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doi:10.1152/physrev.00037.2013
Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of Nevada School of Medicine, Reno, Nevada
Sanders KM, Ward SM, Koh SD. Interstitial Cells: Regulators of Smooth Muscle
L
Function. Physiol Rev 94: 859 907, 2014; doi:10.1152/physrev.00037.2013.
Smooth muscles are complex tissues containing a variety of cells in addition to muscle
cells. Interstitial cells of mesenchymal origin interact with and form electrical connec-
tivity with smooth muscle cells in many organs, and these cells provide important
regulatory functions. For example, in the gastrointestinal tract, interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) and
I. INTRODUCTION 859 dant smooth ER, prominent or even complete basal laminae,
II. ICC IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT 860 and caveolae (318, 376). Interstitial cells can form gap junc-
III. DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY OF ICC 885 tions with each other and with neighboring smooth muscle
IV. INTERSTITIAL CELLS IN THE URINARY... 890 cells and can generate and conduct electrical signals that reg-
V. INTERSTITIAL CELLS IN THE... 894 ulate smooth muscle excitability. Interstitial cells serve as pace-
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 895 maker cells, propagation pathways for regenerative electrical
events that cannot be propagated actively by smooth muscle
cells, transducers of inputs from motor neurons, and stretch
I. INTRODUCTION receptors. For historical reviews of the morphology and func-
tions of interstitial cells, the reader is referred to a monograph
Interstitial cells is a morphological term denoting a variety
by Lars Thuneberg (369) that reviews more than 200 morpho-
of cells of differing origins and phenotypes occupying spaces
logical studies of muscle-like or fibroblast-like interstitial cells
within the interstitium between the cells most prominent in
and a previous physiological review of electrical rhythmicity in
defining a given tissue. In smooth muscle tissues fibroblasts,
visceral smooth muscles and role of ICC as pacemakers (326).
mast cells, macrophages, and interstitial cells of Cajal meet this
definition. While mainly considered structural or immune cells
Work on interstitial cells in gastrointestinal (GI) muscles has
by many morphologists, interstitial cells have come into prom-
inence because they drive or contribute to the normal func- dominated this field of investigation because there were im-
tions of smooth muscle organs, and remodeling or loss of these portant experimental opportunities that could be exploited.
cells can lead to a variety of motor disorders. This review Interstitial cells in the tunica muscularis of GI muscles have
describes the physiology of the fibroblast-like classes of inter- distinct morphological features (98, 213, 369), mice with mu-
stitial cells, which can include interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC), tations in the protooncogene Kit have reduced populations of
ICC-like cells, Cajal-like cells, fibroblast-like cells and teleo- ICC in specific regions of the GI tract, and Kit mutants develop
cytes in various anatomical descriptions of smooth muscle striking functional phenotypes (45, 167, 250, 378, 404, 417).
tissues (138, 213, 231, 292, 297, 322, 326, 342, 369, 389). Immunolabeling with antibodies against c-Kit has become a
There is a continuum of morphology in this group of cells, standard means for identification of Cajal-like cells (404) in
with some cells having abundant rough endoplasmic reticu- a variety of organs. However, many studies of tissues outside
lum (ER), no basal lamina, no caveolae, and assuming a mor- the gut have encountered difficulties in labeling a distinct class
phology attributed typically to fibroblasts. Other cells assume of interstitial cells (other than mast cells) with this technique,
a more muscle-like appearance with less rough ER, but abun- and Kit mutants neither lacked the cells suspected to be inter-
stitial cells nor displayed functional defects. Thus progress in cle cells. ICC and smooth muscle cells express a variety of gap
understanding the functions of interstitial cells in non-GI mus- junction proteins (68, 136, 337), but little is known about the
cles has been slower. The discussion in this review will begin nature and regulation of the gap junctions between interstitial
by reviewing highlights of research on ICC in the GI tract and cells and smooth muscle cells. Gap junctions facilitate commu-
then focus on progress made on this class of cells in other nication between interstitial cells and smooth muscle cells
smooth muscle organs. Recent progress on a second class of (FIGURE 2). Electrical connectivity between interstitial cells
interstitial cells, known for decades in the morphological liter- and smooth muscle cells in GI muscles causes the tunica mus-
ature as fibroblast-like cells, will also be discussed. These cularis to behave, in fact, as a multicellular electrical syncy-
cells are labeled specifically in several smooth muscles by an- tium. We have referred to this functional structure as the
tibodies against platelet-derived growth factor receptor smooth muscle cell/ICC/PDGFR cell (SIP) syncytium (209,
(PDGFR) (174, 207), and this has provided an important 330; see FIGURE 3). Changes in electrical conductances in one
means of accessing these cells in physiological and genomic type of SIP cell affect the electrical excitability of the other
investigations. coupled cells. Spontaneous pacemaker activity generated by
ICC conducts to smooth muscle cells and drives electrical slow
II. ICC IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT waves and phasic contractions, and neural inputs to ICC and
Table 1. Nomenclature and localizations of interstitial cells in the tunica muscularis of the GI tract
PDGFR- PDGFR-
Organ Subregion ICC-MY ICC-IM ICC-SEP ICC-SM ICC-SS MY IM Reference Nos.
ICC and PDGFR cells are as observed by c-Kit and PDGFR immunoreactivity, respectively. Presence and
relative abundance are denoted by or , respectively. References are representative examples, not an
exhaustive listing; see text for further details. ICC-MY are from a network of cells between the circular and
longitudinal muscle layer and have a pacemaker role in stomach, small bowel, and colon. ICC-MY have been
called ICC-AP or ICC-MP by some authors (see text); however, these terms are misleading because ICC-MY are
not physically within or a component of the myenteric (Auerbachs) plexus. ICC-IM are spindle-shaped intra-
muscular cells lying in muscle bundles between muscle cells and in close apposition to varicose processes of
enteric motor neurons. ICC-IM have also been called ICC-CM or ICC-LM to designate the muscle layer in which
the ICC-IM were observed. ICC-IM are referred to as ICC-DMP in small intestine due to the clustering of these
cells among the nerve process of the deep muscular plexus. Like ICC-IM, the ICC-DMP are closely associated
with varicosities of enteric motor neurons. ICC-SM lie along the submucosal surface of the circular muscle
layer. These have a pacemaker function in the colon. ICC-SS lie at the subserosa of the colon. *Species-
dependent distributions: presence, absence, or low abundance depending on species. Generally found in
larger animals including humans but not in lab rodents.
loss of any component of the SIP syncytium or loss of connec- ascertain the specific functions of each cellular component.
tivity between SIP cells can lead to abnormal motor behaviors Dispersion of the tunica muscularis with proteolytic enzymes
in GI organs. yields a mixture of cells. Smooth muscle cells are abundant and
relatively easy to identify by their shapes, but interstitial cells
While the activity of the SIP syncytium is highly integrated in are more rare and difficult to identify with certainty (typically
GI organs, knowledge about the functions of SIP cells has amounting to 10% of cells within a given volume of muscle)
benefitted from studies of specific cell types. Electrical coupling and display morphologies that overlap with other cells in the
makes it very difficult to deduce the specific functions of one dispersion. Cultures derived from explants or cells dispersed
component in intact tissues. Even with mutant animals lacking from smooth muscle tissues contain a variety of cells, and if the
specific elements of the SIP syncytium, it is still difficult to cells contact each other, gap junctions can form. As in tissues,
it again becomes problematic to maintain voltage control in Close connections have also been described between nerve
voltage-clamp studies or to know which cell has generated a varicosities and smooth muscle cells (73, 264, 397), but
ICC-IM
NB
PDGFR
*
SMC *
Interstitial cells
SMC
Gap junctions
FIGURE 3. Structures of the SIP syncytium. A: electron micrograph (originally provided by Professor Teru-
masa Komuro) showing three types of cells in close proximity to nerve bundles (NB) and varicosities of enteric
motor neurons (*): smooth muscle cells, ICC, and PDGFR cells. These cells are electrically coupled (gap
junctions not shown in this image), forming an electrical syncytium known as the SIP syncytium. In some cases,
very close contacts (20 nm; black arrow in inset) can be found between nerve varicosities and ICC or smooth
muscle cells. Scale bars are 0.5 m in main image and 0.2 m in inset. B: depiction of SIP syncytium (with
dotted line showing approximate cut of a thin section such as shown in A). Smooth muscle cells, ICC, and
PDGFR cells are arranged around projections of excitatory and inhibitory enteric motor neurons. [Redrawn
from Sanders et al. (329). Copyright 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation Copyright 2010 The Physiological
Society.]
