Analysis and Development of The Laser Cladding Process

LULEL
2002:13
UNIVERSITY
OF TECHNOLOGY
Analysis and Developn1ent of

the Laser Cladding Process
Hans Gedda
Department ofApplied Physics and Mechanical Engineering

Division of Manufacturing Systems Engineering
2002:13 ISSN: 1402 - 1757 ISRN: LTU - LIC - - 02/13 - - SE

Dedicated to my late daughter Elina.
Preface
This work has been carried out since the spring of 1999 at the Division of Manufacturing
Systems at Lule University of Technology. The work has been in the area of laser cladding
and the experimental work was mostly performed in our laser laboratory. Some work has been
done at Duroc AB in Ume and Lule.
I would like to thank all my friends and colleagues at the division for all their help and fruitful
discussions.
I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Claes Magnusson, Lule, Doctor John
Powell, Nottingham and Professor Alexander Kaplan, Lule for discussions, suggestions and
guidance through this work.
I would finally thank my family, Birgitta, Petrus and Emilia for their love, support and patience
during the work.
Lule, May 2002
Hans Gedda
Abstract
This thesis presents an investigation into the laser cladding process using CO, and Nd:YAG
lasers. The work is divided into four chapters:
Chapter one is a literature review of the subject of laser cladding. This presents a general
overview of the subject from a practical and theoretical point of view.
Chapter two is an investigation about the energy redistribution during CO, laser cladding.
Experimental absorption measurements by calorimetry were carried out to separate and analyse
how much of the energy is lost by reflection etc. It was found that approximately 60% of the
original laser power is lost by reflection.
Chapter three extends the work of paper two and compares the process efficiency of Nd:YAG
and CO, laser cladding. The energy redistribution during cladding has been analysed for both
processes. The Nd:YAG laser cladding process was found to be considerably more energy
efficient than CO, laser cladding process.
Chapter four presents preliminary experimental results from two new processes; Laser casting
and Laser clad-casting. Laser casting is a process similar to blown powder laser cladding but
without the final product joined to the substrate. The substrate acts as a mould and the casting
retains topological features of the substrate. Laser clad-casting involves the production of a clad
layer between machined copper blocks. Clad tracks can therefore be achieved with large depth
to width ratios and pre determined cross sections.
11
Contents
Page
Preface
Abstract ii
Contents iii
Chapter I: An introduction to laser cladding 1
Chapter II: Energy Redistribution During CO, Laser Cladding 18
Gedda, H., Powell, J., Wahlstrm, G., W-B, Li., Engstrm, H.,
Magnusson,C. Accepted for publication in Journal of Laser
Applications March 2002.
Chapter III: A process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG

and CO, Laser Cladding 32
Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A. Conference proceedings

International Conference on Advanced Processes and Technologies
in Welding and Allied Processes Copenhagen,
Denmark 24-25 June 2002.
Chapter IV: Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting: New processes

for rapid prototyping and production 46
Powell, J., Gedda, H., Kaplan, A. Conference proceedings

International Congress on Applications of Lasers & Electro-Optics
(ICALEO)Scottsdale, Arizona, 14-17 October 2002.
111
H.Gedda: Chapter I-An Introduction to Laser Cladding
Chapter I
An Introduction to laser cladding
1
An Introduction to Laser Cladding

