n g [th e p e o p le h e ] p o ssesses o n ly p rim a c y o f
p la c e . F o r as th e e n tire p e o p le is a b o v e th e k ing , so th e s e o fficers,
a lth o u g h b e lo w th e k in g as in d iv id u a ls, a re ab o v e h im w h e n ta k e n as a
b o d y (p. 1 6 2 ). S e en fro m th e p e rsp e c tiv e o f th e E n g lis h C o m m o n
w e a lth tra d itio n (th e V indiciae w as first tra n s la te d in to E n g lis h in
1 6 4 8 ), e a rly e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry r e a d e r s c o u ld h a v e in te r p r e te d th e
tra c t as a sse rtin g th e p rim a cy o f re p r e s e n ta tiv e in stitu tio n s a n d le sse r
m a g istra te s o v e r th e a u th o rity o f m o n a rc h s o r ev e n ru lin g o lig a rch ie s
fo r ty ra n n y re se m b le s o lig a rc h y (p. 1 86 ). A s a d o c u m e n t th a t p r o
claim s c o n tra c t th e o ry as th e b asis o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d w h ich a s se rts th e
p d m a c y o f citizen lea d e rs, th e V indiciae o ffe red a p o w e rfu l c ritiq u e o f
a b so lu tis m a n d o n e t h a t w as c o m p a tib le w ith th e b eliefs h e ld b y W h ig
ra d ic a ls. I t is h a r d to b e lie v e th a t th e s e F re n c h re fu g e e s w e re u n fa m il
ia r w ith its d o c trin e s o r h o stile to u ts ad v o cac y o f re b e llio n b e fo re th e ir
a rriv a l in T h e H a g u e .
W h y , h o w e v e r, d id M a rc h a n d p la c e th e T rait , as e x p lic a te d b y
R o u s s e ts R p o n se , n e x t to th e V in diciae ? T h e a u th o r o r a u th o r s o f th e
V in diciae w e re d e e p ly C h ristia n m e n c o m m itte d to th e C a lv in is t d o c
trin e o f p re d e s tin a tio n a n d to a lite ra l fa ith in th e s a c re d m e a n in g o f
S c rip tu re . H a d n o t C alv in , in tu rn , b u r n e d f re e th in k e rs lik e S e rv e tu s
w h o se a n ti-T rin ita ria n is m a n d n a tu ra lis m m ad e h im a h e r o to T o la n d ,
C o llin s, R o u s s e t d e M issy a n d th e ir frie n d s? T h e la te s ix te e n th -c e n tu ry
C alv in ists w o rsh ip p e d th e G o d o f tra d itio n a l C h ristia n ity ; th e e a rly
e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry p a n th e is ts~ w o rsh ip p e d n a tu re . Y e t b o th b e lie v e d
th a t th e ru le s o f p o litical o b lig a tio n c o u ld b e d e riv e d fro m th e law s o f
n a tu r e ; th e ir p h ilo so p h ic a l d e fin itio n s ofTfrat c o n c e p t sim p ly d iffe re d
p ro fo u n d ly . A n d b o th a re lin k e d in h isto ry by th e ir v io le n t o p p o sitio n
to a b so lu tis m a n d by th e ir e n fo rc e d ex ile in th e N e th e rla n d s w h e re o n
b o th o c c as io n s , as w e sh all se e in o ur^ d iscu ssion o f th e D u tc h
R e v o lu tio n o f 1 7 4 7 , th e se P r o te s ta n t re fu g e e s e m b ra c e d th e ca u se
o f th e H o u s e o f O ra n g e . In th e la te six te e n th c e n tu ry , H u g u e n o t
r e v o lu tio n a rie s b e lo n g e d to an in te rn a tio n a lly lin k e d P r o te s ta n t n e t
w o rk th a t p ra c tis e d secre cy fo r su rv iv al a n d th a t w a g ed b itte r w ar
a g a in st th e S p a n ish cro w n in th e N e th e rla n d s , a n d a fte r th e M assa cre
o f S t B a r th o lo m e w s D ay , ag a in st th e F re n c h c h u rc h a n d its k in g .30 T h e
F re e m a s o n ry to w h ich R o u s s e t a n d his frie n d s w e re d ra w n fu lfilled
m an y o f th e sa m e so cial n e e d s as d id th e C alv in ist c h u rc h e s, a n d like
th o se c h u rc h e s in th e ir tim e o f p e rse c u tio n , b u t fo r v e ry d iffe re n t
re a s o n s , it to o w as s e c re t a n d in te rn a tio n a l in sco p e.
M a rc h a n d s a sso c ia tio n o f th e s e a n o n y m o u s tra c ts m a k e s a g o o d
d e a l o f h isto ric a l sen se. B o th e m a n a te d fro m circles o f F re n c h
H u g u e n o ts b itte r ly a lie n a te d fro m m o n arc h y a n d p r e p a r e d to w age
228 THE R A D IC AL EN LIG HTENM EN T

w ar ag a in st it. D id n o t M a rc h a n d , R o u sse t a n d th e ir frie n d s give th e ir

a lleg ian ce to E u g n e o f S av oy as th a t m a g istra te w h o w ou ld le a d
P r o te s ta n t E u r o p e a g a in st L o u is X IV ? O r d id b o th g ro u p s, in th e ir
p rac tic e o f secrec y , e m b ra c e th e n o tio n th a t in so m e sen se th ey w e re
th e n e e d e d m a g istra te s, o r a t le a st th e ir e d u c a te d m a n d a rin s?
F u r th e r m o r e , b o th tra c ts b itte rly assail ty ra n n y , o n ly th e Trait c o n
fla tes p o litic a l a n d re lig io u s ty ra n n y a n d lays b la m e sq u a re ly o n th e
m a jo r relig io n s a n d th e ir fo u n d e rs. B o th im p ly th a t a few e n lig h te n e d
m en m u st b e f o u n d w h o can in itia te th e re b e llio n , th e o v e rth ro w o f
ty ra n n y . A n d b o th tra c ts , w hile a sse rtin g th e fu n d a m e n ta l ro le o f th e
p e o p le , d isp la y a d e e p fe a r o f th e ir su p p o se d ig n o ra n c e . B o th h a v e
d e m o c ra tic te n d e n c ie s, th e first b e c a u se it a sse rts th e p e o p le s c o n tra c t
w ith G o d a n d th e k ing , th e se co n d b e c au se it w o u ld h a v e all m en b e
p a rt o f n a tu r e a n d h e n c e in ev ita b ly e q u a l.
T h e Trait a n d its a u th o rs p a rte d co m p a n y fro m th e in te lle c tu a l a n d
so cial tra d itio n o f H u g u e n o t rad ic alism fro m w h ich th e y e m e rg e d o n
th e cru c ial q u e stio n o f relig io n . T h e irs w o u ld b e o f a n d fro m n a tu r e ,
d e v o id o f p rie sts b u t n o t o f e n lig h te n e d m a n d a rin s. T h e y b e lie v ed in
th e to ta l a u th o rity o f te m p o ra l ru le rs a n d h u m a n law s o v e r th e r e
lig iou s co m riiu n ity , y e t th e y also , lik e d u P le ss is -M o rn ay a n d his
frie n d s, b e lie v e d in re lig io u s to le ra tio n . P o litic a l a u th o rity cam e fro m
c o n tra c ts a n d n o t fro m d iv in e sa n c tio n . T h e ra d ic a ls o f th e E n lig h te n
m e n t w o u ld c h a m p io n H o b b e s a n d L o c k e (fo r d is p a ra te re a so n s to b e
s u re ) in th e first in sta n c e b e c a u se th e y o ffe re d d e fa cto th e o rie s o f
g o v e rn m e n t a n d e x c lu d e d a n y n o tio n o f d iv in e rig h t o r p ro v id e n tia lly
sa n ctio n ed - a u th o rity . T h e R a d ic al E n lig h te n m e n t w asa p ro fo u n d ly
p o litical m o v e m e n t, a n d th e p a n th e ism it b ro u g h t to th e E n lig h te n
m e n t se rv e d as o n e fo u n d a tio n fo r re p u b lic a n ism th a t w o u ld su rv iv e
u n til w ell in to th e la te r p a rt o f th e c e n tu ry .
K n ow in g n o w so m e th in g a b o u t M a rc h a n d s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
g e n re o f lite r a tu r e to w hich th e Trait b e lo n g e d , can w e, b e fo re tu rn in g
o u r a tte n tio n to th e c o n c re te p o litica l in v o lv e m e n ts as w ell as th e o th e r
in te lle c tu a l activ ities o f th e K n ig h ts a n d th e ir a sso c ia te s, a tte m p t to
g a u g e th e im p a c t o f th e m an u sc rip t a m o n g its e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry
re a d e rs ? F o r in sta n c e, w h a t re le v a n c e m ig h t it h a v e h a d fo r th e
M aso n ic circles in tro d u c e d in th e p rev io u s c h a p te r, fo r th o se m en a n d
w o m en w h o h a d c h o s en to w o rs h ip in th e n e w te m p le o f re a s o n ? T h a t
is th e m o st d ifficu lt (p ro b a b ly im p o ssib le ) q u e s tio n to an sw e r, b u t
th e re is o n e p ie c e o f e v id e n c e fro m T h e H a g u e th a t is so fascin atin g as
to b e g fo r o u r a tte n tio n . T h e R o y a l L ib ra ry p o ss es se s a u n iq u e m a n u
scrip t v ersio n o f th e Trait , o n e o f th e m an y to b e fo u n d all o v e r
E u ro p e , b u t in th is ca se it is b o u n d w ith a c o p y o f A r p e s essay o n
V an in i a n d h is sc u rrilo u s D e tribus im p o sto rib u s .31 I t is u n d a te d , b u t
a lm o st c e rtain ly co m e s fro m n o la te r th a n 1 7 5 0 , a n d in d e e d g iven its
 R EL IG IO N , R EV O L U T IO N A ND T H E NEW S C IEN C E 229

; lo c a tio n a n d th is p a rtic u la r c o m b in a tio n o f m a n u sc rip ts it c o u ld h a v e

c o m e fro m so m e o n e in th e M a rc h a n d -R o u s s e t circle. T h e m a n u s c rip t
is a lso u n iq u e , h o w e v e r, in p ro v id in g a fin al se ctio n w h e re th e
a n o n y m o u s r e a d e r o f th e se c la n d e stin e m an u sc rip ts o ffe rs a s h o rt
m e d ita tio n o n th e ir m ea n in g . A M o ral T re a tis e , fo llo w in g th e P rin c i
p les o f N a tu r e . T h is is a m a te u r p h ilo so p h isin g , a n d as a r e s u lt all th e
m o re fas c in atin g .
T h e id e a o f n a tu r e p re s e n ts th is s e e k e r o f e n lig h te n m e n t w ith so m e
p ro b le m s, it is a c o m p o site o f th e w o rk s o f th e C r e a to r , a g e n e ra l
d e fin itio n , th a t co n fo rm s to th e id ea o f an A H , b u t m o st im p o r ta n t fo r
th is w rite r, w ith in n a tu r e th e r e a re in d iv id u als w ith a n e s se n c e o f th e ir
o w n .32 T h e C r e a to r can b e n a tu r e , o r if y o u lik e vice v e rs a . W h a t is
im p o r ta n t is th e m e a n in g d e riv e d fro m th is p h ilo so p h y o f n a tu r e fo r
th e in d iv id u a l. T h is a rm c h a ir p h ilo s o p h e r h a d o b v io u sly b e e n ra is e d to
b e lie v e in th e tra d itio n a l G o d a n d w h en h e , o r p o ssib ly s h e , m o v es
aw a y fro m th a t c o n c e p t a n d e m b ra c e s th e id e a o f n a tu re , w o rd s d o n o t
alw ays m ea n w h a t th e y sh o u ld . B u t th e a u th o r m ak e s it c le a r th a t w h a t
is re a lly in te re stin g a b o u t th e s e tre a tis e s a re th e p ra c tic a l, m o ra l im p li
c a tio n s o f th is id e a o f n a tu r e fo r in d iv id u als. W h y did n a tu r e m a k e u s?
I h a v e b o ld ly d e c id e d th a t it w as to m ak e us h a p p y .33 M a n is th e k in g
o f n a tu r e , so v e re ig n o f h is re a s o n , a n d h e h as a v a ila b le to h im s e lf th e
m e a n s o f m ak in g h im se lf m o re h a p p y ; o u r ric h e s a re in e ffe c t w ith in u s.
T h is m e d ita tio n o n th e p ra c tic a l m o ra lity im p licit in th e law s o f n a tu r e ,
a c c o rd in g to th is a u th o r , will n o t b e to th e ta s te o f th e th e o lo g ia n s b u t
th e ir o rth o d o x ie s h a v e a p ra c tic a l effe ct c o n tra ry to th e law s o f
n a tu r e .34 ^ .
R e a l h a p p in e ss co n sists in a n in tim a te u n io n o f th e b o d y a n d th e
so u l; th e so u l allow s us to p e rc e iv e clea rly b u t it is also th e s e a t o f th e
p a ssio n s. N a tu re p u t p a ssio n s in in d iv id u als fo r a p u r p o s e : N a tu re
d o e s n o th in g in v ain , sh e w a n ts th e b o d y to b e a n im a te d b y th e s o u l.35
In sh o rt, p a n th e ism ju stifie s sex u al fre e d o m , T h e m a jo r p o r tio n o f th is
p h ilo so p h ic a l m e d ita tio n c o n c e rn s h a p p in e ss fo r th e tw o s e x e s . T h e
a u th o r sta te s th a t m en a n d w o m e n a re eq u a lly se n sib le o f th e ir h a p p i
n ess, th e ir n a tu r e is ju s t a b o u t th e sa m e a n d th e d iffe re n c e th a t o n e
fin d s in th e ir c o n d u c t is th e e ffe ct o f e d u c a tio n .
T h is p ra c tic a l p h ilo s o p h e r h as m o v ed lo gically fro m th e h e a d y
m eta p h y s ic s o f p a n th e is tic m a te ria lism to try in g to fig u re o u t h o w b o th
m en a n d w o m e n c an b e tt e r e n jo y th em se lv es a n d o n e a n o th e r . E d u c a
tio n b e n e fits m en in th a t th e y d e v e lo p an in d e p e n d e n c e o f th o u g h t;
th e y a re n o t as b o u n d b y ru le s, th e y a re a b le m o re e a sily to c h o o se
th e ir p le a s u r e s . B u t w o m e n in m a tte rs o f p le a s u re a re r e s tr a in e d b y
th e ru le s th a t m en h a v e fo o lis h ly d e m a n d e d o f th e m .36 H e d o n is m r u n s
a g ro u n d o n th e o b sta c le o f a w o m a n s p u b lic im a g e , r e p u ta tio n , in m y
o p in io n , is th e p o iso n o f v o lu p tu o u sn e ss, it c o rru p ts n a tu r e a n d
d e b a se s o u r c le a re st p le a s u r e s .37
 2 30 TH E R A D IC A L EN LIG H TENM EN T

T h is sh o rt tre a tis e e n d s w ith a stirrin g d e n u n c ia tio n o f th e te n d e n c y

to c h o o s e r e p u ta tio n o v e r n a tu r e , o f all th e p a ssio n s th e r e is n o n e
m o re to le ra b le th a n lo v e , it p u rifie s th e s p i r i t . . . lo v e is th e G o d o f th e
fin e a rts , p o e try a n d m u sic a re its fa ith fu l c o m p a n io n s .38 O u r h e d o n is t
(I s p e a k fro m e x p e rie n c e ) h a s fo u n d in th e Trait a n d in th e n a tu r a l
istic tra d itio n o u t o f w h ich it c a m e , a p h ilo so p h ic ju stific a tio n fo r
h u m a n sex u al fre e d o m . A v a rie ty o f E n lig h te n m e n t p h ilo so p h e s w e re
to e x tr a c t a sim ila r m essa g e fro m th a t sa m e m a te ria lis t tra d itio n .39
P a n th e is m n o t o n ly te n d e d to lev el p rin c e s, it c o u ld also p ro v id e
ju stific a tio n fo r th e e q u a lity o f th e sex es as w ell as f o r a v a rie ty o f
p le a s u r a b le h u m a n fre e d o m s . T h e ad v o cacy o f se x u al fre e d o m in
itse lf, esp ec ia lly w ith o u t th e m e a n s o f effectiv e b irth c o n tro l, co u ld n o t
p ro v id e , a n i^ o re th a n c o u ld p riv a te M aso n ic lo d g es fo r w o m e n , th e
f o u n d a tio n o f so cial a n d se x u al e g a lita ria n ism . Y e t b o th m ig h t se rv e to
su g g e st th e failin g s o f th e p re v a ilin g so c ia l a n d se x u al o rd e r. I t w as
te r r ib ly im p o r ta n t f o r in d iv id u als se e k in g to ju stify n e w v a rie tie s o f
h u m a n f re e d o m to h a v e a v a ila b le a c o h e re n t p h ilo so p h ic a l tra d itio n
a n d a call to a c tio n , su c h as w as fo u n d in m a n u sc rip ts lik e th e T rait ,
fro m w h ich th e y m ig h t fin d so la c e as w ell as in sp ira tio n .
I f M a rc h a n d p e rc e iv e d th e Trait as a p o litica l tre a tis e , w hich a m o n g
o th e r th in g s it w as, th e n w e m ig h t rig h tfu lly b e le d to e x p e c t a sig n ifi
c a n t v o lu m e o f p o litic a l tra c ts a ttr ib u ta b le to th e K n ig h ts a n d th e ir
frie n d s. T h e re p u b lic a n s ta te m e n ts o f S a in t-H y a c in th e a n d J e a n F r
d ric B e r n a r d h a v e a lr e a d y b e e n n o te d as h as b e e n R a p in d e T h o y r a s s
a sso c ia tio n w ith th is c o te rie . J a c q u e s B o y d , o n e o f th e m e m b e rs o f th e
- lit e r a r y so c ie ty , w as a ls o a tra n s la to r o r p o ssib ly a n e d ito r o f A lg e rn o n " -
S id n e y .40 S h a fte s b u ry , th e g r e a t frie n d o f B e n ja m in F u rly , th o u g h t o f
fiis a s so c ia te s in th e N e th e rla n d s as th e H o lla n d W h ig P arty * -a n d
e n d e a v o u r e d to d is tr ib u te co p ie s o f T o la n d s e d itio n o f H a r r in g to n s
W orks a m o n g th e m (2 8 , 4 4 ). T h e effect o f th is c o n ta c t w ith th e h e a d y
id ea lis m o f th e ra d ic a l W h ig s w as to r e n d e r th e K n ig h ts in to A n g lo
p h ile s o f a s o rt. Y e a rs a f te r th o se e n c o u n te rs , R o u s s e t d e M issy saw
e v e n V o lta ir e as a n im ita to r o f th e se fa m o u s f re e th in k e rs o f L o n d o n .
In e v ita b ly so m e o f th e s e F re n c h c o n v e rts b e c a m e W hig p ro p a g a n d is ts .
Y e t d e d ic a te d to th e a b stra c tio n s o f W h ig gery, in th e c o n te x t o f th e
D u tc h R e p u b lic , p r o d u c e d a u n iq u e b o d y o f p olitical lite ra tu re th a t
c a n n o t b e e x p la in ed so lely by re fe re n c e to th e E n glish R ev o lu tio n .
R o u s s e t, in p a rtic u la r, p u t o u t an e n o rm o u s v o lu m e o f p o litica l
p ro p a g a n d a , m o st o f it in s u p p o rt o f W hig fo re ig n p o licy a n d th e
n o r th e r n a llia n c e o f th e M a ritim e P o w e rs a n d A u s tria . If h e w as n o t
p a id fo r his se rv ic es h e s h o u ld h a v e b e e n . H is c a re e r as a p ro p a g a n d is t
b e g a n w ith th e tra n s la tio n o f C o llin s D iscourse o f F reeth in kin g (1 7 1 3 )
w hich h a d b e e n in te n d e d by C o llin s, as th e p re fa c e to th e F re n c h
tra n s la tio n e x p la in s, as a p ie c e o f w ell-tim ed p o litic a l p ro p a g a n d a a n d
 R ELIG ION , R EV O LU TIO N AND THE NEW SC IENC E 231