fibroblast-like (66, 113, 212, 309, 314). Cells more like Ultrastructural characteristics are useful for identification
smooth muscle have more complete basal laminae and of ICC and PDGFR cells, but the technical demands of
prominent caveolae; these features are more sparse or lack- transmission electron microscopy (TEM) make this tech-
ing in cells with a fibroblast-like appearance. nique suboptimal for efficient characterizations of intersti-
tial cell distributions and clinical assessments of the state of
Most studies of ICC have been performed on mammalian interstitial cells in human muscles (where frequently ade-
species and limited primarily to common laboratory ani- quate fixation to preserve identifying features is difficult to
mals and humans. Recent, morphological reports describe achieve).
ICC in the GI tract of zebrafish (14). The morphological
features of these cells are similar in description to their 1. Histological and immunomarkers for ICC
mammalian counterpart; however, caveolae were not ob-
served in either ICC or smooth muscle cells. ICC in ze- For many years interstitial cells were difficult to investigate
brafish can also be identified by antibodies for c-Kit. because these cells represent only a fraction of the total cells
in the tunica muscularis, and there were no specific labels immunocytochemistry (378). Examples of ICC from mouse,
for these cells. Several histological stains were used to high- monkey, and human gastric antral muscles, labeled with anti-
light ICC, such as methylene blue (366, 369), Champy- bodies to c-Kit, are shown in FIGURE 1, AC. Treatment of
Maillet zinc iodide-osmic acid (59, 206, 321), Golgi (silver newborn mice with neutralizing c-Kit antibodies reduced or
impregnation) staining (47, 206), rhodamine 123 (402), abolished the number of c-Kit immunopositive cells, the num-
and NADH diaphorase (95, 420). None of these techniques ber of cells labeled with methylene blue, and cells with ultra-
was highly specific for interstitial cells, and successful stain- structural features of ICC (378). Additional studies showed
ing was accomplished in only some regions of the gut and in that the cells in the region of the myenteric plexus (i.e., in the
only certain species (315). These limitations led one author space between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers) that
to summarize various histological methods for identifying labeled with c-Kit antibodies (ICC-MY) were reduced in intes-
interstitial cells as capricious (58). For many years, the tinal muscles of W/WV mice (167, 404). Mast cells are also
most reliable method for identification of interstitial cells labeled with c-Kit antibodies. However, few mast cells are
was TEM, and a major obstacle in morphological studies present in the tunica muscularis of mice kept in clean animal
was the inability to confirm that cells stained by histological facilities. Labeling with c-Kit antibodies became the standard
techniques and imagined with light microscopy were the technique for study and identification of ICC, and this tech-
Before 1985 Morphological studies of ICC; controversies with staining techniques; 47, 98, 113, 179, 309, 314,
EM considered the gold standard for identifying ICC. 369, 434, 435
19801994 Whole muscle experiments; dissection to remove areas rich in 17, 29, 90, 137, 247, 354,
specific ICC populations; use of selective poisons to destroy ICC 355, 370, 402
function.
1989 Isolation of fresh ICC and identification of cells by morphological 235
features; demonstration of intrinsic electrical rhythmicity in
isolated ICC.
1992present Use of c-Kit mutants and c-Kit neutralization to study physiological 45, 167, 250, 377, 378, 400,
functions of ICC. 403, 404
1994present Recognition of Kit immunohistochemistry as specific means to 44, 45, 167, 378, 404
identify and characterize ICC networks.
1994present Demonstration of the role of ICC in electrical rhythmicity. 44, 45, 82, 125, 167, 279,
References are representative examples to help the reader into the literature and not meant to be an
exhaustive listing; see text for further details.
Despite the progress made with c-Kit immunohistochemis- trate the muscle layers or, as in human GI muscles, where
try, the search for molecular reagents to identify and ma- they are often abundant.
nipulate ICC populations goes on. A striking advance oc-
curred when antibodies developed from GIST tumors (dis- 2. Histological and immunomarkers for PDGFR
covered on GIST-1; DOG-1) were found to label GIST cells
tumor cells and ICC (93, 415). It was later discovered that
DOG-1 corresponded to the gene product of ANO1 (aka PDGFR cells were referred to as fibroblasts or fibro-
TMEM16a). A gene array screen of transcripts expressed blast-like cells (FLC) by morphologists (213). While TEM
by small intestinal ICC showed Ano1 to be one of the provided a description of the ultrastructural features of
most highly expressed genes in ICC (52), and the gene FLC and close appositions made by these cells to other
product of Ano1, a chloride channel known as ANO1, is cellular constituents of the muscularis, it was difficult to
expressed robustly and exclusively by ICC throughout get a full appreciation of the extent and distribution of
the GI tract (35, 122, 172). An advantage of labeling ICC these cells throughout the GI tract, the major anatomical
in GI muscles with ANO1 antibodies is that mast cells are niches they occupy, and the relationships of these cells to
not labeled, and therefore, this method may be superior other cells from the limited number of images in the
to c-Kit labeling in conditions in which mast cells infil- published literature. Histological techniques were unable
to identify FLC specifically, and few studies considered a In addition to the obvious advantages of a robust and selec-
role for these cells in regulating the behavior of the tive immunolabel for morphological studies and patholog-
smooth muscle tissues. ical evaluations of PDGFR cells, a mouse engineered to
express a histone 2B-eGFP fusion protein driven off the
Two immunomarkers were initially found to label FLC. endogenous promoter for PDGFR (135) was found to
The discovery that many GIST express c-Kit (149) was ac- have bright eGFP fluorescence in nuclei of cells immuoreac-
companied by reports that GIST cells and ICC also express tive for PDGFR antibodies (221). Cells with eGFP recapit-
CD34 (312). Others reported that CD34 cells were adja- ulated the distribution of PDGFR cells in the gut with
cent to ICC, but represented a distinct population of cells high fidelity. Constitutive labeling of PDGFR cells
(289, 387, 388). Cells with CD34-like immunoreactivity in opened the door to molecular phenotyping and physiolog-
the human small GI tract were identified as c-Kit FLC. ical studies of these cells (as discussed below).
Thus CD34 became a first immunolabel for FLC, but it was
also recognized that CD34 is not a specific label in the gut B. Notes on Nomenclature for Interstitial
wall, and other mesenchymal cell types express this antigen Cells
(289, 387). The guinea pig GI tract was found to express
intrinsic to ganglia or the tertiary plexus. Therefore, a label When it became possible to immunolabel fibroblast-like
implying that they are part of the myenteric plexus is mor- cells with PDGFR antibodies (174), it was recognized that
phologically incorrect. Cells within muscle bundles have this population of interstitial cells occupies most of the same
been referred to as intramuscular ICC or ICC-IM. Some anatomical niches as ICC, and therefore, similar terminol-
authors have used specific terms for ICC-IM within the ogy was proposed to designate these cells: 1) PDGFR
circular muscle (ICC-CM) or longitudinal muscle (ICC- cells were utilized because identification by chemical coding
LM); however, no distinctive morphological or functional is more specific than the vague term fibroblast-like cells,
data exist to suggest differences between these ICC. A spe- 2) PDGFR-IM was applied to cells within muscle bun-
cialization of ICC-IM is found in the small intestine in dles, and 3) PDGFR-MY was applied to cells in the plane
which ICC are densely distributed and intimately associated of the myenteric plexus between the circular and longitudi-
with neurons of the deep muscular plexus, and therefore nal muscle layers (FIGURE 1, DI; TABLE 1).