H. Gedda
(An edited version of; Laser Surface Cladding- A literature survey issn1402-1536; LTU- TR-
2000/7SE)
1 Background
Some industrial applications require parts with special surface properties such as good corrosion
resistance, wear resistance and hardness. Alloys with those properties are usually very expensive
and it is of great interest to reduce the cost of parts of this type [1]. This requirement has
stimulated the growth of surface treatment technologies which produce the correct surface
properties on cheap substrates. Laser surface treatment includes several different surfacing
techniques using the heat of the laser beam to modify the structure and physical characteristics
of the surface of a material. Laser surface treatment can be divided into; alloying, cladding,
dispersing, impregnation, and hardening [2]. The subject of this report is laser cladding.
Laser cladding involves the fusion of an alloying material layer to a substrate surface, with a low
level of melting of the substrate. The surface alloy composition must be well controlled with a
high bond strength to the substrate [3].
Laser cladding can be carried out in a single or a two-stage process. In the single stage process,
the powder is blown into the interaction zone between the laser beam and workpiece. In the
two-stage process the cladding material is pre-deposited on the substrate. Both techniques have
the advantage of the possible deposition of a wide range of alloys either using a chosen alloy in
powder form or by a blend of powders with the required composition.
2
2 Techniques of laser cladding
2.1 Introduction
Laser cladding is a cost-effective way of reducing material loss by corrosion, wear or other
forms of surface degradation. The aim of most cladding operations is to overlay one metal with
another, with a sound interfacial bound. Laser cladding enables a low dilution of the clad layer
with the bulk material combined with a metallurgical bonding between the layer and the
substrate [4,5]. According to Steen [6], the two most common methods of supplying cladding
material are:
Preplacement of cladding material powder on the substrate (see figure la).

Inert gas propulsion of material powder into a laser generated molten pool (see figure lb):
11 Cladding powder
a, Preplaced powder b, blown powder cladding.
Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of laser cladding processes [1] .
Relative motion between the laser/powder supply and the substrate can be used to
continuously apply a surface coating. Tracks are overlapped to cover larger surfaces (see figure
2). Clad coatings are usually of a thickness between 0.1 and 5 mm.
3
fl.Gedda: Chapter I-An Introduction to Laser Cladding
Figure 2. Schematic of the overlapping cladding process [7].
The effect of the laser radiation on the material depends on the energy density (P/VD).
Where:
P = Laser power (W)

