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Abstract
The Khagram-Razagram area, consists of rocks of the Kamila amphibolite belt, which constitutes the
southern portion of the intra-oceanic Kohistan island arc. Field observations and detailed petrographic
studies of representative samples reveal that the area largely consists of two major rock types, namely
epidote amphibolite and gabbro-norite. The epidote amphibolites are sub-equigranular, fine to coarse-
grained, xenoblastic, and foliated along shear zones. They consist of abundant hornblende, plagioclase,
epidote, quartz and accessory amounts of sphene, apatite and ore minerals. The gabbro-norites are sub-
equigranular, medium- to coarse-grained, hypidiomorphic to idiomorphic and massive, i.e. without any
preferred orientation of grains. They essentially consist of plagioclase, orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene
with accessory amounts of epidote and quartz. Some of the engineering properties of the petrographically
investigated epidote amphibolite and gabbro-norite were also determined in the course of this study.
These include unconfined compressive strength, unconfined tensile strength, shear strength, specific
gravity and water absorption. The values of specific gravity and water absorption of both the epidote
amphibolite and gabbro-norite are within the range permissible for their use as dimension stones and
construction material. Comparison of the petrographic characteristics of the two rock types with their
respective strengths reveals that modal mineralogy, grain size and shapes, degree of alteration and
foliation have a significant effect on the strength of these rocks.
Fig. 1. Regional geological map of the Kohistan island arc, north Pakistan (After Tahirkheli et al., 1979;
Khan et al., 1993; Searle and Khan, 1996).
26
MMT marks the entire southern and eastern amphibolites. Felsic intrusions and veins of
boundaries of the Kohistan Island arc (DiPietro et epidosite also occur at places.
al., 2000). MMT was described as extending
eastward from Afghanistan through Swat to 3. Petrography
Babusar and then northward around the Nanga
Parbat-Harmosh massif to Ladakh where it is Geologically, the area under discussion is
connected with Indus suture zone (DiPietro et al., occupied by medium (to high) grade metamorphic
2000). rocks of mafic (to ultramafic) composition.
Petrographically the rocks are divided into epidote
The intra-oceanic crust of Kohistan consists of amphibolite, gabbro-norite and hornblendite. The
five units extending from the Indus suture in south lack of sharp contacts between these lithologies
to the Shyok suture in north (Khan et al., 1997): i) makes it difficult to show them as separate bodies.
Basic ultramafic cumulates (Jijal ultramafites); ii) At places, these rock units are cut by felsic
Kamila amphibolites; iii) Chilas complex of mafic intrusions, which have sharp contacts with the
to intermediate plutonic rocks; iv) Early bimodal surrounding rocks.
suite of intrusive rocks (Stage 1 of Petterson and
Windley, 1985) and Gilgit Gneisses; and v) Chalt The area under investigation largely consists
volcanics (Khan et al., 1993). of epidote amphibolites. Detailed observations of
the samples in thin sections reveal that the epidote
The Asian or Karakoram plate, immediately amphibolites from the study area are sub-
north of MKT, consists mostly of slates intruded equigranular, fine- to coarse-grained and
by Karakoram Batholith and related intrusive xenoblastic to hypidioblastic. Mineralogically,
rocks. To the south of MMT occur rocks of the they are more or less uniform and consist of
Indo-Pakistan plate mostly comprising Pre- abundant hornblende (45-50 modal %),
Cambrian to Mesozoic metasediments and plagioclase (15-20 modal %), quartz (10-15 modal
Cambrian Granite and Gneisses. The three major %), epidote (8-10 modal %) and accessory
rock units constituting the Indian plate in the lower amounts of biotite, muscovite, sphene, apatite,
Swat area include Pre Cambrian to Cambrian rutile, ilmenite, monazite and opaque ore(s). The
Manglaur Formation, the Cambrian to Early grains of hornblende are anhedral to subhedral and
Ordovician Swat Gneisses, and the late Paleozoic mostly medium to large in size. Some of the
to early Mesozoic Alpurai group (DiPietro, 1990; hornblende grains are variably altered and chlorite,
DiPietro et al., 1993). biotite, sericite, muscovite, epidote and clays are
the most common products of alteration. Most of
The Kamila amphibolites extend E-W across the plagioclase grains appear cloudy or dusty due
the southern part of the arc, and have been studied to alteration. The alteration products include clays,
in detail in the Indus and swat valleys of central epidote, clinozoisite, white mica and quartz.