these cells are referred to as ICC-DMP. Cells at the inner
aspect of the circular muscle layer in the colon and more
sparsely in this location in the stomach are in contact with C. Role of Interstitial Cells in Pacemaking
the submucosa and therefore called ICC-SM. Cells along and Generation of Electrical Rhythmicity
membrane potentials (typically referred to as resting mem- using a variety of electrophysiological approaches including
brane potential or RMP) of GI smooth muscle cells range voltage clamping via sucrose gap (65, 275, 374). These
between 80 and 40 mV and are generally somewhat studies, and much of the earlier work, were summarized in
negative to the range of potentials required for substantive detail by Professor Tomita (373).
activation of voltage-dependent Ca2 channels. Thus
smooth muscle cells in the SIP syncytium do not generate After development of single-cell voltage-clamp techniques,
Ca2 action potentials at the relatively negative potentials experiments on smooth muscle cells began in several labs,
(RMP) between slow waves. led by Thomas Bolton, Hiroshi Kuriyama, and the team of
Josh Singer and John Walsh (25, 27, 28, 180, 222, 223,
Activation of Ca2 channels provides the switch for excita- 349, 350). None of these studies, or studies performed in
tion-contraction (E-C) coupling in the tunica muscularis. many other labs, recorded intrinsic electrical activity with
Slow waves are oscillations in membrane potential from the characteristics of slow waves from smooth muscle cells
base to peak of 10 60 mV. Muscles with quite negative (96). Smooth muscle cells generated Ca2 action potentials;
resting membrane potentials display larger amplitude slow in some cases these occurred spontaneously, or they could
waves, but these events never overshoot 0 mV. When slow be elicited by depolarization (26). In one study action po-
high-intensity illumination (370). Damage to ICC by meth- neous depolarization with characteristics similar to slow
ylene blue exposure was associated with inhibition of slow waves in colonic muscles (235). This was the first direct
wave activity. Methylene blue also has pharmacological evidence that ICC of GI muscles have intrinsic pacemaker
effects on a variety of cells and causes, among other effects, capability.
significant depolarization of smooth muscle cells (328) and
inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (416). Sufficient depolar- 1. ICC as pacemakers in the small intestine
ization (e.g., with elevated external K to the level pro-
duced by methylene blue) blocked slow waves (328). Thus Erratic contractions of intestinal muscles from mice treated
the link between methylene blue labeling of ICC and the with neutralizing c-Kit antibodies and in W/WV mutants
hypothesized pacemaker role of ICC was not clarified by suggested defects in electrical pacemaker activity (250).
experiments using methylene blue (370). Another supravi- Further examination of the intestinal muscles of animals
tal dye, rhodamine 123, accumulates in mitochondria, and treated with c-Kit antibodies showed that ICC-MY, the
ICC were considered to be a potential target for this dye network of ICC in the region identified as the pacemaker
because of their abundance of mitochondria. Rhodamine area in small intestine, were largely missing (378). Loss of
123 is cytotoxic in some cells, so the effect of this dye on ICC correlated with the absence of slow wave activity in
A B
mV
-55
-65
2s 2s
ies. It is also important to note that ICC in the region of the nels is reduced, and the intrinsic excitability of smooth mus-
deep muscular plexus (ICC-DMP) appeared normal in cle cells is therefore suppressed between slow waves. Slow
W/WV and Sl/Sld mice. Intestinal motility was altered in waves, superimposed upon the influence of ICC-MY on
c-Kit and stem cell factor mutants, but responses to stimu- membrane potential, organize the generation of muscle ac-
lation of intrinsic enteric motor neurons were retained and tion potentials and phasic contractions into the phasic pat-
smooth muscle tissues responded to neurotransmitters and tern characteristic of the small intestine. The conductances
generated Ca2 action potentials (80, 251, 403). Complete responsible for the negative membrane potentials of ICC
loss of motor activity would prohibit intestinal transit, have not yet been determined.
amounting to a fatal pseudo-obstruction of the bowel.
However, W/WV mice live into adulthood without obvious 2. ICC as gastric pacemakers
loss of nutritional assimilation (56). A normal pattern of
segmentation and peristaltic waves, observed in the small ICC-MY are present in the gastric corpus and antrum of
intestines of wild-type mice, was not present in W/WV mice. W/WV mice, but with application of neutralizing antibod-
Intestinal muscles of these animals displayed action poten- ies, lesions in gastric ICC-MY networks developed after
tials and contractions, but these events were more random 9 40 days in organotypic cultures (279). Slow waves were
1
20 mv
2
3 sec
LM
ICC-MY
CM bundle
from longitudinal muscle were termed follower potentials mechanism of slow wave rhythmicity. After a few days in
by these authors. Their results supported the hypothesis primary culture, single cells or networks of cells with
that ICC-MY generated slow waves and these events con- c-Kit immunoreactivity can be identified, and these cells
ducted to both circular and longitudinal muscle layers. generated spontaneous inward currents under voltage-
clamp conditions (208, 368). The inward currents re-
3. ICC as colonic pacemakers
versed 10 20 mV positive to 0 mV, and the currents were
ICC are reduced in the colons of W/WV mice and in genet- not blocked by dihydropyrdines. In current-clamp mode,
ically similar Ws/Ws mutants in rats. However, the loss of spontaneous slow wave-like depolarization transients
ICC in the colon is incomplete, and therefore comparisons were observed that corresponded to the frequency of in-
of activities in wild-type and mutant animals are not as ward currents in voltage-clamp. These events displayed
clear-cut as in other regions of the GI tract. Proximal colons waveforms and mimicked some of the pharmacology of
of wild-type rats and mice display a pattern of slow depo- slow waves in intact muscles; however, the frequency was
larization with superimposed clusters of action potentials lower in cultured cells. Several labs have studied the ionic
(4). Action potential clusters were also observed in colonic conductances expressed and the mechanism of spontane-
muscles of Ws/Ws rats, but these events were irregular and ous electrical rhythmicity in cultured ICC models. The
As networks of c-Kit cells develop in culture, they experi- important step in understanding the cellular mechanism of
ence changes in phenotype within a few days. However, few pacemaker activity and a potent indication of the loss of
tests verifying the fidelity of the native phenotype have been function occurring via remodeling of ICC in cell culture.
performed on cultured c-Kit cells. A genomic study of
freshly dispersed ICC from the murine small intestine pro- Production of a reporter strain of mice in which ICC were
duced a catalog of highly expressed genes that could pro- labeled constitutively by expression of a green fluorescent
vide a standard for validation of the ICC phenotype (52). protein (Kit/copGFP) made it possible to identify ICC in
Our own experience with cultured ICC was that the con- mixed cell dispersions of the tunica muscularis and perform
ductances responsible for slow waves in situ were lost experiments soon after enzymatic dispersion (311, 436).
