for

Capsicums
 Real Solutions | Real Farming

Founded in 2013 by owners,

Louise Labuschagne and
Dr Henry Wainwright,
Real IPM now employs 250
staff.

Our BASIS-qualified field

consultants serve both
large and small-scale
farmers in crops ranging
from cereals,
field vegetables, fruit and
nut plantations,
to greenhouse vegetables
and ornamental crops.

Nairobi has excellent airfreight logistics for exports and our products have Registrations
in Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Ghana, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, and
Canada; and are under-going other pan-African Registrations.

Based in Thika, Kenya, Real

IPM is a leading producer
and toll manufacturer of
predatory mites, which are
exported globally for other
bio-control company
brands.

Our predatory mites are

produced under license
from Syngenta Bioline

Biopesticides are produced

by our laboratories in
Kenya. We have global
rights to several isolates of
Metarhizium under license
from icipe international
research institute. Together
with our own isolates, we
have a comprehensive offer
for crop protection
solutions
Real IPM Capsicum Manual

The Real IPM Capsicum Manual was developed

by joint MD of Real IPM Kenya,
Louise Labuschagne, by bringing together
published information from many sources and
pooling the extensive field experiences of the
Real IPM technical field advisors working in
Africa.
Louise has over 30 years experience in IPM
crop protection and is BASIS-qualified and
legally able to give advice on the use of
chemical pesticides under UK law.

The contents of the Real IPM manual for

Capsicum are offered as useful information for
agronomists seeking to develop more robust
IPM programmes in many parts of the world.
It is not advice.

Growers must satisfy themselves of the local

registration issues for both chemicals and
biological control agents and the efficacy of
these control methods under their local
conditions.

In order to capitalise on the information

provided, growers are encouraged to contact
Real IPM Kenya Ltd for both in-depth training
and consultancy services to develop
appropriate IPM programmes in the country
where their crops are grown.
www.realipm.com

If local Registrations are needed, Real IPM

Kenya is willing to discuss potential markets
and collaborations that will enable this to
happen.
Chillies and peppers (Capsicum spp)

Capsicum is a member of the Solanacae

family, related to tomatoes, eggplants and
potatoes. The pests and diseases of these
crops and their IPM programmes tend to be
similar and crop rotation plans need to
account for this.

The five commercialized species of

capsicums are:

.
Capsicum annuum:
(bell peppers, cayenne, jalapenos)

.
Capsicum frutescens:
(tabasco, Thai peppers, piri piri)

.
Capsicum chinense:
(habanero, Scotch bonnet)

.
Capsicum pubescens:
(rocoto peppers)

.
Capsicum baccatum:
(aji pepper)

Common groupings of the above capsicum

species describe them as bell peppers, sweet
peppers and hot peppers depending on their
shape and the amount of heat they contain.

Bell peppers change colour as they ripen.

Immature bell peppers are green and become
red as they ripen. Other varieties can be
yellow, orange, purple of white.
 Scoville Heat Units

Variation in the heat units of the various

chillies and peppers is measured in Scoville
Heat Units (SHU). This measures the point
at which the heat becomes undetectable by
a panel of tasters, after a measure of chilli
extract with sugar syrup is taste tested.
The more heat detected the higher the
SHU reading. High performance liquid
chromatography is now used to quantify this
analysis by measuring the concentration of
capsaicinoid in a chilli pepper variety. Pure
capsaicin measures 16,000,000 SHU.
Chillies with high SHI ratings are used in the
production of products such as teargas.

1
Sustainable ABE chili production

ABE chillies can be a profitable crop if the

farmer has reliable markets and understands
how to optimize both the growing conditions
and crop protection of the crop. It will be in
the ground for several years so it is important
to invest time, money and effort in providing
Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) as follows:

.
Good start with a good quality seed and a
healthy seedling made in seed trays,
inoculated with biopesticides and

. bio-fertilisers.
Good soil preparation to optimize plant
establishment and growth with good
bio-enhanced organic matter pre-treated

. with bio-pesticides and bio-fertilisers.

Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) to reduce
plant stress at planting and throughout
growth of crop optimum irrigation and

. fertiliser programme.
Good crop protection with a preventative,
bio-intensive IPM programme, to manage
resistance to chemical pesticides, improve
crop protection and reduce pesticide resi

. dues.
Good field hygiene to reduce risk of
re-infection with pests and diseases from
infected crop debris of fruits and leaves.

Get off to a good start

Healthy seedlings are more
likely to ensure healthy
profits.

2
If seedlings are already infected with pests and diseases before they are planted out in
the field, this will limit the yields that each individual plant will be able to achieve.

The chilli plants will be in the ground for several years, so it is worth taking extra care to
make the healthiest transplant possible. Do not grow seedlings directly in the soil
because:

.
The soil can be contaminated with a range
of fungal and bacterial pathogens that will
quickly infect the roots. Even if you cannot
see any infection in the transplants before
they are planted out in the field - they could
still be infected.

.
The fungi and bacteria are microscopic and
cannot be seen. It is only when the plant
comes under stress that it may exhibit the
disease symptoms. The plant may not
actually die but it will not be as vigorous
and productive as a non-infected plant.

.
Water used for irrigation can also contain
bacteria, fungi and nematodes especially
if the water has come from a river source.
Water from a bore hole or mains water, is
less contaminated.

3
Keep pests off young transplants

Young seedlings are very attractive to pests such as thrips, whitefly and broad mite.

The nursery must have a good Real IPM crop protection programme to ensure that the
transplants leave the nursery without small populations of pests that start the field pest
populations when they are planted out in the field.

There are some easy Real IPM programmes for clean healthy transplant production:

.
Sticky traps to attract and stick flying pests.
Yellow traps for whitefly and aphids
Blue traps for thrips

.
Real Trichoderma seed tray drenches to ensure healthy root growth and reduce
diseases.

.
Real Metarhizium 69 foliar sprays on the seedling trays to kill whitefly and thrips.

.
Real Amblyseius a predatory mite that preys on whitefly, thrips and mites (spider
mite and broad mites).

The nursery should be insect proof and have a double entry door so that there is
never a wide open door for pests to fly inside.

Check out the

Real IPM Tool Box

4
Real IPM Tool Box
Sticky traps Entrap is used for attracting and
sticking pests (killing them).
Hang one Entrap card for every
ten meters square in the nursery,
about one foot above the height
of the crop.
Half of the cards should be blue
(for thrips) and half yellow (for
whitefly) because both thrips and
whitefly are potential pests.

Monitrap is used for monitoring

pest levels. It has sections on
the trap that can be pulled off
individually over a period of time
to expose smaller areas of the
sticky surface each week.
This enables the grower to
monitor whether the flying pests
are going up or down over a
period by comparing the
catches in the sections between
the weeks.

Rollertrap is used for

mass trapping flying pests.
It works like Entrap but is more
useful in large greenhouses.

5
Real Trichoderma

Trichoderma is a naturally occurring fungus that comes originally from the soil.
It has been mass-produced by Real IPM as a commercial bio-pesticide and is also used as a
bio-fertiliser because it can make phosphate from the soil more available to the plant.

Application methods

Real Trichoderma can be used in several ways, depending on the reason for applying it.

..
Bio-priming seeds before planting using a clean container with water and Real Trichoderma.

.Drench into seedling trays in the nursery using a knapsack sprayer or watering can.
Apply to compost before it is put in the planting hole using a knapsack sprayer or watering

.can to wet the pile evenly and thoroughly.

Applying to the roots of plants as they grow in the field using drip irrigation linked to an

..
injector system (as used for liquid fertiliser applications).
Foliar applications with conventional spray equipment of any type, including fogging systems.
This is for crops that suffer from downy mildew.

Real Trichoderma OD

This formulation is pure spores in vegetable oil

Real Trichoderma is available in sachets (20 ml)

for knapsack use. One sachet per knapsack.

It is also available in a one-litre bottle for larger

areas. The rate is 200 ml per hectare
(2.5 acres).

Always use immediately once the bottle is

opened, as quality will deteriorate. Do not store
open bottles for alter use. Buy the most
suitable product for the intended use.

Store all products in a cool dry place, out of

direct sunlight. Ideal storage temperature no
more than 20 deg C (for three months)

6
7
Advantages of Metarhizium

. It is compatible with predatory mites and parasitoids.

. There are no pesticide residue issues, or re-entry intervals with this product.

. It is safe to humans and the environment.

. There is no recorded resistance of pests to Metarhizium, due to its many modes of action

Metarhizium spores are sprayed onto the soil and in the canopy. The fungus can grow
saprophytically on organic matter in the soil, where it can reduce the number of fruit fly, thrips
and weevils emerging as adults from the pupae in the soil.

The addition of a layer of organic matter (sawdust, rice husks, coffee husks etc.) on the soil
surface will promote this effect.

Metarhizium life cycle

Metarhizium spore germinates on contact

with insects body then forms an apressorium
that helps it penetrate the cuticle.

The fungus grows through the insects

cuticle, into the haemolymph, where it
proliferates and kills the target pest.

8
ACHIEVE

Real Metarhizium 78 OD
Is used for the control of:

..Spider mites

..
Tarsonemid mites
Broad mites
Use with predatory mites
(Phytoseiulus or Amblyseius)

Met 78 is sprayed in the canopy only

because this is where the pest mites
spends all of its life cycle.

Spider mite Broad mites

Phytoseiulus Amblyseius

9
 Aphids

Real Metarhizium 62 OD
Is used for the control of:

.
aphids

Met 62 is sprayed in the canopy only

because this is where the aphid
spends all of its life cycle

REAL Metarhizium 62 OD

Real Solutions | Real Farming

Aphids

The Real IPM Company (K) Ltd

Office: (+254) 725 806 086
Produced and Distributed by: Email: info@realipm.com
(Imetengenezwa na kusambazwa na): P.O Box 4001- 01002, Madaraka,
Thika, Kenya.

10
Real Metarhizium products can be used in several ways, depending on the reason for applying it.

.
Drench into seedling trays in the nursery using a knapsack sprayer or watering to establish
Metarhizium near the roots when the seedlings are planted out in the field with the

. bio-enhanced compost plug.

Apply to compost before it is put in the planting hole using a knapsack sprayer or watering
can to wet the pile evenly and thoroughly. Again this will top up Metarhizium under the canopy
of the plants, so it is locally present when the thrips and fruit fly pupate in the soil beneath the

. plant.
Applying to the roots of plants as they grow in the field using drip irrigation linked to an

. injector system (as used for liquid fertiliser applications).

Foliar applications with conventional spray equipment of any type, including fogging systems.
Foliar applications need to be made at the optimum time of day when the pest is sitting on the
upper surface of the leaves (e.g. 2 hrs after sunrise or 2 hrs before sunset).

Metarhizium is compatible with Trichoderma and can be applied together in the same tank.

Real Metarhizium OD (69, 78.62)

This formulation is pure spores in vegetable oil

Real Metarhizium is available in sachets (20 ml)

for knapsack use. One sachet per knapsack.

It is also available in a one-litre bottle for larger

areas. The rate is 200 ml per hectare (2.5 acres).

Always use immediately once the bottle is

opened, as quality will deteriorate. Do not store
open bottles for alter use. Buy the most suitable
product for the intended use.

Store all products in a cool dry place, out of

direct sunlight. Ideal storage temperature no
more than 20 deg C (for three months)

11
Real Bacillus subtilis

Bacillus subtilis is a naturally occurring beneficial bacterium. It has been mass-produced by Real
IPM as a commercial bio-pesticide. It is not harmful to the environment, spray operators or
consumers. The Pre Harvest Interval is zero days. There are no residues.

Real Bacillus subtilis TFP

This formulation is a Total Fermented

Product containing the bacterium and
the natural substances it produced
during he production process.

Real Bacillus subtilis is available in

sachets (120 ml) for knapsack use.
One sachet per knapsack.

It is also available in a one-litre bottle

for larger areas. The rate is one litre per
hectare (2.5 acres).

Always use immediately once the bottle

is opened, as quality will deteriorate.
Do not store open bottles for alter use.
Buy the most suitable product for the
intended use.

Store all products in a cool dry place,

out of direct sunlight. Ideal storage
temperature no more than 5 deg C (for
three months). Bacillus subtilis is used to control
powdery mildew in chillies.

It should not be applied to

run-off, because it is a contact
bio-fungicide and should not drip
off the plant when it is applied.

It must stay on the plants leaves

12
Good nursery planning

The ingredients for success are simple.