Kohistan (Jan, 1977, 1980; Treloar et al., 1990, Hence the process of alteration is largely
1996) and in the south-east Kohistan in Thak saussuritization. Variable amounts of quartz also
Valley (Khan et al., 1998). The Kamila occur in the epidote amphibolites. Mostly, it
amphibolite belt is a composite mass dominated occurs as inclusions within the grains of
by amphibolite-facies metaplutonic and hornblende showing the metamorphosed character
metavolcanic rocks (Khan et al., 1997). Two types of the host rocks but discrete anhedral deformed
of amphibolites are identified (Khan et al., 1997): quartz grains are also present. Some of the studied
(i) fine- to medium-grained amphibolites either samples also contain variable but accessory
homogeneous or banded, and (ii) homogeneous, amounts of garnet mostly as small to large
medium- to coarse-grained amphibolites (Jan, porphyroblasts. Some of the garnet porphyroblasts
1988; Treloar et al., 1990). The former are thought are also visible megascopically.
to be metamorphosed mafic to intermediate
volcanics, whereas the latter are interpreted as Gabbro-norite occurs in the form of small to
metamorphosed gabbros and diorites. In the study large patches within the epidote amphibolite.
area, gabbro-norite and hornblendite are present in These rocks are sub-equigranular, medium- to
the form of patches within the surrounding epidote coarse-grained and hypidiomorphic to
27
idiomorphic. Mineralogically, they are more or symplectitic intergrowth is produced. Tiny reddish
less uniform and consist of plagioclase, brown lamellae of hematite occur in the form of
orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene as essential regular disseminations in almost all the
minerals. In addition to these, accessory amounts orthopyroxene grains. Clinopyroxene also occurs
of hornblende, epidote, clay mineral(s) and opaque in these rocks and ranges from 10 to 15 modal %.
ore(s) also occur. Furthermore, some of the It is medium-grained and mostly subhedral to
samples contain accessory amounts of quartz (1 to euhedral in form. Larger clinopyroxene grains
2 modal %). The modal compositions of the show alteration to amphibole along their margins.
studied samples are listed in table 1 and plotted on
the relevant IUGS classification diagram in figure Hornblendites occur in the form of patches
2. Plagioclase is the most abundant mineral within the associated epidote amphibolite. In the
occurring in the studied samples of gabbro-norite. field, they are easily distinguishable from the
Its modal abundance ranges from 55 to 70 %. surrounding epidote amphibolites by their dark
Most of the plagioclase grains are large, subhedral black color. The rocks under discussion are
to euhedral and cloudy. The cloudy appearance of subequigranular, medium to coarse grained and
plagioclase grains is because of their partial hypidiomorphic. In terms of mineralogical
alteration to clay mineral(s) and epidote. composition, they are more or less uniform and
Orthopyroxene occurs as euhedral, medium- to almost totally consist of hornblende with only
large-sized grains. Its modal abundance ranges accessory amounts of quartz and clay mineral(s).
from 20 to 25 %. Some of the larger The modal abundance of hornblende ranges from
orthopyroxene grains show extensive alteration 80 to 90 %. Most of the hornblende grains show
and are almost totally transformed into bastite. the effects of alteration. Chlorite, epidote and
They also show alteration to a mixture of clays seem to be the most common alteration
hornblende, chlorite and quartz such that a products.
Plagioclase
Gabbronorite
rite
Ga
No
bb
ro
Fig. 2. Modal composition of the studied gabbro-norite plotted on the IUGS classification diagram (from
Le Maitre, 2002).
28
The epidote amphibolites of the Khagram area are 90-100C as the moisture content of the specimen
intruded by felsic dykes. These are regarded as at the time of test can have a significant effect
intrusions because of their undoubtedly intrusive upon the indicated strength of rock (ASTM-
relationship with the enclosing rocks and irregular D3976). As per requirement, a grinding machine
or tongue shape. The rocks constituting the felsic was used for making the faces of the cores smooth.
intrusions are subequigranular and medium- to The cylindrical cores thus obtained were cut at
coarse-grained. Mineralogically, they consist of right angles to the longitudinal axis for getting the
abundant quartz, plagioclase as essential minerals required length to diameter ratio (L/D), which is
and biotite, muscovite, sericite, epidote and clay in 2.0 to 2.5 (ASTM-D2938). Three specimens from
accessory amounts. Relatively larger grains of each rock type were tested for the UCS. For this
garnet also occur in the rock under discussion. purpose, the cylindrical cores were loaded in the
testing machine and load was applied continuously
4. Mechanical properties and without shock. The load at the time of failure
was noted.