w h ich R o u s s e t, in tu rn , p u t o u t w ith his frie n d a n d life -lo n g a s so c ia te ,

th e p u b lis h e r H e n ri S c h e u rle e r. R o u s s e t also w ro te , o r tra n s la te d ,
o th e r w o rk s o f a m o re o r th o d o x c h a ra c te r, in te n d e d to ju stify th e W hig
in te r p r e ta tio n o f 1 6 8 8 - 9 as w ell as to d e fe a t th e J a c o b ite c h a lle n g e
(1 5 5 ). F u rth e rm o re , h e c o n trib u te d to th e lite ra tu re th a t a p o th e o s ise d
E u g n e o f S av o y, as d id B e r n a rd P ic a rt w h o p ro d u c e d a n e la b o r a te
e n g ra v in g o n th e sa m e th e m e .41
L ik e w ise , th e e a rlie s t jo u rn a lis tic p u b lic a tio n s o f th e K n ig h ts o r
th e ir a sso c ia te s in d ic a te a h ig h d e g re e o f a w a re n e ss o f E n g lis h p o litic a l
a n d c u ltu ra l life a n d e v e n a c o n scio u s d e sire to im ita te a n d d iss e m in a te
its a c h ie v e m e n ts. R o u s s e t p u b lis h e d a jo u rn a l m o d e lle d o n th e S p e c
ta to r , w h ile th e jo u rn a lis m a n d tra n s la tin g in to D u tc h u n d e r ta k e n by
J u s tu s V a n E ffe n is w ell k n o w n f o r its transm ission- o f E n g lis h , a n d in
p a rtic u la r, W h ig c u ltu re . A n e a rly jo u rn a l d o n e b y H e n r i d u S a u z e t
a n d J e a n F r d ric B e r n a r d (o n e d e d ic a te d to M in e rv a a n d M e rc u ry )
g a v e p u b lic ity to b o o k s p u b lis h e d b y th e K n ig h ts, a n d to th e T ra it , b u t
it also r e p o r te d in d e ta il o n e v e n ts in E n g la n d . O n e issu e r e c o u n te d th e
N e w to n ia n R ic h a rd B e n tle y s a tta c k o n C o llin s, T o la n d , et al. a n d .
p ra is e d th e p o sitio n a d o p te d by th e fre e th in k e rs . T h e n in a la te r issu e,
fo llo w in g S te e le s a tta c k o n th e e x tre m e W higs in th e Sp ecta to r , th e
jo u rn a l n e rv o u sly w ith d re w its a p p ro b a tio n .42 S in ce w e k n o w th a t
m e m b e rs o f th e K n ig h ts h a d c o n ta c t w ith W h ig a g e n ts in th e N e th e r
lan d s, o n e w o n d e rs if a n e ffo rt w as n o t m a d e to e n fo rc e th e p a rty lin e .
C e rta in ly W hig in te re s ts a n d th e n o r th e r n allia n c e a g a in s t F ra n c e ,
e v e n w h e n it w as o u t o f fa sh io n w ith W a lp o le a n d his m in iste rs, w e re
u n ifo rm ly p ro m o te d b y p u b lic a tio n s d o n e b y th is c o te rie . Y e t R o u s s e t
d e M issy a lso c a rrie d o n a o n e -m a n p ro p a g a n d a c a m p a ig n a g a in st
C a rd in a l A lb e ro n i, th e S p a n ish m in iste F p rc e iv e d as th e a rc h e n e m y in
1 7 1 8 b y a te m p o ra ry a llia n c e o f F ra n c e , E n g la n d a n d A u s tria . T h is
p o le m ic a l tre a tm e n t o f A lb e ro n i, w h o se evil R o u s s e t p e rc e iv e s e v e n in
A lb e r o n is p o r tr a it, m u st h a v e o w e d m u ch to his re a d in g o f th a t v a st
lite r a tu r e , m o stly p u b lis h e d in th e N e th e rla n d s a n d s o m e tim e s o f
H u g u e n o t o rig in , th a t la s h e d o u t a t th e p ra c titio n e rs o f a b so lu tis m
(1 5 8 ). R o u s s e t also , p re d ic ta b ly , d ra w s h is e x a m p le s fro m th e classical
tra d itio n . T h e Ita lia n s , h e n o te s , w e re e n sla v e d u n d e r th e P a g a n
E m p e ro rs , a n d th o se b a rb a r o u s N a tio n s, w h o m o st u n w o rth ily
tra m p le d u n d e r F o o t th e S e n a te a n d th e L ib e rty o f I ta ly . H e also
lays b la m e fo r th e m e n a c e o f a b so lu tis m o n th e E n g lis h T o rie s w h o se
se a rc h fo r p e a c e in 1 7 1 2 th e r e b y le ft E u r o p e in th o se D ifficu lties fro m
w h e n c e sh e m ig h t h a v e th e n b e e n e x tric a te d (1 5 6 , 2 5 2 - 6 0 ). Y e t so m e
m o n a rc h s b e c a u se th e y n o w g ive th e ir s u p p o rt to th e n o r th e r n allian ce
w e re w o rth y o f p ra is e , a n d R o u s s e t w ro te a lo n g h isto ry o f th e reig n o f
C a th e rin e th e G r e a t p rec is ely b e c a u se sh e w as p e rc e iv e d as a n ally o f
th e M a ritim e P o w e rs.43
232 T H E R A D IC A L E N L IG H T E N M EN T

T h e p o litical p r o p a g a n d a o f th is c o te rie , o fte n b u rie d in th e ir lite ra ry

jo u rn a ls, d id seize th e o p p o rtu n ity to p ra ise signs o f e n lig h te n e d g o v
e rn m e n t w h e re e v e r th e y m ig h t o ccu r. Y e t n e v e r b e fo re 1 74 7 d o th ey
tak e u p th e a rg u m e n ts a g a in st W a lp o le a n a n d W h ig o lig a rch y w ith
w hich th ey w ere d o u b tle s s fam iliar. In d e e d , R o u s s e ts k n o w le d g e o f
E ng lish affa irs w as q u ite su b sta n tia l an d his m an u sc rip ts in clu d e co p ies
o f th e C ra ftsm a n , th e o p p o sitio n , T o ry a n d c o u n tr y p a p e r o f W al
p o le s e ra .44 H o w m u ch h e a n d his frie n d s m ay h a v e a p p ro v e d o f its
critiq u e o f th e g o v e rn m e n t th ey saw as a n ec essary s u p p o rt fo r D u tch
su rvival, w e sh all p ro b a b ly n e v e r k n o w . T h e ir re p u b lic a n an aly ses
w ere co n fin e d to C o n tin e n ta l affairs, to th e ir re a d in g o f D u tc h in
tere sts w hich, as w e sh all se e, le d th e m to s u p p o rt th e O ra n g is t cau se,
o r to th o se o c casio n s w h e re th ey saw th e p o ssib ility o f sp re a d in g
co n cep ts o f e n lig h te n e d g o v e rn m e n t to o th e r p a rts o f E u ro p e .
A lle g ia n c e to th e ca u se a n d p e rs o n o f E u g n e o f S av oy led to an
id en tifica tio n w ith th e A u s tria n e m p ire a n d its in te re s ts , especially
w ith its h o stility to F ra n c e . In th e case o f R o u s s e t d e M issy th a t
alleg ian ce w as life -lo n g ; it is re v e a le d in re c e n tly d isc o v e re d le tte rs to
A u stria n m in is te rs, no w h o u se d in V ie n n a a n d B ru ssels, a n d it is
d isp lay ed in o n e o f his e a rlie s t p rin te d tra c ts (1 7 1 4 ) o n th e fa te o f
S a rd in ia .45 F re e m a s o n ry m u st h a v e p la y e d a v ita l ro le in m ak in g p o s
sible th is lo y alty to a C a th o lic p o w e r. A s R o u sse t sta te s in o n e o f his
le tte rs to th e A u s tria n m ih iste r, h e is a m a ste r m a s o n a n d h e n c e h e is
fro m y o u r ro y al o r d e r a n d ca n b e tru sted* 46
A s in d ic a te d e a rlie r, th e K nig h ts o f J u b ila tio n h a d firm co n n e ctio n s
in th e A u s tr ia ir N e th e r la n d s larg e ly th ro u g h th e se rv ic es-o f L a m b e rt
Ig n ace D o u x fils a n d his frie n d s. A t first g lan c e th is d e d ic a tio n o f
p a n th e ists an d sp in o zists to th e im p e ria l C a th o lic m o n a rc h y m ay seem -
in co n g ru o u s. Y e t A u s tria n c o n tro l o v e r th e s o u th e rn N e th e rla n d s w as
p e rc e iv e d as c ru c ial to th e c o n ta in m e n t o f F ra n c e a n d th e se cu rity o f
th e N e th e rla n d s. L ik e w ise , H a p s b u rg in flu e n c e in th e M e d ite rra n e a n
was re g a rd e d as e q u a lly v ita l to th e m a in te n a n c e o f a E u r o p e a n b a l
ance o f p o w e r. I f th e u n iv ersa list id eo lo g y o f F re e m a s o n ry w ith its
em p h asis o n s ta te o v e r c h u rc h e v e r se rv e d to a n c h o r p olitical
alleg ian ces, it w as in th e s e d isp a ra te A u s tria n te rrito rie s . In th is
re sp e c t, it is n o a c c id e n t th a t v a st n u m b e rs o f im p e ria l civil se rv an ts,
fro m D o u x fils th ro u g h C o b e n z l to , in all p ro b a b ility , G e r a rd v an
S w ieten , u n d e r J o se p h II, w e re F re e m a s o n s.47 T h e ir E r a s tia n a n d civil
relig io n s e rv e d as th e a n tid o te to th e G a llic an is in g te n d e n c ie s o f th e
n ativ e clerg y a n d th e J e su its.48
R o u s s e ts tra c t o n S a rd in ia gives in sig h t in to h o w th e re p u b lic a n
a d h e re n ts o f th e n o r th e r n allia n c e h e ld th e ir p o litic a l id e a s in so m e so rt
o f b a la n c e w ith th e ir, as th e y w o u ld h a v e se e n it, n e c e ssa ry p o litical
allegian ces. In *a p iece o f a n ti-S p a n ish p ro p a g a n d a th a t d id n o t go
 R ELIG IO N , R EV O LU TIO N A ND THE NEW SCIENC E 233

u n n o tic e d b y th e Je su its, R o u s s e t re jo ic e d in th e fa c t th a t S a rd in ia h a d
b e e n w re ste d fro m th e c lu tc h e s o f S p a in d u rin g th e W a r o f S p a n ish
S u cc essio n .49 A s a n a p o lo g ist fo r A u s tria n ru le , R o u s s e t in sists t h a t th e
S a rd in ia n s re jo ic e in th e ir n ew so v e re ig n s a n d th a t th e p e o p le r e
a p p e a r ag a in w ith th e lib e rty to c o n tra c t n ew p riv ile g es, o r t o im p ro v e
th e o l d . . . th e lib e rty o f th e p e o p le co n sists th e n in th e p o w e r to a c c e p t
o r re fu s e a n e w s o v e r e ig n . . . th e p e o p le a re n o t m a d e to b e b o u g h t a n d
so ld a m o n g kin gs as c a ttle a re b a rg a in e d a m o n g s h e p h e r d s . . . 50 W h ile
R o u s s e t a c k n o w le d g e s th a t th e r e a re tim es w h en th e p e o p le c a rr y th e ir
se arc h fo r p riv ile g e s b e y o n d re a s o n , h e sees in th e r e c e n t c h a n g e s in
S a rd in ia th e p o ssib ility o f c re a tin g o u t o f th a t b a r r e n la n d o n e o f th e
m o st p le a s a n t k in g d o m s in th e u n iv e rs e .
. R o u sse t s gloss o v e r th e fa c t o f c o n q u e st leav es th e im p r e s s io ir ih a t
th e S a rd in ia n s h a d ju s t e x p e rie n c e d a se lf-m ad e re v o lu tio n a n d it e n d s
w ith a p le a fo r e n lig h te n e d m o n a rc h y . In o u r d iscu ssio n o f th e D u tc h
R e v o lu tio n w e sh all e n c o u n te r a n o th e r , m o re h isto ric a lly im p o r ta n t,
e x a m p le o f ra d ic a l id e a lis m le a d in g to a c e rta in p o litic a l m y o p ia . Y e t
R o u s s e ts e a rly tra c t also re v e a ls h is c o m m itm e n t to th e d o c tr in e o f
p o p u la r so v e re ig n ity ; o n e t h a t h e m ay h a v e g o t e ith e r fro m h is re a d in g
o f L o c k e o r fro m tra c ts lik e th e V ind iciae. I t also sh o w s th e m in d o f a
rad ic al p ro p a g a n d is t a t w o rk , a n d re v e a ls so m e o f th e c o n tr a d ic tio n s
th a t will b e c o m e v isib le in th e c o u rs e o f th e D u tc h R e v o lu tio n o f 1 7 4 7 ,
w h en R o u s s e t d e M issy a tte m p ts to co m b in e his d e d ic a tio n to th e
H o u se o f O ra n g e , as th e re f o r m e r o f a d e c a d e n t a n d o lig a rc h ic
re p u b lic , a n d his ra d ic alism . P e rh a p s o n ly in th e in te lle c tu a l liv es o f
th e se ra d ic a ls ca n w e fin d a c o m fo rta b le fit b e tw e e n T h e ir lite r a ry
c a re e rs a n d th e ir p riv a te b eliefs. T h e r e th ey m a n a g e d to u n ite th e ir
p a n th e is tic fa ith w ith F re e m a s o n ry , a n d to ~ c o m b in e b o th w ith an
a tte m p t to p ro m u lg a te a n d a p p ly th e d isco v eries o f th e n e w sc ie n c e.
B u t th o se in te lle c tu a l lives w e re d ra m a tic a lly in te r r u p te d la te in th e ir
m a tu rity b y th e r e tu rn in g sp e c tre o f F re n ch in v asio n a n d b y a co n -
c o m m ita n t re v o lu tio n in th e N e th e rla n d s w hich w as, sig n ific a n tly fo r
o u r sto ry , th e o n ly re v o lu tio n to o c c u r in a n a tio n -sta te o f W e s te rn
E u r o p e b e tw e e n th e E n g lish R e v o lu tio n o f 1 6 8 8 -9 a n d th e F r e n c h
R e v o lu tio n o f 1 7 8 9 .

T h e D u tc h R ev o lu tio n o f 1747
T h e p o litic a l h isto ry o f th e D u tc h R e p u b lic a fte r th e d e a th o f W illia m
o f O ra n g e (W illiam I I I , 1 7 0 2 ), K ing o f E n g la n d a n d S ta d h o ld e r o f th e
N e th e rla n d s , w as c h a ra c te ris e d b y tw o in te rw o v e n a n d p re s s in g c o n
c e rn s: d u rin g th e W a r o f S p a n ish S uccessio n an d lo n g a fte r, th e f e a r o f
F re n c h e n c ro a c h m e n ts o n th e h e g e m o n y , if n o t th e te r r ito r y , o f th e
N e th e rla n d s , b o th n o r th a n d so u th , a n d an in cre asin g ly o b v io u s b u t
 234 THE R A D IC A L EN LIG H TEN M EN T

slow c o m m e rc ia l d ec lin e th a t w as ju x ta p o s e d to th e g ro w in g p o litica l

p o w e r o f H o lla n d s rich u r b a n n o ta b le o r re g e n t elite ( 1 6 0 ,5 0 ) . In th e
a b se n c e o f a d ire c t h e ir to W illia m s o fficial a n d se m i-m o n a rc h ic a l
a u th o r ity , D u tc h g o v e rn m e n t b e c a m e in cre asin g ly d o m in a te d b y an
o lig a rc h y o f a b o u t 2 0 0 e x te n d e d fam ilies , c e n tre d in A m s te rd a m b u t
w ell e n tr e n c h e d e ls e w h e re . T h e y h a d m a n a g e d to lay claim to m o st
e sse n tia l offices in th e v a rio u s to w n s a n d cities o f c e rta in k ey p r o
v in ces, m o st n o ta b ly in H o lla n d . T h e y c o n tro lle d ta x a tio n a n d its
c o lle c tio n , a n d th e y h a d m a n a g e d to p la c e th e ir o w n a p p o in te e s as
o fficers in th e lo c a l citiz e n m ilitias, th e D u tc h re p u b lic a n v e rs io n o f
lo cal p o lic e , as w ell as in th e p o s t o ffices, se n sitiv e a n d v ita l lin k s in
c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d in th e s h ip m e n t a n d ta x a tio n o f c o m m e rc ia l g o o d s.
T fcfe S tate s G e n e r a l, m e e tin g a t T h e H a g u e , re fle c te d th e se p a rtic u la r
c o m m e rc ia l in te re s ts w h ile b e in g in c a p a b le , g iv en its v e ry lim ite d
c o n s titu tio n a l p o w e rs, o f b e c o m in g a sig n ific a n t a g e n t o f c e n tra lisa tio n
o r re f o r m . B y th e 1 7 3 0 s, it a p p e a r e d to m an y o b se rv e rs th a t p u b lic
sq u a lo r w as c o m p le m e n te d o n ly b y th e g ro w th o f p riv a te w e a lth a n d
th e a d v a n c e m e n t o f se lf-se rv in g in te re s ts .
In fo re ig n p o lic y th is o lig a rch ic o r tru e p a tr i o t p a rty , as it w as c a lle d
b y its s u p p o r te r s , g av e its critics g r e a te s t ca u se fo r a la rm . A lth o u g h
c o m m itte d in so m e se n se to th e a llia n c e w ith E n g la n d a n d th e A u s tria n
e m p ire - th e m a in sta y o f D u tc h fo re ig n p o licy in th e first h a lf o f th e
e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y a n d B ey o n d - th e n o ta b le s b e lie v e d it p o ssib le to
m a in ta in n e u tr a l a n d c o m m e rc ia lly clo se re la tio n s w ith F ra n c e . In
c o n s e q u e n c e , th e y p la y e d d o w n th e d a n g e rs o f F re n c h a g g re ssio n in
' th e s o u th e r n N e th e rla n d s . A s p a rt o f th e te r r ito ry c e d e d to A u s tria as a "
re su lt o f th e W a r o f S p a n ish S u c ce ssio n , B e lg iu m (as it is n o w c a lle d )
an d its b a r r i e r f o r tr e s s e s w e re p e rc e iv e d b y th e allies, a n d e sp ecially
by th e a n ti- F re n c h a n d in cre as in g ly O ra n g is t p a rty , as th e first a n d
esse n tia l lin e o f d e fe n c e a g a in s t a p o ssib le F re n c h a tta c k (1 6 2 , 5 0 ).
In th e c o u rs e o f th e W a r o f A u s t r i a a S u ccessio n ( 1 7 4 0 - 8 ) th e
F re n c h a rm y o v e rr a n m u c h o f B e lg iu m a n d th e p r o -F r e n c h fo re ig n
p olicy o f th e D u tc h o lig a rc h s w as r e n d e r e d b a n k ru p t. T h e im m in e n c e
o f a F r e n c h in v a sio n in to th e R e p u b lic its e lf trig g e re d o ff a p o p u la r
u p risin g in Z e e la n d in A p r il 1 747 a n d in H o lla n d in M ay. T h e cro w d s
called f o r th e r e s to ra tio n o f th e s ta d h o ld e r in th e p e rs o n o f o n e
W illia m -C h a rle s F ris o , P rin c e o f O ra n g e -N a s s a u (1 6 3 ). O n e key
e le m e n t in th e p o litic a l b a s e o f th is O ra n g is t rev iv al, a n d o n e d ire c tly
re le v a n t to R o u s s e t d e M issy s ro le in th e D u tc h R e v o lu tio n o f 1 7 4 7 ,
was th e e n o r m o u s p o p u la r s u p p o rt a c c o rd e d a n y r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e
H o u se o f O r a n g e . T h e a n ta g o n is m o f th e a rtisa n a n d p e tit-b o u rg e o is
to w n d w e lle rs , as w ell as o f ru ra l te n a n ts , to w a rd th e in te re s ts a n d
p o licies o f t h e g re a t c o m m e rc ia l o lig a rch s h a d , a t m o m e n ts , all th e
e le m e n ts o f cla ss h a tr e d .
 R E L IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A N D T H E N EW SC IE N C E 235