. If you understand that seeds can be infected with

diseases and need to be of good
quality you will ensure that you start with seed
from a reliable, certified supplier.

.
If you understand that microbes can infect your

. plants from either infested soil or water you will

ensure that good hygiene is practiced in the
propagation nursery even before planting the seed.

. If you remember that whitefly and thrips can carry

viruses, you will make very sure
that you try to keep them off your young plants,
until they are large enough to with
stand some attack.

.
If you remember that broad mite are difficult to
detect I the field because they are so
small, you will try to prevent establishment by
applying predatory mites in the nursery
so that predators go out with the plants when the
seedlings are transplanted.

13
Get the beginning right

.
Good start with a good quality seed and a
healthy seedling made in seed trays,
inoculated with biopesticides and
bio-fertilisers.

Many chilli diseases and viruses are seed

borne (see section on viruses)

Ensure that the seed used is either:

.
Bought-in certified seed guaranteed to be free

.
Seed sterilisation
of seed borne diseases and viruses OR
Farm-saved seed from VERY healthy plants
ONLY If seed borne diseases are suspected
ONLY (know WHERE seed came from)
- it is possible to sterilise seeds before
planting, providing appropriate precautions
Twenty grams of seeds should give at least
(PPE) are used gloves, apron and face
500 good plants. Planting density is about
shield. If seed borne viruses are not
10,000 plants per hectare (= 4,000 per acre or
suspected do not sterilise the seed.
100 plants per 100 m.sq.).
Before planting, seeds could be soaked in a
1.31% solution of sodium hypochlorite (eg
A small-scale farmer producing their own
one part household bleach (5.25%) to four
plants for 100 m. sq. production unit would
parts water) for 40 minutes with agitation.
therefore only need about 10 grams of seeds.
One litre of solution treats 0.5 kg of seed.
This would allow them twice as many plants
Rinse for 5-10 minutes under cold running
and permit them to choose only the best
water.
quality seedlings for
To soak the seeds, place them in a small
transplanting
hole gauge sieve and dip into a bowl of the
mixed solution. Some seeds will float and
can be pushed below the surface by
breaking the surface tension with a stick.
Remove any seeds that will not sink, as they
are probably not viable. After rinsing place
seeds on several layers of paper towels to
absorb the extra moisture (seeds will not
clump together and are easier to handle).
Do not store sterilised seed as its viability
will decline.

14
 Bio-priming seeds

Bio-priming of seeds is a technique for soaking seeds in water (to get them ready to germinate
quickly) and including a bio-pesticide in the soaking water (to establish the beneficial microbe on
the seed. Bio priming of chilli seeds provides1 the following advantages:

.. Increased germination percentage

..


Longer mean root and shoot length
Greater biomass production
Improved plant vigour

Do not soak the seeds for longer than recommended and always test a small batch of seeds
first to check germination and ensure you have the protocol right.

Bio-priming guidelines

. Step one : Put the seeds in a clean container and cover the seeds with clean drinking
quality water to one inch of water above the level of the seeds. A glass jar with a lid is ideal.

. Step 2: Add one sachet of Real Trichoderma (20 ml) to the water and agitate well.

. Step 3: Soak the seeds in the bio-solution for 3 hours only and then drain the seeds. Retain the
drainage water as this still contains beneficial microbes, which can be drenched onto the
seedling trays when the seeds are planted.

. Step 4: Spread the wet seeds out on a new clean plastic sheet in the shade (out of direct
sunlight) and allow the seeds to air dry for about half an hour before planting immediately. Do
not dry on newspaper or other absorbent material because this will pull the biopesticide off the
seed. Do not dry in direct sunlight as the microbe is killed by UV light.

. Step 5: plant the bio-primed seeds immediately into seed trays containing good quality sieved
compost or washed coir fiber. Ensure coir fiber is washed three times before use in case it has
too much salt in it. Testing the EC of the drainage water can assess the amount of salt in the
coir fiber. The Ec should not be greater than EC 1.

15
The Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology Vol. 89 No: 5 itle:
Effect of bio-priming using bio-control agents on seed germination and
seedling vigour in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) 'PKM 1' Authors:M. ANANTHI,
P. SELVARAJU and K. SUNDARALINGAM
Grow healthy seedlings

Attributes of a good quality transplant

..
10 to 15 cm height
Uniform, dark green leaf colour

..without blemishes
Vigorous root system
Free from pests and disease

Chilli transplants can be sown in a seed tray or in a prepared seed bed. Seed trays are
preferred because they produce healthier transplants. As small-scale farmers do not need large
numbers of transplants, the production of plants in seed trays can be cost-effective and reduces
many of the pest and disease risks associated with the seed-bed system.

Why seed trays?

Advantages of transplants from seed trays

1. Transplants from seeds trays do not suffer transplant shock caused by plant stress due to
insufficient water at establishment or root damage. This gives a higher percentage
establishment and requires less hand labour needed to irrigated the young seedlings during
this period.

2. Transplants raised in a seed tray tend to be more uniform in size than transplants grown in a
seed bed, which has a greater variation in soil type than compost in a seed tray.

3. The seed tray method has less risk of infection with soil borne pests and diseases and needs
only small amounts of good quality compost in the cells.

4. They need not be more expensive than transplants grown in a seed-bed, if farmers can make
seed-tray plants themselves, rather than buy them from a propagator. One seed tray produces
250 transplants.

16
5. The seed trays can be re-used many
times but must be thoroughly cleaned
between batches of plants as they can be
contaminated with diseases that will
infect the young plants.
Soak them in 2% bleach (JIK) solution
(e.g. 20 ml of in 2 litres of water) for
one hour.
Scrub all soil out of the cells and allow to
air dry away from the soil before use.
17
6. The seeds and compost are cheap if
produced on farm always sow 100%
more seeds than needed.
This will allow seedlings to be removed if
infected with pests or diseases.
The grower can then CHOOSE the BEST
uniform plants to transplant and THROW
AWAY the rest!
Guidelines for seed tray propagation Alternatively use a watering can with a fine

.
Choose a seed tray about 1.3 cm depth
about 250 cells per tray.
rose head or a hose pipe with your thumb
partially over the end of the hose to create a
fine mist. Hold either the watering can or the

.
Fill the seed tray with good quality,
hose some distance from the seed tray so
the water is gently applied to the seed trays.
farm-produced sieved compost or washed
coco fibers (wash 3 times). Sieve the com
post first and make sure the cells are over
.
Check the compost twice per day to see if
more water us needed. Do not let the com
full with compost. Then give the tray a hard post dry out completely but do not let it get
tap against the bench to condense the soaking wet! As a guide, expect to use
compost a little before scraping off any about 2 litres of water per day to irrigate
excess compost with a level ruler. one seed tray (50 cm x 30 cm).

.
Thoroughly wet the compost by submerging
the tray in clean water for a few minutes to
.
The seed trays should not be placed ON the
ground or they will be in contact with the
allow the compost to absorb water. Ten soil where disease spores and nematodes
take it out of the water and allow it to drain could infect the roots. Place seed trays on
freely for half an hour. a shelf made with wire mesh or chicken

.
Bio-prime the seeds as described above and
plant immediately. (3 hours)
wire to allow the seed tray to drain freely
after irrigation. This will reduce the risk of
damping off disease in seedlings. It will

.
Sow two seeds per cell very shallow (2 to 5
also improve air flow around the plants and
reduce leaf diseases
mm in depth) and cover lightly with
vermiculite or sieved soil. This allows you
to have some losses and to remove one
.
Make a small wooden frame, covered with
insect-proof mesh (very small holes
seedling from each cell to keep only the thrips-proof netting from ShadeNet ltd in
strongest seedling. Do not plant too deep, Thika) to house the seed tray to keep
as this may encourage damping-off away thrips and other pests from infecting
disease. the new seedlings. This is inexpensive and

.
Expect to water the seed trays twice
per day. The ideal way to water seed trays
if managed properly may avoid the need
for expensive insecticides during
propagation.
is to have an overhead fine irrigation
system. In this absence of this type of
irrigation system and if only small numbers
of trays need to be watered - stand the seed
trays in a tray of water and allow them to
absorb the water through the bottom of the
seed tray. In this way heavy downpours of
water do not disturb the seeds.

18
.
Seedlings should begin to emerge after
10 14 days, depending on the
temperature.

.
When there is 75% emergence add Tricho
derma to the irrigation water once
per week. Use one sachet per knapsack
and water and use the knapsack to apply
the bio-irrigation water.

.
Thin to one seedling per cell when the
seedlings are 5 cm tall. Do not keep more
than one seedling per cell after the 5 cm
tall stage as this will lead to
overcrowding and disease.

.
Check for pests or diseases daily,
when irrigating and physically remove
them by wiping the pests off the leaves or
squashing them and then REMOVE the
seedling which had the pest do not leave
the seedling behind as the insect could
have transmitted a virus which could
spread and kill all plants.
Techniques for large-scale seed-tray
production can be adapted
to small-scale farmers

19
 Guidelines for seed-bed transplant
propagation
The risks of pest and disease losses in
propagation are greater in seedbed
propagation systems. Greater care is needed
in managing the environment to reduce
potential losses.
On-farm seed bed with damping off no raised bed or drainage used
Calculate the area of seedbed needed to
produce enough plants for the commercial
crop area to be planted.
. Ensure the soil is free of root knot
nematode or other soil diseases, either by
soil sterilisation (solar or steaming)
. Burn plant trash on seedbed surface for
30 minutes and after cooling mix soil with
equal amount of compost or with decom
. posed manure at a rate of 2 to 3 kg/sq m.
In semi-arid areas soil solarisation of seed
bed could be done.
. Otherwise use an area which is risk-free due
to known history, or the seedbed medium is
fully composted material. Dress the seed
bed with Trichoderma by preparing a
solution in a watering can.
(follow instructions as for seed trays)
20
.
Prepare the seed bed with a fine tilth in the
form of a raised beds (at least 25 cm high)
of 1 meter width, surrounded by drainage
channels of 30 cm width.
.
Sow seeds uniformly in rows - spacing
10 -15 cm between rows at the depth of
5 mm, using 16 g seed per m sq. One hect
are of commercial chilli will require
120 sq m of seedbed. I sq.m of seedbed
should produce transplants for 80 meters of
commercial chilli beds
(if 2 rows of plants per 1 meter wide bed).
.
Consolidate the beds after sowing with a
roller, or press down firmly with a wooden
board.
.
Protect seedlings from wind damage with a
windbreak and provide sufficient shading
just to maintain soil moisture and reduce
water stress. Allow some airflow between
the windbreak and the shade net, so that
leaves do not remain wet for long periods
after irrigation (to reduce disease
development).
Reduce shading later to avoid elongated
plants once the seedlings have emerged.
.
Put organic mulch (insect-free dry leaves or
grass etc) over the entire seedbed as the
seeds germinate (should take 7 10 days).
Once seeds have germinated, remove the
mulch and place it between rows after
seedlings appeared, to conserve water and
stop evapo-transpiration from exposed
soil surface.
.
Irrigation should be limited 7 10 days
before transplanting to harden off the
plants and prevent them from suffering
transplant shock. Ideally, irrigate the crop
so that the leaves do not remain wet for
longer than necessary. If necessary,
remove shading or windbreak for a short
period to allow leaves to dry once the soil is
thoroughly wet beneath the plants.
Wet leaves are liable to disease.
.
Seedling should be ready for transplanting
after six weeks, if they have to remain in
the seed bed for longer, they may require to
be thinned out to prevent overcrowding
and they may also need to have the tops
pinched out
.
When transplanting with plants from a
seed bed make sure the roots are not
damaged when lifting from the seed bed

.
If seedlings are affected by damping-off,
this could be due to overcrowding or over
this will allow diseases to enter the plant
and will slow down establishment of the
transplant in the field. It will reduce yields!
watering.
Possible solutions include:
1) Cutting back the water or thinning out
some of the seedlings to allow leaves
to dry off.
2) Remove all infected plants, as they
appear to prevent the diseases from
spreading. Transplants are normally 6-8
3) Reduce shading or wind break to allow weeks old when ready for
soil or leaves to dry off to
planting. Harden them off for
improved levels.
Prompt action saves plants.
7 10 days before

.
Fungicides can be applied if the situation
demands it. Do not apply in the heat of
the day as this could cause leaf scorch.
.
Seedbeds must be kept weed-free by hand
weeding regularly. Weed will encourage
pests and diseases by reducing airflow.
Yields of seedlings will suffer if weeds are
not checked.
transplanting by reducing
watering a little and
standing them out in the
shade outside the
propagation unit or remove
shading for most of the day in
seed-beds
(cover plants in the middle of
the day with shade).