Among the mechanical properties of rocks,
those related to their strength are of prime 4.2. Unconfined tensile strength (UTS)
importance. The mechanical properties of rocks
govern their behavior in response to the applied The tensile strength of rocks is found to be
load. Strength of a material is its ability to resist much lower than their compressive strength
the externally applied load and is oftenly measured (Bell, 2007). The direct determination of tensile
in the laboratory, rather than in the field, for strength frequently has proved difficult because it
greater accuracy and more satisfactory results. In is not easy to grip the specimen without
the present study, the following tests on the introducing bending stress (Bell, 2007). So the
petrographically investigated rocks (epidote splitting tensile test or Brazillian test appears to
amphibolite and gabbro-norite) were carried out in be a desirable alternative as it is much simpler
the laboratory. and inexpensive (ASTM- D3976). As per
requirement, a disc-shaped specimen with
4.1. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) thickness to diameter ratio of approximately 0.5
was selected from the core. As for UCS, three
The UCS does allow comparisons to be made specimens for each rock type were used for the
between rocks and affords some indication of rock UTS test by loading the specimens in the testing
behavior under more complex systems (Tsiambaos machine. The load at the time of failure of the
and Sabatakakis, 2004). Generally the UCS of the specimen was noted.
rock is the function of specimen size, shape,
confining pressure, height to diameter ratio, rate of The resulting UCS and UTS values of all the
loading, porosity and moisture content (Jumikis, investigated rock samples are listed in tables 2, 3,
1983). 4 and 5. The average UCS to UTS ratios of the
studied epidote amphibolite and gabbro-norite are
The UCS of the studied rock types was 6.02 and 9.30, respectively (Table 6). Rocks with
measured with the help of strength testing compressive strength values of ~35 MPa are
machine. Bulk samples of the rocks were collected regarded suitable for usual building and
from their outcrops in the field and cylindrical construction purposes (Bell, 2007). As the
core samples were obtained from them by using compressive strengths values of the investigated
core drilling machine. To clear drill cuttings and epidote amphibolite and gabbro-norite are well
cool the bit, water was admitted through a swivel above 35 MPa, they can be utilized as building and
into the core barrel. First the samples were dried at dimension stones.
29
Table 1. Modal composition of gabbro-norite.
Sample Identity 29 31 34 35 36
Plagioclase 44.3 42.1 60.7 54.5 61.0
Orthopyroxene 24.7 25.3 18.4 *24.1 20.3
Clinopyroxene 23.8 22.3 15.4 10.7 14.5
Quartz 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.9
Ore 4.0 4.3 2.5 0.6 2.0
Hornblende 1.5 1.8 1.7 2.6 1.3
Clay 0.0 3.2 0.9 6.6 0.2
Apatite 0.5 ---- ---- ---- ----
Chlorite ---- ---- ---- 0.5 ----
Epidote 0.3 ---- ---- ---- ----
*Includes 6.8 modal % bastite.
30
Table 5. Results of UTS test of gabbro-norite.
Table 6. Average values and ratios between UCS and UTS, and values of specific gravity and water
absorption of the studied samples.
4.3. Shear strength drawn for both the UCS and UTS readings (Fig.
3). A common tangent to the resulting two Mohr
The shear strength of a rock is its maximum circles was drawn. The two parameters for
resistance to deformation by a continuous shear measuring the shear strength are cohesion (C) and
displacement upon the action of a shear (Jumikis, angle of internal friction (). The angle of tangent
1983). Shear strength of the rock specimen is with the horizontal axis gives us the value of .
usually measured with torsion test in the laboratory. The distance between the point of intersection
In case of the present study, shear strength was not between the x and y axes and the point at which
measured directly; rather it was indirectly measured the tangent cuts the y-axis gives us the value of C.
using the values of UCS and UTS. Several values of C and were calculated for each
sample by changing the UCS and UTS values and
UCS reading of the specific rock type was the average was then worked out. The average C
taken on the positive x-axis and UTS reading for and values are, respectively, 14.5 MPa and
the same rock was taken on the negative x-axis 44.420 for the epidote amphibolite and 8.2 MPa
according to scale. Separate Mohr circles were and 50.80 for the gabbro-norite.