In th e 1 73 0 s, d isc o n te n t w ith o ligarch ic ru le co u p led w ith th e e m e r

g en ce o f W illiam -C h arles F riso (1 7 1 1 -5 1 ), a co u sin o f W illiam I II , as a
v iab le a n d leg itim ate claim an t to th e tra d itio n a lly O ra n g is t p o st o f
sta d h o ld e r, g ave n ew life to th e O ra n g ist P a rty . A t its h e a d w e re W illiam
a n d C h arles B e n tin c k (1 6 4 , 2 2 3 - 4 ) th e so ns o f W illiam I l l s m ost
in tim ate ad v iser, a n d as in d ic a te d p rev io u sly (pp. 1 9 8 - 2 0 0 ), e n
lig h ten ed a ris to c rats in v o lv ed in D u tc h F re e m a so n ry . In c o n se q u e n c e o f
th eir E n glish scho o lin g b o th re g a rd e d th em se lv e s as W higs, a lth o u g h
th eir c o n c ep tio n o f W higg ery , th a t is c o u rt-c e n tre d a n d m in is te ria l, w ith
a p o p u la r b u t p o w erless b a se, d iffe re d m a rk e d ly fro m th a t o f th e
radicals. Y e t, first a n d fo re m o st, th e B e n tin c k s w ere d e d ic a te d to th e
in te re sts o f th e D u tch R e p u b lic a n d to th e rev italisa tio n , alo n g O ra n g is t
lines, o f o u r b a d co n stitu tio n o f g o v e rn m e n t (1 6 6 , 37, 5 6 , 7 7 , 145).
A lth o u g h th e E n g lis h g o v e rn m e n t a t first h a d th e g ra v e st m isgivings
a b o u t th is n ew O ra n g is t c o n te n d e r fo r th e s ta d h o ld e ra te , b y th e 1 7 4 0 s
it w as in a ctiv e co n sp ira cy w ith th e B e n tin c k s to e ffe ct a n O ra n g is t
r e s to ra tio n .51 W h ile W illia m -C h a rle s F r is o s fo re ig n b a c k in g cam e
fro m E n g la n d a n d A u s tria , his su p p o rt w ith in th e re p u b lic c a m e fro m
c e rta in n o r th e r n p ro v in c e s as w ell as f ro m a v a rie ty o f id e o lo g ic a l
p e rs p e c tiv e s a n d in te r e s t g ro u p s. T h e tra d itio n a l a ris to c ra tic a n d strict
C alv in ist e le m e n ts w h o , in e ffe c t, fa v o u re d th e in s titu tio n o f a
m o n a rc h y a n d w h o w e re p ro b a b ly clo se st to W illia m s o w n c o n c e p tio n
o f h is ro le as w ell as th a t s h a re d by his w ife, A n n a o f H a n o v e r ,
d a u g h te r o f G e o rg e II (1 6 5 ), w e re jo in e d b y e x a s p e ra te d re p u b lic a n s
as w ell as b y ra d ic a ls lik e R o u sse t a n d h is fo llo w e rs w h o p o sse sse d
stro n g ly d e m o c ra tic te n d e n c ie s. T h e re s to ra tio ir- o f th e s ta d h o ld e r,
ev en o f o n e so re la tiv e ly u n te s te d as W illiam IV , se e m e d n o t o nly
p re fe ra b le b u t th e o n ly a lte rn a tiv e to th e ^ c o rru p t a n d se lf-se rv in g ru le
o f o lig a rc h y (1 6 7 ). E le m e n ts w ith in th e O ra n g is t P a rty sa w th e
n e cessity o f in stitu tin g m assiv e re fo rm s , w hile its specifically
re p u b lic a n w ing im a g in e d th a t w ith th e s e w o u ld c o m e a re a ffirm a tio n
o f th e tra d itio n a l rig h ts a n d p riv ileg es o f th e citiz e n ry . O f c o u rs e ,
W illiam IV p ro v e d sin g u la rly in c a p a b le , as w ell as u n w illin g , to in itia te
such re fo rm s , b u t n o n e o f th a t w as c le a r u n til a t le a s t tw o y e a rs a fte r
th e R e v o lu tio n o f 1 7 4 7 .
In 1 7 3 4 W illia m -C h a rle s F riso a n d h is w ife se t u p c o u r t in T h e
H a g u e a n d , im p o r ta n t fro m o u r p e rsp e c tiv e o f th e g ro w in g in v o lv e
m en t o f th e ra d ic a ls in th e O ra n g is t c a u se , th e ir c h e f d e c u isin e ,
V in c e n t L a C h a p e lle , o p e n e d th e first official M aso n ic lo d g e th e r e in
th a t y e a r (see p p . 1 1 0 -1 1 ). T h e S ta tes o f H o lla n d p ro m p tly in te rro g a te d
its le a d e rs a n d fo rb a d e th e s p re a d o f th a t m o v e m e n t p re c is ely b e c a u se
o f its O ra n g is t a sso c ia tio n s. A lo o k a t th e e a rly M aso n ic m e m b e rsh ip
list e x p la in s th e g ro u n d s fo r th o se su sp ic io n s. J e a n C o rn e ille R a d e r-
m a c h e r is p ro m in e n t o n th e list a n d h e w as r e n t m a ste r to W illiam IV ,
 236 T H E R A D IC A L E N L IG H T E N M EN T

w hile D irk W o lte rs w as re c e iv e d as an a p p re n tic e in J a n u a ry 1735 a n d

h e la te r a c te d as a n a g e n t fo r W illiam B e n tin c k in th e cru cial m o n th s
follo w ing th e re sto ra tio n o f th e s ta d h o ld e r.52 R o u s s e ts d e e p im m ersio n
in th e a llie d a n d a n ti-F re n c h ca u se d a te s fro m a t le a st 1 7 1 0 a n d b y th e
e a rly 1 7 4 0 s th e d ip lo m a tic c o rre s p o n d e n c e o f th e A u s tria n g o v e rn
m en t re v e a ls h im as o n e o f its a g e n ts a n d sp ies. O f c o u rs e th is fits
p recisely w ith o n e o f W illiam B e n tin c k s a lm o st o b se ssiv e c o n c ern s,
th a t th e allian ce w ith A u s tria b e se en as v ita l to D u tc h in te re sts.
D u rin g th e W a r o f S uccessio n th e D u e d A r e n b e rg c o m m a n d e d th e
B elg ia n fo rce s o n th e A u s tria n sid e , a n d h e b e c a m e a c e n tra l fig u re in
th e B e lg ia n g o v e rn m e n t as w ell as a d e v o te d fo llo w e r o f M a ria
T h e re sa . L a m b e rt Ig n a c e D o u x fils, th a t ea rly m e m b e r o f th e K nig h ts
in B ru s sels a n d a d e v o te d F re e m a s o n , w as A r e n b e r g s p riv a te se c
r e ta ry .53 Y e a rs la te r, W illiam B e n tin c k ad v ise d th e y o u n g so n o f th e
th e n d e c e a se d W illiam IV , th a t B e rn a rd P ic a rt h a d g u id e d h im in to
th in k in g a b o u t p h ilo so p h y , a n d B e n tin c k o ffe re d th e fu tu re W illiam V
a cop y o f P ic a r ts w o rk s a n n o ta te d by his frie n d , M a rc h a n d (1 7 1 , IV ,
4 7 1 -2 ).
T h e se B e lg ia n , D u tc h , a n d F re n c h re fu g e e M aso n s sh o u ld b e se en as
u n ite d in th e first in sta n c e b y th e ir m u tu a l d e d ic a tio n to th is in te r n a
tio n a l m ilita ry a n d d ip lo m a tic allian ce a g a in st F ra n c e , n o t n e c essa rily
by O ra n g is m as su c H fF o r e x a m p le , a n o th e r M a so n s, B a ro n d e B o e t-
z e la a r, w as e n tru s te d b y B e n tin c k to b rin g th e m o st s e c re t in stru c tio n s
to E n g la n d , a n d h e w as n o t, ac co rd in g to B e n tin c k , a d e d ic a te d O r a n -
g ist (1 6 6 , 9 6 - 1 0 2 ). Y e t tw o o f th e m o st im p o rta n t O ra n g is ts o f th is
p e rio d ,- 0 n n o ~ Z w ie r v an H a r n a n d h is b r o th e r , W illiam v a n H a r n ,
w ere F re e m a so n s. W illiam w ro te b rillia n t p ro p a g a n d a , b o th fictio n al
a n th n o n -fic tio n a l, o n b e h a lf o f th e O ra n g is t c au se (1 6 6 , 9 2 - 3 ) .H e
e m b ra c e d th e c o n c e p t o f e n lig h te n e d d e sp o tism fo u n d in V o lta ir e s L a
H enriade a n d b e c a m e a m in o r fig u re o f th e D u tc h E n lig h te n m e n t.54
O ra n g is t p ro p a g a n d a , a fte r th e re v o lu tio n , o p e n ly u se d M aso n ic sy m
b o lism , b u t lo n g b e fo re (an d a fte r) 1 74 7 th e p riv a te c o rre s p o n d e n c e o f
R o u sse t to M a rc h a n d c ra c k le d w ith th e la te s t n ew s o f d ip lo m a tic
in trig u e a n d th e fa te o f th e O ra n g is t c a u se .55
A ll o f th is M aso n ic in v o lv e m e n t in th e O ra n g is t P a rty in tu rn
re n d e re d its M aso n ic m e m b e rs h ip p ro m in e n t in th e e v e n ts o f 1 7 4 7 -8
a n d also la te r, as th e B e n tin c k s a tte m p te d to c o n so lid a te W illiam I V s
p o w e r o v e r th a t o f th e e n tre n c h e d o lig arch y . In M ay 1 7 4 7 , th e S ta te s
p ro c la im e d W illiam IV , s ta d h o ld e r, a n d h e a p p o in te d R o u s s e t d e
M issy as official h isto ria n o f th a t re v o lu tio n (1 6 9 ). A c tin g as an a g e n t
fo r B e n tin c k , R o u sse t also a rra n g e d to h a v e p u b lis h e d p e rtin e n t
th e o re tic a l ju stific a tio n s fo r re v o lu tio n a ry c h a n g e a n d , a lm o st p r e
d icta b ly , h e so u g h t th e re p rin tin g o f th e F re n c h e d itio n o f L o c k e s T w o
Treatises .5S T his u se o f L o ck e in a re v o lu tio n a ry s itu a tio n , o f c o u rs e ,
 R EL IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A N D T H E NEW SC IE N C E 2 37

p re sa g e s his ro le in th e A m e ric a n R e v o lu tio n a n d re in fo rc e s an e a rlie r

p o in t. A s th e N e w to n ia n s a n d m o d e ra te W h igs q u ick ly re a lis e d ,
p o litic a l th e o rie s b a s e d u p o n de fa cto d e fin itio n s o f p o litic a l a u th o rity
w e re in h e re n tly d a n g e ro u s a n d in E n g la n d a fte r 1 6 8 8 - 9 th e o rists
in te n t u p o n ju stify in g sta b ility a n d stro n g m in iste ria l g o v e rn m e n t c o n
siste n tly sh ied aw ay fro m L o ck e. B u t th e B e n tin c k s w e re W higs w h o
h a d c o n sp ire d to m a k e a re v o lu tio n a n d L o c k e se e m e d to o ffe r o n e
o b v io u s ju stific a tio n . T h e y , h o w e v e r, u n lik e R o u s s e t de M issy, d id n o t
ta k e to its logical c o n c lu sio n L o c k e s call fo r t h e p o p u la r fo u n d a tio n o f
p o litica l a u th o rity .
R o u s s e t h a d lo n g b e e n an o p p o n e n t o f o lig a rch ic ru le ; h is M ercure
historiq ue b e g u n in 1 7 2 4 , w as n o to rio u s fo r its w idely r e a d c ritiq u e o f
th e ex istin g o rd e r. In 1 7 4 7 , th e re s to ra tio n o f th e s ta d h o ld e r, an e v e n t
so d e e p ly in d e b te d to th e p o p u la r d e m o n s tra tio n s w itn e sse d th ro u g h
o u t th e rep u b lic , a p p e a r e d to o ffe r th e p o ssib ility o f sw e e p in g re fo rm s.
A s a p ro m in e n t O ra n g is t a n d re fo rm e r, R o u sse t s u d d e n ly e m e rg e d as
o n e o f th e le a d e rs o f a n A m s te rd a m -b a s e d co a litio n th a t a tte m p te d to
p u sh th e re v o lu tio n in a d e m o c ra tic d ire c tio n . F o r a b r ie f tim e h e w as
im p ris o n e d in A m s te r d a m a n d th e n T h e H a g u e , b u t W illiam IV ,
u n w isely as e v e n ts w e re to sh o w , o r d e r e d his re le a se . B y e a rly 1 7 4 8
R o u s s e t h a d b e c o m e a n O ra n g is t a g e n t o v e r w h o m his s u p e rio rs h a d
lo st c o n tro l. In c o lla b o ra tio n w ith a w ig -m a k e r o f F re n c h o rig in , E lie
C h a tin , w ho a ssiste d h im in h is D u tc h w ritin g s, R o u s s e t ra llie d th e
la rg e ly a rtisa n a n d sm a ll m e rc h a n t classes a ro u n d a s e rie s o f d e m a n d s
fo r re fo rm w h ich b e c a m e th e p la tfo rm o f th e rad ic al w in g o f a m o v e
m e n t k n o w n as th e D o e lis te n b e w e g in g (1 6 8 , 8 3 ^ 6 ,1 0 1 - 1 5 , 1 4 4 - 5 ,
2 1 9 ). _
A t first th a t m o v e m e n t w as led b y D a n ie l R a a p , a n A m s te r d a m
p o rc e la in m e rc h a n t, w h o u n d e r th e in flu e n ce o f R o u s s e t, p r e s e n te d a
p e titio n d e m a n d in g t h a t th e s ta d h o ld e ra te b e m ad e h e re d ita r y in th e
m ale a n d fem a le lin e s, th a t all o ffices b e so ld fo r th e p r o fit o f th e
c o u n tr y , th a t citiz e n le a d e r s b e ch o sen by th e citiz e n ry , a n d fin a lly th a t
th e p o w e r o f th e g u ild s b e r e s to re d . In b rie f, th e se re f o r m s w e re
in te n d e d to b r e a k th e p o w e r o f th e o lig arch y , n o t to d e s tr o y c o m
p le te ly th e p lac e o f w e a lth y m en as e le c te d o fficials, b u t r a th e r to
in su re th e ir re sp o n sib ility to th e citizen ry . T h e y also r e s te d u p o n th e
v isio n o f a s u p p o se d p a rtn e rs h ip b e tw e e n a rtisa n s a n d m e rc h a n ts
w h ich , it w as c la im e d , h a d p re v a ile d in th e D u tc h c itie s d u rin g
m e d ia e v a l tim es. T h is v isio n o f an a n c ie n t o r d e r o f tru ly b a la n c e d
g o v e rn m e n t r e in fo rc e d a d e c id e d ly m o d e rn so u n d in g call f o r d e m o c r a
tic re fo rm . A m o n g re f o r m e r s m o re e x tre m e th a n R a a p a n d w ith w h o m
R o u s s e t e v e n tu a lly c o lla b o ra te d , th e se d e m a n d s w ere s e t f o rth in a
p e titio n th a t c alled f o r, a m o n g o th e r th in g s, th e p lac in g o f th e p o st
o ffices u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f th e s ta d h o ld e r a n d th e a p p o in tm e n t o f tax
 238 T H E R A D IC A L E N L IG H T E N M E N T

c o lle c to rs by th e n ew g o v e rn m e n t, to re p la c e th e ta x -g a th e rin g ro le
p rev io u sly e x e rc is e d b y la n d lo rd s w h o se a b u ses h a d b e e n to le ra te d by
th e re g e n ts. B y J u n e 1 7 4 8 rio ts h a d e ru p te d in A m s te r d a m , L e id e n ,
T h e H a g u e a n d H a a r le m , a n d in th is ra d ic a l p h a s e o f th e D o e lis te n -
b e w e g in g R o u s s e t a lo n g w ith H e n ry v a n G im m ig , a p a tte r n m a k e r
fro m H a a rle m , e m e rg e d as le a d e rs.
W h a t h a d b e g u n as a n O ra n g is t re v o lu tio n n o w th r e a te n e d to
b e c o m e a lo w e r-c la ss m o v e m e n t fo r d e m o c ra tic re fo rm . T h e re sp o n se
o f th e P rin c e o f O ra n g e a n d B e n tin c k w as c a u tio u sly b u t re so lu te ly
h o stile . A g e n ts w e re s e n t to A m s te rd a m to c o n fe r w ith R o u s s e t a n d his
a sso c ia te s, a n d th e y w e re in stru c te d to s p e n d w h a te v e r m o n ey w as
n e c e ssa ry to try to w in o v e r o th e r, m o re m o d e ra te fo llo w e rs, in effe c t
to ste m a tid e t h a t B e n tin c k , in his d e sire to w h ip u n p o p u l a r fe rv o u r
f o r th e p rin c e , h a d b e e n p a rtia lly re s p o n s ib le f o r c re a tin g . A d a n g e ro u s
s itu a tio n e x is te d in A m s te r d a m w h e re D o e lis te n p a m p h le ts a n d w all
p o s te rs h a d b e e n se e n in th e p o o re s t slu m s, a n d w h e re p ic tu r e s o f th e
ra d ic a l le a d e rs , in c lu d in g R o u s s e t, w e re o p e n ly d isp la y e d in th e sh o p
w in d o w s. I t w as o n ly th e e v e n tu a l fa ilu re o f th e m o d e r a te fa c tio n , led
b y R a a p , a n d th e ra d ic a ls , le d by v a n G im m ig a n d R o u s s e t, to a g re e o n
a c o m m o n p la tfo rm w h ic h c re a te d a w e d g e th ro u g h w h ich th e g o v e rn
m e n ts a u th o r ity c o u ld o n c e a g a in c re e p . A t issu e w as th e ra d ic a ls
claim , a rtic u la te d b y R o u s s e t to a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e c o u rt, th a t th e y
h a d th e rig h t to o v e r th r o w th e city g o v e rn m e n t o f A m s te r d a m (an d b y
im p lic a tio n all g o v e r n m e n ts ) a n d to d e m a n d th e rig h t o f all citizen s,
t h a t is g u ild m e m b e rs , to e lec t th e ir o fficers in th e m ilitia , a n d to
' c o n tro l th e ir s h o o tin g r a n g e s , a n d to v o te fo r v a rio u s city officials.
In J u n e 1 7 4 9 , R o u s s e t w as a rr e s te d , fin e d 1 ,0 0 0 g u ild e rs a n d
b a n is h e d by th e S ta te s G e n e ra l fro m th e c o u n try . H is w riting s w ere also
b a n n e d , (1 7 0 , 7 8 ) a n d so e n d e d th e p u b lic c a re e r o f a p a n th e is t a n d
jo u rn a lis t tu r n e d re v o lu tio n a ry . F ro m h is ex ile, R o u s s e t o fte n w ro te to
M a rc h a n d b e g g in g Jhim to in te rc e d e o n h is b e h a lf w ith C h a rle s B e n
tin c k , a n d b e m o a n e d h is a b se n c e fro m T h e H a g u e , fro m th e w o rld o f
th e liv in g .57 Y e t h e w a s a ls o b itte r in h is re p u d ia tio n o f th e tu m u lt o f
p u b lic a n d p o litic a l a f f a ir s a n d h e v o w e d n e v e r to r e tu r n to th e w o rld
o f c o u rts a n d g r a n d e e s .58 H e claim e d th a t h is o n ly d e sire w as to o b ta in
p e rm issio n fro m th e p rin c e s s to b e a llo w e d to r e tu r n to T h e H ague*
so lely f o r th e p u r p o s e o f seein g h is d e a r f rie n d s .
R o u s s e ts d isillu s io n m e n t w ith th e r e v o lu tio n w as s h a re d by o th e r,
fa r less ra d ic a l, le a d e r s lik e th e B e n tin c k s. W illiam IV h a d p ro v e d
m a n ife stly in c a p a b le a n d u n w illin g to c h a lle n g e th e p o w e r o f th e g re a t
o lig a rc h s, w h ile in th e f a c e o f th e r e p u b lic s fin an cia l a n d m ilita ry
w e a k n e ss th e E n g lis h h a d d e s p a ire d o f th e ir ally. F in a lly a n d n o t lea st,
W illia m s (d. 1 7 5 1 ) w id o w h ad .tu r n e d h e r b a c k o n th e c o u n sel p r o
v id ed b y th e B e n tin c k s a n d th ey g rad u a lly d rifte d fro m p o w e r (1 7 1 , II,
 R ELIG IO N , R EV O LU TIO N A N D THE NEW SCIENC E 239