21
Damping off

Damping off is a common problem in the production of young plants. It is caused by two soil
borne fungi (Phytophthora and Pythium), which can both move in water because they have
motile zoospores.
This disease is a higher risk if contaminated soil is used during propagation especially if the
seedlings are prepared in the field in seedbeds. This is why clean seed trays without con-
taminated soil is preferred.
Seedlings infected with damping off will either not emerge or will collapse and die soon after
emergence. The condition is characterized by rapid wilting and death

Once transplants get to the 2 or 3-leaf stage they are generally no longer
susceptible to damping off. .

The stems of infected plants may have a

dark shriveled section at the soil line.

22
GAP for COMMERCIAL FIELD

The soil is the most important component of the crop management system. If the soil is
looked after well this will ensure good yield

Soil Analysis

The fertiliser programme should be based on soil analysis for optimum yields. If small-scale
farmers cannot afford these tests, at least an annual soil test should be taken from represen-
tative soils and the information used to make general recommendations for farms with the
same soil type.

Take the soil sample six to eight weeks before planning to transplant, so that the appropriate
fertiliser programme can be determined and the required fertilisers purchased.

This will also indicate if lime or dolomite is required to raise the pH to the optimum of between
6 and 6.5. These products should be applied at least four weeks before the crop is planted.

Check list for choice of site for growing chillies

.
Solanacae crops (chillies, peppers, tomatoes, potatoes etc) should not have been grown in
the same land for at least three years and maize or brassicas (cabbages) should have been
grown on the land in between the last crop of chillies.

.
Chillies thrive in well drained, aerated, light to medium soils. Soils with high humus content
will greatly increase yield and lengthen the cropping period

.
Slightly acidic soils can be tolerated but a pH of 5.5-6.6 is preferable.

.
Good sunlight no overhanging trees which shade the crop.

23
Agronomy
Maize barrier crops

Maize is an excellent barrier crop for chillies because:

.
it acts as a lure for fruit flies during the heat of the day and allows the grower to
concentrate biological or chemical controls for fruit flies in the maize crop.
(see section on fruit flies)

.
Maize is a non-host plant for aphid borne chilli viruses
If viruses are a local problem, it is very important to interplant a row of maize or baby-corn
in between every bed of chillies. This will slow down the spread of aphid-borne viruses, by
providing the opportunity for aphids to feed on the maize plant
(a non-host for chilli viruses) and clean their mouth-parts from the virus before
feeding on the chilli.

A barrier of maize plants should also

be planted around the edges of
the whole block of chillies

24
Marigold
Marigold can be a useful trap
plant for thrips and
caterpillar pests. Dwarf
Mexican Marigold is The bright orange or yellow
preferred to tall African colour of the flower and the
marigold. strong scent of the leaves and
flower attract thrips and moth
pests.

If trap crops are planted on

the borders of fields or
between blocks they can
help to concentrate the pest
in areas where they are
easier to treat.
However they must be
treated and killed (preferably
biological control) so that
they do not build up pests in
or near the crop

White speckling on marigold

leaves is from thrips feeding
damage.
Amblyseius predatory mites
should be applied to
marigold plants so that they
can build up on the thrips in
the marigold trap plants.

25
Calendula

Calendula is very attractive to whiteflies and can

make a useful trap crop as part of an IPM
programme for whiteflies. Calendula can also be
planted n the same area as the marigold.

Whitefly eggs
Trialeuroides

Whiteflies prefer to lay eggs on Calendula but the eggs do not hatch into whitefly larvae.
If needed, a yellow sticky trap can be put up near the trap plants to enhance the lure effect
and stick the whitefly

26
Bed Preparation
A good root system will provide higher yields,
so ensure there is no soil pan (hard layer in
the soil) to prevent root growth downwards.
.
A raised bed at least 20 cm high should be
prepared to ensure very good drainage
and reduce losses due to soil diseases.
.
Moisture retention in the soil is very
important to provide continued growth and
even survival during dry periods
.
(in rain fed crops). The addition of organic
compost will improve soil moisture
retention. Add compost into the bed when
making the 20 cm high bed.
.
During bed making - apply base
(phosphate rich) fertiliser dressing as
advised depending on soil analysis.
.
Use a string with a peg at each end to
mark out and make the beds straight and
to mark out the planting rows on the bed.
.
When making the bed, move soil and
compost about to achieve a level surface
on the bed. This will help promote
even growth and avoid dips in the beds
where water accumulates (and leads to
root diseases)
27
.
Mark out the two rows for planting with the
strings, as described above. The rows
should be 60 cm apart and the plants
within the row should be 60 cm apart.
Use a zig-zag pattern of planting to
maximize the space for each plant.
.
Prepare the planting holes about 20 cm
deep and 20 cm wide fill with good
quality compost. Make sure there is
enough compost to over fill the holes, then
press the surface lightly before
transplanting
.
When transplanting with plants from a
seed tray, make sure the compost surface
of the transplant plug is at the same level
as the final soil surface in the bed. Do not
plant too deep, or the stems will rot. Do not
plant too shallow, or the new roots will
dry out.
.
When transplanting with plants from a
seed bed make sure the roots are not
damaged when lifting from the seed bed
this will allow diseases to enter. Make
sure the part of the stem which was level
with the soil surface in the seed bed
is STILL at the soil surface in the
commercial bed, when transplanted.
Do not plant too deep, or the stems will rot.
Do not plant too shallow, or the new roots
will dry out.
.
Mulching the soil
If plastic is available (clean, second hand plastic is adequate even old fertiliser bags) this can
be used to cover the one-meter wide beds. Holes can be made in the plastic in the position
where the transplants are to be planted. Plastic can help to slow down the life cycle of thrips
and leafminer in the soil. The plants can be irrigated by hand with a watering can and a long
spout by applying water to the hole where the transplant is planted.

.
If plastic is not used, the soil should be covered with an organic mulch, such as straw, after the
seeds are planted. This will conserve soil moisture and reduce weeds. There should be no
seeds in the organic mulch material which could become a weed!

Irrigation

Flower and bud abortion can result from insufficient water applications during flower
development and fruit set.

Feel the soil moisture by hand during these critical periods and apply more water during this time
if necessary. Take a handful of soil from the bottom of a 15-cm deep hole and squeeze it.
If it holds together when you release your grip, then there is sufficient soil moisture.
If the soil crumbles, then is time to irrigate

If water is in short supply, make sure the soil mulch is deep and even enough to prevent water
loss from exposed soil surfaces.

Advantages and disadvantages of different irrigation systems

Overhead irrigation will increase leaf wetness and encourage the spread of bacterial wilt.
However, overhead irrigation can discourages pests such as aphids, mites, thrips
and whiteflies. Do not apply overhead irrigation after 4.00 pm as wet leaves and fruits over night
will promote disease development.

Furrow irrigation can spread soil borne diseases such as bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt or
Verticillium wilt
Ideally, the crops should be irrigated with drip irrigation lines with the correct spacing

28
Inter-row cultivation
Chillies benefit from inter-row cultivation at 10-day intervals from 30 days after sowing, if direct
seeded. Hand weeding follows inter-row cultivation to check competition from weeds.

Fertiliser Programme
Soil Analysis

The fertiliser programme should be based on soil analysis for optimum yields. If small-scale
farmers cannot afford these tests, at least an annual soil test should be taken from
representative soils and the information used to make general recommendations for farms with
the same soil type. Take the soil sample six to eight weeks before planning to transplant,
so that the appropriate fertiliser programme can be determined and the required fertilisers
purchased.

This will also indicate if lime or dolomite is required to raise the pH to the optimum of between 6
and 6.5. These products should be applied at least four weeks before the crop is planted. The
laboratory that undertakes the analysis will advise on the rates of lime to be used to correct the
soil pH.

Fertiliser Programme

The recommended blanket rates for mineral fertilisers, subjected to adjustment based on the
results of soil analysis, for hot pepper are 400-600 kg NPK/ha in a 4-1-3 N:P:K proportion.

This is 40 - 60 gm per square metre applied over the whole growing season
(not in one application!). This is divided in a base dressing, top dressing and in foliar feeds.

Apply as base dressing at transplanting use a phosphate fertiliser depending on soil fertility.
For example DAP at 10 gm per square metre or 2 gm in each planting hole

Top dressing should be applied 1 and 2 months after transplanting. Calcium ammonium nitrate
(CAN) (100kg/ha) for acidic soils or ammonium sulphate nitrate (100kg/ha) for alkaline soils.
This translates into 10 gm per square metre.

Foliar feeds with magnesium are desirable on alkaline soils - read the label fro application rates.
Alternatively use a dilute vermi-liquid at a rate of 1 to 10 and spray until the foliage is wet.

If no soil analysis is available and the soil is of average fertility, a basal fertiliser that contains 20
gm of DAP per square metre, 10 gm of CAN per square metre and regularly apply foliar feed of
liquid vermicompost liquid. Top dressing can be applied as 10 gm per square metre of urea and
or CAN at 10 gm per square metre.

29
If the crop leaves look yellow it may need
more nitrogen fertiliser which can be applied by
foliar feeds or vermi-liquid sprays to the canopy
(as above).
Pollination
Most chillies are self-pollinated and should
grow true to form unlike hybrids. Chillies
planted close to each other can and do
cross-pollinate. This will not have any effect on
the current fruit crop but can alter the seeds.If
you are buying new seed each year it does not
matter if you plant different types or varieties of
chillies or peppers.
Commercial seed growers keep different variet-
ies planted at least 2 miles from each other to
prevent crops pollination by bees.
Chillies benefit from pollination from
managed beehives, increasing flower set and
pod size.
Remove all virus-infected plants IMMEDIATELY
Do not leave the virus-infected plant in the
open, as insect vectors may still be on it and
can move from the old plant to new plants.
Cover, bury or burn the plant immediately
Reduction of Branch Budding
Once the plant has grown to about 30 cm of
height, it is recommended to remove the
weakest stems to leave a plant with 5 to 8
stems.
If a knife is used to remove the stems this
could spread virus infections. BEFORE
beginning to remove the stems REMOVE
completely all plants with virus symptoms by
pulling out the plants and placing in a bag for
later destruction
The knife should be dipped in a 50:50 milk
and water solution in between every cut
this will help to reduce spread of virus
between plants which are not yet showing
virus symptoms

At all stages of growth, from propagation to

fruiting it is very important to remove all
plants with virus symptoms as soon as they
appear -to prevent the spread of the virus.
The virus is spread by flying vectors such as
thrips, whitefly and aphids. It is therefore
important to only remove the plants when the
temperature is low (early morning or late after-
noon) when these insects cannot fly. Otherwise
they will move off to new plants when disturbed
and spread the virus!
Take a large bag to the plant, which is being
removed, and place it inside the bag to take it
off the field.

30
Remove first flowers

Remove the first flowers, if the plant has not yet reached 30 cm at the time the first flowers
are showing. If the first few flowers remain on the plant, when it is still small they will take
up all the nutrients in competition with the continued vegetative growth of the plant. A small
plant will produce small yields. Better to remove those early flowers and build a larger plant
with a larger total yield potential.

Remove lower leaves

Improve air-circulation at the base of plants by removing all leaves and branches that are
touching the ground ensure that all leaves on the lower 15-20 cm of each stem are
removed.

Harvest
First harvest of chilli commences within 8 - 10 weeks from transplanting and continues for
several weeks. A harvest period from Sept to December is insured by a planting every 4
weeks from April to June, when rains aid establishment in areas without irrigation.

Pests of Chillies

The most serious pests of chillies are those that carry viruses (aphids, thrips and whitefly).
If viruses are a serious risk, it is not wise to rely only on biological control for these pests
as this may be too slow to prevent spread of the virus. Bear this in mind in relation to
information below on potential biological control agents (natural enemies) of these pests.

See Real IPM ID Chart for Pests of Chillies

31
Aphids (Aphis gossypi and Myzus persicae)

Aphids transmit chilli leaf curl and other viruses (see section below on viruses)

Damage

Aphids appear on the tender shoots, leaves and on the lower surface of the old leaves. They
suck the sap and reduce the vigour of the plant. More importantly, they are vectors for sever-
al viruses (see section below on viruses)

As aphids feed, the excess sugar solution, which they suck from the plant, will drop from their
bodies onto the upper surfaces of the leaves below. Sooty moulds quickly develop on this
substance and it can also cause down grading of chilli pods.