within a few days in primary culture (436). Therefore, we Tmem16a (official name now is Ano1) had previously been
have concluded that the mechanisms of rhythmicity re- identified as one of the most highly expressed genes in ICC
viewed previously (331) may largely be artifacts of cell cul- by a gene array screen of the ICC transcriptome (52), but
ture. This experience should raise caution about conclu- the function of the protein encoded by Tmem16a was un-
sions based on studies of cultured c-Kit cells that are not
known at the time. In 2008 the gene product of Tmem16a
accompanied by careful verification that the mechanisms
was found to be a Ca2-activated Cl channel (Anoctamin
Experiments on intact muscles suggested that a component activation of a full-amplitude slow wave. STDs are com-
of slow waves was due to a Ca2-activated Cl conduc- monly recorded from cells within intact networks of ICC in
tance (e.g., the plateau phase of slow waves was blocked by situ (155, 196 199, 383) and can be conducted to and
treating tissues with membrane permeable Ca2 buffers, recorded from smooth muscle cells in small strips of muscle
niflumic acid, and by removal of extracellular Cl) (153, (21, 45, 155, 197). STD activity is lost from smooth muscle
198). Cl channel blockers were also found to reduce the recordings when ICC are absent (45). Single ICC also gen-
frequency and block slow waves in murine, monkey, and erate STDs, and these events are due to transient activation
human small intestine and stomach (172). However, it of Ca2-activated Cl currents (436, 437). Stochastic gen-
should be noted that the concentration sensitivity for these eration of STDs in ICC within networks of pacemaker cells
effects varied between organs and species with gastric mus- (155) leads to activation of the voltage-dependent process
cles of monkeys being the most sensitive to niflumic acid. linked to activation of slow wave currents (436). There is
ICC express several splice variants of Ano1 (172), and it is still speculation about the nature of the voltage-dependent
possible that the variable sensitivity to Cl blockers and/or process. Our group has favored voltage-dependent Ca2
the differences in the waveforms of slow waves might be entry, mainly via T-type Ca2 channels, as the voltage-
due to variations in the complement of Ano1 isoforms ex- dependent mechanism (194, 433) because reduced extracel-
further experimentation will be very useful in planning fu- ing to prove the fidelity of extracellular recording, falls well
ture experiments and in predicting the actions of therapeu- short of a suitable control study for extracellular recording,
tic agents on electrical rhythmicity in the gut. because: 1) dihydropyridines dont block all contractile
movements in many species, 2) no concentration/effect data
for dihydropyridines were provided, 3) movements of the
E. Role of ICC in Propagation of Slow Waves viscera due to respiration and pulsatile blood flow could not
possibly have been absent in a living animal, and 4) more
1. Extracellular electrical recording from visceral rigorous monitoring of movement than visual inspection
smooth muscles would be needed to detect the small movements capable of
eliciting electrical artifacts.
A great deal of the information about GI pacemaker activity
used by gastroenterologists to make diagnoses, biomedical Difficulties in recording authentic electrical activity in GI
scientists in testing hypotheses and drugs, and instructors muscles with extracellular electrodes are likely due to the
for teaching GI physiology has been deduced from studies structure of ICC networks, the fact that ICC capable of
using electrical recordings made with extracellular metal regenerative propagation are buried within muscle layers,
quired for slow wave generation and propagation. In fact, mucosal surface of the circular muscle layer, and active
ion channel recovery from inactivation is categorically propagation of slow waves occurred in this region. Slow
much quicker than the long refractory period of slow wave activity was lost if a thin band of tissue along the
waves, suggesting that other mechanisms, such as reloading submucosal surface (containing pacemaker ICC-SM) was
of intracellular Ca2 stores, is likely to be the rate-limiting removed, and slow waves decayed within a few millimeters
step in slow wave frequency and responsible for long peri- from a region with the pacemaker cell network intact (332).
ods of refractoriness. A similar phenomenon was observed in gastric muscles
treated with neutralizing c-Kit antibodies, slow waves were
ICC have a critical role in slow wave propagation because generated in areas where clusters of ICC were retained, but
these cells provide the pathway for active propagation in GI these events did not propagate to regions devoid of ICC
muscles. Smooth muscle cells lack the ionic apparatus nec- (279). Furthermore, after loss of ICC, gastric muscles could
essary to regenerate slow waves. Thus a coupled network of not be paced by application of current pulses.
ICC is required for coherent propagation of slow waves and
coordination of contractions (FIGURE 8). This point was Recordings of slow waves in ICC and from nearby smooth
demonstrated by dissection experiments in which bits of muscle cells demonstrate how slow waves conduct via elec-
Single ICC
1.
(82, 155, 196, 198, 199). Hirst and colleagues (68) de- elicit depolarization, and initiate contractions; and 4) depo-
scribed the electrical coupling between ICC and smooth larization also initiates active responses in ICC-IM (referred
muscle cells as weak and showed that conduction of slow to as regenerative potentials) which spread rapidly along
waves is similar to conduction of electrotonic potentials the long axis of these cells in circumferential bands (81). In
between these cells. Taken together, these studies suggest order for this mechanism to work, ICC-IM in the corpus
that slow waves, generated by the ICC, conduct passively and antrum must have a voltage-dependent mechanism that
into the smooth muscle syncytium and are not actively re- is primed to provide cell-to-cell regeneration of slow waves.
generated by smooth muscle cells. Thus active (regenera- Cellular studies of ICC-IM have been limited, but a voltage-
tive) propagation of slow waves by ICC-MY is another dependent mechanism intrinsic to ICC-IM has not yet been
central function of these cells. Unlike the heart that is paced identified. Such a mechanism could be present in ICC-IM or
from discrete clusters of pacemaker cells and action poten- in the septal ICC (ICC-SEP) that run between bundles of
tials propagate via the regenerative mechanisms in cardiac smooth muscle cells because small bundles of gastric mus-
myocytes, the gut requires a continuum of ICC for regener- cle, that likely contain both ICC-IM and ICC-SEP, are ca-
ative (active) propagation of slow waves. This feature has pable of regenerative propagation (383).
important consequences in pathophysiological circum-
imaging also reinforced the pacemaker role for ICC-MY showed that electrical coupling between cells was funda-
because Ca2 transients in closely spaced ICC-MY and mental to the organization of propagating Ca2 transients
smooth muscle cells occur sequentially (FIGURE 9), as would (283). Treatment of ICC-MY networks with 18-glycyr-
be expected if slow waves, generated in ICC-MY, initiated rhetinic acid, a gap junction uncoupler, did not block Ca2
depolarization and activation of voltage-dependent Ca2 transients in individual cells, but blocked the spread of tran-
channels in neighboring smooth muscle cells (146, 147, sients through the network. After 18-glycyrrhetinic acid,
283). Average propagation velocities of wave fronts in ICC individual cells paced at their intrinsic frequencies, which
networks in the mouse were between 2 6 mm/s, and there- varied from cell to cell, and failed to be entrained by a
fore consistent with the velocities of slow wave propagation dominant pacemaker frequency in the network. By tabulat-
in murine muscles. The propagation velocity of Ca2 tran- ing the time course of Ca2 transients in multiple cells
sients associated with slow waves greatly exceeds the rates within a network, it was possible to characterize the cellular
of Ca2 waves that result only from diffusion (10 50 m/s) sequence of activation and the time course of cellular tran-
(367), supporting the idea that slow wave propagation de- sients event to event. This analysis showed that the activa-
pends on a voltage-dependent mechanism. tion sequence (i.e., spread of slow waves through a net-
work) varies even when the direction of propagation re-
Ca2+ Transients Imaging has also been used to study pacemaker activity and
C propagation in larger animals and human muscles, and
these studies have allowed generalizations to be made about
Circumferential
were found to activate sequentially as a function of distance ICC-MY facilitate coherent propagation of electrical activ-
from ICC-MY in the human small intestine (242). Thus ity which provides organization for muscle depolarization,
propagation of slow waves through ICC-SEP drives depo- Ca2 transients, and contractions (147). When ICC are
larization of smooth muscle cells deep within smooth mus- reduced in number, smooth muscle cells escape from the
cle bundles. discipline of slow waves and revert to intrinsic excitability
mechanisms. After loss of slow waves, smooth muscle cells
There are two pacemaker regions in the canine colon, each generate spontaneous action potentials, and there is little
producing different frequencies of pacemaker events (354). segment-wide regulation of the timing of action potentials.