2 5 3 - 6 , 2 7 5 ). A u s tria g rew b itte r a n d d isillu sio n e d w ith w h a t it p e r

ce iv e d as E n g lis h d o u b le -d e a lin g a n d D u tc h w e a k n e ss. U n d e r th e
le a d e rs h ip o f K a u n itz , M a ria T h e r e s a s b rillia n t a d m in is tra to r a n d
a d v o c a te o f c e n tra lisa tio n , A u s tria b r o k e w ith c e n tu rie s o f d ip lo m a tic
tra d itio n a n d e ffe c te d th e so -ca lle d d ip lo m a tic r e v o lu tio n o f 1 7 5 6 ; it
sig n e d a tr e a ty o f m u tu a l assista n c e w ith its tra d itio n a l e n e m y , F ra n c e .
A m id e x ile , d isillu sio n m e n t a n d ill-h e a lth , R o u s s e t n e v e r s to p p e d
b e in g p r o fo u n d ly c o n c e rn e d w ith E u r o p e a n p o litics. A c tiv e in th e
1 7 4 0 s as a n a g e n t f o r th e A u s tria n g o v e rn m e n t a n d p r o b a b ly as a spy,
a fte r 1 7 4 9 R o u s s e t c o n tin u e d to e x p re ss his d e v o tio n to im p e ria l
a u th o r ity 59 in o p p o s itio n to th e p a rtic u la ris t in te re s ts o f th e e le c to rs o f
th e e m p ire a n d o v e r th e a u th o rity o f th e clerg y . I t w as a c o m m o n
p o sitio n to b e f o u n d in e n lig h te n e d circ les, b u t R o u s s e t c o m b in e d it
w ith im a g in in g th a t so m e h o w L a R p u b liq u e g e rm a n iq u e c o u ld b e
m a in ta in e d in sp ite o f, o r in his o p in io n b e c a u se o f, th e s e c e n tra lisin g
te n d e n c ie s. A n d in h is c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith h is A u s tria n p a y m a s te rs
(R o u sse t a n d la te r h is fam ily w e re r e w a rd e d fo r his se rv ic e s), h e
h e a p e d sp e cia l s c o rn o n th e J e su its, w h o se p o w e r w as s e e n to in te r fe re
w ith th e se e ffo rts to a c h ie v e p ro g re ssiv e a n d c e n tra lise d g o v e rn m e n t.
H is in te llig e n c e -g a th e rin g serv ices to th e e m p ire also d id n o t c ease
a fte r h is p u b lic d isg ra c e, a n d in th e fa c e o f A u s tr ia s in c re a sin g d isin
te re s t w ith th e o ld a llia n c e , R o u s s e t fra n tic a lly w a rn e d o f th e d a n g e rs
p o se d to th e e m p ire b y F re n c h b ellico sity . T h ro u g h h is o w n se c re t
c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith u n n a m e d in d iv id u als in F ra n c e , R o u s s e t p a sse d
a lo n g e v id e n c e o f F r a n c e s h o stile in te n tio n s. Y e t h e n e v e r fo rg o t th e
b u sin ess a n d n e c e ssitie s o fp a tro n a g e -. H e e sp ecially p le a d e d th e case
o f D o u x fils - u n d e m es a n c ie n s a m is - w h o , a lth o u g h a m a n o f
h o n e s ty a n d ta l e n t , h a d falle n o n h a rd tim es.
B e fo re t u rn in g to a c o n c lu d in g d isc u ssio n o f th e v a rio u s in te lle c tu a l
p ro je c ts th a t o c c u p ie d a n d u n d o u b te d ly c o n so le d th e se ra d ic a l a d v o
ca te s o f p o litic a l re fo rm , w e m u st try to assess th e ir p o litic a l th o u g h t irr ..
re la tio n to th e ir p o litic a l a c tio n , a n d to d o so in th e lig h t o f w h a t w e
k n o w a b o u t th e E n g lis h re p u b lic a n tra d itio n w ith w h ich th e y h a d o n ce
b e e n in c o n ta c t. W e h a v e m o v ed m an y d e c a d e s aw ay fro m th e n e o -
H a r rin g to n ia n re p u b lic a n ism o f T o la n d a n d h is a sso c ia te s a n d , o f
c o u rse , th is n e w g e n e ra tio n o f ra d ic a ls a n d re p u b lic a n s w e re a t w o rk in
th e N e th e rla n d s . In th e ir v io le n t o p p o s itio n to F re n c h a b s o lu tis m a n d
in th e ir d e s ire to s e c u re th e in d e p e n d e n t su rv iv a l o f th e D u tc h
R e p u b lic , th e y h a d a ls o g iv en th e ir a lle g ian ce a n d serv ic e to th a t v ast
a n d c o m p le x in te r n a tio n a l a d m in is tra tio n t h a t h e ld to g e th e r th e
A u s tria n v e rsio n o f th e ancien rgim e. C le a rly d e d ic a tio n to h e r im p e r
ial m a je sty a n d to re p u b lic a n ism r e q u ir e d so m e rec o n c ilin g . E q u a lly in
n e e d o f e x p la n a tio n is th e fa c t th a t R o u sse t, a lth o u g h a c o m m itte d
O ra n g is t, b e c a m e in th o se c ritic a l m o n th s a fte r th e r e s to ra tio n o f th e
 240 THE R A D IC A L EN LIG HTENM EN T

s ta d h o ld e r a ce n tra l fig u re in th e a g ita tio n fo r d e m o c ra tic re fo rm a n d a

m a jo r th e o re tic ia n fo r c a d re s o f a rtisa n s a n d sh o p k e e p e rs .
P e rh a p s w e can see in his p ro p o sa l fo r u n iv ersa l su ffrag e fo r m ale
citizen s re g iste re d in th e g u ild s (w h ich w o u ld n e v e rth e le ss p e rm it o n ly
w ea lth y b u rg h e rs to sta n d fo r o ffice), w ith a p p ro v a l o f e le c tio n s as w ell
as d isin te re s te d g u id a n c e c o m in g fro m th e s ta d h o ld e r, th e in flu e n ce o f
th a t o rig in a lly E n g lish v e rsio n o f re p u b lic a n ism . T h e se p ro p o sa ls se em
to c o n ju re u p a vision o f a b a la n c e o f p o w e r a m o n g th e p e o p le , a
d isin te re ste d a risto c ra c y a n d a ca refu lly c h e c k e d r u le r th a t m ay o w e
so m e th in g to R o u s s e ts, a n d also to M a rc h a n d , c o n ta c t w ith T o la n d
a n d C o llin s d u rin g th o se e a rly y e a rs in T h e H a g u e . I t m ay also b e
in d e b te d to th e ir h av in g r e a d o r h e a rd a b o u t th e id e a s o f S id n ey o r
> .H arrin g to n . T h e se F re n c h re fu g e e s, a lth o u g h in v o lv e d a t th e h ig h es t
levels o f D u tch p o litical life, a p p e a r to h a v e h a d o nly a slight fam iliarity
w ith D u tc h p o litica l th e o ry . C e rta in ly th e ir a d o ra tio n o f an id e a lis e d
v ersio n o f th e B ritish c o n s titu tio n re m a in e d w ith th e m th ro u g h o u t
th e ir lives. A n d fin ally p a n th e is m , as re v e a le d in th e T rait , a n d th e
d e b t o f its p o litica l m essag e to H u g u e n o t re sista n c e th e o ry m u st n o t b e
fo rg o tte n . T h is h e a d y m ix tu re o f a p u re ly n a tu ra listic u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
th e w o rld a n d m a n s p la c e in it, c o u p le d w ith E n g lis h re p u b lic a n ism
a n d w ith a d istin ctly C a lv in ist v e rsio n o f re v o lu tio n a ry id eo lo g y
re n d e re d R o u sse t, f n d p ro b a b ly q u ite a few o f h is frie n d s, in to tru ly
d a n g e ro u s m en . T h e if de fa cto u n d e rs ta n d in g o f p o litica l a u th o rity
m e a n t th a t th e y c o u ld se rv e a v a rie ty o f m a ste rs , a n d d o so in g o o d
co n scien ce. B u t g iv en h a lf th e c h a n ce , as R o u s s e t w as in 1 7 4 7 , th e y
- w e re -c a p a b le o f a c tin g o u t th e ir h isto ric a l ro le s as " re v o lu tio n arie s.-
D e c a d e s b e fo re th e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n , so m e o f th e id ea s w e can
~ iro w as so c ia te w ith th e R a d ic al E n lig h te n m e n t, c o u ld p o ssess aricTwhat
is m o st im p o rta n t d id ac tu a lly p o ssess, a n id eo lo g ica l m e a n in g th a t
w as in th e c o n te x t o f th e ancien rgim e tru ly re v o lu tio n a ry . T h e p o in t
n e ed s stressin g in th e lig h t o f th e c o n tin u in g d e b a te o v e r th e e x a c t
re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e id ea ls o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t a n d th e c au ses o f
th e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n . P e rh a p s o n e w ay o f a p p ro a c h in g th a t q u e s tio n
m igh t b e to ac k n o w le d g e th a t in th e case o f th e e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry
re v o lu tio n in th e N e th e rla n d s - o n e larg ely ig n o re d u n til n o w in th e
h isto ric al lite r a tu r e - it is p o ssib le to sh o w th e e x iste n ce o f a ra d ic a l
u n d e rs id e d e e p ly in d e b te d , n o t to th e m o d e r a te v e rs io n o f E n lig h te n
m en t as re p r e s e n te d by V o lta ire , b u t to p h ilo so p h ic a l a n d p o litic a l
h e re sie s n u rtu re d in E n g la n d b u t e n ric h e d b y v a rie tie s o f C o n tin e n ta l
m aterialism a n d p o ssib ly by H u g u e n o t re sista n c e th e o ry . T h e h isto ry
o f th is M aso n ic c o te rie , in effe c t, p ro v id e s o n e lin k b e tw e e n th e E n g
lish R e v o lu tio n o f th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry a n d , in a n a tte n u a te d se n se ,
th e d e m o c ra tic re v o lu tio n s o f th e la te e ig h te e n th . W e can n o w d is
p e n s e w ith co n sp ira cy th e o rie s a n d still sh o w th e su rv iv al th ro u g h o u t
 R ELIGION, R EV O LU TIO N AND THE NEW SCIENC E 241

th e first h a lf o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry o f a so cial w o rld th a t w as o f te n ,

b u t n o t n ecessarily , M aso n ic w h erein so m e v ery d a n g e ro u s id e a s w e re
in fac t d iscu ssed a n d d isse m in a te d . I t se em s n o t u n r e a s o n a b le to
su g g e st th a t th is so cial c irc u it w as in te rn a tio n a l in sco p e w h ile a t th e
sa m e tim e a c k n o w le d g in g th a t w e still h av e a v e ry im p e rfe c t a c c o u n t o f
th e e x te n t to w h ich so m e M a so n ic lo d g es, u n d e r c e rta in c irc u m s ta n c e s ,
w o u ld e n c o u ra g e a ra d ic a l c ritiq u e o f th e ex istin g o rd e r.
L ik e w ise , w e h a v e a n in e v ita b ly u n c le a r a c c o u n t, g iven th e a b s e n c e
o f d o c u m e n ta ry e v id e n c e , a b o u t th e e x a ct th e o re tic a l u n d e rp in n in g
th a t m a d e R o u s s e t d e M issy in to a d e m o c ra t a t w h a t w as a m o s t
in a u sp ic io u s m o m e n t in E u r o p e a n p o litics to a ssu m e su c h a p o s tu r e .
C e rta in ly th e r e w e re so m e e x tre m e ly fo rw a rd -lo o k in g e le m e n ts in h is
p o litic a l p ro g ra m m e ; h e w o u ld h a v e a h ig h ly c e n tra lise d re p u b lic th a t
p e rm itte d a d istin ct e le m e n t o f d e m o c ra tic p ra c tic e . Y e t in R o u s s e t s
w illin g n ess to se rv e a v a rie ty o f p rin c e s a n d ru le rs, E u g n e o f S a v o y ,
M a ria T h e r e s a , W illiam IV , u n d o u b te d ly w ith o u t giving a m o m e n ts
c re d ib ility to th e m y stiq u e o f m o n arc h y , w as th e r e n o t a ls o a c e rta in
m y o p ia as re g a rd s t h e ir c a p a b ilitie s a n d in te n tio n s ? T w o d e c a d e s la te r ,
a fte r a d o se o f O ra n g is m in p ra c tic e , m an y D u tc h re p u b lic a n s a n d
re fo rm e rs o f th e 1 7 7 0 s a n d b e y o n d sim ply g av e u p an y h o p e o f m a k in g
th e H o u s e o f O ra n g e in to a se rv a n t o f th e re p u b lic . Y e t f o r R o u s s e t
a n d his a sso c ia te s, p re s s e d as th e y w e re b y th e sp e c tre o f F r e n c h
in v as io n , th e s ta d h o ld e ra te se e m e d th e o n ly v iab le a lte rn a tiv e . O n e
o th e r fa c to r m ay h a v e p la y e d a p a rt in sh a p in g th e ir p o litic a l u n d e r
sta n d in g a n d th a t c a m e o u t o f th e ir in te n se ly p e rs o n a l a n d p r iv a te
e x p e rie n c e o f F re e m a s o n ry . I t w as, as R o sse t re m in d e d th e C o m te d e
C o b e n z l, th e ro y a l a r t . D id it sim u lta n e o u sly in stru c t its p r a c titio n e r s
in th e h a b its o f d e m o c ra tic so cie ty w hile e n c o u ra g in g a c a m a r a d e r ie
w ith th e g ra n d e e s th a t b lu rr e d th e re a lity o f th e ir in te re s ts a n d p o w e r ?
I t se em s n e c es sa ry to ta k e a fin al lo o k a t th a t in s titu tio n a n d its
m e a n in g in th e in te lle c tu a l liv es o f th e se ra d ic als.
F re e m a s o n ry p o sse sse d g re a t p e rso n a l m e a n in g fo r b o th R o u s s e t
a n d M a rc h a n d . R o u s s e ts p riv a te le tte rs a tte s t to its im p o r ta n c e a n d to
th e in te n s ity o f th e ir p riv a te c o m m itm e n t, o n e so d ifficu lt to d o c u m e n t
fro m an y o th e r c o m p a ra b le e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry c o lle ctio n o f p u b lis h e d
o r u n p u b lis h e d le tte r s o r d ia rie s. T h ro u g h his la te r c a re e r, R o u s s e t
g a v e e x p re ssio n to th is M aso n ic a rd o u r b y w ritin g a v a rie ty o f
a n o n y m o u s tra c ts in d e fe n c e o f th e b ro th e rh o o d . A s his l e tte r s re v e a l
h e d isc u sse d th e c o n te n ts o f th e s e tra c ts w ith M a rc h a n d , D o u x fils a n d
f r re C h a rle s , in so m e ca ses b e fo re th e ir p u b lic a tio n . T h e u n iv e rs a lis t
m e a n in g a n d a p p e a l o f F re e m a s o n ry d e e p ly c o n c e rn e d h im : W e a re
frie n d s to all th e w o r ld , h e b o a s te d to M a rc h a n d , b u t th e n q u ic k ly
a d d e d e x c e p t to th e J e su its, w h o m n o t o n e m a s te r o f a lo d g e w o u ld
rec e iv e in o u r o r d e r . R o u s s e t e x p re sse d p a rtic u la r in d ig n a tio n a t th e
 242 TH E R A D IC A L EN LIG H TENM ENT

a tta c k s lev elled a g a in s t M a so n ry b y th e J e su its.60 T o th e s e H u g u e n o t