Choice of chemicals

The approved pesticides for control of aphids are detailed in the Appendix. Follow Label
recommendations and guidelines on Safe Use of Pesticides.
If viruses are present, pesticides are preferred to biological controls, which may be too slow
to stop the spread of virus diseases.
Caution: Neonicotinoid pesticides such as thiamethoxam, imidacloprid etc are likely to harm
bees. This could affect pollinations and yield of the crop.

Physical control

Physical controls may also be used to reduce aphid number.

A spray solution made from locally available starch (cassava, maize or potato) may be made
by:

..
Dissolving 15 gm of starch per litre of hot water.

.. Stir solution until starch dissolved and use immediately.

Then direct the spray to the underside of the leaf to contact the aphids.
The water is drawn out of the aphids and into the starch spray. This kills the aphid by
dehydration.

32
Metarhizium 62 for aphid control

Real IPM has a strain of Metarhizium, which is specific to aphids Metarhizium 62. Met 62
has a zero PHI and leaves no residues. There are no resistance issues.
This works in the same was as the other Metarhizium isolates and it has the following
guidelines:

.
Ensure optimum coverage of the plants because Met 62 is a contact action
biopesticides. Do not spray to run-off.

.
Spray late afternoon, to reduce exposure of Met 62 to UV light.

.
When aphids present, spray twice per week until under control.

.
If aphid borne viruses are suspected, tank mix the Met 62 with a suitable insecticide
(correct PHI) for resistance management and a synergistic effect.

Aphidius parasitic wasp

Providing compatible pesticides are used, it is possible to rapidly establish the common
parasitic wasp, Aphidius on farms in Kenya, even in dry growing areas.

.
Metarhizium is compatible with Aphidius.

.
Natural pyrethrum sprays within the first 2-3 weeks should prevent rapid build up of aphids
but because it is broken down by UV light, it is also compatible with Aphidius. Advice
should be sought on measures which can be taken to enhance levels of Aphidius on farms.

.
Natural enemies of aphids can be built up in the maize interplant crop between the chillies.
This may help to slow down the spread of aphids (whilst Met 62 are used in the chilli crop).

33
Aphidius

Aphidius is a highly efficient parasitoid as a

single female can lay up to 300 eggs (each
killing and aphid) and most of these eggs are
laid within 3 days after hatching and mating.
The female Aphidius lays an egg in the body of
an aphid.
This Aphidius egg hatches inside the aphids
body, into an Aphidius larva which feeds on the
body fluids of the aphid. The aphid does not
die immediately and could even continue to
give birth to one or two more aphids.
However, after a few days, the aphid will feed
less and eventually the Aphidius larvae will
pupate inside the aphid, spinning a silken
cocoon. The body of the parasitized aphid
takes on a papery appearance and is described
as being mummified. It still looks like an aphid
but it is a golden papery looking aphid. Inside

Aphidius adult laying egg in aphid

the mummified aphid, the Aphidius turns into
an adult Aphidius wasp.
The wasp breaks out of the mummified aphid
body by eating a circular door. The wasp
pushes this open and flies out.
Other natural enemies of aphids include
ladybirds

parasitized aphid (mummified)

34
Thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis)

Thrips are vectors of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV).

Damage

Both nymphs and adult thrips damage the crop from their rasping feeding on the leaf and pod
surfaces. Air spaces in the leaf caused by the feeding, sometimes gives the feeding patches a
silvery look for a while.

Eventually these patches dry out and turn brown and will have small black dots (frass from
thrips). Thrips infested leaves will curl upwards. If the plants are affected at early stage they
remain stunted in growth and flower production and pod set are arrested causing severe

Thrips frass - small back dots

are always associated with
thrips damage.

35
Life Cycle of thrips

Part of the life cycle of thrips is in the soil. This is why drenches of Met 69 OD in the soil
should be made immediately underneath the plant canopy (total area shaded by bush)
should be drenched.

This is why plastic soil mulch may reduce the build up of this pest. Biological controls, such
as the biopesticide.These should be applied to the soil to slow down the build up of thrips in
the canopy.

36
Control

The approved pesticides for control of thrips are detailed in the Appendix. Follow Label
recommendations and guidelines on Safe Use of Pesticides. If viruses are present, pesti-
cides are preferred to biological controls, which may be too slow to stop the spread of virus
diseases.
Physical controls may also be used to reduce thrips numbers as for aphids (see above).
Thrips can be very specific in the time of day when they emerge from the flower or from
under the leaf, when they are more exposed to insecticide sprays. This is normally from 7.30
am to 8.30 am and in the afternoon from about 5.30 pm to 6.30 pm. Scouting will confirm if
this is the pattern of thrips activity.Thrips are attracted to both yellow and certain types of
blue sticky traps. They prefer the blue traps

Several thrips stuck on yellow

sticky trap.
One larger fungus gnat far left.
Coin for scale information

37
Biological controls for thrips

There are several species of predatory mites

(Amblyseius spp.), which will attack the younger
thrips. They cannot prey on adult thrips, pupae or
pre-pupae or thrips eggs. Therefore they are only
useful for control of juvenile thrips and should be
used in conjunction with regular sprays of
Met 69 OD in the canopy and on the soil surface.

Amblyseius will need to be present in very high numbers to exert any control of thrips and be
applied weekly to the crop. They should not be the main means of control if TSWV is present,
because the control will be too slow to stop the spread of the virus. A ratio of less than 1 Ambly-
seius to 20 thrips would be a satisfactory balance if no virus was present.
Amblyseius can survive on flower pollen in the absence of thrips.
It is advisable to apply the Amblyseius to the nursery plants during propagation to encourage
even distribution of Amblyseius in the crop when planted out in the field.

38
Orius

Various species of the predatory bug, Orius, are common in Kenya and will kill many adult thrips.
They are very useful when thrips numbers are high, killing more thrips than they actually
consume (by piercing their bodies and sucking out the contents).

Sunflower if planted on the farm will increase Orius numbers locally and may contribute to
increased numbers of relevant natural enemies. IPM Scouting will assist in measuring the
benefit of these Field Insectaries.

Orius adult feeding

on thrips

Physical controls for thrips

Providing the topsoil depth is adequate, deep

ploughing of heavily infested thrips blocks will
bury the thrips, which pupate in the soil.
Do not deep plough, if sub-soil is brought to the
surface, as this will reduce subsequent yields.

39
Whitefly

Whitefly are vectors for Chilli Leaf Curl Virus (CLCV) and Chilli Leaf Mosaic Virus (CLMV)

Tomato Leaf
Curl Virus in chilli

Chilli Leaf Curl Virus

Damage

Plants infested with whiteflies will lack vigour, wilt, turn yellow, and may die.

In addition, heavily infested plants will be coated with a sticky material called honeydew, which
reduces the attractiveness and saleability of the fruit. Heavy concentrations of honeydew will
promote the growth of a black sooty mould, which interferes with photosynthesis. Sooty mould
may also interfere with production or harvest operations.

ID and Life Cycle of whitefly

..
There are two main types of whitefly in Kenya.
Trialeurodes vaporaiorum (glasshouse whitefly)
Bemisia tabaci (sweet potato whitefly)

Bemisia is a notifiable pest in the EU as it is resistant to most pesticides and a virus vector, whilst
Trialeurodes is not notifiable. Other species may be present at the Coast.

40
Whiteflies have piercing-sucking mouthparts with
the adults very active and easily disturbed. The
immature stages are less mobile and usually found
on the undersides of the foliage. Adult whiteflies
feed on the lower leaf surfaces where they lay their
eggs, but may rest on other areas of the host plant.

.
Adult females lays eggs on the leaves of host plants

.
Eggs hatch into a crawler stage which will move short distances to find a suitable place to
plug into the leaf and start sucking the sap

.
There are three development instars which feed on the leaf called scales (instar 1-3 above)

.
The fourth instar is the pupa which does not feed.

.
The adult whitefly hatches out of the pupae by bursting out (look for split open pupae)

41
Time line

Egg laying commences 1 - 3 days after emergence and during the day. Eggs are attached to the
lower leaf surface with egg hatch occurring 7 - 10 days later. This stage known as the "crawler" is
the only mobile immature stage. It moves only a short distance, inserts its needle-like mouthparts,
and begins to feed on plant sap.

For approximately 7 days, the insect remains sessile, but goes through 3 moults. The second and
third instars also feed on plant sap with each stage being 3 - 4 days depending on temperature.
The insect then moults into a fourth stage nymph or resting stage called the pupa. No feeding
takes place during the pupa stage.

Distinguishing between Trialeuroides (top) and Bemisia (below)

42
Trialeuroides pupae (left) are more hairy than Bemisia pupae (right)

Trialeuroides lay eggs in a semi circle and Bemisia lay all over the leaf

43
Control

If whitefly transmitted viruses are present a fast acting pesticide is needed.

If the whiteflies are resistant to available chemicals or there are issue with pesticide resi-
dues, there is no option other than to use a prophylactic preventative bio-intensive
programme.

Metarhizium 69

.
Metarhizium 69 can infect whiteflies. It must be applied frequently to keep pests such as
thrips and whiteflies from establishing.

.
If high levels of whitefly are already present, it is advisable to tank mix Met 69 with a
suitable chemical insecticide for faster knockdown, whilst providing
resistance management and a synergistic action.

Whitefly on rose
leaves infected
with Met 69

44
Parasitic wasp for whitefly

Encarsia formosa

Encarsia is a common tiny parasitic wasp, which lays eggs in the scales of whitefly. Parasitised
scales are black and easy to distinguish from un-parasitised whitefly scales, which are white.
Instead of a whitefly adult emerging from a whitefly scale an Encarsia adult wasp will emerge.

Encarsia are very common, naturally occurring parasitoids in many parts of the world.

Encarsia wasp laying and

egg in a whitefly scale.
When the whitefly scale
is parasitised it
turns from white to
black. This makes it
very easy to estimate
the percentage
parasitism.

Life Cycle of Whitefly and Encarsia

45
Physical controls for whiteflies

The physical controls described for aphids and

thrips will have some impact on whitefly.

Whitefly adults cannot move in cold

temperatures even if the plant canopy is
shaken! Therefore crops infested with whitefly
should be removed at the end of the crop, only
when it is cold (early in the morning). In this
way there will not be clouds of whitefly in the
air (moving to new plants) when the crop is
taken out.

Preferably crops should be sprayed at night as

the whitefly will not move off during the spray
application (possibly to other blocks) and are
more easily contacted by sprays. This may
also help reduce thrips problems
(Jan/Feb/March) as it has been observed that
thrips will come out at night onto the top
surface of leaves. Most thrips come out after
a period of hot weather, followed by a shower
in the afternoon

Whiteflies are attracted to yellow sticky traps

(but so are parasitic wasps).

46
VIRUSES IN CHILLIES

There are many important virus diseases of chillies. Some of them are transmitted by insect
vectors (aphids, thrips and whitefly) and others are seed borne. Identification of
The specific virus is from characteristic visual symptoms which is alter confirmed by PCR tests
in a laboratory.

The practical impact of a virus infection is that plants will be stunted, yields will be low and if
unchecked, chilli growing may become uneconomic.

It is important therefore to be able to identify potential virus symptoms in a crop. Symptoms are
generally an unusual colour pattern on leaves or fruit and an unusual shape of the leaves or fruit.

Leaf symptoms:

..
mosaic pattern,

.. crinkled or wrinkled leaves,

yellow mottling,
distorted narrow blades.

Fruit symptoms

.. mottle,

. spotting,
distortion

Some of the common chilli viruses are

..
Chilli Veinal Mottle Virus

.. Cucumber Mosaic Virus

Pepper Mild Mosaic Virus

.. Pepper Mild Mottle Virus

Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus

. Potato Y Virus
Tobacco Mosaic Virus

There are at least 40 other plant viruses, mostly those which also affect tomatoes, peppers,
tobacco and other Solanacae crops.

47
MAJOR VIRUS DISEASES IN CHILLI

Tomato Spotted wilt (TSWV)

Symptoms

Orange or bronze coloured flecks on middle or lower leaves and calyx or stems and petioles.
Stunting, black depressed spots.

.. TSWV is spread by thrips

Very extensive on annuals, bulb crops, and weeds.