Interesting differences were observed in the activation and Thus the motor behavior in the absence of ICC-MY differs
propagation of Ca2 transients in ICC in the submucosal considerably from normal motility patterns. Contractions
pacemaker area (ICC-SM), that produce slow waves, and are less circumferential, directional organization of con-
ICC-MY, that produce faster oscillations, called myenteric tractions decreases, and action potentials and contractions
potential oscillations. Rhythmic Ca2 transients (5 8/min) generated from random sites often collide.
spread without decrement through the ICC-SM network,
but Ca2 transients in ICC-MY (16/min) were typically Slow waves can propagate for long distances through ICC
Some types of ICC (and PDGFR cells, as discussed below) ilar in wild-type and W/WV muscles. The membrane hyper-
are distributed in a manner that would facilitate innervation polarization response to NO donors was greatly reduced in
by motor neurons (FIGURE 1, GI). The cells termed ICC-IM W/WV muscles, but muscle relaxation caused by NO do-
(or ICC-DMP in small intestine) and PDGFR-IM lie along nors was of similar magnitude in wild-type and W/WV mus-
the projections of excitatory and inhibitory motor neurons cles. Thus different mechanisms appear to mediate nitrergic
within bundles of muscle fibers in most regions of the gut. responses in ICC-IM and smooth muscle cells. The impor-
These interstitial cells form gap junctions with smooth mus- tance of one mechanism might be emphasized in wild-type
cle cells. Close associations with varicosities of motor neu- muscles and compensated for by redundant mechanisms in
rons and electrical connectivity with smooth muscle cells muscle cells that develop in the absence of ICC-IM. ICC-IM
are suggestive, but not proof, of a role for these cells in were also greatly reduced in numbers, and inhibitory and
neurotransmission or neuromodulation. Morphologists excitatory junction potentials were reduced in muscles of
noted very close contacts between ICC and varicosities of Steel mutants (Sl/Sld) that lack membrane-bound stem cell
enteric motor neurons with electron microscopy, and Imai- factor (403). Lower esophageal and pyloric sphincter mus-
zumi and Hama (179), for example, suggested that the cles of W/WV mice (408) and small intestinal muscles
interstitial cell may play a role in transmitting stimuli re- treated with neutralizing antibodies to c-Kit (407) also dis-
postjunctional receptors depends on the many factors listed trinsic motor neurons, PKC was detected in ICC-DMP.
above. Translocation was verified by showing a shift in PKC from
the soluble to the particulate fractions of extracts of intes-
3. Expression and function of receptors and tinal muscles. Translocation of PKC was also initiated by
effectors of neural responses in interstitial cells phorbol ester, and muscarinic responses and neurally
evoked translocation were blocked by atropine or TTX.
Use of immunohistochemical techniques and isolation of These experiments directly demonstrated innervation of
smooth muscle and interstitial cells has allowed evaluations ICC-DMP by cholinergic neurons.
of the expression of receptors and effects of neurotransmit-
ter responses and comparative responsiveness of specific ICC-DMP also express neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptors (127,
populations of postjunctional cells. In some cases an immu- 178, 357, 361), and binding of agonists to these receptors
nohistochemical approach (i.e., functional immunohisto- on ICC causes internalization (237). NK1 antibodies were
chemistry) can be also useful in determining which cells used to test whether membrane internalization could be
respond to neurotransmitters released from motor neurons elicited by stimulation of enteric motor neurons (178). Ex-
because specific changes in postjunctional signaling pro- citatory motor neurons, which release both ACh and tachy-
neostigmine, activation of cholinergic neurons caused phos- resulted in contraction or relaxation under circumstances in
phorylation of CPI-17 and MYPT1. Stimulation of cholin- which relaxation responses were elicited in wild-type mus-
ergic neurons in W/WV mice also caused phosphorylation cles. Tone developed spontaneously in wild-type muscles,
of CPI-17 and MYPT1. These data suggested that ACh but phasic contractions were noted in W mutants. Noncho-
released from neurons is compartmentalized, possibly linergic excitatory responses appeared elevated in Ws/Ws
within the tiny volumes created by the close apposition of rat muscles. Differences in motor patterns and variability in
nerve varicosities and ICC. Due to this compartmentaliza- the dominance of excitatory or inhibitory regulation in dif-
tion, ACh released from neurons does not appear to reach ferent animals indicate remodeling of neuromuscular re-
smooth muscle receptors linked to activation of Rho kinase sponses in animals with mutant W alleles.
and MYPT1 phosphorylation. Inhibiting ACh metabolism
or reducing contacts between ICC and motor neurons and Postjunctional nitrergic responses were also reported to be
the small junctional volumes formed as a result of these normal, or at least preserved, in a study of neuromuscular
contacts appears to enhance the availability of ACh and responses in the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) of W/WV
exposure of the neurotransmitter to smooth muscle recep- mice (432). Some animals displayed nitrergic responses
tors. while muscles of other animals of the same genotype did
is highly nonlinear and might be accomplished in the gut by ylate cyclase (Gucy1b3) was targeted in ICC, smooth mus-
small membrane potential changes. Membrane potentials cle cells or in both types of cells (131). Knocking down
of GI muscles, at rest in tonic muscles or at the peaks of slow soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) in fundus smooth muscle
waves in phasic muscles, lie near or within the range of cells caused reduction in responses to a bath-applied NO
potentials in which the open probability of L-type Ca2 donor, but responses were not greatly affected with knock-
channels is steeply dependent on voltage. Therefore, small down of sGC in ICC. Responses to NO released from neu-
hyperpolarization responses can greatly reduce the open rons was not greatly affected in mice with cell-specific
probability of Ca2 channels and reduce Ca2 entry to knockdown of sGC in smooth muscle cells or in ICC, but
levels that do not sustain contraction. In fact, typical hyper- knocking down sGC in both cell types blocked most of the
polarization responses in wild-type muscles take membrane nitrergic response in the fundus. These authors attributed
potential far negative to the range in which the open prob- nitrergic responses, therefore, to combined effects on ICC
ability of Ca2 channels is sufficient to elicit contraction. and smooth muscle cells, suggesting parallel neurotransmis-
Therefore, hyperpolarization responses might be greatly at- sion to both cell types.
tenuated before contractile responses are inhibited. Regions
of the gut with reduced ICC or reduced ICC function might Animal models in which specific genes can be inactivated
Purines, such as ATP, -nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide within 100 nm of nerve varicosities in GI muscles, and each
(-NAD), and ADP, activated Ca2-dependent K currents of these cells expresses specialized receptors and effectors
under voltage clamp, and these responses were blocked by that respond to enteric motor neurotransmitters. Binding of
apamin and the P2Y1 receptor antagonist MRS2500 (221). neurotransmitter molecules to ICC and PDGFR cell re-
In current-clamp mode, purines activated rapid responses ceptors activate or modulate ionic conductances, as de-
that hyperpolarized cells to EK. In contrast, responses of scribed above, and these cells are electrically coupled to
colonic smooth muscle cells held at physiological resting smooth muscle cells by gap junctions. Thus the neuroeffec-
potentials were minimal, or small inward currents were tor junction in GI muscles is more accurately conceptual-
activated. Smooth muscle cells had small depolarization ized as the SIP syncytium, composed of electrically coupled
responses to ATP in current clamp. These results show that smooth muscle cells, ICC, and PDGFR cells (FIGURE 3)
PDGFR cells mimic the purinergic neural responses of (209, 330). Changes in the conductance of any type of SIP
whole colonic muscles (i.e., hyperpolarizations inhibited by cell can affect the input resistance of the syncytium. To-
apamin and MRS2500; Refs. 116, 173), and these re- gether SIP cells not only determine the integrated excitabil-
sponses do not occur in smooth muscle cells at physiological ity of muscle layers and responses to neuotransmitters, but
potentials. ICC also show little or no response to purines it is quite likely that responses to hormones and paracrine
Activation of SK3 currents in PDGFR cells would require The walls of GI organs go through dramatic distortions
dynamic cytoplasmic Ca2 signaling. The occurrence of while filling and during the digestion and movement of food
STOCs in these cells suggests that periodic, localized Ca2 and wastes. Stretch-dependent mechanisms have been de-
release from intracellular stores is an important mechanism. tected in neurons (84, 219, 358, 359) and smooth muscle
Ca2 signaling mechanisms were investigated in PDGFR cells (97), but interstitial cells may also have an important
cells of gastric fundus muscles in situ (13). Cells in fundus sensory role in transducing mechanical events and pro-
muscles of Pdgfratm11(EGFP)Sor/J mice were loaded with fluo viding immediate feedback affecting motility. Freshly iso-
4 and identified by nuclear eGFP. Spontaneous localized lated ICC from human intestine displayed a Na current in
Ca2 transients were observed in PDGFR cells. Purines patch-clamp experiments (362). The conductance was
(ATP, ADP, UTP, and -NAD) and the P2Y1 agonist MRS- blocked by QX-314 but not by nifedipine or Ni2. Tran-
2365 enhanced Ca2 transients, and these responses were scripts for SCN5A, which encode subunits of cardiac
blocked by MRS-2500, a specific P2Y1 antagonist. ADP, TTX-resistant Na channels, were found by single-cell
MRS-2365, and -NAD failed to elicit Ca2 transients in PCR. Stretch of intestinal muscle increased the frequency of
cells of P2ry1/ mice, but responses to ATP persisted. slow waves, and QX-314 or lidocaine reduced slow wave
Phospholipase C (U-73122), IP3 receptor (2-APB), ryano- frequency. These data suggest that pacemaker ICC express
dine receptor (ryanodine), and SERCA pump (cyclopia- a mechanosensitive Na conductance that regulates slow
zonic acid and thapsigargin) inhibitors blocked Ca2 tran- wave frequency.