31
4.4. Specific gravity 5. Discussion
Morgenstern and Eigenbrod (1974) carried out According to Brady and Brown (2004), UCS
a series of compressive softening tests on of rocks is eight times their UTS and cohesion is
engineering materials and found that the rate of two times UTS. However, Farmer (1983) proposed
softening of rock specimens on immersion in the ratio between UCS and UTS to be 10:1.
water depends on their origin. However, they Putting the two findings together, the UCS to UTS
swell slowly hence decreasing density and ratios of rocks fall in the range of 8 to 10. For the
strength. The resulting loss in strength is very studied gabbro-norite, the UCS is 9.3 times UTS
significant in controlling the engineering and hence in accordance with the stated
properties of rocks. relationship. However, the cohesion of gabbro-
norite is low, i.e. 1.56 times its UTS. For the
The specific gravity of the epidote amphibolite investigated epidote amphibolite, the UCS is 6.02
and gabbro-norite samples was determined in the times its UTS, which is low and, therefore, falls
laboratory. The values so obtained are 2.82 and below the expected range, mentioned above.
2.81, respectively (Table 6). The rocks having Similarly, the value of its cohesion is low, i.e. 1.19
specific gravity 2.55 are considered to be suitable (rather than 2) times its UTS. The lower than
for heavy construction work (Blyth and de Freitas, normal UCS to UTS ratio of the epidote
1974). This suggests that, in terms of their specific amphibolite could be either because (i) the UCS is
gravity, the tested rocks are suitable for use as raw underestimated or (ii) the value of UTS is
material in heavy construction projects. overestimated. Since the value of cohesion not
only of the epidote amphibolite but also that of the
4.5. Water absorption gabbro-norite (having a normal UCS to UTS
ratio) is low, the lower UCS to UTS ratio is most
It refers to the quantity of water that can be probably because the value of UTS is higher and
readily absorbed by a rock and is designated as therefore overestimated. Alternatively, the UTS
water absorption test. Most of the rocks are values are not overestimated and hence the UCS to
weakened by the addition of water through UTS ratio of the tested epidote amphibolite is real.
absorption. Pressure, known as pre-water pressure, If supported with ample evidence, such an
is developed that influences the strength of the argument would suggest an extension in the lower
rock. Greater the content of water absorbed, the limit of the range for the UCS to UTS ratios to at
greater will be the loss in strength of the rock. A least 6. However, proposal for such an extension
low absorption value in turn means that the given on the basis of very limited amount of data
rock has high resistance to weathering. Such rocks presented here cannot be defended.
have very low disintegration effect from frost
action and chemical weathering (Blyth and de A number of techniques were developed by
Freitas, 1974). Hence water absorption is a useful Willard and McWilliams (1969) in an attempt to
property in evaluating the durability of different gain a better understanding of the mechanical
rocks as building materials (Shakoor and Bonelli, behavior of rocks in relation to their micro-
1991). The plutonic rocks having absorption value structure (petrographic characteristics). They
less than 1% by weight can be used as dimension reported that microfractures, grain boundaries,
stone because of their high resistance to mineral cleavages and twinning planes influence
weathering (Blyth and de Freitas, 1974). the ultimate strength of a rock and may act as
surfaces of weakness, which control the direction
The measured water absorption values for the in which failure occurs. The strength of a rock is
studied epidote amphibolite and gabbro-norite are related to the presence of discontinuities, where
0.211 % and 0.371 %, respectively (Table 6). Thus cracks can be initiated at the time of failure
the absorption capacities of both the studied rock (Lindqvist et al., 2007). Fine grained rock varieties
types are well within the range of values are generally stronger than the coarse grained
permissible for use as dimension stone and ones. It is not only the grain size but also the grain
engineering material. size distribution that is important, with the effect
32
that a large size range gives higher strength and Brown, 1997). Yet there is a marked difference in
better resistance to fragmentation and wear the mechanical strength between these two
compared to a more equigranular or idioblastic chemically similar and genetically related rocks.