V = Laser/material velocity (m/sec)
D = Diameter of the laser spot (m)
Common power densities for laser cladding are 102-104 W/mm2 together with an interaction
time of around 10-3- 1.0 s. Rapid solidification starts after the laser beam has scanned the
surface. The solidification starts at the bottom in the melt pool and progresses towards the
surface. The microstructure of the laser clad zone consists mainly of an as-cast region of
dendrites and HAZ adjacent to the fusion line. The microstructure of the clad layer can be
affected by the degree of dilution of the substrate [3, 8].
2.2 Laser cladding with preplaced powder
Cladding with preplaced powder is a very simple method provided the powder can be made to
remain in place until melted, while the area is being shrouded by an inert gas. Some form of
binder is usually used, often this is an alcohol [6]. The preplaced powder method involves
scanning the laser beam over the powder bed to melt it and weld it to the substrate.
2.3 Blown powder laser cladding
The first reference that describes the laser cladding process by blown powder is a patent from
Rolls Royce Ltd in the early eighties [9]. Blown powder laser cladding can produce a high
quality cladding layer with low dilution. The powder is transported into the melt pool by a
carrier gas and directed at an angle in the range 38-45 towards the substrate (see figure 2).
The powder particles are heated when they pass through the laser beam and the molten
particles are trapped in the melt pool. The energy must be high enough to melt the powder
but low enough too avoid too much substrate melting [3]. The powder striking the substrate
outside the melt pool ricochets but the powder striking the melt pool is completely melted.
With side blown powder there is a directional effect on the clad bead shape [6] and the
4
powder utilisation efficiency is low compared with coaxial powder nozzle feed [10]. The
coaxial system shown in figure 3 can avoid this problem to some extent.
Figure 3. A schematic of the transverse section of a coaxial nozzle [le
There are also other powder delivery systems (see figure 4). A detailed description is not
necessary here because each process and application may require special engineering
considerations [11].
LASER BEAM
(REFERENCE)
POWDER
NOZZLE
ETERING
UNIT
CONTROL
Figure 4. Powder delivering system [11].
The blown powder cladding process offers a numbers of advantages compared to other laser
surface treatments:
Well-defined treated region.
Low dilution.
Adaptable to automatic processing.
Good fusion bond.
It is easy to blend powder with a desired composition.
5
The process window is large.
High reproducibility.
2.4 Cladding with paste bound powders
In the cladding process with paste bound materials the clad material is fed directly into the
interaction zone between the laser and substrate. The laser melts the paste and produces a layer
on the substrate. The main disadvantage of this technique are problems with the binder
materials, such as contamination and gas porosity in the layer. This is because the binder must
be able to dry quickly, evaporate and, at same time keep the cladding material in compact
form.
2.5 Laser cladding by wire feeding
Laser cladding with powder filler material gives a poor utilisation of the powder and dust can
be emitted directly into the laser equipment and the working environment. One way to avoid
the disadvantage with powder feeding is to use wire as a cladding material. This wire feeding
process seems advantageous because the material efficiency is high in this one-step process
together with an improved working environment. But the absorption of energy by the wire is
inefficient, and to avoid this drawback it is necessary to raise the laser power or preheat the
wire [12,13]. The principle of laser cladding by wire feeding is shown in figure 5 below:
Laser beam
E
E
I
Wire Nozzle Substrate
Figure 5. Laser cladding by wire feeding.
Investigations with preheated wire,> 1000 C, show improved efficiency of the cladding
process [14]. The material usage efficiency is about 100% and melt rates as high as 3 kg/h are
obtained, but with unwanted dilution as a result. Wiklund et al. [12], has shown that when
laser cladding wire is combined with a MIG power supply, the amount of additive material can
be increased over 4 times in clad welds up to 5 mm thick with low dilution between the
substrate and cladding material. The clad welding rate can be three times higher if the
laser+MIG is used compared to the laser alone.
6
3 Theoretical modelling of the laser cladding process
3.1 Pre placed powder cladding
Preplaced powder cladding generally results in a low dilution clad layer over a wide range of
process parameters. This phenomenon was investigated by Powell [15] who produced a model
which divided up the laser-material interaction into 6 stages:
1. A layer of solid metal powder rests on a substrate with no laser irradiation. The powder
(of known depth, density, and composition) and the substrate (of known composition,
etc) are both at ambient temperature.
2. Laser irradiation begins and the surface powder particles heat up but are assumed not to
conduct heat to the particles below them because of the low level of interparticle
contact ( i.e. the bulk of the powder is assumed to be an insulator).
3. Under this irradiation the insulated surface particles melt and in the molten state can
conduct heat, but only to neighbouring particles experiencing wet contact ( i.e. only
the powder layer <2Ri, distance from the molten front; where RI, is the particle radius).
4. The molten front progresses through the insulating powder layer described by an
energy balance on the melt pool:
Laser energy in =[temperature rise + phase change (solid liquid) in the melt pool] +
(radiated loss from melt surface) + (convective loss from melt surface), i.e.
H = (C pi/ + QAV p) + ilp-411+[hA(Ts (1)
Where H is the heat input (J) to an element of surface area, A, and volume V, C
specific heat, Q the latent heat of melting, T, surface temperature, T ambient
temperature, h heat transfer coefficient, a the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and p
density.
5. Contact is established between the molten front and the substrate. This changes the
energy balance to:
Energy in = (change in sensible heat of the melt pool) + (radiative loss from melt
surface) + (convective loss from melt surface) + (conduction loss to the substrate), i.e.
H= pV AT + Q,AV p) + Uo-A(T5.4 1+[hA(T, Ta kcIt + KA 1,1 dt (2)
Where K is the thermal conductivity.
This chilling effect of the substrate leads to a reversal in the direction of movement of
the melt front. This now approaches the laser irradiated surface which is still being
heated.
6. Depending on the conditions, a number of phenomena (6A-6E) are now possible:
7
6A. The laser is no longer heating due to being stopped or having moved away. The
clad layer solidifies on the substrate surface and a bond exists between the two which
involves minimal substrate melting.
6B. The laser is of insufficient power to cause remelting but continues to heat. This has
the same result as found for 6A.
6C. The laser is sufficiently powerful to cause remelting but not to alter the single
reversal in solidification direction. The result is the same as for 6A.
6D. The laser is sufficiently powerful to cause a reversal of the resolidification process
but not powerful to enough to melt back to the interface. The result is a double change
in the solidification direction but the interface is still formed from a solid/liquid
contact.
6E. The laser is sufficiently powerful to remelt back to the interface. The result is a
double change in solidification direction but an interfacial bond which could be a
fusion bond if the remelting process is allowed to proceed back to the substrate surface
otherwise it is once more a solid/liquid bond.
In practice the interactions described as 6C, 6D and 6E rarely have sufficient time to
proceed to an equilibrium melt depth.
A computer model of this theory was developed which generated process maps of the type
shown in fig 6.
or inal ,to tier surface
Position of the melt front s