TSWV symptoms
on chilli fruit.

Tobacco Mosaic Virus

. Variable symptoms depending on the virus strain. Leaves may be light green or yellow
mottling, rough edges turn down. The plant may be dwarfed. The fruit is small, and their may
be poor fruit set with brown streaks. A characteristic shoestring effect in leaves may occur

. on young plants.
TMV is a sap transmissible virus. The virus spreads throughout the host plant and virus
particles can be found in cells and sap throughout the plant. Sap containing the virus is
highly infectious. Handling chilli plants leaves sap on the hands, and if this sap was from an
infected plant, then the virus will be transferred via the sap on the hands to the next plant
handled. The virus is extremely tough and can survive in dried up sap, in plant debris or in the
soil for several years. It can infect the outside of chilli seeds but only infects a very small

. number of seed internally.

TMV has a wide host range including most other members of the family Solanacae including
potato, capsicum, eggplant, pepino, tobacco, nightshade, and many ornamental plants and
weeds. These plants may be host to many different strains of tobacco mosaic virus and may
be symptom-less or show severe symptoms.

48
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)

.
Similar to TMV, upper leaf may be very narrow and twisted giving them a shoestring
appearance that may be confused with 2, 4-D type injury. Later excessive number of lateral
leaflets are produced. Plants may be dwarfed or stunted. Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)

. causes foliar mosaic and mottled fruit

Cucumber Mosaic Virus aphid transmitted poty virus. It can be transmitted by more than 60

. aphid species.
CMV can infect more than 800 plant species, including many vegetable crops, ornamentals,
and woody plants. Many weeds and cultivated crops are reservoirs of this virus.

Mosaic Virus (MV)

.
Mosaic virus diseases also cause considerable damage to chilli crop. Mosaic disease exhibits
itself as vein clearing of the younger leaves followed by severe mottling with patches of light
and dark green scattered all over the leaf surface. Other important symptoms are leaf
distortions, curling, marginal rolling of leaves. The plants become stunted and

. flower production is ceased.

Aphids and white fly both transmit MV.

Pepper Mild Mottle Virus (PMMV)

PMMV affects both peppers and chillies. Infected plants are stunted and have sunken brown
spots that look like a rot on the fruit.

. PMMV virus spreads by leaf

contact, root contact and in irrigation
water moving along beds.
PMMV survives processing of foods
and passage through the human gut,
and the viral particles are known to be
extremely stable," There is no
evidence that people should try to
avoid getting this virus. It most likely
has no adverse effects on
human health.
PMMV symptoms on sweet pepper

49
Double streak TMV + PVX (Potato virus X or CMV)

.
Usually affects large plants, dwarfed, spindly appearance, rolling and withering of leaves.
Long brown streaks on petioles and stems. Irregular ripening of fruit, light brown sunken

..

spots on green fruit.

Aphids are vectors of Potato Virus X
As for CMV and TMV

Tobacco and tomato ringspot (TRSV)

.
Ringspot or zigzag lines on foliage, occasionally on stems, petioles, and fruit. On fruit, rings

..

are often concentric.

Dagger nematode, thrips, mites, grasshopper, flea beetles
Very extensive; annuals, weeds, vegetables, ornamentals, tobacco, soybeans

Potato virus Y (PVY)

.
Dark brown dead areas between veins in leaflets near maturity, yellowing along veins, faint
mottling on leaves; petioles curved downward; stems with purple streaking;

..

symptoms usually become mild, but severe symptoms develop if TMV is present
Aphids are vectors of Potato Virus Y
Solanaceous and leguminous plants, pepper and potato.

50
Chilli Leaf Curl Virus CLCV

Chilli leaf curl is a virus transmitted by sap

sucking pests such as aphids and white-
flies. Control requires measures to be
taken against the vectors, aphids and
whiteflies. In other parts of the world,
viruses are a serious problem in chillies
and agronomists should be aware of the
symptoms.

.
Control

Take immediate action to rogue infected plants and prevent transmission.

Put infected plants into a bag to remove them from field (do not drag crop debris
through the crops as vectors will fall of the infected plants and spread throughout
the crop). Burn, rouged plants.

.
Incidence of virus symptoms would always trigger a preventative spray
programme for the vectors, irrespective of their numbers in the crop, since viruses
are quickly transmitted. Infected crops should be destroyed immediately
picking is finished to prevent the spread of the virus post harvest.

.
If the crop is infested with whitefly, it is important to remove the crop only after
4.30 pm as temperatures begin to drop, as whiteflies do not fly in the cool of the
day. If these crops are removed in the heat of the day, then clouds of whitefly,
carrying virus will move onto adjacent crops and spread the virus.

51
Chilli leaf mosaic virus (CLMV)

Chilli leaf mosaic virus is transmitted by aphids and whitefly vectors and can cause considerable
damage to chilli crops. Symptoms of infection are vein clearing of the younger leaves followed
by severe mottling with patches of light and dark green scattered all over the leaf surface. Other
important symptoms are leaf distortions, curling, marginal rolling of leaves. The plants become
stunted and flower production ceases

Control:

Take immediate action to rogue infected plants and prevent transmission as above. Obser-
vation of CLMV symptoms would always trigger a preventative spray programme for whitefly and
aphids. Again removal of crops in the cool of the day will reduce the spread of aphids and white-
fly vectors to new plantings

Limit spread of viruses in chillies

Tip:
The coat protein of many viruses reacts with proteins in skim milk, and hence skim milk can be
used as an in-activator of viruses. Skim milk is quite safe for hand washing.

In propagation

1. Decontaminate seed trays, tools, tables, before use by:

. soaking 10 minutes in 1% formaldehyde or a 1:10 dilution of a 5.25% sodium hypochlorite

(10% Clorox) solution, do not rinse; or

washing (enough to clean) in detergent at the concentrations recommended for

washing clothes or dishes. Keep all solutions fresh

heating or steaming at 300 degrees F for 30 minutes;

2. If virus is a serious problem - sow seed in individual pots (peat pots, etc.) rather than seed
trays (or adopt wide spacing in seed beds) and do not touch or handle plants prior to
setting in the field or greenhouse. Discard pots with seedlings that show leaf twisting,
mosaic, or unusual growth. Do not touch other seedlings while discarding them.

3. Dip hands in milk while handling plants every 5 minutes (more often if different lots of
plants are handled). Rubber gloves will protect hands.

4. Remove and destroy diseased plants early in the season. Do not touch healthy plants
with the diseased plants when removing them.

52
5. Make sure workers or visitors do not bring virus into a propagation area. Change clothing
or provide overalls if workers or visitors have been in other crops and wash hands before
handling the crop. Take care during Open Days and training sessions visitors may have
viruses on their clothing or hands if they have been in a chilli crop.

In commercial fields

1. Plants should be spaced to prevent leaf contact between plants as some viruses (PMMV)
are spread by leaf and root contact. Use a spacing of 60 cm between plants in a zig-zag
pattern between the two rows of plants per raised bed.

2. The chillies should be planted on a raised bed, at least 20 cm high and 1 meter wide to
ensure good drainage, as some viruses can be moved in soil water (PMMV).

3. Interplant one row of maize in between two rows of chillies and have a perimeter fence
of maize around the whole plot of chillies. Maize is a non-host for some of the viruses
transmitted by aphids (Potato Virus X and Y, Mosaic Virus and Cucumber Mosaic Virus).
These viruses are transmitted in a non-persistent manner because the virus only lives on
the outside of the stylet mouth-parts of the aphid. When the aphid feeds on the maize
plant the virus is washed off the mouth parts and it is then safe for the aphid to feed on
the chilli plant without transmitting the virus.

4. Use Trichoderma in the compost used to improve soil structure in the raised bed.
Trichoderma colonisation of the roots of chilli plants will enhance the natural resistance of
the chilli plant to virus diseases. (Systemic Acquired Resistance SAR)

5. Sprays of skimmed milk have been shown to be effective in preventing leaf spread,
and spread by contaminated cutting tools. Prepare the skimmed milk spray by adding
7 litre of skimmed milk per 15 litre knap sack. Spray chilli plants once a week with
skimmed milk when virus vectors (aphids, thrips and whitefly) are present.

6. Disinfest equipment, tools, and hands on a regular basis while pulling, pruning, harvesting,
and spraying plants, and when moving from one row or area to another.

7. Remove the affected plants and destroy them as quickly as possible

8. Control vectors with insecticide sprays. Biological controls may be too slow to prevent
movement of the virus.

9. Mineral oil sprays have been used to interfere with the transmission of all pepper viruses
by aphids.

53
10. Do not use human faeces as fertiliser for the chilli crop as this may spread the virus
if the human has eaten infected chillies (PPMV can be present in human faeces)

At the end of the Crop Life

11. Spray the plant bed prior to pulling or handling plants (24 hours) with whole or skim milk
at the rate of 5 litres per 10 meter square. Thorough coverage of plants is important.

12. Immediately the last harvest is completed - destroy all chilli plants in the bed, field,
or greenhouse as soon as possible after harvest.

Before next crop is planted

13. Rotate tomato crops with maize, cabbages or sorghum

14. Avoid following chilli crops after crops of tobacco, pepper, eggplant, tomatoes, potatoes
or cucurbits.

54
CATERPILLAR PESTS IN CHILLIES

There are several caterpillar pests of chillies and their controls will be presented togther after
they have been described, individually.
Pod Borers (Spodoptera litura, Heliothis armigera)
Pod borers have many hosts and will attack chilli crops both in vegetative phase and at the time
of pod formation. They enter chilli pods by making a hole near calyx and feed on the chilli seed.
The affected pods drop off or develop a white colour on drying. The fully-grown caterpillars enter
the soil for pupation.
Heliothis armigera (also known as Helicoverpa) or Bollworm

Heliothis is
brown (top) and grey
also known as
(below) forms of
Heliothis adult moths
Helicoverpa
and Old World
Bollworm

Heliothis larvae

55
Spodoptera litura or Armyworm
Armyworm is a large moth with a wingspan of up
to 3 cm with a mustard or orange coloured
liver-shaped spot on the forewings that is
narrowly ringed with white. Longevity of adults
is about 4-10 days, being reduced by high tem-
perature and low humidity.
Adult
Spodoptera litoralis
56
The female lays egg masses on the undersides of
leaves, covering the eggs with felt made from her
body hairs.
Young green larvae feed together on the
underside of leaves and also inside flower buds.
Feeding damage from young larvae will produce
skeletonised leaves. As larvae get bigger they
turn a brown, black, grey or green in colour and
begin feeding on their own. They will now chew
up entire leaves or flowers.
Egg mass of
Spodoptera spp
Armyworms are characterized by a pattern of
fine lines along the full length of their bodies.
They have a dark spot near the head, just under
the largest of these stripes.
The young larvae (first to third instar) feed in
groups, leaving the opposite epidermis of the
leaf intact. Later, the (4th to 6th instar) larvae
disperse and spend the day in the ground under
the host plant, feeding at night and early in the
morning.

The pupal period is spent in earthen cells in the

soil and lasts about 11-13 days at 25C.
Thus, the life cycle can be completed in about 5
weeks. In Japan (Nakasuji, 1976).

In the Northern Hemisphere, there may be only

four generations per year because of the winter
periods; but in the humid tropics there could be
6 to 8 generations.

57
 False codling moth

58
Cutworm (Agrotis spp)

Cutworm is more likely to be a problem in land

previously down to grass or in weedy land.
Cutworm emerges to feed at night and
pesticides for cutworm are more effective if
applied at this time. Application of irrigation
prior to spraying will encourage the emergence
of cutworm from the soil and expose them to
the pesticide application.

Cutworms are the caterpillar larvae of a

nocturnal moth (Agrotis), which feed on their
own, not in groups. They cut the seedlings off
at ground level, chewing off the stem and
sometimes dragging the plants into their
burrows. Cutworms do not eat the whole plant,
but just enough to make it fall over.
Female moths can lay up to 1,800 creamy white
eggs either singly or in small clusters, usually
on leaves. Eggs hatch in 2 - 9 days. Females
often seek out more moist areas in fields to lay
their eggs as this is more likely to ensure
survival of the plants on which the larvae
will feed.

Monitoring low-lying areas, prone to flooding

may provide early indications of cutworm
problems and ensure prompt action. Some
growers routinely use a pyrethroid spray at 7.00
am in the morning when cutworm may still be
active, to control this pest. If irrigation water
can be applied to the crop in the later afternoon
however, this can encourage cutworms to
emerge from the daytime hiding places and
begin feeding. This would be followed by a
pesticide spray to kill the cutworm larvae.