o p p o n e n ts o f th e J e s u its , F re e m a s o n ry se e m e d to o ffe r a f ra te rn a l a n d
u n iv ersa lis t a lte rn a tiv e th a t co u ld b e p itte d a g a in st a n in te rn a tio n a l
clerical o rd e r. R o u s s e ts c o rre s p o n d e n c e c o n sta n tly n a m e s a v a rie ty o f
f r r e s , so m e o f w h o m a p p e a r o n th e official m e m b e rsh ip lists n o w
d e p o s ite d in T h e H a g u e . O th e r tim e s h e sim p ly re fe rs to in tim e s
f r r e s , in P a ris f o r in sta n c e , w h o su p p lie d h im w ith b o o k s a n d
in fo rm a tio n .61 M a so n ic f ra te rn ity filled his d aily life ; it p ro v id e d
R o u s s e t w ith a n o u tle t f o r h is p ro fo u n d an ti-cle ric alism a n d fo r h is
c o n sid e ra b le ta le n ts a s a p ro p a g a n d is t a n d jo u rn a lis t.
A t e v e ry o p p o r tu n ity th is p r o m in e n t A m s te rd a m g ra n d m a ste r r e
ite r a te d a n d e la b o r a te d u p o n th e id e a ls o f F re e m a s o n ry . F o r e x a m p le ,
all M a so n s o n th e e a r t h a re b r o th e r s ,v a n d a m o n g th e m y o u will fin d
all th e c h a rity , frie n d s h ip a n d a ssista n c e th a t y o u m ay e v e r d e s ire .62 I t
sh o u ld n o t b e f o r g o tte n th a t se cre cy a n d m y ste rie s a re c le a rly th e so u l
o f M a s o n ry ; w ith o u t th e m a M a so n w o u ld n o t ipso fa c to b e a M a so n .
Y e t M a so n s h a v e n e v e r re fu s e d to re v e a l th o se s e c re ts to w h o m e v e r
p r e s e n ts h im s e lf f o r m e m b e rs h ip , to a t le a st fifty th o u s a n d m en in
E n g la n d a n d in F r a n c e w ith o u t c o u n tin g G e rm a n y , Ita ly a n d T u r k e y
w h o m R o u s s e t c la im s a r e m e m b e rs . T h e y a re th e e m b o d im e n t o f
re s p e c ta b ility , th e r e is n o th in g a m o n g us th a t is a g a in st relig io n , th e
s ta te , o r g o o d m o rals^ P o ssib ly b e c a u s e o f th a t d e sire f o r a c ce p ta b ility ,
M a rc h a n d m ay h a v e u r g e d a s tra te g ic re la x a tio n o f se cre c y ; b u t R o u s
se t w as a d a m a n tly o p p o s e d . H e sim p ly a s se rte d th a t th e c h a rg e s o f
4libe rtinag e , d e b a u c h e r y , d e ism , a th e is m a n d im p ie ty , n o n -c o n fo rm ity
a n c h v a rio u s o th e r e v e n g r e a te r a b o m in a tio n s a re to ta lly false ; Hft
p o p e h im se lf k n o w s th a t it is s o , T h e E m p e ro r [F ra n c is o f L o rra in e ,
h u s b a n d o f M a ria T h e r e s a ] , th e k in g o f E n g la n d , th e k in g o f P ru ssia , all
th e p r in c e s o f h is h o u s e , th e E le c to r o f C o lo g n e , a lm o st all th e E n g lish
lo rd s a n d m a n y o f th e b ish o p s in th e sam e k in g d o m 63 w o u ld n o t b e
m e m b e rs if th e s e c h a rg e s p o sses se d a n y su b sta n c e . T h e m em b e rsh ip ,
list p r e s e n te d b y R o u s s e t w as im p re ss iv e a n d e x te n siv e , a n d it w as
a lm o s t certainly a c c u r a te e n o u g h , a lth o u g h th e fig u re o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 h e
th e n a s s e rte d m ay b e s o m e w h a t in fla te d . N o tice th a t R o u s s e t is c a re fu l
to e x c lu d e p a n th e is m fro m th is list o f im p ie ties .
B y th e 1 7 4 0 s, E u r o p e a n F re e m a s o n ry h a d c o m e u n d e r a tta c k as a n
in s titu tio n su b v e rs iv e o f s ta te a n d c h u rc h . O n e o f th e m o st w idely re a d
a n d r e p e a te d o f th e s e a tta c k s , o r e x p o s u re s as th e y a re c a lle d , w as an
a n o n y m o u s w o rk e m a n a tin g fro m A m s te rd a m a n d e n title d L e s
F ra ncs-M aons crass (1 7 4 7 ). I t a s s e rte d th e sp ecifically E n g lish a n d
r e p u b lic a n o rig in s o f F re e m a s o n ry , a c c u se d its p ra c titio n e rs o f w a n tin g
to d e stro y fa lse r e lig io n so th a t th e L ig h t o f N a tu re in m a n s b re a s t
c a n o n ce a g a in s h in e f o r t h (1 4 9 , 2 9 1 ). In s h o rt, it c la im e d th a t th e
F re e m a s o n s w e re s e e k in g to in tr o d u c e a n e w fo rm o f R e lig io n a n d
 R EL IG IO N , R EV O L U T IO N A N D TH E NEW S C IEN C E 243

R e p u b lic a n d th a t b o th will b e g u id e d by th e d a n g e ro u s p rin c ip le s o f

lib e rty a n d e q u a lity (1 4 9 , 2 8 2 ). T h is p a rtic u la rly p a ra n o id a c c o u n t.64
by s o m e o n e w h o k n e w a g re a t d e a l a b o u t th e o r d e r , its ritu a ls a n d
c e re m o n ie s, d e e p ly tro u b le d R o u s s e t. H e r e m a rk e d t h a t as a m a s te r
o f th e lo d g e o f A m s te rd a m I h a v e n e v e r k n o w n th e a u th o r , a F lo r e n
tin e m o n k , o n e B o ta re lli, w h o R o u s s e t a sse rts, k e e p s a h o u s e o f p r o s
titu tio n in th a t c ity .65 T h e a n o n y m o u s a u th o r s a c cu ra cy o n m a tte rs o f
ritu a l c o m b in e d w ith a se rie s o f h ig hly e m o tiv e h a lf-tru th s stru c k
R o u s s e t as p a rtic u la rly th re a te n in g to th e w ell-b ein g o f th e o r d e r , a n d
h e a p p e a rs to h a v e w ritte n a n u m b e r o f a n o n y m o u s w o rk s in c o n tr a
d ictio n o f it.
C le a rly th a t w id ely re a d e x p o s u re h a d stru c k clo se to o n e a sp e c t o f
E u r o p e a n F r e m a s o n y , a t le a s t as it c o u ld b e fo u n d in th e N e th e rla n d s .
T h a t in s titu tio n d id b rin g ra d ic a ls in to to u c h w ith a n in te r n a tio n a l
so c iety w h ich b rid g e d th e m o st e x tre m e so cial d iffe re n c e s, a n d R o u s
se t o fte n p ro u d ly p o in te d to th a t fac t. T h e M a so n ic lo d g e c o u ld b e a
p o te n tia lly d a n g e ro u s p lac e , as w as c lea rly p e rc e iv e d b y so m e c o n te m
p o ra rie s w h o a tta c k e d its d e m o c ra tic te n d e n c ie s. Y e t it c o u ld also
e n fo rc e a p r o fo u n d so cial c o n se rv a tism ; ev en R o u s s e t m a n ife sts p rid e
a t its p rin c e ly m e m b e rs h ip . A s a c e n tre fo r re lig io u s w o rsh ip - a n d th a t
seem s th e o n ly w o rd b y w hich to d e sc rib e its c e re m o n ie s -
F re e m a s o n ry w as also lin k e d in R o u s s e ts m in d w ith th e m o st e x tre m e
fo rm s o f in te lle c tu a l h e re sy , w ith p a n th e ism a n d m a te ria lism . M o st
co m m o n ly h is p h ilo so p h ica l d iscu ssio n s o cc u r in th o se le tte r s w ith a
sig n ifican t M a so n ic c o n te n t. F o r e x a m p le , L a M e ttrie s L H o m m e
m a chin e ( 1 7 4 8 ), o n e o f th e m o st im p o r ta n f m a te r ia lis tic w o rk s o f th e
c e n tu ry , re c e iv e s p ra ise in a le tte r larg e ly d e v o te d to M a so n ic a n e c
d o te s a n d d isc u s sio n s .66 P e rh a p s c u rio u sly fro m o u r p e rs p e c tiv e , y e t
u n d e rs ta n d a b le h isto ric a lly , in m id -e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry E u r o p e h e re sy
a n d th e se a rc h fo r social e q u a lity , as w ell as adulation o f a risto c ra tic
a n d p rin c e ly m a ste rs, e x iste d sid e b y sid e ; it w as a b a la n c e th a t as th e
e v e n ts o f 1 7 4 7 - 8 in th e N e th e rla n d s re v e a le d , co u ld b e u n d o n e .
In o ld ag e, as in y o u th , th e M aso n ic o rig in a to r o f th e Trait des trois
im po ste urs m a in ta in e d his p a n th e is tic faith in ta c t. F ro m th a t p h il
o so p h y c a m e c o n so la tio n a n d in th e face o f th e loss o f a clo se frie n d ,
R o u s s e t c h id e d M a rc h a n d :

If y o u re fu s e th e c o n so la tio n s o f P h ilo so p h y , th a t is to say, o f

N a tu r e s g ift o f re a so n I w o u ld tu rn fo r aid to th e [ ? ]; a n d I p ro m ise
y o u th a t y o u r e n d le ss g rie f, y o u r o v e rw h e lm in g , m o rta l so rro w , a re
j n o n e o th e r th a n re p ro a c h e s le v e lle d a t P ro v id e n c e - b e h a v io u r
w h ich y o u c o n d e m n . A t le n g th , I w o uld r e tu r n to th e o r d e r o f
N ature , w h ic h p lac e s us w illy-nilly o n th is e a rth , n o t fo r e v e r b u t fo r
a lim ite d tim e , w h o se e x te n t a n d fin al e n d a re alik e h id d e n fro m u s;
 244 T H E R A D IC A L E N L IG H T E N M EN T

th is is th e u n iv e rs a l o r d e r , to w hich e v e ry o n e , b u t esp ecially m en o f

re a s o n , d o w ell to su b m it th em se lv e s. In a w o rd , I w o u ld u rg e y o u to
le t y o u r sen sib ility b o w to R ea so n a n d in d e e d to F riendship ; y o u a re
n o t sin g u la r in y o u r w e a k n e ss . . . I u rg e y o u to m ak e th es e e ffo rts ,
o n m y o w n b e h a lf a n d o n b e h a lf o f all y o u r o th e r frie n d s.67

R o u s s e ts p a n th e is m re m a in e d u n s h a k e a b le , a n d h e w as u n m o v e d b y
th e a rg u m e n ts to th e c o n tra ry p u t fo rw a rd by th e p h ilo so p h e rs , th e
M e ch a n ists a n d th e M eta p h y s ic ia n s [w h o ] by th e ir m ea su rin g o f th e
a c tio n , w e ig h t a n d e la stic ity o f b o d ie s , th in k th a t th e y can g et in s id e
n a tu r e .68 In k e e p in g w ith th e p o lem ics o f T o la n d a n d his as so c ia te s,
th es e p a n th e is ts re m a in e d u n im p re sse d b y th e o ld m etap h y sics, e v e n
w h e re s u p p o rte d b y th e n ew m ec h a n ic al p h ilo so p h y . N e v e rth e le ss, all
th e fin d in g s o f th e n e w scien ce w e re to b e sa v o u re d , o nly to b e
in te r p re te d in p a n th e is tic te rm s: eclip ses, as R o u s s e t e x p la in e d , a re ,
fo r o n e e x a m p le , sim ply in th e o r d e r o f N a tu r e .69
D u rin g th e e a rly e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , th e p ro v id e n tia list d o c trin e
h a d b e e n p ro c la im e d m o st n o ta b ly by th e m o d e ra te , N e w to n ia n p h a s e
o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t, a n d it w as in te n d e d to e x p la in th e o p e ra tio n s o f
th e o r d e r e d u n iv erse as e x p lic a te d by th e n ew scie n c e. In re sp o n se , th e
rad ic als re s e rv e d sp e cial sc o rn fo r th a t in te lle c tu a l c o n stru c tio n .
D o u x fils re g a rd e d it as a p e rp e tu a l c o n tra d ic tio n , b u t th e n as h e
r e m a rk e d h e h a d g r e a t d ifficu lty e v e n e n te rin g a c h u rc h a lth o u g h th e r e
w as o n e o n ly a few ste p s aw ay fro m w h e re h e liv e d .70 In a p a rtic u la rly
rev e a lin g le tte r , R o u s s e t d w e lt u p o n th e d o c trin e o f p ro v id e n c e callin g
' it theT fvim ty o f th e id le r s a n d im p lie d th a t th e lazy rely u p o n it'.71 F o r
b u sin e ssm e n a n d re fu g e e s, such as w e re th e K n ig h ts, life m u st h a v e
""co n tain ed m o re th a n its u su al q u o ta o f stru g g le a n d th e e le m e n t o f
s u p e rn a tu ra lly im p o se d o r d e r m u st h a v e a p p e a r e d so re ly lack in g . F o r
R o u sse t, a t lea st, if n o t h is f r r e s , th e d iv in ity o f th e M e ta p h y sic ia n
w as, as h e said , so m u ch ja r g o n .
Y e t life as p re s c rib e d b y n a tu r e w as fa r fro m r a n d o m o r m ea n in g less
fo r th e se f r r e s . In sick n e ss a n d in d e a th th e s e n o w a g e d p a n th e is ts
c o u n s elle d fo r fa ith in n a tu r e : h e a v e n o r m o th e r N a tu re will give u s
g r a c e a n d d e a th is in e ffe c t a fallin g a s le e p .72 In th e e n d we re tu r n to
n a tu re a n d o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th is w o rld w h ile w e a re in it m u st b e
b a se d u p o n r e a s o n a n d tru e frie n d s h ip . I n d e e d , th e th e m e o f f rie n d
sh ip a n d m u tu a l aid ru n s th ro u g h th e s e le tte rs , a n d th a t c o m m itm e n t
w as p a rt o f a la rg e r e th ic : Y o u w o u ld a d m it th a t w e a re n o t in th is
w o rld fo r o u rse lv e s a lo n e , o th erw is e h o w w o u ld w e se rv e so c ie ty ?
P e rh a p s b e c a u se o f th e c o m p e titiv e w o rld in w hich th e se p u b lis h e rs
liv ed , a n d a b o u t w h ich th e y c o m p la in e d en d lessly in th e ir le tte rs , th is
e th ic o f m u tu a l assista n c e a n d tru e frie n d s h ip co u ld o n ly find c o m
p le te ex p re ssio n , o r so it se e m e d , w ith in th e c o n fin e s o f th e M aso n ic
 R ELIG IO N, R EV O LU TIO N AND TH E NEW SC IEN C E 245

lo d g e .73 In th a t clo sed w o rld , th e se m en o f e n lig h te n m e n t e m b r a c e d

th e c e n tra l p a ra d o x o f th is n e w c re e d : in se cre c y a n d w ith e x q u is ite ly
re s tra in e d c e re m o n ie s a n d ritu a ls th e y w o rsh ip p e d civil s o c ie ty at th e
a lta r o f re a s o n a n d o r d e r . T h e y p ro c la im e d u n iv ersa lis m w h ile c a r e
fu lly e x c lu d in g all b u t th e se le c t c o m p a n y o f f r r e s ; th e y r e p u d ia te d
th e o ld re lig io n s w ith th e ir cu lts a n d ritu a ls w h ile d isc re e tly p a r tic ip a t
ing in th e fo rm a tio n o f a n ew , if so m e w h a t c e re b ra l, v e rsio n o f th a t v e ry
im p u lse :74 T h e ir o b je c t o f w o rsh ip d iffe re d p ro fo u n d ly , h o w e v e r , fro m
th e G o d o f th e im p o s to rs . T h e F re e m a so n s a n d p a n th e is ts w o rs h ip
p e d an e n tity th a t h a d b e e n re in te r p re te d by th e d isc o v e rie s o f th e n ew
scie n c e, b y th e S cien tific R e v o lu tio n th a t c u lm in a te d in N e w to n s
a c h ie v e m e n t (C h a p te r 1).

T h e N ew Science
A s o rig in a lly c o n s titu te d u n d e r th e ca re fu l le a d e rs h ip o f th e N e w
to n ia n , D e sa g u lie rs , o fficial F re e m a so n ry p ro v id e d o n e a g e n c y fo r th e
in c u lc a tio n o f th e n e w sc ien ce. A lth o u g h th e e x a c t e d u c a tio n a l ro le o f
in d iv id u al M a so n ic lo d g es aw aits h isto rica l in v e stig a tio n , it se e m s a
safe a sse rtio n th a t in g e n e ra l F re e m a so n s a p p e a r to h av e b e e n p a r tic u
larly re c e p tiv e to th e n ew sc ien tific le a rn in g a n d to h a v e b e e n g e n e ra lly
c o m fo rta b le w ith it. C e rta in ly th is h o ld s tru e fo r th e in te lle c tu a l i n
te re s ts o f th e K n ig h ts o f J u b ila tio n , th e ir lite ra ry so ciety t h a t p u b lis h e d
th e Jo u rn a l littraire , as w ell as fo r th e life -lo n g sc ien tific in te r e s ts o f
M a rc h a n d a n d R o u s s e t. In fa c t, M a rc h a n d a n d his a sso c ia te s tu r n o u t
to h a v e p la y e d im p o r ta n t ro le s in th e tfan sm issibn ~an d d is s e m in a tio n
o f th e tw o m a jo r sc ien tific a c h ie v e m e n ts o f th e first h a lf o f th e e ig h
te e n th c e n tu ry : th e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e N e w to n ia n sy n th e sis o n th e
C o n tin e n t a n d th e p u b lic a tio n o f T re m b le y s re s e a rc h o n th e self-
g e n e ra tio n o f p o ly p s. T h e lite ra ry so ciety in T h e H a g u e , w ith
s G ra v e s a n d e p lay in g a p a rtic u la rly crucial ro le , to o k u p N e w to n s
sc ien ce in th e p a g e s o f th e J o u r n a l , a n d in a sy ste m atic w ay a n d w ith
N e w to n s p e rs o n a l e n c o u ra g e m e n t, gave a w id e r e x p o s itio n o f his
d isc o v e rie s th a n h a d b e e n av a ila b le in a n y o th e r F re n c h -la n g u a g e
jo u rn a l p r io r to 1 7 1 3 . T h is is n o t to d e n ig ra te th e e sse n tia l ro le p la y e d
by B o lin g b ro k e , B ro o k T a y lo r an d V o lta ire , as w ell as c o u n tle s s o th e r
N e w to n ia n s, in th e d e s tru c tio n o f C a rte sia n ism . B u t it m u st b e r e c o g
n ised th a t lite ra ry jo u rn a ls , such as th e o n e p ro d u c e d by s G r a v e s a n d e ,
M a rc h a n d a n d c o m p a n y , re a c h e d a far la rg e r lite ra te a u d ie n c e , far
e a rlie r in th e c e n tu ry , th a n d id th o se in d iv id u a l p ro p a g a n d is ts .
E v e n b e fo re th e ir a rriv a l in th e N e th e rla n d s d u rin g th e W a r o f
S p a n ish S u c ce ssio n , M a rc h a n d a n d P ic a rt, le a d in g fig u re s in th e
K n ig h ts o f J u b ila tio n , h a d b e e n a ttr a c te d to th e n e w s c ie n tific
le a rn in g . M a rc h a n d s B a c o n ia n ism , his p e n c h a n t fo r th e s y s te m a tic
246 TH E R A D IC A L EN LIG H TENM EN T

cla ssifica tio n o f k n o w le d g e , h a s a lre a d y b e e n n o te d , as h a s P ic a r ts