a
E
2000W incident absorbed power. 8.

2 Poston bond
Ke inc...-re t..,-.tug dizuttutl

,
3 e..
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Figure 6. Theoretical calculation of the position of the melt front during prep/aced powder cladding [6].
This figure demonstrates that the melt front needs to contact the substrate only once to
produce a clad layer but needs to contact it twice to dilute the clad layer with molten substrate
material. This explains the low level of dilution associated with the process.
8
3.2 Blown powder cladding
According to Steen [6], there is a reasonably large operating window for successful low
dilution fusion bonded cladding as illustrated in figure 7 below This process window is limited
by three boundaries namely:
1. The dilution limit (I), which corresponds to the laser beam power (P) needed to melt the
powder and a thin layer of the substrate with a fixed powder flow rate (m). This can be
expressed by J P/Dm where D is the beam diameter. For cobalt alloys the authors
estimated that J 2500 J/g.mm.
2. The aspect ratio limit corresponds to the powder feed rate at fixed absorbed laser beam
power, that leads to clad tracks which can be overlapped without defects. To avoid
porosity in overlapped tracks the aspect ratio should be w/h >5, where iv is the width and h
is the height of a single track
3. The lower power limit corresponds to the absorbed laser beam which just melts the
substrate. This limit is given by the equation / = P (1 r s)/DV, where r is the reflectivity
and s is the shadow coefficient. For example, more than 22 J/mm2 is required for
continuous cladding.
It has been suggested that the extensive low dilution region is due to the solidification front
rising swiftly with the growth of the clad. The explanation of this is that the interface freezes
almost as soon as it forms even if there is melt above.
Power /spot diameter
1000
500
no clad
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Powder feed rate
Figure 7. Operating window for blown powder laser cladding [6].
In the early nineties Picasso and Hoadley presented a two dimensional Finite Element model
for the cladding process [16]. They used a very simple gas-powder flow model, the heat and
Navier-Stokes equations are solved in the material with the corresponding boundary
conditions. Later Li et al [17] developed a mathematical model of the cladding process. The
aim of the model was to get a better control of the cladding quality and to optimise the
9
cladding process. To do this, certain simplifying assumptions had to be made. They are
summarised as follows:
1. The laser beam and the injecting powder stream are both assumed to be cylindrical. The
two "cylinders" converge in the cladding zone (see fig 8)
2. The cladding particles are spheres of uniform size.
3. The temperature dependence of physical properties such as density, specific heat and the
absorption coefficient of the particle material are neglected.
4. Energy reflected between particles or from the workpiece to the particles is ignored.
Figure 8. The geometry of the laser cladding process [17]
Li et al. [17] stated that the basic consideration for calculating the temperature of any particle is
the law of energy conservation, i.e.
E,= Ea+ER+E,+E, (3)
Where E, is energy incident on the particle, E, is the energy absorbed, E, is energy reflected
from the particle surface, Er, the radiant and convected losses and E, is the energy transmitted
through the particle.
If the radiation and convected losses together with the energy-transmitted through a particle
are neglected, we have
(4)
The energy transmitted through a particle can be neglected because the penetration depth of
the CO,- laser light is about 10 m. The powder particles are usually tens of microns in
diameter and therefore the particles can be assumed to be opaque.
10
Energy Input to Any Particle (Ea)
The aim of the model was to calculate the temperature of a particle which impacts the melt
pool at any point P* defined by (a*,b*) in X*0*Y* co-ordinate plane or by P(a,b) in the co-
ordinates of XOY (see figure 8). From figure 8 it can be seen that x* = x / cos a and y* = y.
Considering a particle at a location B on its path of injection, the energy input to the particle is
dependent on its depth in the powder stream, because the shielding effects of the particles
above. Therefore, ignoring radiative, convective and transmitted losses the energy absorbed by
the particle for a small time interval A t , E, can be expressed as:
E = (1 D) I (x, y) rt- r 2p e -EL A t (5)
Where D is the reflection coefficient of the particle, rp the particle radius, B the absorption
coefficient of the particle material, L, the volume fraction of the particles in the powder
cloud, I(x,y) the distribution function of the intensity of the laser beam and I the penetration
depth of the laser light through the powder cloud to reach the particle concerned. In this
work, described in more detail elsewhere [26,28], the equation above is rewritten and
substituted to result in the final equation below.
3(1 D) 477
TT, I (x,b)e t (6)
4rp pCvCos0
This is the equation for calculating the temperature of the particle impacting on the melt pool
at the point (a*,b*) in the X*0*Y* plane or at (a,b) in the XOY plane. The equation relates
the temperature to a number of variables which include the beam parameters (I, rb, Q),
geometrical parameters (0, a, 1) and the particle parameters (P,v,rp ,B, f,). The effect of these
variables can be predicted separately by calculation.
Model results:
Power:
Results from the model showed what was expected i.e. there exists a linear relationship
between laser power and particle heating.
Laser Beam Radius:

The relationship between the preheat temperature and beam diameter also showed a linear
relationship.
11
Particle Size:
Figure 9, shows that the amount Or/ 0 00001
Rp =0 00002
of pre heating experienced by a particle is =0 00003
inversely proportional to particle size. This is 00.

because the mass of the particle increases in
proportion to r2 (r = radius) and the absorbing
surface increases only in proportion to r2.
a (m)
Figure 9. Pre-heating temperature of powder particles of different

sizes [14
Powder Flow Rate:
The powder flow rate is another important parameter in the cladding process represented by
the volume fraction of powder . Low flow rates often give high dilution whilst high flow
rates create porosity and defects in the binding zone. The model showed that the shadowing
effect of the topmost particles increased dramatically with increased powder fraction.
Particle speed:
Figure 10 demonstrates that the
,
preheating is inversely proportional Aeee V 2
to the powder velocity. This result depends on

the reduced laser particle interaction time at
higher velocities.
The particles are impacting along the line
defined by b=0 for different powder
particle speed [m/s].
-0 0010 -0 0005 0 0000 0 0005 00(110
a (m)
Figure 10. Pre-heating of powder particles for

different speeds [181.
Distance From the Laser Beam Centre:

The particle preheat temperature decreases if the particle path is moved away from the centre
line (i.e. as b increases). Particles travelling along the centre line of the beam are exposed to
laser light for a longer time than those which are off centre. Figure 11 below shows the
preheating temperature of powder particles impacting along lines defined by b=0, 0,2, 0,4, 0,6,
and 0,8 mm for Gaussian beam intensity distribution. If the beam has a Gaussian energy
distribution the particle travelling closer to the beam centre line are also exposed to higher
beam intensities.
12
Laser beam
Cr0555CCUOn
00000 b=0.0000
aeleao b=0.0002 Maximum
ecneent b-0.0004 expoaure xi
eft b0.0006 and heaung
tree*0 b=0.0008
Reduced b=0
exPc.ure b>0
and heaUng
a (m)
Figure 11. Pre-heating temperature of particles

for Gaussian beam intensity distribution [18].
Various models have been published relating to numerical simulations of the physical processes
involved in laser cladding. Collier et al [19] presents a two dimensional model for deterrning
the temperature and the distribution of velocities in the workpiece, taking due account of the
results obtained in experiments. Oilier states that the interaction between hydrodynamics,
thermal, conduction and powder gas-flow determine the physical processes involved in
cladding operations and the processing results.
4 Influence of process parameters on the cladding process