59
Chemical controls for caterpillar pests
Widespread resistance to chemical pesticides by armyworm is reported. Careful resistance
management strategies are advisable to secure the longer-term effectiveness of the remaining
chemicals that work.
Real IPM Kenya, can provide training of trainers courses in how to design a Resistance
Management Strategy. info@realipm.com
Biological controls for caterpillar pests
Bacillus thuringiensis Bt
Bacillus thuringiensis is a naturally occurring bacterium common in soils throughout the world.
Several strains can infect and kill caterpillar pests. The caterpillar-specific Bts are in a group
called Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki (Btk) and Bacillus thuringiensis aiawaza (Bta).
Commercially available products based on both of these Bts are widely available and are
generally inexpensive.
There are some records of resistance to the Bts because sometimes the formulation does not
include living spores but only the insecticidal proteins produced by the Bacillus thuringiensis.
It is advisable to rotate the Btk products with the Bta products to reduce the risk of resistance.
Mode of action of Bt

In nature, the target pest ingests the Bt and once inside the bacterium produces a protecin that
is toxic to the caterpillar. The toxic crystal binds with the stomach wall, making a hole in it.
The pest stops feeding almost straight away and eventually dies when the bacterium reproduces
within its body.

60
Bt acts by producing proteins (delta-endotoxin,
the "toxic crystal") that reacts with the cells of
the gut lining of susceptible insects. These Bt
proteins paralyze the digestive system, and the
infected insect stops feeding within hours.
Bt-affected insects generally die from
starvation, which can take several days.
Occasionally, the bacteria enter the insect's
blood and reproduce within the insect.
However, in most insects it is the reaction of
the protein crystal that is lethal to the insect.
Even dead bacteria containing the proteins are
effective insecticides.
Bt is susceptible to degradation by sunlight.
Most formulations persist on foliage less than
a week following application.
61
To optimise the effect of Bt
..
Spray when caterpillars are still small.
Completely cover all leaf surfaces. The
insects must ingest the bacteria when
. they are feeding.
Spray in the evening or during cloudy
. (but not rainy) days.
There may be a need to reapply if it rains
. soon after application.
Caterpillars will take several days to die,
but they will stop feeding soon after
. infection.
Bt is not persistent. It may need to be
. reapplied. Follow label instructions.
Mix only enough product needed and use
immediately. This is especially important
. in areas with high pH water (alkaline).
Use a spreader-sticker to enhance
product coverage on leaves.
Viruses that kill caterpillars Sometimes naturally occurring viruses can
occur in Heliothus and Spodoptera
There are two types of viruses known to infect populations. If this happens the infected
and kill caterpillar pests that have been larvae can be collected and have been used
mass-produced as biopesticides and widely used. as a starter culture for home-made sprays of

..
Nuclear polyhedroid viruses NPV
caterpillar viruses, by adding more live
caterpillars and allowing them to become
Granulosis virus GV infected.

In the same way as Bt products the viruses
must be ingested in order to kill the caterpillar
pest.
NPV is a naturally present disease that kills
armyworm and helps control its outbreaks.
Each armyworm killed by NPV can contain 2,000
million new infective particles, each capable of
infecting another armyworm. Thus, each insect
killed by NPV can act as a new source of NPV to
spread the disease.
However, while NPV can destroy outbreaks once
it has established in the armyworm population, in
most years the NPV appears too late in the
outbreak cycle to prevent serious armyworm
damage.
The solution can then be sieved and sprayed
onto trap plants to kill caterpillars once they
are brought to one place by providing a very
attractive host plant.
Symptoms
Different viruses cause different symptoms.
NPV-infected larvae may initially turn white
and granular or very dark. Some may climb to
the top of the crop canopy, stop feeding,
become limp, and hang from the upper leaves
or stems, hence the common name
"caterpillar wilt" or "tree top" disease.

Victims of a granulosis virus

may turn milky white and stop
feeding. In both cases, the
body contents of the dead
larvae are liquified and the
cuticle ruptures easily to
release infectious viral parti-
cles. Death from a virus
infection usually occurs
within three to eight days.

62
Role of other biopesticides for caterpillar control

If Real Metarhizium 69 OD is the backbone of an IPM programme for thrips, leafminer and fruit fly
in chillies, it will have already been applied to the soil because these pests have part of their life
cycle in the soil.

It is therefore possible that the pupae of several of the pest caterpillars which are in the soil,
will be infected with the Metarhizium and fail to emerge as adults.
Other Metarhizium isolates have been tested against caterpillar larvae, adults and pupae and
found to infect them Real IPM is currently testing its isolates against caterpillar pests.

Metarhizium infection
in Heliothis caterpillar

Pheromones

Most economically important caterpillar pests have got commercially produced pheromones
which are used in monitoring devices and which could also be used in auto-dissemination devices
together with Real IPM Metarhizium using the re-charge packs for fruit fly AD devices.

Trap crops for caterpillars

Adult moths do not directly damage crops they feed on nectar. But the eggs that they lay,
turn into caterpillars that cause significant commercial damage.
Moths can usually lay many hundreds of eggs. Therefore any reduction in the number of
adult moths will have a very significant reduction in the number of caterpillars damaging the crop.
A single armyworm moth for example will lay between 500 and 3,000 eggs.

63
Moth and caterpillar predators and parasitoids

Caterpillars are prey for a wide range of predators and parasitoids, which are usually killed by
broad-spectrum sprays of pyrethroids and organophosphates. The benefit of Real Metarhizium
is that it does not kill these natural enemies.
These include Trichogramma (parasitic wasp of caterpillar eggs), ichneumon wasps, earwigs,
tachinid flies, braconid wasps, chalcid wasps, carabid beetles, and ants.
Spiders eat codling moth eggs, moths and larvae. Birds and bats are also an important tool in
keeping moths and caterpillar levels in check. Metarhizium harms neither bats nor birds.

Cultural methods for conserving these populations in the perennial fruit orchard are described
below.

Conservation of indigenous natural enemies

Large numbers of any natural enemy will not be found in places where they do not have enough
prey to feed on. When an orchard has been under a Real IPM programme for some years, the
number of permanent resident pests will be lower and this will also reduce the number of
permanent natural enemies.
In the meantime, it is necessary to both conserve those which are present and possibly
augment the natural enemy populations with additional, commercially reared predators and
parasitoids.

Careful use of chemical pesticides, which are compatible with natural enemies, but also still kill
pests, will be needed during the transition phase.

Grower groups, working in the same area, can exchange natural enemies between farms, on leaf
material collected form orchards. Predatory mites and parasitized mealybug and wooly aphid
are easily moved in this way.
Growers may refer to
the Real IPM Pesticide
Compatibility Charts
available free of
charge from the Log-in
section of the Farmers
Clubs.
www.realipm.com
64
Field Insectaries

Parasitic wasps often take nectar from small

flowers. Parasitoids that consume nectar are
able to lay more eggs which makes them
more effective biological control agents.
Umbelliferous flowers (e.g. coriander, dill,
carrot). Other plants often used in field
insectaries because they produce a lot of
pollen for predatory mites are dwarf Mexican
marigold and calendula.

The adult moths themselves may also be

attracted to these flowers and could be killed
by spraying the insectary with Real Metar-
hizium 69. In this way the pest moths would
not benefit by consuming food from the
flowers to help them lay more eggs in the crop.

Alternative egg-laying sites

Some plants such as sunflower and sorghum

are preferred hosts for bollworm and could be
included in the field insectary design.

65
Encouraging parasitic wasps

Some species of parasitic wasps will carry caterpillars from the crop and bring them to sites
where they can be bricked in with mud, after laying an egg in the caterpillar body.
The wasp egg develops into a larva that feeds on the caterpillar body, after pupating and emerg-
ing as an adult wasp.
Numbers of wasps can be enhanced if refuges are provided for them to conceal the
caterpillars that they have captured in the crop.

Umbelliferous flowers
provide nectar for
beneficial insects

Parasitic wasps may

paralyze caterpillars
before carrying them
away to refugia to lay
eggs in them

Wasp carries away a large

caterpillar to hollow reeds
set up in an orchard

66
Mass produced parasitoids

In addition to conservation methods for natural enemies, it is possible to use either augmenta-
tion methods (topping up levels of beneficial insects) or inundative releases (mass release
when pest present).
One of the most useful commercial parasitoids for caterpillars is Trichogramma, a tiny wasp
that lays eggs inside caterpillar eggs.

Life cycle of Trichogramma

Trichogramma wasps laying eggs in a bollworm egg

67
Light traps

Moths are active at dusk and at night when they feed on nectar before laying eggs.
Nectar provides the protein required for massive egg-laying programme.
Using trap crops and night light traps to lure females out of the chilli crop will therefore have an
impact on infestations in the chilies as killing one adult female could result in up to 3,000 less
eggs laid in the chilies.
Heliothis will attack a wide range of hosts, including tomato, which is very susceptible and
is often grown on smallholder farms. If it is not controlled in the tomato crops, it will be a
problem in adjacent chilli crops.

Repellent sprays

The use of repellent neem sprays just prior to flowering is worthy of investigation, since this is
known to have a repellent effect on Diamond Back Moths and may have the same effect on
Bollworm (eg Heliothis/Helicoverpa).
Cultural controls for Armyworm, Bollworm and cutworm
All these caterpillars have a wide host range and will also feed on weeds.
Keeping crops weed free is an important IPM strategy. Removing crop debris and keeping fields
clean will also slow down the population growth of these pests. Do not prepare ground too far
in advance of planting, so that weeds do not develop on open ground, as this will encourage
these pests.

Physical controls

All of these caterpillars pupate in the soil. Deep ploughing of fields between crops turn up
larvae
and pupae to the soil surface making them susceptible to predators and sun.
Depending on the crop, flooding of the infested field may be a feasible control method in some
cases. In small-scale farms, manual collection of the larvae is sufficient for control.

68
Mites (Tarsonemus spp and Tetranychus spp)
Two types of mites are known to infest chillies
tarsonemid mites and spider mites and it is
important to distinguish which mites is the cause
of the problem. Spider mite is easily observed
with a hand lens but tarsonemid mites are much
smaller and often hide along the leaf veins, where
they are difficult to see. Tarsonemid mites are
probably first noticed when they have already
caused some damage because they are very
small. (see below)
69
Symptoms of mite damage
The symptoms of tarsonemid and spider mite
are different. Spider mite feeding causes
speckling on the leaf as it sucks the green
chlorophyll from the cells.
Tarsonemid mite cause leaf distortion as a
result of feeding - affected leaves curl
downward along the margins of the leaf and
attains on inverted boat shape.
Fruits develop a corky, distorted surface.
The affected plants develop dark green colour.
In the affected plants the vegetative growth is
inhibited and flower production affected and
yields are considerably reduced.
Spider mite can be controlled using the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus, but tarsonemid mite is less
attractive to Phytoseiulus as a prey. Amblyseius is a better predator for tarsonemid mites.
Phytoseiulus is a predatory mite, which attacks spider mites. It is particularly effective since it
will walk to the underside of leaves in search of prey.

spider mite egg (left)

Phytoseiulus adult
(centre)

Phytoseiulus egg (right)

Juvenile Phytoseiulus is
lighter in colour but still
has noticeably longer
legs than Amblyseius.

There are several indigenous Amblyseius predatory mites that can migrate into the chilli crop
if the spray programme is compatible.

70
Real IPM programme for mite pests

Achieve - Real Metarhizium 78

Metarhizium 78 is specifically for mite pests. It kills the mite pests but not the predatory mites.
So it can be used in situations where there are pest mites but not yet enough predatory mite.

By spraying the Metarhizium 78 onto a population of a lot of broad mites (but not many predatory
mites) you will reduce the number of pest mites more than you affect the predatory mite.
This changes the ratio (balance of nature) between the predatory mite and the pest mites.
See section on scouting.

..
Apply Achieve during nursery production two weeks before planting out in the field

.. Continue with applications to the growing crop as scouting indicates is necessary.

One sachet per knapsack one sachet costs 230/- Ksh each

. Minimum order: 50 sachets.

Can be ordered on line see www.realipm.com

Amblyseius spp

Real IPM produces Amblyseius spp., which will prey on whitefly, thrips, spider mite and broad mites.