sients evoked by purines. Activation and regulation of Ca2
transients are likely to mediate the openings of SK3 chan- Another study investigated the chronotropic effects of
nels, generation of STOCs and responses to purines, and stretch in the murine gastric antrum (417). Slow waves were
purinergic inhibitory junction potentials in GI muscles. recorded from antral muscles during computerized applica-
tion of muscle stretch at a rate of 6.0 m/s to a maximum
7. Neuromuscular transmission and integration in tension of 5 mN. This increased muscle length by 27%,
the SIP syncytium which is within what might be expected physiologically
during antral contractions. Stretch of antral muscles caused
As discussed above, the extent to which motor neurotrans- 4 mV of depolarization and increased slow wave frequency
mission is volume-like or more focalized (e.g., synaptic- from 2.5 to 3.6 cpm. The magnitude of the response to
like due to close appositions between varicosities and stretch was positively related to the rate of muscle stretch.
postjunctional cells or restrictions on transmitter diffusion Stretch responses were blocked by reduced extracellular
due to metabolism or uptake) is controversial at present. Ca2 and by Ni2, but unaffected by nifedipine. Responses
What seems not debatable, based on current knowledge, is to stretch were not neurogenic because they were not
that at least three postjunctional cell types are clustered blocked by TTX. Acceleration of antral slow waves dis-
rupted corpus to antrum slow wave propagation temporar- that have a characteristic electrophysiology signature of
ily. Stretch responses were not recorded in muscles of after-hyperpolarization (AH) following action poten-
W/WV mice, suggesting that ICC-IM may mediate stretch- tials. Therefore, IPANs are also known as AH neurons.
dependent chronotropic effects. It was also found that in- Identified AH neurons were described as making close con-
domethacin blocked stretch-dependent chronotropic re- tacts with ICC-MY, and depolarization of the neurons cor-
sponses, and these responses were also not present in mice related with modulation of Ca2 transients in ICC-MY
lacking cyclooxygenase-2 (Ptgs2/). These findings sug- (438). These authors concluded that direct inputs from AH
gest that stretch may activate phospholipase A2 and gener- neurons regulate ICC-MY function.
ate arachidonic acid. Synthesis of PGE2, a product of
COX-2, may drive stretch-dependent responses in ICC-IM,
since this prostanoid has been shown to have positive chro- III. DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY OF
notropic effects in antral muscles of several species (103, ICC
327, 333).
A. Role of c-Kit in Development of ICC
Networks
There are at least two types of mechanoreceptor structures ICC are of mesodermal origin (238, 379, 430) and de-
arising from extrinsic afferent neurons in smooth muscles of rived from cells within the gut. Cells expressing tran-
GI organs: intraganglionic laminar endings (IGLEs) and scripts of Kit appear on about embryonic day 9 (E9) in
intramuscular arrays (IMAs). The morphology and intercel- mice (280), and c-Kit protein expression is detected by
lular associations of IMAs have been carefully described in immunohistochemistry at E12 (379). Initially c-Kit cells
recent years; however, the function of these structures is still form a layer of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells
poorly understood (294). IMAs arborize into a complex around the periphery of the intestine (at E12). c-Ret
array of terminal processes that run in parallel to the cells, which are precursors of enteric neurons and glia,
smooth muscle fibers and are associated with ICC-IM in the form a distinct layer at the inner surface of the c-Kit
stomach (32, 295). IMAs are also associated with three cells. Circular muscle cells are apparent at E15, but at
species of efferent fibers, distinguished by antibodies to this stage the intestine lacks a longitudinal muscle layer.
nNOS (inhibitory motor neurons), vesicular acetylcholine Within the circular muscle layer, smooth muscle anti-
transporter (excitatory motor neurons), and tyrosine hy- gens, such as enteric actin and desmin, are prominent,
droxylase (sympathetic neurons). Calcitonin gene-related and the cells have typical ultrastructural features such as
peptide (CGRP)-immunopositive afferent fibers (presumed thin and thick myofilaments, intermediate filaments,
to be collaterals of visceral afferent neurons) are also asso- dense bodies, caveolae, and well-developed endoplasmic
ciated with IMAs (294). The varicosities of IMAs form reticula. c-Kit cells are largely immunopositive for vi-
synaptic-like contacts with ICC and display vesicles and mentin, but a few cells begin to develop immunoreactiv-
prejunctional densities (166, 294). The ICC-IMA complex ity for desmin at E15, suggesting that cells of the longi-
has been likened to a functional correlate of the muscle tudinal muscle layer may develop from c-Kit precursors
spindle organ of striated muscles. The function of ICC in (379). Others reached a similar conclusion by showing
relation to IMAs has not been clarified. There is evidence with in situ hybridization that cells at the periphery of the
that vagal afferents can engage in axon reflexes (414), small intestine that expressed Kit mRNA coexpressed
which is accomplished by branches of peripheral axons that myosin heavy chain transcripts (203). By E18, a clear
contain both sensory and effector functions without the longitudinal muscle layer is formed and c-Kit cells de-
benefit of any synapses or an integration center. In the case veloped processes and formed a lose network in the re-
of ICC-IMA complexes, the numerous lamellar varicosities gion of the myenteric plexus (ICC-MY). Longitudinal
of IMA neurites distributed around ICC and close associa- muscle cells express desmin, and ICC retain expression of
tions with CGRP-immunopositive processes may, in fact, vimentin. The other population of ICC in the small bowel
innervate ICC, providing an integrative sensorimotor func- (ICC-DMP) is not found in murine embryos and develops
tion to supplement the main sensory activities of afferent within the first week after birth.
neurons. Physiological tests of this hypothesis have not been
reported. The heterogeneity of ICC lesions in W/WV mice (404) led to
speculation that c-Kit is not required for development of all
There is also a report of innervation of ICC-MY by intrinsic ICC. Some populations of ICC fail to develop with the loss
primary afferent neurons (IPANs) in the small intestine. of function in W/WV mutants, but other populations of ICC
IPANs are myenteric neurons that send processes to the develop, albeit usually in reduced density and with reduced
lamina propria to sense the mechanical and chemical state immunoreactivity to c-Kit antibodies. These observations
of the gut lumen. These neurons provide the afferent limb of suggest that ICC from different regions of the GI tract and
intrinsic GI reflexes (109). IPANs are Dogiel type II neurons even within specific regions have different sensitivities to
c-Kit signaling. Another possible difference might be in sur- require signaling via c-Kit for development (23, 306, 404),
vivability of different ICC in the absence of c-Kit. One study so one explanation for their localization within muscles
investigated the development of ICC in animals with Kit might be that they are concentrated near cells expressing
alleles deactivated by knock-in of LacZ into the Kit locus. stem cell factor, the ligand for c-Kit. Experiments on trans-
Homozygotes for the transgene (KitLacZ/) expressed c-Kit genic animals with lacZ linked to the promoter for stem cell
and ICC normally, but KitLacZ/LacZ mice lacked c-Kit but factor showed that enteric neurons express stem cell factor
cells identified as ICC were as abundant as in KitLacZ/ mice (380), but others have reported that smooth muscle cells
(31). It is possible, however, that the cells identified as ICC also express stem cell factor transcripts and protein (161,
were precursors for ICC identified in development by E15 238, 422). Expression of stem cell factor by neurons might
(379). Whether the cells identified as ICC (at about E18) direct positioning of ICC, because either nerve cell bodies or
were functional was not determined. Another group inves- processes occupy most of the same niches as ICC. However,
tigated the distribution of ICC in Wbanded (Wbd) mice (203). it is unclear how smooth muscle expression of stem cell
Wbd contains a genomic rearrangement of chromosome 5 factor might direct the localization of ICC with such precise
that results in inversion of the c-kit gene and ectopic expres- patterning. In fact, experimental evidence suggests that neu-
sion of Kit (204). These mice displayed normal distributions rons, and thus trophic factors expressed by neurons, are not
Early in human development (7 wk), c-Kit cells can be less reliable than immunohistochemical techniques (see
found along the entire length of the esophagus in the region sect. IIA1).