rock (Lindqvist et al., 2007). That is, both the unconfined compressive strength
(UCS) and unconfined tensile strength (UTS) of
Euhedral mineral grains may act as the epidote amphibolite are higher than that of the
discontinuities where cracks may initiate in the gabbro-norite. This difference can only be
structure (Lindqvist et al., 2007). On the other attributed to difference in mineralogy, texture,
hand, an increased complexity in the grain shape degree of metamorphism and weathering/
and grain boundary geometry increases the alteration.
strength of the material. This may be due to sub-
grains occurring at the grain boundaries. Going Whereas the epidote amphibolite is fine to
from an idioblastic texture, in which the shape of coarse-grained, the associated gabbro-norite is
the grains is largely defined by straight surfaces, to medium to coarse-grained. In other words, the
xenoblastic texture with more irregular grain overall grain size is finer and its range wider in
boundaries, increases the strength and resistance to case of the former than the latter. This factor also
mechanical fragmentation (kesson et al., 2003). most probably accounts for the observed
difference in their strength. According to Tugrul
The strength of a rock undergoes a notable and Gurpinar (1997) and Aggistalis et al. (1996),
reduction on weathering (Bell, 2007). Generally the the mean UCS of basalt from Turkey and Greece
alteration product of plutonic rocks has high clay is 120.1 MPa and 74.2 MPa, respectively, which is
content. Clays are mechanically weak and their considerably greater than that of the studied
abundance has a deleterious effect on the durability gabbro-norite (48.8 MPa). Despite the fact that
aspects of a rock (Lindqvist et al., 2007). gabbro-norite is plutonic and hence coarse
grained, it is a basic rock and its chemical (and
Metamorphic rocks are characterized by mineralogical) composition is broadly similar to
certain textures that have a marked preferred that of basalt. The difference in strength between
orientation. Such rocks are appreciably stronger the gabbro-norite under discussion and basalt,
across than along the lineation (Bell, 2007). referred to above, lends further support to the
Shape-preferred orientation may form planes of thesis that fine grained rocks are stronger than
weakness in a structure. A foliation defined by chemically similar coarse grained rocks.
micas or clay minerals has a stronger influence on
the mechanical properties than foliations without The grains of constituent minerals in the
micas. Randomly oriented micas have a epidote amphibolite are more irregular in shape
considerably less significant effect. This is than those in gabbro-norite. Accordingly, the
because micas act as a large discontinuity in the gabbro-norite can be classified on the basis of its
foliation where cracks can initiate and propagate texture as one intermediate hypidiomorphic and
easily. The total amount of mica in a rock is in idiomorphic, i.e. most of the constituent mineral
itself not as important as foliations defined by grains are subhedral (have somewhat regular
micas (Lindqvist et al., 2007). shapes) and euhedral (having highly regular
outlines), respectively. On the other hand, the
In terms of chemical composition, the studied epidote amphibolite is classifiable between
epidote amphibolite and gabbro-norite are closely xenomorphic, i.e. most of the constituent gains are
similar, i.e. both are basic. The repetitive intimate anhedral (having highly irregular forms) and
spatial association between the two and examples hypidiomorphic. As mentioned above, the
from elsewhere strongly suggest that the former is hypidiomorphic to xenomorphic texture is
derived from the latter (Arif et al., 1983; Sajid, expected to be much resistant to the applied load
2008). Hence these two rock types are expected to than hypidiomorphic to idiomorphic texture of
have comparable values of strength and thus gabbro-norite. That is perhaps why the studied
should belong to the same category of rocks epidote amphibolite gives higher strength value
distinguished on the basis of strength (Hoek and than gabbro-norite.
33
Whereas the studied gabbro-norite is 2. The UCS to UTS ratio of the gabbro-norite
characteristically massive, the epidote amphibolite falls within the recommended range for rocks,
is somewhat foliated at places. The possible effect however, that for the epidote amphibolite is
of foliation on the strength of the epidote low and therefore falls below the lower limit
amphibolite was eliminated by placing it across for the range.
the direction of the applied load during the testing 3. The epidote amphibolite is stronger than
of the core samples. That is why despite gabbro-norite in terms of both the UCS and
displaying foliation, the epidote amphibolite yields UTS. A detailed comparison reveals that the
higher strength values. Micas occur in the epidote difference in strength between rocks with
amphibolite but in very small amounts and without broadly similar chemical composition is
any preferred orientation, i.e. they are randomly strongly related to differences in their texture
distributed and hence their presence does not (grain size, grain shapes, etc.) and modal
affect the strength of the rock. mineralogical composition.
35
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