.
Apply one bottle (12,500 Amblyseius) in each 25 msq of nursery plant production when the plants

. are touching.
Re-apply Amblyseius to the crop in the field once per month at a rate of 400,000 Amblyseius

..per acre (costs 4,000 Ksh per month)

They are packed in bottles of 12,500 in each bottle and cost 125/- per bottle

.
Minimum order 10 bottles.
Can be ordered on line see www.realipm.com

71
Scouting method to measure risk

The pest pressure is unlikely to be even throughout the field. Crop-walk the whole field first to
get a feeling for the pattern of the pest distribution. The edges may have higher pest levels because
they are near bushes Some areas may be naturally hotter or cooler because of shade or
prevailing wind.

Divide up the farm into a Scouting Map according to your observations and make a rough map of
the different areas. Give them a Label or name so that you can refer to that area in the
scouting report.

The scouting map should also indicate the number of plants in each and an estimate of the meter
square area because this will influence the number of knapsacks needed for each block or the
number of predatory mites that need to be applied in each block.

Data

The three important pieces of information needed are:

1. What is the % of the plants in the field which are infested (estimate from crop walk)
2. Of the leaves, which are showing damage (sample at least 20 damaged leaves/area)
what is the average number of pest mites (spider mite and broad mite) per leaf?
3. Within the leaf sample what is the ratio of predatory mite to pest mite?

How to use the ratio information

A ratio of 1 Predator to 10 spider mites is well under control

A ratio of 1 Predator to 50 broad mites is well under control

A ratio of 1 Predator to 50 spider mites is may need topping up with more predators
A ratio of 1 Predator to 100 broad mites is may need topping up with more predators

A ratio of 1 Predator to 500 spider mites is a problem if the average number of spider mite per leaf
is ALSO high. You need to spray a compatible pesticide (Met 78 or silwet) to bring down the mite
levels and then re-check the ratio and apply more predatory mites

A ratio of 1 Predator to 200 broad mites is a problem if the average number of broad mite per leaf
is ALSO high. You need to spray a compatible pesticide (Met 78 or silwet) to bring down the mite
levels and then re-check the ratio and apply more predatory mites

62
Fruit Flies in chillies

See Real Insight on Fruit Flies

fruit flies Bactrocera, Dacus, Ceratitis

73
 FUNGAL DISEASES OF CHILLIES Fruit symptoms

Fruit-rot and die back (Collectotrichum capsici)2
Die back is a common symptom of Colle-
totrichum. Young twigs will begin to die from the
tip backwards. The infection may be latent in the
plant but only shows symptoms when the plant is
under stress for example when flowering
begins and there is a peak in demand for plant
nutrients to feed the flowers.
There may be very heavy flower drop if the plant
is infected with Colletotrichum. The flower stalks
dry up first and this spreads into the flowers and Tissues around lesions will be bleached and
from there to the stems and branches. This
infection can severely affect the yield and quality pungency.
of chillies
Ripe fruits are more vulnerable to attack than
green ones
Small, circular, yellowish to pinkish sunken
spots appear on fruits
Spots increase along fruit length attaining
elliptical shape
Severe infection result in the shriveling and
drying of fruits.
turn white or greyish in colour and lose their
On the surface of the lesions minute black
dot like fruiting bodies called acervuli devel-
op in concentric rings and fruits appear straw
coloured

The affected fruits may fall off subsequently.

The seeds produced in severely infected
fruits are discoloured and covered with
mycelial mat.

74
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/chilli_diseases_2.html
The affected stem and the bark first turns brownish and then turn to
shinny white in long and narrow strips containing several black dot
like fructifications.

Affected twigs get with red and dry up from tip downwards, after on,
the disease spreads to the fruits also Circular to oval, black sports
occur on the ripe pods. Severally affected pods turn straw coloured
instead of normal red, shrivel and dry up.

Life cycle

Colletotrichum survives on seeds from infected fruit and also on crop debris in the field.
The conidia area spread by rain splash and movement on pickers hands.

Real IPM Programme

.
This disease is seed borne and it is not advisable to use self-saved seeds for this reason.
Buy and use certified disease-free seeds.

.
Bio-primed seeds may reduce the risk of seed borne pathogens and viruses (see above)

.
Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual.

.
Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all infected pods and plant debris and rogue all
infected plants immediately.

.
Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots of plants via drip irrigation
this will help to enhance the plants immune system.

.
Regularly apply Real Bacillus subtilis as a foliar spray this will act as a bio-fertiliser as well as
reduce foliar diseases in general. Tank mix with an appropriate fungicide only if disease
symptoms occur. Timing: Just before flowering and at fruit formation and again 2 weeks later.

Copper oxychloride and sulphur have been used for this disease control

75
Powdery mildew (Oidiopsis taurica)

Symptoms

Yellow, chlorotic patches on the upper surface of the leaf, may dry out and die; whilst on the
lower surface white powdery patches can be observed. Powdery white patches of spores
develop on the lower surface of the leaves. Severe infections can cause leaves to turn yellow
and drop-off and flower production is affected

Life Cycle

Powdery mildew is an airborne disease and spreads quickly in suitable weather.

The disease progresses from the older to younger leaves and shedding of foliage is prominent
symptom.

Real IPM Programme

.
Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual.

.
Regularly apply Real Bacillus subtilis as a foliar spray this will act as a bio-fertiliser as well
as reduce foliar diseases in general. Tank mix with an appropriate fungicide only if disease
symptoms occur.

Timing: Just before flowering and at fruit formation and again 2 weeks later.

76
Damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum and
Rhizoctonia solanum)
Symptoms
Damping off is very common disease in
nurseries. Seed may rot or the seedlings may be
killed before they emerge from the soil. Stem of
young seedlings may also be attacked after
emergence showing water soaking and shrivel-
ling of stem, which fall over and die. In nursery
the disease may appear in patches in 2-4 days,
the entire lot of seedling may be destroyed.
77
Life Cycle Phytophthora
Disease is most damaging on moist soils
with poor drainage. Pythium has a motile
zoospore that can swim in water to new
plants and begin the infection. Therefore
overwater will make this disease spread more
quickly.
The fungus is mainly soil - borne. It requires
humidity in the range of 90-100 % and a soil
temperature nearer 20oC. When there is
sufficient moisture in the soil, it germinates
and produce mycelium which later forms the
asexual stage of reproduction. The fungus is
capable of living for many years in soil.
 Life cycle Rhizoctonia solani

Rhizoctonia can affect both seedlings

(damping off) and mature plants, if the crop is over watered. If mature plants are infected it can
lead to wilting and death of chilli plants.
Rhizoctonia solani persists in soils and organic debris.

Rhizoctonia
inside the stem
of a mature
chilli plant

Real IPM Programme for damping off

Control of damping-off diseases is difficult3. Damping-off must be anticipated and prevented by

using seed and transplant treatments before the seed or plants are put in the field.

. Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual.

. Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all seedlings.

. Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots of plants via drip irrigation
this will help to enhance the plants immune system.

. Good seedbed preparation is important.

. Shallow planting of seed and seedlings to promote rapid germination and thereby less stem
exposure to the soil has been used to reduce losses from R. solani damping-off.

. Irrigation should be managed to enhance germination and growth and to avoid over watering.

3
http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8041.pdf
78
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.capsici)
Symptoms
Fusarium wilt is characterised by wilting of the
plant and upward and inward rolling of the leaves.
The leaves turn yellow and die
Generally appear localised areas of the field
where a high percentage of the plants wilt and
die, although scattered wilted plants may also
occur. Disease symptoms are characterised by
an initial slight yellowing of the foliage and
wilting of the upper leaves that progress in a few
days into a permanent wilt with the leaves still
attached.
By the time above - ground symptoms are
evident, the vascular system of the plant is
discoloured, particularly in the lower stem and
roots.
By the time above - ground symptoms are evident,
the vascular system of the plant is discoloured,
particularly in the lower stem and roots.
79
Life Cycle
Fungus causing this disease can live for
several years in the soil. High temperatures
and wet soil conditions favour disease
development.
Disease is most likely occur in poorly drained
soils. Hence, provision of drainage is
necessary to control this disease to some
extent.
Real IPM Programme for Fusarium
.
Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant
Programme described earlier in this
manual.
.
Apply strict hygiene programmes
remove all seedlings.
.
Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the
roots of plants via drip irrigation this will
help to enhance the plants immune
system.
.
Apply the Real IPM Good Agricultural
Practice Recommendations.
Phytophthora Blight or Crown Rot
(Phytophthora capsici).
Under field conditions, P. capsici has been found
to affect a wide range of hosts in the
Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, and
Solanaceae families, including: cantaloupe,
cucumber, watermelon, bell pepper, tomato, snap
beans, and lima beans. Care needs to be taken
with rotation of crops to avoid susceptible crops.
Infection of the root and lower portion of
the stem leads to plant death.
80
Caused by a water-borne fungus called
Phytophthora capsici and is generally found
in wet waterlogged areas. The fungus
invades all plant parts causing the
syndromes leaf blight, fruit rot and root rot.
Plants suffering from this conditions often
wilt and die very quickly.
Once the fungus enters the roots the plant is
beyond saving unfortunately due to root rot.
The condition may also affect a section of
the plant rather than the plant as a whole.
This section is often bordered with white
mould - remove immediately. Avoid excess
watering of plants and try to give your soil
good drainage. A fungicide can be used on
the leaf blight and fruit rot symptoms
however root rot is usually terminal.
Life cycle
Various types of Phytophthora spores are
produced from rot lesions in fruits and stems.
These spores can then directly penetrate the
leaves, stems, fruits or roots of host plants.
The pathogen is soil-borne and also spread by
rain splashes or running water. Warm wet weath-
er and damp soil promotes this disease. The
disease may appear as damping-off of young
seedlings, a root and crown rot of plants, or blight
on leaves, stems and fruits.
Real IPM Programme for Phytophthora
.
Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant
Programme described earlier in this manual.
.
Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all
seedlings.
.
Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots
of plants via drip irrigation this will help to
. enhance the plants immune system.
Apply the Real IPM Good Agricultural Practice
81
Recommendations.
1. Phytophthora has a motile zoospore so is
able to swim in water. It can be present in
river water used for irrigation and
overhead irrigation. In furrow-irrigated
fields, there is a row-delimited pattern of
wilted plants.
2. The disease can be spared by rain splash
from the soil. Organic mulches will help
reduce rain splash as well as help to
conserve soil
moisture. If excess rainfall is a recurring
problem, growers should consider growing
on raised beds to reduce Phytophthora.
3.The fungus is soil borne, so reducing
populations of the pathogen through crop
rotation is Good Agricultural Practice.
4.Soil solarisation may help reduce
inoculum in the soil.
Leaf spots (Cercospora capsici)
Leaf spots, which occur on the stem or leaf, which are oblong or circular with a small light grey
centre and a dark margin, are likely to be Cercospora. Normally the cells in the spots die out and
the dry tissue fall out of the leaf, leaving a hole. If infections are severe, leaf drop will occur.

Early symptoms are small yellow/green to

brown spots on the young leaves, which
develop into darker, water-soaked lesions.

The bacteria spread along the veins where

water collects and the lesions take on a
characteristic angular pattern because of the
way the bacteria spreads on the leaf.
The leaf spots become enlarged (3 6 mm in
It has the nickname diameter and the centres will dry out to a
frog eye
because of the straw colour with a dark margin.
pattern Leaves turn yellow and drop-off in severe
of the leaf
infections.
spot.

Cercospora is seed borne and it is important to use only disease free, certified seed and sue the
Real IPM bio-priming protocol.

Foot rot or Southern Blight (Sclerotium rollftsii)

Sclerotinia is a very persistent soil borne disease with many hosts. It is encouraged by over
watering and is prevalent in hot wet seasons. Plants wilt due to the fungus girdling the stem and
causing rots at the soil surface.

The fungus has a white growth

with small brown seeds in the
mycelium. It can be visible
above and below the soil
surface

82
Verticillium wilt Infected plants may exhibit physiological
(Verticillium dahliae and V. albo-atrum) changes such as reduction in photosynthe-
sis, increased plant transpiration, and respi-
Verticillium is a soil-borne fungi which can infect ration. Cool air and low soil temperatures
the chili plant at any growth stage can worsen the condition.
Visual symptoms of the disease include stunt-
ing, defoliation and wilting, with discoloration of If the stem is cut, a brown discolouration
the vascular system. may be visible.

Even within a plant, one side

of a bush may be infected
whilst the other side remains
green.