d e d ic a tio n to a fre e th in k in g in te r p re ta tio n o f th e C a rte s ia n leg ac y a n d
his p ra c tic a l in te r e s t in th e m ic ro sc o p e as a m e a n s o f im p ro v in g his
te c h n iq u e as a n e n g ra v e r. O n c e th e y a rriv e d in th e N e th e rla n d s ,
s G ra v e s a n d e p r o b a b ly b e c a m e th e ir scien tific tu to r . T h e lite ra ry s o
ciety fo rm e d b y M a rc h a n d a n d h is frie n d s th e re b y r a n k s as o n e o f th e
first circ les o n th e C o n tin e n t to b e re a so n a b ly v e rse d in N e w to n s
sc ie n c e . T h e p a g e s o f th e J o u rn a l a tte s t to th e s o p h is tic a te d lev el o f
sc ie n tific u n d e rs ta n d in g e n jo y e d b y a t le a st so m e o f its e d ito rs, a n d
e v e n t o th e ir w illin g n ess to d o p o le m ic a l serv ice a g a in st th e critics o f
N e w to n s e x p la n a tio n o f p la n e ta r y m o tio n s.75 A s n o te d in C h a p te r 1,
w h e r e v e r w e fin d th e first stirrin g s o f th e n e w e n lig h te n e d c u ltu re w e
fin d a n in te n se in te r e s t i .the n e w scien ce.
B u t in te re s t s h o u ld n o t b e e q u a te d w ith w h o le sale c o n v e rs io n to
b o th th e m e a n in g a n d th e c o n te n t o f th e m ec h a n ic a l p h ilo so p h y as
a rtic u la te d b y B o y le a n d N e w to n . N e w to n ia n is m s fu n d a m e n ta l in te r
c o n n e c tio n w ith C h ristia n m eta p h y sic s re n d e r e d it, if a c c e p te d c o m
p le te w ith its u n d e rs ta n d in g o f in e r t m a tte r a n d G o d s v ita l ro le in th e
u n iv e rs e , in to a n e s se n tia lly m o d e r a te v e rs io n o f E n lig h te n m e n t. T h is
m o d e r a tio n m u st b e se e n a s re la tiv e to th e m a te ria listic e x p la n a tio n o f
n a tu r e w hich h a d b e e n e x tr a c te d , w ith c o n sid e ra b le e ffo rt, fro m
D e s c a rte s, as w ell a s re la tiv e to th e p a n th e is tic v isio n o f th e n a tu ra l
w o rld e x tr a c te d w ith little d iffic u lty fro m a c a re fu l re a d in g o f S p in o z a
o r a c a su a l r e a d in g o f B r u n o . A t p rec is ely th e tim e w h e n th e K n ig h ts
e s ta b lis h e d th e ir lite r a ry so c ie ty (.1 7 1 0 -1 3 ) a n d b e g a n a jo u rn a l c o m -
m iffe d T o d isse m in a tin g th e n ew scie n c e, am o n g ~ o th er a sp ec ts o f tire ~~
n e w le a rn in g , th e ir in te n s e in te r e s t in S p in o z a as w ell as in th e
n a tu ra lis tic w rite rs o f th e la te R e n a iss a n c e , D e s P rie rs, B ru n o a n d
V a n in i, h a s b e e n e s ta b lis h e d . I t is n o lo n g e r p o ssib le to a ssu m e , as d id
th e G e r m a n p h ilo s o p h e r a n d h isto ria n E rn s t C a ssire r, a sim p le e q u a -
tio ith & tw e e n th e a c c e p ta n c e o f N e w to n ia n is m a n d th e o rig in s o f th e
E n lig h te n m e n t. W ith in th e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n m e n t w e fin d e v id e n c e
in s te a d th a t th e m a th e m a tic a l a n d p hy sical d isc o v e rie s1o f th e n e w
sc ie n c e w e re g r a f te d o n to a n a tu r a l p h ilo so p h y th a t w as e sse n tia lly
p re -sc ie n tific in its o rig in s. In th e s e circles n a tu r e w as s im u lta n e o u sly
d e ifie d a n d s u b je c te d to m a th e m a tic a l a n d e x p e rim e n ta l e x p lic a tio n .
W h a t p re c ise ly d id th e n e w sc ie n c e, th a t ric h leg acy o f th e s e v e n
te e n th c e n tu ry , m e a n in th e d a ily liv es o f th e se ra d ic a l jo u rn a lis ts a n d
p ro p a g a n d is ts ? E s s e n tia lly it p r o v o k e d tw o re sp o n se s. T h e first
e n ta ile d a p e rs o n a l in te r e s t in* a n d a b ility to fo llo w w ith c o n sid e ra b le
so p h is tic a tio n ! n e w sc ie n tific p u b lic a tio n s, a n d e v e n to a tte m p t o n e s
o w n s c ie n tific ,e x p e rim e n ta tio n . T h e se co n d im p u lse w as a m o re g e n
e ra l d e sire to tra n s la te th e sc ie n tific sp irit in to u n iv e rsa l p ra c tic e , in to a
s y ste m a tic stu d y o f e v e ry a s p e c t o f h u m a n e n d e a v o u r to b e u n d e rta k e n
 R E L IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A N D T H E N EW SC IE N C E 247

a t e v e ry tu r n fo r th e p u rp o se o f re fo rm in g o r, if n e e d b e , o f d e stro y in g
c e rta in e s ta b lis h e d so cial in stitu tio n s . F o r e n lig h te n e d m e n w ith
jo u rn a lis tic in te re s ts th a t scien tific im p u lse to o k an e n c y c lo p a e d ic
d ire c tio n ; it e n ta ile d th e c a ta lo g u in g a n d d ig estin g , a s w ell as th e
d isse m in a tin g , o f th e n ew le a rn in g , th e c re a tio n o f lite ra ry p r o je c ts
o fte n in fu se d w ith su b v e rsiv e a n d p o le m ic a l o v e rto n e s.
In th is sp irit, M a rc h a n d a n d h is a sso c ia te s e d ite d a n d p u b lis h e d th e
1 7 2 0 e d itio n o f B a y le s D iction na ire , w h ile P ic a rt a n d J e a n F r d ric
B e r n a rd b e g a n a m assiv e a n d w e ll-re se a rc h e d su rv ey o f all th e w o rld s
re lig io n s. C r m on ie s et c o u tu m e s religieuses d e tous les p e u p le s d u
m o n d e , b e g u n in 1 72 2 a n d in tu rn tra n s la te d in to E n g lish a n d D u tc h ,
w as ex p lic itly cy nical a b o u t th e ev ils o f re lig io u s p ra c tic e a n d g r a p h i
cally illu s tra te d b a rb a r o u s relig io u s p ra c tic e s, w ith m u ch e m p h a s is o n
h u m a n sa crifice . P ic a r ts en g ra v in g s o f th e s e c e re m o n ie s fo rc e fu lly
im p re ss th e m o d e rn v iew e r a n d le a v e n o d o u b t as to his o w n o p in io n s
a b o u t th e a b s u rd ity o f m o st re lig io u s p ra c tic e . T h e F re e m a s o n s w e re
a m o n g th e few relig io u s g ro u p s to g e t a d e c e n t p re ss, w h ile th e p re fa c e
to th e E n g lis h e d itio n o f th is m u ltiv o lu m e d a n d e x p e n siv e e n c y c lo
p a e d ia e c h o e d se n tim e n ts a b o u t th e w o rld s relig io n s n o t f a r fro m
th o se fo u n d in th e Trait des trois im p o ste urs: W h e n w e b e h o ld th e ir
d e p o s itio n s so d e stru c tiv e to th e p e a c e o f th e w o r l d . . . [w e as k ] w h o se
m ercy is o v e r all [th e D e ity s] w o rk s ? .76 S o m e d e c a d e s a f te r M a rc h a n d
a n d P ic a rt c o m p le te d th e s e v a rio u s e n c y c lo p a e d ic p ro je c ts , R o u s s e t, in
th e le tte r to M a rc h a n d q u o te d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th is c h a p te r, p ra is e d
D id e r o ts E n c y clo p d ie in la n g u a g e in d ic a tin g th a t h e rig h tly saw it as a
c o n tin u a tio n o f th a t sa m e scien tific a n d su b v e rsiv e sp irit.
B y th e e a rly e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry in C o n tin e n ta l E u r o p e scien tific
a c a d e m ie s h a d b e e n e sta b lis h e d in v a rio u s c itie s a n d p re d ic ta b ly a t
le a s t o n e o f th e s e rad ic al jo u rn a lis ts , R o u s s e t, e n jo y e d a fa sh io n a b le
m e m b e rs h ip in th e R o y a l A c a d e m y o f A rts a n d S ciences in B e rlin as
w ell as in th e A c a d e m y o f S cien ce in S t P e te rs b u rg . T h e ir re c o rd s lea v e
n o in d ic a tio n o f w h a t m ig h t h a v e b e e n R o u s s e ts y ea rly c o n trib u tio n to
th e p ro c e e d in g s , b u t h e w as in o rd in a te ly p r o u d o f his m e m b e rs h ip in
b o th b o d ie s. F ro m St P e te rs b u rg h e re c e iv e d scie n tific tre a tis e s , am o n g
th e m w o rk s b y th e im p o r ta n t m a th e m a tic ia n , E u le r .77 A s his c o rr e
s p o n d e n c e re v e a ls , in te re s t a n d skill in m a th e m a tic s w as co m b in e d by
R o u s s e t w ith m ic ro sco p ic in v e stig a tio n s w h ich o n o n e o c casio n p r o
d u c e d a sc ie n tific tre a tis e o n se a w o rm s c o n s id e re d to b e v a lu a b le in its
d a y .78 In th e 1 7 3 0 s th e w o o d e n d ik e s a ro u n d th e D u tc h c o a st w e re
je o p a r d is e d b y a p la g u e o f se a w o rm s th a t th re a te n e d to w e a k e n th e ir
fo u n d a tio n s. R o u s s e t tu rn e d his a tte n tio n to th e s e c re a tu re s a n d p u b
lish e d a tre a tis e , b a s e d u p o n his d isse c tio n s, w hich o u tlin e d th e ir
s tru c tu re a n d re v e a le d h is r a th e r sig n ific an t a b ility as a m icro sco p ic
in v e s tig a to r. T h ro u g h o u t his life th e m ic ro sc o p e in h is c a b in e t w as
248 THE R A D IC A L EN LIG HTENM EN T

a m o n g h is m o st c h e rish e d p o ssessio n s. M o re th a n b io lo g y a n d ev en
m ed ic in e, a b o u t w hich h e k n ew little b u t in w hich h e e n te r ta in e d an
in te re s t, m a th e m a tic s in te re s te d h im m ost p ro fo u n d ly ; h e b e lie v ed
th a t m a th e m a tic s re c tifio ie n t le ju g e m e n t a n d h e s eem s to h av e b e e n
re a s o n a b ly sk illed in its p ra c tic e .79
T h e e d ito rs o f th e J o u rn a l littraire , an d th e ir c o lla b o ra to rs in th e
K nig h ts o f Ju b ila tio n , laid d o w n ro o ts fo r th e n e w sc ien tific c u ltu re in
th e N e th e rla n d s th a t w e re to yield an u n e x p e c te d ly rich legacy in th e
h isto ry o f E u r o p e a n m ate ria lis m . O n e o f th e o rig in a l f r r e s a n d a
c o lla b o ra to r o n th e J o u rn a l w as th e F re n c h re fu g e e , Isa a c S a c re la ire
(b. 1 6 8 0 ). A s a s tu d e n t o f m ed icin e a n d as an a ctiv e p a rtic ip a n t in th e
in te lle c tu a l life e n g e n d e re d by this s e c re t lite ra ry so c iety a n d its sc ie n
tific le a d e r, s G ra v e sa n d e , S a c re la ire a c q u ire d e a rly in his c a re e r a
fam iliarity w ith th e m o st a d v a n c e d scien tific d isc o v e rie s, as w ell as w ith
th e d e lic a te q u e stio n s p o se d by th e n ew n a tu ra l p h ilo so p h ie s.
T h o se q u e stio n s m u st h a v e re m a in e d in his m in d , w h e n S a c re la ire
b e c am e a c o lla b o ra to r a n d close frie n d to A b r a h a m T re m b le y , th e
t u to r to W illiam B e n tin c k s c h ild ren . W hile living a t B e n tin c k s h o m e
in T h e H a g u e , a n d in d a ily c o n ta c t w ith b o th W illiam a n d C h a rle s
B e n tin c k , T re m b le y c o n d u c te d e x te n s iv e e x p e rim e n ts o n th e r e p r o
d u c tiv e b e h a v io u r o f fre s h -w a te r p o ly p s a n d c a m e to th e co n c lu sio n
th a t th e y w ere c a p ab l o f se lf-g e n e ra tio n (5 2 ). T h a t d isco v ery , o n ce
w re ste d fro m his h a n d s by m a te ria lists lik e L a M e ttrie , g av e new life,
so m e a rg u e d v icto ry , to th e m a te ria list in te r p re ta tio n o f n a tu ra l
p h e n o m e n a . T re m b le y d e sc rib e d S a c re la ire as th e p e rs o n w h o a fte r
m e k n ew m o st a b o u t th a t d isco v e ry a n d w as b e s t a b le to fo llo w ancf
assist h im in his e x p e rim e n ts.80 W as S a c re la ire , lik e so m an y o f his e a rly
f r r e s , a m a te ria list? W e sh all p ro b a b ly n e v e r k n o w (ce rta in ly
T re m b le y w as n o t) b u t it is h a rd ly c o in c id e n ta l th a t m e m b e rs o f th is
scien tific circ le, g iven w h a t we n o w k n o w a b o u t its e a rlie s t h isto ry ,
w o u ld h a v e b e e n la te r d ra w n to q u e stio n s a n d e x p e rim e n ts th a t w e n t
to th e h e a r t o f th e N e w to n ia n -m a te ria list d ia lo g u e - w e sh o u ld rea lly
say p o le m ic - w h ich b e g a n w ith T o la n d a n d w h ich w as c o n tin u e d fo r
d e c ad e s o n th e C o n tin e n t. In th a t w ar ag ain st C h ristia n o rth o d o x y , th e
D u tc h -b a se d p u b lish in g firm s a n d jo u rn a lis ts p la y e d cru c ial ro les as
p ro p a g a n d ists a n d d iss e m in a to rs o f c la n d e stin e m a n u sc rip ts as w ell as
p rin te d b o o k s. If S a c re la ire e sc a p e d a p e rs o n a l c o m m itm e n t to
m a te ria lis m , o r p a n th e ism as T o la n d a n d R o u s s e t p r e f e rr e d to call it,
M a rc h a n d d id n o t. A n d a t T r e m b le y s re q u e s t, M a rc h a n d b ro u g h t his
scien tific d isc o v e rie s a b o u t th e p o ly p to p u b lic a tio n , a n d th e re b y
sw u ng th e d e b a te in th e d ire c tio n o f th e m ate ria lists .
If it c o u ld b e p ro v e n th a t living m a tte r se e m e d c a p a b le o f sim p ly
g e n e ra tin g itself - a n d th a t w as h o w th e a c tio n s o f th is m iniscu le
c re a tu re a p p e a r e d to th e m o st tra in e d o b se rv e rs - th e n , th e m a te ria l-
 R E L IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A N D TH E N EW S C IE N C E 249

ists a rg u e d , life, o r m o tio n , c o u ld in d e e d b e in h e r e n t in n a tu r e , in

m a tte r itself. A f te r d e c a d e s o f h a rd la b o u r o n th e p a r t o f N e w to n ia n s ,
C a rte s ia n s a n d th e fo llo w e rs o f L e ib n iz - a n d o n th is o n e s u b je c t th e y
w e re u n ite d - to p ro v e t h a t o r d e r , d esig n a n d h a rm o n y in th e u n iv e rs e
r e s te d o n G o d s will a n d th a t a n im a te m a tte r w as in h e re n tly in c a p a b le
o f fo rm in g a n d g e n e ra tin g itself, su d d e n ly it se e m e d t h a t th e n e w
sc ien ce re v e a le d d istu rb in g e v id e n c e th a t c o u ld p lay d ire c tly in to th e
h a n d s o f p h ilo so p h ic a l a n d p o litica l rad ic als.
In th e p e rio d a fte r 1 7 5 0 , th e m a te ria lis m o f th e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n
m e n t w as in cre as in g ly a d o p te d b y th e F re n c h p h ilo s o p h e s a n d its
d iffu s io n , o fte n th ro u g h th e v a rio u s e d itio n s o f D id e r o ts E n c y c
lo p d ie 81 w ith th e coyly m a te ria listic articles p la c e d th e r e b y th e A b b
Y v o n , w as a la rm in g ly ra p id . In th e p ro cess, th e re p u b lic a n ism a n d
F re e m a s o n ry so v ita l to th a t e a rly p h a se o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t la rg e ly
fell by th e w aysid e. T h a t is n o t, o f co u rse, to im ply th a t th e so u rc e s o f
F re n c h m ate ria lism c a n b e e x p la in e d larg ely b y th e im p a c t o f th e
p ro je c ts , b o o k s a n d m an u s c rip ts n o w a ttrib u ta b le to th e rad ic al c o te rie
w e have, d e sc rib e d h e re . S u ch a n im p lic atio n w o u ld a m o u n t to a n
e g re g io u s sim p lific a tio n o f th e h isto ry o f a su b v e rs iv e d o c tr in e a s
im p o r ta n t as m a te ria lism b e c a m e in e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry E u r o p e a n d
w ell b e y o n d . Y e t it h a s b e e n a lre a d y n o te d in p a ssin g th a t th e R a d ic a l
E n lig h te n m e n t b e a rs m o re th a n a n id eo lo g ic al re s e m b la n c e to d o c
trin e s la te r v ital to th e H ig h E n lig h te n m e n t in F ra n c e . T h e r e w e re a ls o
so cial a n d p e rs o n a l lin k s b e tw e e n th is e a rlie r g e n e ra tio n o f E u r o p e a n
m a te ria lists a n d th e g e n e ra tio n o f p h ilo so p h e s a n d p u b lis h e rs w h o
c a m e in to th e ir o w n in th e p e rio d a fte r 1 750. T h e u n ra v e llin g o f th e s e
lin k s will b e a tre a c h e r o u s b u sin e ss, in larg e m e a s u re b e c a u s e it
in v o lv e s a se c re t so c iety as c o n tro v e rs ia l^ F re e m a s o n ry h as b e c o m e
in F re n c h h isto rio g ra p h y . It w o u ld b e sa fe r to sto p o u r h isto ric a l
k n o w le d g e o f th e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n m e n t h e re , to b e c o n te n t to
h a v e tra c e d so m e o f its p h ilo so p h ica l o rig ins a n d its r e v o lu tio n a ry
h e rita g e , to h a v e e x a m in e d its tra n sm is sio n to th e C o n tin e n t a n d its
so cial w o rld , a n d fin a lly in th is c h a p te r to h a v e o u tlin e d its in stitu tio n s
a n d p o litic a l in v o lv e m e n ts. B u t in e v ita b ly th e p a s t b e a rs so m e r e la tio n
to w h a t c a m e a fte r it. I t re m a in s fo r u s to a tte m p t a b rie f a s se s s m e n t o f
th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n m e n t a n d th e m a tu r e
y e a rs o f E n lig h te n m e n t c u ltu re in F ra n c e . P e rh a p s it c a n b e s a id th a t
so m e n ew p a th s to th e H ig h E n lig h te n m e n t h a v e n o w b e e n re v e a le d .