of the myenteric plexus, but this distribution changes with
age such that ICC were far more abundant in the distal Consistent with the role of ICC as pacemakers, there is a
one-third versus the proximal esophagus by weeks 1316 proximal-to-distal delay in the developmental of pace-
(300). After 20 wk, ICC were extremely rare in the proxi- maker activity (406). Slow waves were recorded from the
mal (skeletal muscle) portion of the esophagus and had proximal GI tract (stomach and antrum) during the late
developed into spindle-shaped ICC-IM in the circular and embryonic period (as described above), but developed after
longitudinal muscle layers in the distal third (smooth mus- birth in the ileum and colon. Slow wave activity with clus-
cle) portion of the esophagus. The middle third of the ters of action potentials superimposed, characteristic of the
esophagus displayed ICC in septa between smooth and skel- proximal colon, developed in colonic muscles by P6-P8;
etal muscle fibers. ICC developed over approximately the however, this activity was infrequent, with long periods of
same window of time in the stomach, forming first a layer of quiescence between events. Regular, rhythmic slow waves
c-Kit precursors around the periphery of the organ adja- and action potential clusters were not fully developed in the
cent to the developing myenteric plexus (301). By 20 wk, proximal colon until about P10.
derstood. Attempts have been made to develop animal these mice, and it was concluded that signaling through
models of ICC loss with the idea of establishing the cause PI3-kinase is not required for development and function of
and effect of ICC loss in motility disorders and to study the ICC. There are two means of activating PI3-kinase, how-
plasticity of ICC. ever, by direct binding of PI-3kinase to the phorphorylated
tyrosine residue of c-Kit and indirectly by binding to the
ICC are vulnerable to block of c-Kit signaling in neonatal tyrosine phosphorylated accessory protein GAB2 (271).
and adult animals; however, the time required for c-Kit Thus the Y719F mutation in Kit may not block all PI3-
block increases from the postnatal period to adulthood. kinase signaling.
Neutralizing c-Kit antibodies injected into neonatal mice
and for several days after birth cause loss of ICC within a ICC-MY networks and slow wave activity can be reestab-
week (250, 378), and all classes of ICC are affected. The lished after removal of conditions or reagents that block
c-Kit inhibitor imatinib mesylate also lesions ICC networks c-Kit. This point will be more completely illustrated in the
in neonatal murine intestinal muscles in organ culture (23). next section, but model studies of this concept have been
In adult guinea pigs, imatinib caused a time-dependent re- performed on muscle strips in organ culture. As above,
duction in ICC-MY of the small intestine, shortening of cell treatment of P0 muscles with neutralizing c-Kit antibodies
duced in these regions. ICC, slow wave generation, and The reasons for loss of ICC in NOD/LtJ mice have been
neural responses recovered in 1 mo if the obstruction was investigated. Reduced IGF-I and insulin signaling, and not
relieved. hyperglycemia, were found to be responsible for the loss of
ICC in diabetes (162). Expression of insulin and IGF-I re-
2. Diabetes ceptors were localized to enteric neurons and smooth mus-
cle cells, and transcripts for these receptors were not re-
solved in ICC purified by FACS (161). The same cells that
Reduction in ICC in diabetes and the importance of this expressed IGF-I and insulin receptors also expressed stem
phenomenon in diabetic gastroparesis has been a topic of cell factor. Loss of stem cell factor was found to be the cause
interest since defects in ICC networks were noted in a of ICC loss in diabetic tissues. Therefore, signaling via IGF-I
mouse model of type I diabetes. Non-obese diabetic mice and insulin does not occur directly through ICC, but ICC
(NOD/LtJ) mice were shown to have delayed gastric emp- maintenance depends on these growth factor receptors, as
tying and reduced and arrhythmic slow wave activity in the they are important in maintaining expression of stem cell
antrum (278). Fundus muscles from NOD/LtJ mice were factor in cells adjacent to ICC.
less responsive to activation by enteric motor neurons,
6
L-N -(1-iminoethyl)lysine hydrochloride (L-NIL). Animals survival. Thus gain-of-function mutations in c-Kit in the
treated preoperatively with iNOS inhibitors experienced re- progenitor cells could yield continuous output of malignant
duced pacemaker activity only near the site of the anasto- GIST cells that is not controlled by blocking the tyrosine
mosis, and transgenic animals lacking iNOS were protected kinase activity of c-Kit (16). It was suggested that Kitlow
against most of the postsurgical defects in ICC networks Cd44 Cd34 ICC stem cells are the source of GIST cells.
and pacemaker activity (424). These are c-Kit independent stem cells that are not suscep-
tible to therapeutic approaches designed to inhibit c-Kit.
E. Cancer
IV. INTERSTITIAL CELLS IN THE URINARY
Kit is a protooncogene encoding a receptor tyrosine kinase. TRACT
Gain-of-function mutations in the juxtamembrane domain
of Kit are found in 75 80% of GISTs, the most common Smooth muscle tissues of the urinary tract generate sponta-
form of human sarcoma, and the idea that GISTs derive neous phasic contractions and tone. The intrinsic electrical
from ICC has been considered (149, 150, 195, 272). Jux- and contractile activities appear to be generated by special-
229). Based on the frequency of Ca2 transients and spon- been used typically to identify interstitial cells in the blad-
taneous transient depolarizations (STD), the dominant der. Vimentin cells have been reported in the suburothe-
pacemaker cells may be ASMC. Spontaneous Ca2 tran- lium of guinea pig (76, 129, 215, 302) and human bladders
sients and STDs were inhibited in ASMC when extracellular (189, 268, 363), and there are reports of c-Kit cells in the
Ca2 was reduced or by application of cyclopiazonic acid suburothelium of the human (189, 287, 288, 344) and pig
(CPA) and 2-APB (230). Ryanodine (up to 100 M) slightly bladder (260). Some studies have noted that not all vimen-
reduced Ca2 transients but failed to block STDs in ASMC tin cells are c-Kit (75, 256). Thus at least two classes of
(229, 230). Reduced extracellular Na also decreased STDs interstitial cells may exist in the bladder. It should also be
in ASMC, and these events were not affected by Cl chan- noted that mast cells are also c-Kit and can be found in the
nel blocking drugs or replacement of extracellular Cl suburothelium and in detrusor muscles. However, mast
(230). The data suggested that pacemaker activity in ASMC cells are typically rounded and of a less fusiform shape than
is due to openings of cation-selective channels stimulated by the c-Kit cells described in bladder tissues (189, 287).
release of Ca2 from IP3 receptor-operated stores. Muscarinic receptor type 3 (M3) is expressed specifically by
suburethral interstitial cells, but the significance of these
A recent report, using eYFP-SMA transgenic mice, receptors in interstitial cells is unknown (129, 130).
mast cells in mice (207, 225, 245) and humans (303). Thus
the presence and significance of c-Kit interstitial cells in
A D
the bladder is controversial at present.