In the field, the disease first

appears in a single plant or a
small group of wilting plants
(foci) scattered throughout the
field, depending on the
distribution of the pathogen in
soil.

83
 BACTERIAL DISEASES OF CHILLIES
Bacterial leaf spot4 (Xanthomonas campestris)5

Xanthomonas is seed borne and can survive in soil. The disease is therefore more likely to develop in
the propagation nursery. Rapid detection kits using plant sap can detect it.

Early symptoms are small

yellow/green to brown spots on
the young leaves, which develop
into darker, water-soaked
lesions.

The bacteria spread along the

veins where water collects and
the lesions take on a character-
istic angular pattern because of
the way the bacteria spreads on
the leaf. The leaf spots become
enlarged (3 6 mm in diameter
and the centres will dry out to a
straw colour with a dark margin.

Leaves turn yellow and drop-off

in severe infections.

Fruit spots (up to 0.5 cm, 0.2 in.)

begin as pale-green,
water-soaked areas, which
eventually become raised,
brown, and roughened

Spots may provide entrance

points for various fungal and
other bacterial invaders that can
cause secondary fruit rots.

The bacterial spot pathogen

alone does not cause fruit rot.
4
www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/prokaryotes/Pages/Bacterialspot.aspx

5
www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/prokaryotes/Pages/Bacterialspot.aspx
84
Life cycle of bacterial leaf spot

The bacteria have a very limited survival period of days to weeks in the soil, and thus their
survival is almost always in association with debris from infected or diseased plants.

The pathogen can survive in association with seed, either externally or internally

Real IPM Programme for Xanthomonas

..
Use the Real IPM Healthy Transplant Programme described earlier in this manual.

. Apply strict hygiene programmes remove all crop debris.

Regularly apply Real Trichoderma to the roots of plants via drip irrigation this will help to

.. enhance the plants immune system.

Regularly apply Real Bacillus subtilis as a foliar spray.
Apply the Real IPM Good Agricultural Practice Recommendations.

85
Bacterial canker (Corynebacterium) and Bacterial soft rot (Erwinia) causing scabby canker spots
or soft rots of pods (respectively). Suspect bacteria if the rot is foul smelling or there is a milky
stream of fluid exuding from cut stems held under water.

Erwinia

soft rot in

chilllies

Copper fungicides offer limited control under favourable conditions (eg not too wet) Prevention
is easier than cure (nursery and field hygiene and good irrigation management. If bacterial
diseases are suspected, drip irrigation is less likely to encourage spread of the disease than
overhead irrigation

Bacterial Wilt ( Ralstonia solanacearum - formerly called Pseudomonas solanacearum).

Warm weather and poor drainage promotes this disease. The lower leaves may turn yellow, wilt
and drop, and plants may die if disease advances. Vascular bundles in the lower stem turn
brown when stems are pressed. When stems are cut and placed in water, milky streams of
bacteria ooze from the plant. This disease occurs primarily in the humid periods

Control: Resistant varieties, coupled with good drainage, liming, and crop rotation, are the best
approach to disease control. This pathogen is not internally transmitted in seeds.

86
Scouting guide for main pests and diseases of chillies
Cutworms
Caterpillars are grey, greenish-brown to brown in colour with a smooth skin. They normally
curl-up when disturbed. Caterpillars feed at night and hide in the soil during the day. Scout for
seedlings cut off at the base of the stem. Check for cutworms in the soil near the damaged
plants.

Check field for cutworms before transplanting or before plants emerge when direct sowing is
done.If pheromone traps are used to monitor appearance of moths check them regularly.

Aphids

Check for small colonies on young leaves and shoots. When the numbers are high the plant
maybe covered with honeydew and black sooty mould.
Check also for the presence of natural enemies. Parasitised aphids, known as mummies, are
easily recognised, as they turn hard, and brown in colour.
Larvae and adults of ladybird beetles, lacewings and hoverflies are normally found within or near
the colony of aphids.

Fruit flies

Monitor fruits for egg-laying scars (dimples or small white specks in the middle of a shallow
indented
area on the surface of the fruit). Check appearance of flies on traps. Fruit flies are 4-7 mm long,
brightly coloured, usually in brown-yellow-black patterns. The wings are spotted or banded with
yellow or brown margins.

Caterpillars

For early detection scout for eggs and small caterpillars especially on young leaves, flower buds
and shoots. Once the caterpillars get into the flowers and fruits they are well protected and
damage has been done.

Helicoverpa moths lay single eggs while Spodoptera moths lay eggs in groups (masses)
covered with scales or hairs on the lower leaf surfaces or on the structures of greenhouses. The
colour of the caterpillars is very variable. Helicoverpa young caterpillars are olive green to
reddish brown, have a dark head and coarse black hairs that gives them a spiny appearance.

Older caterpillars are olive green or dark grey or brown with alternating light and dark stripes
running lengthwise on the body and two typical side stripes. They may reach 3-5 cm when fully
grown.

Spodoptera caterpillars vary from green, yellowish white to brown and have lines along the body
or dark spots on the dorsal side, according to the species. The size of the mature caterpillars
varies from 3 to 4.5 cm long depending on the species.

87
If pheromone traps are used to monitor appear-
ance of moths, check them regularly.
Helicoverpa moths are about 1.5 cm long,
yellowish brown in colour, with greyish wavy
lines and a dark mark on each forewing.
Spodoptera littoralis moths are about 2 cm
long, brown in colour with a large number
of pale yellow lines across the forewings.
S. exigua are smaller (1.2 cm), brownish-grey
with two small spots on the forewings.
Leafminers
For early detection check the upper surface of
young leaves for punctures made by adults
while feeding and laying eggs.
The adult leafminer is a tiny (2-3mm long)
blackish yellow fly. Check for presence of mines
on leaves. Mines in young leaves indicate
recent attacks. Check mines for presence of
parasitised maggots (dark in colour in contrast
to yellow colour of healthy maggots).
Check yellow traps (sticky or water traps) for
presence of leafminer flies and parasitic wasps
such as Diglyphus.
For early detection check the underside of young
leaves for presence of adults and eggs. Whitefly
adults resemble very small moths
(about 1 mm long), are white in colour. They are
often found in groups on the lower leaf surface
and readily fly away when the plant is shaken.
Eggs are elliptical, about 0.2 to 0.3 mm long,
attached vertically to the leaf surface. They are
normally laid in an arc or circle on the underside
of young leaves. The young stages or nymphs are
scale-like in shape, greenish in colour and are
covered or surrounded by wax. They are found on
the underside of intermediate-aged and old
leaves. They do not move. When they are many
the plant may be partially or completely covered
by sooty mould. Check yellow traps if used.

Thrips

For early detection check the underside of

leaves, the apices of young fruits and shake
flowers on a white piece of paper and look for
the thrips. Check the underside of leaves for a
silvery sheen and/or small, dark spots of faecal
material. The upper side of older leaves turns
brown.

Monitor adult thrips by hanging coloured

(blue, yellow or white) sticky or water traps in
the nursery or field. Check traps regularly.

Check for natural enemies. Pirate (Orius) bugs

are commonly found in the flowers when thrips
are present.

88
Broad mites

Broad mites are very small (0.1-0.2 mm long) and cannot be seen with the naked eye, and are
difficult to detect with a hand lens. For early detection check for symptoms such as necrosis on
the lower leaf surfaces, deformation (elongation and curling) of young leaves.

Spider mites:

Check plants at the edges of the field as mites can be dispersed by wind and infestation start in
patches often on plants along the border. To detect early infestation look out for white speckling
(clusters of yellow-white spots) of the upper leaf surface and check lower surface of leaves mainly
along the main veins for presence of eggs and mites.

Mites are tiny (about 0.5 mm long) oval in shape with an arched back and have eight legs, except in
the larval stage when they have six legs. The colour of the adult mite varies from yellowish green,
brownish red to dark red according to the species.

The eggs, which look like a droplet of water, can be seen only with a hand lens. A magnifying lens
will also be handy to determine if they are alive. This is particular important to determine if an
intervention (e.g. spraying with acaricides) has been successful.

Diseases: Early symptoms of the major diseases:

Damping-off

Seedlings fail to emerge (pre-emergence damping-off), small seedlings collapse (post-emergence

damping-off) or seedlings are stunted (root rot and collar rot).

Seedbeds affected appear patchy. In the field, seedling diseases are conduced by cold, wet periods.

Anthracnose

Small tan flecks develop on cotyledon leaves shortly after emergence. Spots on leaves and fruits
are small, sunken with dark fungal spores on them, and a characteristic concentric ring
(target-shaped) appearance. The fungus causes rapid infection only during heavy fog, dew or
drizzle. The disease is most serious on ripe fruits.

Powdery mildew

On the upper leaf surface, chlorotic blotches or yellow spots, which may become necrotic are
symptomatic. On the lower leaf surface, a white to grey powdery growth may develop.
Warm temperatures and high relative humidity favour the disease.

89
Fusarium wilt
The first visible symptom is drooping of the
lower leaves. Later, younger shoots turn yellow,
die and turn brown. Invaded roots become soft
and develop a water-soaked appearance. Sliced
roots exhibit a reddish brown colour in the
wood. The disease is favoured by warm
temperatures and high soil moisture and thus
particularly serious in poorly drained soils.
Bacterial spot
Leaf spots first appear as small, circular, pale
green pimples that are raised on the under
surface of the leaf while the top surface of the
spot may be depressed slightly. On older leaves,
spots often are first dark green and
water-soaked. Fruit spots are circular, initially
green but become brown and raised with a
cracked, roughened and wart-like surface
(scabby appearance).
Warm temperatures and high relative humidity
with free moisture on leaves favour disease
development.
Bacterial soft rot
Rot symptoms usually start as a sunken area,
either from the peduncle or around a skin
puncture. The rot spreads rapidly until the entire
fruit collapses into a soft slimy mass
(resembling a sack of liquid retained by the
skin). When the skin breaks the contents flow
out. It is most destructive market disease.
Warm temperatures and high moisture favour
disease development.
Root-knot nematodes:
Aboveground symptoms may include stunting,
drooping of leaves, lack of vigour and wilting of
plants. Roots of affected plants develop small
knots or galls. Severely affected roots rot.
Root-knot nematodes are most damaging in
sandy soils and in warm climates.
90
Bacterial wilt
First symptom is drooping of all leaves
resembling symptoms of soil moisture
deficiency. This is particularly conspicuous
when it is hot. Drooping of leaves is followed by
a sudden, permanent wilt of the entire plant
with no leaf yellowing or browning. Roots of
infected plants are discoloured. Cross sections
cut from lower stems and roots of infected
plants exude milky streams of bacteria from the
vascular system when suspended in water.
Warm temperatures and high soil moisture
favour disease development.
Virus diseases:
It is nearly impossible to identify specific
pepper viruses on the basis of symptoms
observed on pepper plants and fruits in the
field.
Symptoms include mosaic patterns, mottling,
leaf deformation (including small-sized leaves),
leaf curling, chlorosis, stunting (dwarfing) of
plants when plants are attacked at early growth
stages, and spotting (including ring spots), line
patterns and distortion of fruits. Since many of
the pepper viruses are transmitted by pests
(aphids, leaf hoppers, mites, thrips and white-
flies), it is important to check for these pests
during scouting. Most viruses are serious in
arid and semiarid areas where
high temperatures prevail.
 Realipm

@Realipm
 Real Solutions | Real Farming

www.realipm.com www.realipm.co.uk

DISTRIBUTORS
Real IPM South Africa Pty Ltd Elephant Vert
Real IPM (Kenya) Ltd Managing Director Technical Manager
Jean Kuiper Benoit Gossaert
P.O Box 4001- 01002 Madaraka, Thika, Kenya admin@realipm.co.za benoit.gossaert@elephantvert.ch
(+254) 0725 806086 | info@realipm.com | South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe Morocco, Mali, Cte d'Ivoire,
Ghana, Senegal, Cameroun
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Dr Henry Wainwright Crop Defenders Ltd
wainwright@realipm.com Managing Director
Zaidi Agro
Dr. Ishtiaq Rao
Gideon@realipm.com
Director info@cropdefenders.com
Tanzania
Canada
Louise Labuschagne
labuschagne@realipm.com Real IPM U.K
Managing Director
Antony Pierce
ap@realipm.co.uk
E.U & other countries
Realipm

The information contained in this manual does not constitute advice. Farmers should satisfy themselves of the registration and efficacy issues involved in implementation