N otes: C h a p te r 7
1 U L , L e id e n , R o u s s e t d e M issy to P ro s p e r M arch an d , M ar c h a n d M S S 2 , f. 4 7 , 28
F e b ru a ry (n .a., b u t fro m th e co n te x t a lm o st certa in ly 1 7 5 2 ). T h e o rig in al re a d s :
S av ez v o u s q u e cela a u ro it t g ra n d tra in v ers le P a n th is m e si ces T h s e s e u s s e n t
250 THE R A D IC A L ENLIG H TEN M EN T

p a s s e t en m m e te m p s le s 10 n o rm e s v o l. d e L E n c y c lo p d ie ; o n d b a ra s s o it les
b e a u x E s p rits , les fe m m e s s a v a n te s & g a la n te s , les p e tits -m a tr e s , ta n t d e d is te s e t
d a th e s Ita lie n s & A n g lo is e t fr an o is d u jo u g d e la R elig io n si n ce ss aire d a n s la
s o c i t p o u r n y tre p a s g o rg , e t p as p o u r a u tr e c h o s e , e t c e n e s t b ie n assez; m ais
[h ] a lte , je fa is le p e tit E n c ic lo p d is te .
2 A lb e r t, C o u n t d e P a s s e ra n , T w elve D iscourses con cern in g R e ligio n a n d G o v -
e rn m e n t, In s c rib e d to A l l L o v e r s o f T ruth a n d L ib e r ty (L o n d o n , 1 7 3 4 ), p. 11.
3 N o u v e lle s liberts de P en se r (A m s te rd a m , 17 4 3 ), L e P h ilo so p h e , o n e o f five tr a c ts ,
p p . 1 6 5 ,1 8 8 : L a so c i t civ ile e st p o u r ainsi d ire, la se u le d iv in it q u il re c o n n o is s e
s u r la te r r e ; il l e n c e n s e , il l h o n o re p a r la p ro b it , p a r u n e a tte n tio n e x ac te ses
d e v o i r s . . . C f. J . O H ig g in s , S I , A n th o n y C ollins (T h e H a g u e : N ijh o ff, 1 9 7 0 ), p p .
2 1 6 -1 7 .
4 U L , L e id e n , M a rc h a n d M S S 2 , 2 6 F e b ru a r y 1 7 3 7 , V o u s m av ez fa it p la is ir d e
m in s tru ire s u r la V ie e t l E s p r it d e S p in o s a ; je su is b ie n aise d tr e a u fa it d e c e tte
a n e c d o te . J^ p r s ce q u e je v o u s e n ay d it, il e s t ais d e s a p e rc e v o ir d o elle v ie n t.
5 M a rc h a n d 2*,.17 J a n u a r y 1 7 4 0 : V o u s v o u s s o u v e n s p e u t- tr e q u e c to it m o n
F r r e q u i n o u s en a p p o r ta le M sp. la m a iso n , a p p a r te n a n t M. F u rly . L e v ie r le
co p ia fo r t p r c ip ita m m e n t: J e la g a rd e e n c o re c e tte C o p ie
6 S ee a p p e n d ix , p p . 2 7 7 - 9 . T h e o rig in al re a d s : Q u a n t ce q u e v o u s cro y ez q u e la
T ra d u c tio n im a g in a ire d o n t il s ag it d a n s R p o n s e en q u e s tio n s , ait q u e lq u e ch o s e
d e C o m m u n a v e c l E s p rit d e S p in o sa , j e n co n v ien s a v e c v o u s. L e v ie r la co p ia en
1 7 1 1 . C e tte s o r te d e L iv re s ta it sa m a r o tte . Si, d e p u is ce te m p s , il a eu d u
c o m m e rc e a v ec R o u s s e t, to u s les d o u te s la d ess u s se to u r n e n t e n v id en c e. Il en e s t
d u L iv re d es tro is Im p o s te u r s co m m e d e s C lav icu le s d e S alo m o n - d o n t j ay v eu
p lu s ie rs M sp to u s d if f re n s les u n s d e s autres.*
7 B L , M SS A D D . 4 2 9 5 ? ff. 6 9 - 7 0 , C h ris to p a e d ia , A n A c c o u n t o f th e P u e ril S tu d ies
o f J e s u s C h ris t.
8 R p o n s e la D isser ta tio n d e M . d e la M o n n o y e su r L e Trait des tro is im po steu rs
(T h e H a g u e , 1 7 1 6 ). In th e 1 7 6 8 e d itio n o f th e T rait , th e R p o n se o ccu rs o n p p .
1 1 6 - 3 5 ; fo r T o la n d , p . 1 1 9 . T h e R o y a l L ib ra ry , T h e H a g u e , h a s R o u s s e ts tr a c t as a
__ s e p a r a te p u b lic a tio n . (Ita licis in g o f P a n th e is ts m y o w n .) H a s s a n E l N o u ty , L e
pirn th is m e d a n s le s le ttr e s fra n a is e s a u X V IIIe s i cle: a p e r u s s u r la fo r tu n e d u
m o t e t d e la n o tio n , R e v u e des sciences h u m a in e s , v o l. 2 7 (1 9 6 0 ), p p . 4 3 5 - 5 7 .
9 ib id ., p p . 1 2 7 -8 . T h e T rait a n d th e S pa cc io w ere o fte n c ir c u la te d by th e sa m e
p e o p le , e.g . S. E n g e l in B e r n e ; cf. B L M SS. A D D . 1 2 0 6 2 le tte r fr o m E n g el to
R o b in e t p re fix e d to th e S p a c c io ; H e in ric h D b i, D as B u c h vo n d en d rei B etrgern
u n d d a s B e rn e r M a n u s k r ip t (B e rn e : A . F ra n c k e , 1 9 3 6 ), p. 1 4 ; B L , M SS A D D .
1 2 0 6 4 f o r a c o p y o f th e T rait. ?
1 0 D ic tio n n a ire h is to riq u e , o u m m o ire s critiques e t littraires, co nc ern a n t . . .
p er s o n n a g e s dis ting u s p ar tic u li re m e n t d an s la r p u b liq u e des lettres (T h e H a g u e :
P ie r re d e H o n d t, 1 7 5 8 ), v o l. I, p p . 3 1 2 - 2 9 ; cf. J. S. S p ih k , L a d iffu sio n d es id e s
m a t ria lis te s e t a n ti-re lig ie u s e s au d b u t d u X V II Ie s i cle: le T h e o p h ra s tu s r e d i
v iv u s , R e v u e d h is to ire littraire d e la F rance? (1 9 3 7 ), p p . 4 4 , 2 4 8 - 5 5 . C f.
B ib lio th e c a h o h e n d o r fia n a (1 7 2 2 ), v o l. 3 , p . 2 3 4 ; se e als o P a u l V e rn i r e , S p in o za et
la p e n s e fran a ise a v a n t la rv olu tion (1 7 , II , 3 6 2 ). I d o u b t th a t th e r e e v e r w as a
G e r m a n d o c to r n a m e d F e r b e r in v o lv ed in th e 1721 e d itio n . In th e m y th o lo g y o f all
th is h e ra n k s w ith F r e c h t a n d A y m o n .
11 T rait d e s trois im p o ste u rs (A m s te rd a m , 1 7 6 8 ), ch. I, p a ra s . 5 - 6 . R o u s s e t d M issy s
sy s te m o f d e s c rib in g th e m a n u s c rip t b y c h a p te r a n d p a r a g r a p h will b e u se d to assist
re a d e r s p o ssessin g d if f e r e n t ed itio n s .
12 ib id ., c h . 2 , p a ra s 1 , 5 . -
13 ib id ., c h . 2 , p a ra s 7 , 1 0 , 11 .
14 ib id ., c h . 2 , p a ra . 1 1 .
15 ib id ., c h . 3 , p a ra s 2 , 3 . H o b b e s is sp ec ific ally cite d in th e te x t; a n d p a ra . 5.
 R EL IG IO N , R E V O LU T IO N A ND T H E NEW S CIEN C E 251

16 ib id ., ch. 3 , p a ra s 9 , 10.
17 ib id ., ch. 3 , p a ra s 12, 13.
18 ib id ., ch. 3 , p a ra s 14, 1 5, 16. T h e te rm m a c h ia v e llia n is n o t u se d .
19 ib id ., ch. 3 , p a ra s 17, 19.
20 ib id ., ch. 3 , p a ra s 2 2 , 2 3 . H e re th e te x t cite s th e C o m te d e B o u la in v illie rs life o f
M a h o m e t.
21 ib id ., ch. 4 , p a ra s 2, 5.
22 F o r o n e su ch m o d e rn ac c o u n t see M o rto n S m ith , Je sus the M agician (N ew Y o rk :
H a r p e r & R o w , 1 9 7 7 ). T rait , ch. 5, p a ra s 5, 6.
23 T ra it , ch . 5 , p a ra s 3 , 6.
24 ib id ., ch . 5 , p a ra . 7 ; cf. J. S. S p in k , L ib e rtin a g e e t S p in o z is m e : la th o r ie d e l m e
ig n e , F rench Stud ie s , v ol. 1 (1 9 4 7 ), p p . 2 2 5 - 7 .
25 T rait , ch. 6 , p a ra . 7.
26 R . S im o n , H e n ry de B o ula in villier , h isto rien , p o litiq u e , p h ilo so p h e , astrologue ,
1 6 5 8 -1 7 2 2 (P aris: B o iv in , 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 4 5 0 - 5 ; ch . 3.
27 B e rn a rd F y , R e v o lu tio n a n d F reem asonry, 1 6 8 0 -1 8 0 0 (B o sto n : L ittle , B ro w n ,
1 9 3 5 ); cf. C la ire -E lia n e E n g el, M m oire s d u C he valier d e G ra m o n t, ed . A n to in e
H a m ilto n (M o n ac o , 1 9 5 8 ).
28 A rc h iv e s d u R o y a u m e d e B elg iq u e, B ru ssels, C o rre s p o n d a n c e d u C o m te d e
C o b e n z l, m in is tre p l n ip o te n ta ire au x p a y s -b a s , 158 e. V , n o . 3 0 , f. 2 6 ,1 6 J a n u a ry
1 7 5 5 , P e n d a n t la d e rn i re g u e rr e le P rin ce E u g n e s e s t f o r t b ien tr o u v d e ses avis,
8l m oi au ssi en p lu s ie u rs o ccasio n s, o je l ai tr o u v b ie n in fo rm . . .
29 M a rc h a n d M SS 2 2 , C a ta lo g u e d es m a n u s c rip ts e t d es im p rim s d e sa b ib lio th q u e
p e r s o n e lle .
30 H . G . K o e n ig sb e rg e r, T h e o rg a n iz a tio n o f re v o lu tio n a ry p a rtie s in F ra n c e a n d th e
N e th e rla n d s d u rin g th e s ix tee n th c e n tu r y , J o u rn a l o f M ode rn H is to ry , v ol. 27
(1 9 5 5 ), p p . 3 3 5 - 5 1 .
31 T h e R o y al L ib ra ry , T h e H a g u e , M S. 1 3 2 .D .3 0 . In th is m a n u s c rip t th e Trait is
s u b title d L E sp rit de S p in o za. M y n o tio n o f d a tin g c o m es fro m a g e n e ra l k n o w led g e
o f w ritin g sty les , to n e o f a rg u m e n ta tio n , etc. T h e m e d ita tio n o n th e s e tra c ts ,
M o r ale tr a it e , s u iv a n tle s p rin c ip e s .d e la n a tu r e ^ o c c u p ie s ff. 1 0 4 -7 .
32 ib id ., f. 1 0 4 : C e q u e l o n ap p elle c o m u n e m e n t n a tu r e e s t ce c o m p o s p a rfa it d es
o u v ra g e s d u C r a te u r, d fin itio n g n ra le , q ui c o m p o r te lid e d u n to u t, e t q u i
re n f e rm e au ssi so u s E lle la n a tu re p a rtic u li re d e c h a q u e e s tre s p a r d u to u t, c es t
d ir e ce q u i fa it le s s en ce p ro p re e t d is tin cte d e c h a q u e in d iv id u ; c es t c e tte
d e rn i re id e q u e j m a tta c h e , corne e s ta n t q u e lq u e c h o s e d e p lu s p a rtic u lie r, q u e
n o u s a p p e rc e v o n s p lu s d is tin c te m e n t . . .
33 ib id .: Il e s t q u e s tio n d ex a m in es ; <*uel a t le b u t d e celu i q ui n o u s fo rm a , e t je
d e c id e ra h a rd im e n t, q u e ce fu t p o u r n o u s re n d r e h e u re u x . . .
34 ib id ., N o u s v o y o n s c la ire m e n t q u e n o u s av o n s to u t ce q u il n o u s fa u t p o u r e stre
h e u re u x , R ic h e s p a r n o u s m m es, il n e n o u s m a n q u e q u e d e fa ire d e n o s T h r s o rs
u n u sa g e m e ille u r e t c e s t su r ce la q u e je v ais p ro p o s e r m es id es, q u i n e s e ro n t san s
d o u te p as d u g o u t d es T h o lo g ie n s, m ais q u i so n t, ce m e se m b le , p lu s d a n s celu i d u
v ra , q u e le u r O rto d o x ie m al c o n s tru e s t d u n e p ra tiq u e si c o n tra ire au x loix d e la
n a tu r e .
35 ib id ., f. 1 06 .
36 ib id .
37 ib id ., f. 1 0 5 v , L a R p u ta tio n m o n av is e s t le p o is o n d e la v o lu p t , c es t elle qui
c o ro m p t la n a tu r e e t av ilit n o s p lu s b rilla n ts p riv il g es . . .
38 ib id ., f. 1 06 .
39 A ra m V a rta n ia n , L a M e ttrie , D id e ro t a n d sex o lo g y in th e E n lig h te n m e n t, in Je an
M a cary (e d .), E ssays o n the A g e o f E nlig h te n m e n t in H o n o r o f Ira O . W ade
(G e n e v a : D ro z , 1 9 7 7 ), p p . 3 4 7 - 6 7 ; S te p h e n W e rn e r, D id e ro ts S u p p le m e n t a n d
la te E n lig h te n m e n t th o u g h t, Stud ies o n V oltaire a n d th e E ighteen th C entury, vol.
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8 6 (1 9 7 1 ), p p . 2 5 4 - 6 6 ; in D id e r o ts E ncyc lop die s ee article o n J o u is s a n c e .

40 M arch an d M SS 22 ; in th is list o f his p riv a te lib rary , M a rc h a n d lists a ra r e tr a n s la tio n
o f S id n ey s D iscours su r le g ou v e rn e m e n t p a r Ja c q u e s B o y d (R o tte rd a m , 1 7 1 1 ).
T h e m o re co m m o n tr a n s la tio n o f 1 7 0 2 w as by P. A . S am so n . M arch an d also h a d
th a t e d itio n ; I h av e n o t se e n a co p y o f th e 1711 te x t.
41 R o u s s e t d e M issy, H istoire m ilitaire d u P rince E ug ne d e Sav oye , du P rince et D uc
d e M a rlb or ou gh , et du P rince de N assau-Frise. P ar M r. D u m o n t. . . augm en te d 'u n
S u p p l m en t, p a r M . R o u sse t (T h e H a g u e : ch ez Isa ac v a n d e r K lo o t, 1 7 2 9 ); B e rn a rd
P ic a rt, E x p lica tio n d u s u je t sim b o liq u e . . . p o u r s e rv ir d ac co m p a g n e m e n t au x
A rm e s d u P rin ce E u g n e d e S av o y e, in T ey lers M u se u m , H a a rle m , P o rtfo lio 1 8 8.
4 2 N ou velle s littraires (T h e H a g u e : ch ez H e n ri d u S au ze t, 1 7 1 5 ), p p . 7, 5 2 - 3 ,7 1 - 2 .
4 3 S ee J o h n J. M u rray , G eo rge /, T he B altic a n d the W hig S p lit o f 1717. A S tu d y in
D iplo m ac y a n d P ropag and a (L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e & K eg an P au l, 1 9 6 9 ); M. M .
K le e rk o o p e r a n d W . P . v a n S to ck u m , D e B o e k h a n d e l te A m s te rd a m vo o rn a m elijk
in d e 17 e eeu w (1 5 9 , II, 9 4 0 ) o n B h m p u b lish in g d e L a r r e y s H istoire de France
so u s de rgne d e L o u is X i (R o tte rd a m , 1 7 2 1 ).
4 4 T h e R o y a l L ib ra ry , T h e H a g u e , M S. 1 3 1 .B . 15.
4 5 L a Sardaigne p a ra n y m p h e d e la p a ix a u x souve ra ins d e l'E u r o p e (B o u lo g n e ,1 7 1 4 ) ;
th e id en tif ic atio n o f th is tr a c t w ith R o u s s e t seem s in th is case to b e c o rr ec t. S ee
P ie rre C o n lo n , P rlude au sicle des lum ires en France. R p erto ire c h ro n o lo g iq u e
de 16 80 1715, 6 v ols (G e n e v a : D ro z, 1 9 7 0 - 5 ) ;.a n d B L 1 1 3 9 .e .2 .
4 6 A rc h iv es d u R o y a u m e d e B e lg iq u e , B ru ssels, C o rr e s p o n d a n c e d u C o m te d e
C o b e n z l, f. 18, V o tr e E x cell. co n n o it m o n E c ritu re q u i n e p a ra itr o it p as su r
l a d re s s e e t je sig n erais en fr re m atr e > ^ ^ c e q u e v o tre E x celle n ce co n n o it san s
d o u te p u is q u e je sai q u elle est d e n o tr e o rd re R o y a l, fr o m R o u s s e t d e M issy, 6
D ecem ber 1754.
4 7 F o r a g e n e ra l a cc o u n t o f th e p e rio d see E rn s t W a n g e rm a n n , A u fk l r u n g u n d
sta a tsb rg e rlic h e E r z ie h u n g . G o ttfr ie d van S w ie te n als R e fo r m a to r d es
sterreichischen U nterrichtsw esens 1 7 8 1 -1 7 9 1 (V ie n n a: V erla g f r G e sc h ic h te u n d
P o litik , 1 9 7 8 ).
4 8 _ A ^ R e n a u d e t, L e s P a ys-B a s espagnols e t les P ro vin ce s-U n ie sjie 15 9 8 17.14 (P ar ish -
C e n tre d e D o c u m e n ta tio n U n iv e rs ita ire , 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 2 6 2 - 9 f o r B ritis h s u p p o rt o f
an ti-J e s u its. ___
4 9 P en field R o b e rts , T he Q u e st fo r Security, 1 7 1 5 -1 7 4 0 (N ew Y o rk : H a r p e r & R o w ,
1 9 4 7 ), p p . 1 3 -1 6 ; o n a tte n tio n p a id b y th e F re n ch J e s u its , M m oires p o u r l'histoire
des sciences et des beau x arts. D e L 'Im p r im e r ie T r v o u x (S e p te m b e r 1 7 1 7 ), p p .
1 ,4 2 6 -4 5 .
50 L& Sardaigne, p p . 1 1 3 -1 6 . ^ -
51 R ic h a rd L o d g e, Studies in E ighteenth C en tury D ip lo m a cy 1 7 4 0 -4 8 (L o n d o n : J o h n
M u r ra y , 1 9 3 0 ), p . 2 5 1 ; P . G ey l, H o lla n d a n d E n g la n d d u rin g th e W ar o f th e
A u s tria n S u cc ess io n , H is to r y , v ol. 10 (1 9 2 5 ), p p . 4 7 - 5 1 .
5 2 N ico J o h a n n e s Jac q u es d e V o o g d , D ie D oelisten bew egin g te A m s te r d a m in 17 48 (p .
1 0 9 ); C . G e rre ts o n an d P . G ey l (e d s ), B riefw isseling . . .(p . 2 61 ); th e G r a n d L o d g e
o f th e N e th e rla n d s , T h e H a g u e , K ro n ic k A n n a le s , f o r R a d e rm a c h e r as o n e o f th e
fo u n d e rs o f th e lo d g e, L e V e rita b le Z e le , 2 4 O c to b e r 1 73 5 .
53 G h is la in e d e B o o m , L es M in istres p l n ip o te n tia ire s d a n s les P ay s -B as a u tr ic h ie n s
p rin c ip a le m e n t C o b e n z l (see b ib lio g ra p h ica l essay 8 9 , 3 6 - 8 , 4 3 , 4 7 , 5 5 ); Jo s e p h
L a e n e n , L e M inistre de B otta A d o r n o d ans les P a ys-B a s autrichiens p e n d a n t le
rgne de M arie-Thrse (1 7 4 9 -5 3 ) (A n tw e rp : L a L ib ra irie N e rla n d a is e , 1 9 0 1 ),
p p . 6 1 - 2 . C f. C. G e rre ts o n an d P. G e y l (ed s), B riefw isseling . . . (p . 1 4 4 ), fo r
B e n tin c k s d ev o tio n to A r e n b e rg ; a n d fo r D o ux fils se e M ar c h a n d M SS 2, f. 2 9 , 2 4
M ay (n .a .), R o u ss et to M ar c h a n d o n h o w to a d d re s s le tte r s to h im , i.e. to M .
L a m b e rt D o ux fils, c o n s eiller d e S .A . le D u c d A re n b e rg , ru e d e la B e rg re
B ru x e lle s ; MSS M arch an d 5 5 b , so n g in th e h a n d o f D o u x fils: L e g ra n d M asso n , &
 R E L IG IO N , R E V O L U T IO N A N D TH E NEW SC IE N C E 253

ses d e u x C a m a ra d e s ,/E n c e tte C o u r tin re n t les p lu s h a u ts g ra d e s .