are highly enriched in Pdgfra and Kcnn3 (SK3 channel) and smooth muscle cells. The exact nature of the interstitial
transcripts in relation to the whole detrusor cell population. cells in the urethra (i.e., whether mainly c-Kit or
SK3 protein was also observed in PDGFR cells by immu- PDGFR) is unclear (286, 282).
nohistochemistry but was not resolved in smooth muscle
cells. SK channel modulators, CyPPA and SKA-31, hyper- Urethral smooth muscles exhibit STDs and slow wave-like
polarized PDGFR cells and activated SK currents under events. The electrical events are due to activation of CaCC
voltage clamp (239). Similar responses were not observed in in response to release of Ca2 from intracellular Ca2
SMCs held at membrane potentials simulating physiologi- stores (142). Ca2 transients occur in interstitial cells in
cal potentials. The single-channel conductance of SK chan- intact urethral muscles; however, these events were of lower
nels in PDGFR cells was 10 pS, and intracellular Ca2 frequency and longer duration than Ca2 transients in
activated the channels. PDGFR cells displayed STOCs at smooth muscle cells. Ca2 transients in interstitial cells
potentials positive to 60 mV, and these events were inhib- were inhibited by CPA, ryanodine, and 2-APB (141), as also
ited by apamin. found in isolated interstitial cells (see below).
Doxycycline-induced suppression of SK3 expression in Isolated urethral interstitial cells generate spontaneous elec-
Urethra smooth muscles also display spontaneous electrical Urethral interstitial cells may also have a role in transducing
activity. Branched cells from rabbit urethra have been iso- or modulating neural inputs from autonomic motor neu-
lated and studied by voltage-clamp and Ca2 imaging (188, rons. Adrenergic neurotransmission affects urethral tone
338). The branched cells were identified as interstitial cells via postjunctional 1 adrenoceptors (39). Norepinephrine
on the basis of vimentin expression, absence of smooth (NE) activated STICs in interstitial cells, and this is blocked
muscle myosin, and presence of a discontinuous basal lam- by 1 antagonists, a phospholipase C inhibitor, IP3 receptor
ina, sparse rough endoplasmic reticulum, abundant mito- antagonists, and CaCC blockers (341). NO is a prominent
chondria, and a well-developed smooth ER. Significant dif- inhibitory neurotransmitter in the urethra (9), and inhibi-
ferences were observed in the behaviors of branched cells tory effects are mediated through activation of protein ki-
nase G (285). NO donors and membrane-permeable cGMP ward currents or action potentials in contrast to myocytes.
analogs inhibited STICs in urethral interstitial cells by re- Outward currents were elicited by depolarization of the
ducing intracellular Ca2 waves (340). NO may also target ICC-like cells. The numbers of ICC-like cells increase in
cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (CNG), which are ex- pregnancy, and the suggestion was made that the cells might
pressed in urethral interstitial cells (381). help to stabilize uterine excitability during the later stages of
pregnancy (89, 427).
V. INTERSTITIAL CELLS IN THE
REPRODUCTIVE TRACT B. Oviduct
ICC have also been described in oviducts of mouse and hen Ca2 influx through L-type Ca2 channels is a crucial fac-
(85, 117). In mice and monkeys, ICC, termed ICC-OVI, are tor for intracellular Ca2 oscillations. However, an early
found within the myosalpinx and organized into an exten- study reported that the STDs were not affected by nifedi-
sive network throughout the oviduct (Figure 10, D and E). pine (94) in the same species. CPA, caffeine, or reduced
Functional studies demonstrated the importance of ICC- extracellular Ca2 also abolished spontaneous Ca2 tran-
OVI in oviduct motility. Selective removal of ICC-OVI us- sients, suggesting that intracellular Ca2 stores are involved
ing a c-Kit neutralizing antibody resulted in loss of ICC, in the generation of Ca2 transients in interstitial cells
electrical slow waves, and propulsive contractions of the (226).
oviduct (85). It is not known whether removal of ICC-OVI
leads to loss of egg propulsion and infertility as these studies Interstitial cells in the prostate are associated with sympa-
were performed in neonatal animals where ICC-OVI phe- thetic neurons, and the interstitial cells express 1-adreno-
notype is susceptible to neutralizing antibody (23). ceptors and the gap junction protein connexin 43 as dem-
PDGFR cells are also widely distributed in the oviduct onstrated by immunohistochemistry (394). Norepinephrine
(FIGURE 10F). evoked inward currents in isolated cells identified as inter-
stitial cells, and these responses were blocked by phentol-
complete description of the ion channels and transporters notypes at play in smooth muscle tissues should be included
responsible for generating and sustaining pacemaker activ- in studies of cultured smooth muscles and tissue engineering
ity may provide ideas for drugs that can normalize gastric protocols to better understand the fates of cell types that are
dysrhythmias or improve slow colonic transit. Therapeutic important to the performance of native muscles.
benefits might also be realized by understanding the
postjunctional mechanisms involved in neuro- and mecha- A better understanding of the roles of interstitial cells in
notransduction. non-GI muscles is necessary. Studies of interstitial cells in
many smooth muscle organs have stalled somewhat after
It is very difficult to deduce the role of specific cell types in the initial morphological descriptions of these cells. It is
tissues as complicated as smooth muscles, particularly tempting to speculate that similar cells will be widespread in
when the cells are electrically coupled. Functional studies smooth muscle tissues and have important functions in reg-
on muscle strips and expression studies on whole muscle ulating smooth muscle excitability or in mediation of re-
extracts do not reveal the cells that express specific genes or sponses to neurotransmitters. However, the lack of pheno-
are responsible for specific functions. Having fluorescent types in various smooth muscle tissues of animals with Kit
reporters expressed in SIP cells makes it possible to isolate mutations suggests that c-Kit cells may not be present or
scriptomes of each type of SIP cell will yield important insights REFERENCES
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and future treatments of urinary incontinence. Pharmacol Rev 56: 581 631, 2004.
We thank the many post-docs and students that have 10. Angeli TR, Du P, Paskaranandavadivel N, Janssen PW, Beyder A, Lentle RG, Bissett IP,
worked in our labs on interstitial cells. We are eternally Cheng LK, OGrady G. The bioelectrical basis and validity of gastrointestinal extracel-
grateful to Nancy Horowitz and Yulia Bayguinov for their lular slow wave recordings. J Physiol 591: 4567 4579, 2013.
technical support on all projects related to interstitial cells. 11. Antonucci A, Fronzoni L, Cogliandro L, Cogliandro RF, Caputo C, De Giorgio R,
We are especially grateful to Drs. Masaaki Kurahashi, Peter Pallotti F, Barbara G, Corinaldesi R, Stanghellini V. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruc-
Blair, and Rose Ellen Dixon for images used in FIGURES 1 tion. World J Gastroenterol 14: 29532961, 2008.
AND 10; Dr. Grant Hennig for FIGURE 9; and Professor Wei 12. Arrighi S, Bosi G, Groppetti D, Cremonesi F. Identification of C-kit-positive interstitial
Yan for helpful discussions about gene inactivation studies. cells in the dog lower urinary tract and relationship with smooth muscle and nerves.
Hypotheses for a likely pacemaker role. Vet Med Int 2010: 17, 2010.
We are also most grateful for the insightful comments and
collaborations with Professor David Hirst and Dr. Gerard 13. Baker SA, Hennig GW, Salter AK, Kurahashi M, Ward SM, Sanders KM. Distribution
Sergeant regarding the pacemaker mechanism in ICC. and Ca2 signaling of fibroblast-like (PDGFR) cells in the murine gastric fundus. J
Physiol 591: 6193 6208, 2013.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: K. 14. Ball ER, Matsuda MM, Dye L, Hoffmann V, Zerfas PM, Szarek E, Rich A, Chitnis AB,
Sanders, Dept. of Physiology and Cell Biology, Univ. of Stratakis CA. Ultra-structural identification of interstitial cells of Cajal in the zebrafish
Danio rerio. Cell Tissue Res 349: 483 491, 2012.
Nevada School of Medicine, Reno, NV 89557 (e-mail:
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