54 H u ib e r t J. M in d e rh o u d , L a H e n ria d e d a n s la litt ra tu re h o lla n d a is e , B ib lio th q u e
d e la rev ue de littrature co m p ar e , vo l. 33 (1 9 2 7 ), p p . 4 - 6 , 8 7 , 1 0 2.
55 G e r r it v a n d e r H a a r, / L e v e n van W illem D en IV . P rinc van O ranje en N assau . . .
(A m s te rd a m , 1 7 5 2 ), M a so n ic sy m b o lism em p lo y e d in o p en in g p o e m . M y th a n k s to
B . C ro is se t v an U ch elen fo r b rin g in g th is p o em to m y a tte n tio n ; M a rc h a n d M SS 2 ,
f. 8, R o u s s e t to M arch an d o n R o y T h e o d o r e , an alias fo r th e B a ro n d e N e u h o ff; f.
' 11, 21 J a n u a r y (p ro b . 1 7 4 7 ) o n th e F re n ch am b a s s a d o r; f. 3 5 ,1 8 O c to b e r (1 7 5 0 )
o n M . d e B o issy an d C. d A th lo n e ; f. 6 2 ,6 J a n u a ry 17 53 o n F re d e ric k th e G re a t a n d
M a u p e rtiu s ; f. 8 9 , 2 0 N o v e m b e r 1 7 5 3 , o n sp ies in F ra n c e . In M a rc h a n d M SS 2 ,
D o u x fils to M ar ch an d , 16 O c to b e r 1 7 4 9 on co n d itio n s in th e s o u th e rn
N e th e rla n d s ; 15 N o v e m b e r 1 7 4 9 , o n s a m e ; 2 A p ril 1 7 53 o n G e o rg e II w h en P rin c e
o f W ales.
5 6 B L , E g e rto n , 1 7 4 5 , f. 4 8 6 , A m s te rd a m , 2 6 J u n e 1 7 48 , R o u s s e t to B e n tin c k , V o tre
E x c elle n c e se so u v ie n d ra san s d o u te d e l im p re ss e m e n t av ec le q u el e lle m e fi* v e n ir
la H a y e p o u r m e d o n n e r ses o rd re s p o u r u n e p u b lica tio n o u r im p re s s io n d u
T rait d u G o u v e rn e m e n t de L o c k . . . . A n to n io P o rta , Joa n en G errit C orver. D e
p o litie k e m a c h t van A m s te r d a m ( 1702-1748 ). A c a d e m isc h P ro ejsch rifi . . .
U niversiteit van A m s te r d a m . . . 1975 (A ss e n : V an G o r c u m ,n .d .) ,p . 2 6 0 ; th is w o rk ,
o n ly n o w (1 9 8 0 ) se en , g e n e ra lly s u p p o rts th is ac c o u n t b u t d o e s n o t m a k e an y
re fe re n c e to R o u s s e ts le tte r s o r to th e M aso nic A rch iv es .
5 7 M a rc h a n d M SS 2, R o u s s e t to M a rc h a n d , f. 4 8 , 14 O c to b e r ( n .a .) ; ff. 6 6 - 7 , 2 7
M arch (n .a .) , o n a tte m p ts to h av e h is s e n te n c e c o m m u te d so th a t h e c a n visit h is
frie n d s in T h e H ag u e .
5 8 ib id ., f. 6 8 , 10 A p ril 1 7 5 3 , J e n e sai o v o u s e t C h arle s (d o n t j ai re u le R p o n s e
q u e v o u s m e p ro m e te z p o u r la se m a in e p ro c h a in e ) av ez tr o u v d a n s m es le ttr e s q u e
j ay e in te n tio n de ren on cer L ' ta t tranquile et h eu re u x d o n t j e jo u is p o u r m e
rep lo ng er da ns la tu m u lte des affaires p u b liq u e s et P olitiques et re fr q u en te r la C o u r
les grand s? N o n m e s chers a m is , ce n 'e s t p o in t la m o n inten tio n . . .'. H e h as
w ritte n fo r p e rm iss io n to visit H o lla n d , a re q u e s t h e h a s m a d e th r o u g h K a u n itz a n d
N en y , i.e. th e A u s tr ia n a u th o r itie s . L a P rin ce sse m e l a p ro m is e t j a tte n d s q u elle
e x c u te sa p ro m e s s e ; j ir a v o ir m es am is . . .
5 9 H a u s -H o f-u n d S ta a tsa rc h iv , V ie n n a , in A lp h a b e tis c h e r In d e x z u r G ro s s e n K o rre -
s p o n d e n z , G C .2 7 7 , 3 2 8 , 3 9 5 (so m e le tte r s in co rrectly listed u n d e r R o u s s e l). A
le tte r fro m F re d e ric k th e G r e a t to P rin c e o f W ales in c lu d e d in th is file ; R o u s s e t
liste d as a g e n t d e S .A . le D u c d e B ru n sw ick W Ifen b tteP . O n 2 9 M arch 1 7 4 8 ,
R o u s s e t w ro te to K au n itz , Si je co m m en c o is e n tr e r d a n s le m o n d e je n e
d s e s p re ro is p as d e v o ir to u s les E le c te u rs F o h V . E . n ig n o re p a s q u e les
m a x im e s d u n p rin ce so u v e ra in e t in d p e n d a n t n e p e u v e n t g u e rr e tr e d a c c o rd
a v e c celle d u n v assal d u n fo n d a ta ir e , co m m e ces R o is E le c te u rs , l to ie n t d e
L E m p i r e . . . L e s R o is r e g a r d e n t u n E m p e re u r com m e p r im u s inter p a re s , ce q u e n e
p o u v o ie n t fa ire les E le c te u rs
6 0 M a rc h a n d M SS 2 , R o u s s e t to M a rch an d , n .d ., f. 3 6 , item 8 , V o tre a n e c d o te d e la
C as se te d u F ra n c -M a o n m a fo r t d iv er ti, si m a p r & p o s t-fa ce v o u s a p l ; m ais
r v re n c e p a rla n t, j en a p e lle au p a p e m m e de lin ju ste im p u ta tio n d e Jsuitism e,
e t v o u s n e n o u s co n n o is se z p as . N o u s so m m es am is d e to u s le m o n d e , e x c e p t des
J s u ite s , d o n t au c u n m a tr e d e lo g e n e v o u d ro it r ec ev o ir u n seu l d a n s n o tr e o r d r e .
C f. f.7 5 , 2 9 Ju ly (n .a .), . . . c e s t d ire u n ex em p la ire p o u r v o u s & u n p o u r m on
fr re C h a rle s . J e n e sai ce q u e c e s t q u e l ex tra it d e la fraternit M a o n iq u e etc;
p o u re z v o u s m e fa ire v o ir ce la e n fran o is & en H o llan d ois.*
61 In 1 7 3 7 C h e v a lie r R a m s a y e s tim a te d th a t th e re w ere 3 ,0 0 0 M a s o n s ; cf. B . F ay ,
R e v o lu tio n a n d F reem asonry, p p . 1 9 0 -1 .
6 2 M ar c h a n d M SS 2, R o u s s e t to M a rc h a n d , 18 F e b ru a ry (n .a .), f.4 6 : V o ici jo i n t en
*fra n o is , to u t ce q u i c o n c e rn e la M a o n n er ie en G u e ld re s av ec u n e p r & p o st-fa c e
254 TH E R AD IC A L EN LIG HTENM EN T

d e v o tr e tr. H . S. q u i o n t e u le b o n h e u r d e p la ire l a rc h ic ritiq u e d e B ru x e lle s

[D o u x fils] . V o tr e P r in c ip e , n'e n trep re n ez rien etc . e s t ad m is p a rm i n o u s en p le in ; o n
r p o n d to u te s les q u e s tio n s q u i y o n t ra p o r t, & e n s u ite v o u s d e v e n e z p o s tu la n t si
v o u s v o u le z. A p r s v o u s av o ir d m o n tr (co m m e v o u s le v e rre z d an s la le ttr e D r.
H a v e r c a m p ) q u il n y a rien ch ez n o u s co n tr e la R elig ., l ta t & les b o n n es m u rs ,
e t v o u s a v o ir fa it c o n n itre q u o n n e v o u s cach e q u e le s e c re t, en v e rtu d u q u e l v o u s
v o u s tr o u v e z f r r e s d e to u t ce q u il y a d e M ao n su r la te r r e , e t p a rm i les q u e ls v o u s
t r o u v e r e z t o u te la c h a rit , la m iti , les s eco u rs q u e v o u s p o u v e z s o u h a ite r. O n e o f
th e tra c ts u n d e r d iscu s sio n h e re is L e ttre d 'u n F ranc -M ao n de la loge de S . L o u is d e
N im e g u e au ve nerable , p ie u x et sa va n t E ve rh a rd H a v e rk a m p , M inistre du St.
E v a n g ile d a n s la m m e Ville. S u r u n e partie de l'A p p lic a tio n d u S e rm o n , q u 'il a
p r o n o u n c le 2 2 d e M ars. 1 75 2 , T raduite du H o lla n do is. D ans le M o n d e F ranc-
M a o n . A u x d p e n s d e T ordr e & des L ecte urs cu rieu x , 1 7 5 2 . T h e o rig in al is b y
R o u s s e t d e M issy a n d it c o n c e rn s th e co n tr o v e rs y in N im e g u e o v e r a D u tc h
r e f o r m e d c h u rc h th a t d e n ie d a d m is sio n to L . A . M e rk e s a n d F . C. M erk es , b o th
F re e m a s o n s .
63 M a rc h a n d M S S , 15 D e c e m b e r (n .a .), f. 6 4 , J e m to n n e d e l a p ro b a tio n q u e v o u s
d o n n e z l o b je c tio n tir e d e n o tr e o b s tin a tio n re v e le r n o s M is t res , a p r s a v o ir l
la le ttr e d u M a o n d e N im eg u e, e t les E tre n n e s au P a p e d u ch ev . d e L u ssy o u c e tte
o b je c tio n e s t p le in e m e n t r e f u t e ; j a jo u te ra i q u e c e s t ce s e c re t q u i es t l m e d e la
M a o n n e rie & q u e d s q u il s e ro it rv l, il n y a u ro it p lu s d e M ao n s, e t q u o iq u e
j a ie s o u te n u d a n s le p r fa c e d e la tr a d u c tio n d e la le ttr e d e N im g u e q u e le
c a r a c t r e d e fr . M a o n e st in d l b ile ; je d o is re c o n n o itr e q u e d s q u e la se c re t s e ro it
r v l to u s le s fr a n c s -m a o n s , c e s s e ro ie n t ip so fa c to d tr e M a o n s. N e c o m
p r e n d r e z v o u s d o n c p a s q u o n n e p e u t n o u s a c c u s e r d e c a c h e r d es se c re ts d es
m is t re s q u e n o u s n a v p n s ja m a is re fu s d e r v le r q u i s e s t p r s e n t p o u r les
a p r e n d r e ? p e u t- o n d ir e q u u n e ch o se es t s e c r te q u a n d elle e s t rv le to u s
v e n a n s e t e s t scu d e 5 0 m ille h o m m e s au m o in s en A n g le te r re e t en F ra n c e , sa n s
c o m p te r lA lle m a g n e , l Ita lie & la T u rq u ie . Q u a n t a u x ac c u sa tio n d e lib e rtin a g e ,
d b a u c h e , d is m e , a th is m e , im p ie t z , n o n -c o n fo rm ism e & a u tr e s e n c o re p lu s
a b o m in a b le s ; les n o m s d e ceu x q u i s o n t m a o n s, le u rjra n g , le u r v e rtu n o u s s a u v e n t
lis s e z a b o m in a tio n s . . . L E m p e re u r, le R o i d A n g le te r re , le R o i d e P ru s se, to u s les
P rin c e s d e sa m a is o n , lE le c te u r d e C o lo g n e, p re s q u e to u s les lo rd s an g lo is,
p lu s ie u rs d es E v q u e s d u m m e R o y a u m e ; le P a p e m m e s a v e n t c"qui en e s t . . .
T h e r e a re m a n u s c rip t so n g s in th e M ar ch an d c o llec tio n m o ck in g F re d e ric k th e
G r e a t, d e s p ite h is b e in g a F re e m a s o n .
64 O n th e e a rlie s t m e n tio n o f co n sp irac y in re la tio n to F re e m a s o n ry in 1745 (in a b o o k
p u b lis h e d in T h e H a g u e ), se e R o b e r t h & ck leto n , W h e n D id th e F re n c h
P h ilo s o p h e s B e c o m e a P a r ty ? , B ulletin o f the J o h n R y la n d s U niversity L ib r a ry o f
M a nc he ster y voL 6 0 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 1 92 .
65 M a rc h a n d M SS 2 , R o u s s e t to M a rc h a n d , f. 6 4 ,1 5 D e c e m b e r (n .a .) , si ce n e s t en ce
q u ta n t M a tre d e la lo g e d A m s te rd a m je n ai p as v o u lu re c o n n o itre l a u te u r
(B o ta re lli, m o in e d e F lo re n c e q u i t e n t a p r s e n t b o rd e l A m s te r d a m ) p o u r
fra n c -m a o n - il d c la re lu i m m e d a n s les F rancs-M aons trahis q u il n a ja m a is t
re u e n lo g e . . .
66 M a rc h a n d M S S, R o u s s e t to M a rc h a n d , f. 3 6.
67 ib id ., f. 8 6 , 9 S e p te m b e r ( n .a .) ; ita lics in o rig in a l.
68 ib id ., f. 4 1 , 13 D e c e m b e r 1 7 5 2 .
69 ib id ., f. 8 3 , n .d ., L E c lip se d o n t v o u s m e p a rle z e t ses effe ts s o n t d an s l o rd re d e la
N a tu r e e t d u t h t r e .
70 M a rc h a n d M SS 2 ,1 5 N o v e m b e r 1 7 4 9 , D o u x fils to M a rc h a n d ; a n d also 9 Ju ly 1 7 4 7 .
71 M a rc h a n d M SS 2 , 2 4 M ay (n .a .) , R o u s s e t to M a rc h a n d , f. 2 9 : J e v o u d ro is q u e ces
g ra n d s P ro v id e n c ie rs d o n n a s s e n t u n e d fin itio n c o u rte , s im p le , & b ie n d is tin cte d e
ce q u ils e n te n d e n t p a r p ro v id e n c e . J e cro is q u e c e s t la d iv in it d es P ares se u x ,
 R ELIG IO N , R EV O LU TIO N AND THE NEW SCIENC E 2 55

co m m e to it ce t a m i, m a is il a tr o u v a la fin q u elle l a f o r t m al serv i p a r c e q u il n a

p a s suivi u n co n seil q u e d e s T h o lo g ie n s p r u e n t fo r t h a u t c o m m e ta n t p a ro le
d iv in e (aid e to y d ie u t a id e r a ) q u u n fa m e u x ra b in m a d it n tr e p a s d a n s to u te la
b ib le . M ais q u e le T a lm u d y e s t fo rm e l tr o u v a n t c e tte o rd o n n a n c e d a n s la le ttr e I I .
7 2 M a rc h a n d M SS 2 , f. 3 5 , 18 O c to b e r (n . .).
7 3 M a rc h a n d M SS 2 , f. 1 0 2 , L e C iel o u la m re N a tu re n o u s en fas se la g ra c e . J e cro is
q u e ce s e ro it u n c h a rm e d e s e n d o rm ir & d e n e se p a s r v e ille r. In f. 101 R o u s s e t
in d ic a te s th a t h e h as h a d a le tte r fro m fr. C h a rle s o n M a r c h a n d s fa ilin g c o n d itio n .
S in ce p ara ly sis se e m s to h a v e o c c u rre d su d d en ly w e m ay p re s u m e th a t h e h a d
su ffe re d a s tro k e . A n d fro m f. 8 7 , 2 0 O c to b e r, 1 7 5 3 , V o u s c o n v ie n d re z q u e n o u s
n e so m m es p a s d a n s ce m o n d e p o u r n o u s seu ls, a u tr e m e n t q u o i s e rv ir o it la
s o c i t .
7 4 S ee H a rry P a y n e , E lite v ers u s p o p u la r m e n ta lity in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y , in
R o s e a n n R u n te (e d .), S tu d ies in E ig htee n th -C en tu ry C ulture, V o l. 8 (M a d is o n ,
W is.: U n iv ers ity o f W isco n sin P re s s, 1 9 7 9 ), ^ . 15.
7 5 C . B e rk v e n s -S te v e lin c k , N ico las H a rs o e k e r c o n tr e Is a a c N e w to n o u p o u r q u o i les
p la n te s se m e u v e n t-e lle s ? , L ias, v o l. 2 (1 9 7 5 ), p p . 3 1 3 - 2 8 .
7 6 B e rn a rd P ic a rt, T h e C erem onies a n d R eligio us C u sto m s o f th e V a rio u s N a tio n s o f
th e K no w n W orld, (L o n d o n , 1 7 3 7 ), V o l. 1, p re fa c e , p . v ; cf. M a rg a re t H o d g e n ,
E a rly A n th r o p o lo g y in the Six te en th a n d Sev enteen th C enturies (P h ila d e lp h ia ,
P e n n .: U n iv ers ity o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , 1 9 6 4 ), p p . 2 0 3 , 3 4 4 , 3 5 3 .
77- M a rc h a n d M SS 2 , f. 5 4 , R o u s s e t to M arch an d .
7 8 O bserv atio ns su r Vorigine, la structure, et la nature des vers d e m er, q u i p e rc e n t les
vaisseaux et les pilliers, les Jetes, et des estrades (T h e H a g u e , 1 7 3 3 ). A D u tc h
tr a n s la tio n w as p u b lis h e d in th e sa m e y e a r; cf. M a rg a re t J a c o b , N e w to n ia n scien ce
a n d th e R a d ic a l E n lig h te n m e n t, V istas in A s tr o n o m y , v o l. 2 2 (1 9 7 8 ), p p . 5 4 5 - 5 .
F o r R o u s s e ts in te re s t in scie n ce a n d m ed icin e h is le tte r s to D r B e rn a rd , a n
A m s te rd a m p h y sicia n , a r e u sefu l: U L , L e id e n , 2 4 2 ; a n d M a rc h a n d M SS 2 , f. 6 8 ,1 0
A p ril 1 7 5 3 , o n h is still p o s se ssin g a m ic ro sco p e.
7 9 M a rc h a n d M SS 2 , f. 7 8 , in th e 1 7 5 0 s.
8 0 M au rice T re m b le y , C or re sp on dan ce in d iteje ntre R e a u m u r et A b r a h a m T re m b le y
(G e n e v a : G e o rg & C ie , 1 9 4 3 ), p p . 7 4 , also 7 7 , 8 4 . C f. J o h n R . B a k e r, A b r a h a m
T re m bley o f G eneva, Scien tist a n d P h ilo so ph er 1 7 1 0 -1 7 8 4 (L o n d o n : E d w a rd
A rn o ld , 1 9 5 2 ).
81 S ee R o b e r t D a rn to n , T h e B usines s o f E nligh ten m ent. A P u b lish in g H isto ry o f the
E n cy clo p d ie 1 7 7 5 -1 8 0 0 (C a m b rid g e , M ass.: H a rv a rd U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1 9 7 9 ).