Powder feed rates and scanning speed influence the geometry of the clad layer. Cladding
thickness depends on the amount of powder injected to the melt pool. It is usual to combine
the powder feed rate m and the scanning speedy to a powder feed rate m /v [g/m], to calculate
the amount of powder transported onto the sample per unit length [20,21]. A linear
relationship exists between the powder feed rate and the energy required, if sufficient energy is
to be available to melt all arriving powder. An excessively high laser energy input leads to
dilution with undesirable mechanical properties in the material e.g. decrease in wear resistance.
The surface of the substrate should be melted slightly so that a good bond betwen the substrate
and cladding material is produced. A slightly larger laser beam diameter than the powder
supply nozzle improves the coating efficiency in terms of reduced powder loss during the
coating process.
Lugscheider [20] states that when coating larger areas by laying single tracks next to each other,
the overlap of tracks is added as another process parameter. If the overlap of the tracks is too
small, poor cladding is produced. With increasing overlap the surface profile becomes
smoother, but every track produces a heat treatment in the preceding track. Between two
overlapping tracks a heat-affected zone (HAZ) develops in the clad layer. This HAZ shows a
coarsened microstructure with inferior properties of hardness and corrosion resistance.
Therefore, for coating larger areas, a broad track-width is advantageous, with fewer overlaps as
a result.
13
H.Gedda: Chapter 1-An Introduction to Laser Cladding
The cladding microstructure is partly influenced by the structure and size of the powder
particles but is mainly affected by the solidification rate, which depends on process parameters
such as power density, absorption of laser energy and scanning speed [21].
By changing these parameters different solidification rates are achieved and faster solidification
rates lead to a fine structure. Powders used in the cladding process contain mainly Co, Ni, Fe,
and Cr. Their thermophysical properties are similar and average values are as follows: p=
8g/cm3, c= 0,5 J/g, AH, = 300J/g and Tm =1500 C. For a mass of 1g, the energy required
for melting is E =1kj, and for a feed rate of 30 g/min (0,5 g/s), the absorbed power needed is
500W [33]. The power necessary for melting depends also on the absorption coefficient (A) of
the powder particles. It is known that that this coefficient is small for metallic surfaces at =
10,6 gm (CO, laser wavelength)but the surface of the powder particles is often covered in
oxides [22]which increases absorptivity. The absorption of laser radiation is also a function of
angle of incidence of the beam with respect to the material surface [7]. This is clearly a
complex variable when small powder particles are considered. The polarisation of the beam is
another factor, which affects absorptivity. Experimental work [7] has shown that the best
process efficiency can be achieved when using a linearly polarised CO,- laser at an angle of
75 to the direction of material surface.
The laser cladding process can therefore generally be divided into process and powder
parameters:
Powder parameters are:
Size and size distribution of the powder.
Powder feed rate.
Type and amount of protection and transport gas.
Melting temperature.
The point of injection.
Absorption coefficient.
Process parameters are:
Laser power and power density.
Angle and position of the powder nozzle relatively the substrate
Scanning speed.
14
5 Conclusion
Industrial applications require parts with good wear, corrosion, and hardness properties. Laser
surface treatment is a process which can compete with traditional surface treatment methods.
Laser surface treatments are divided in hardening, dispersing, impregnation, alloying, and
cladding. In this literature survey laser cladding technology has been the main object of study
and the general conclusions are summarised as follows.
Single stage (i.e. material injection) laser cladding technology offers some advantages
compared with the preplaced powder cladding process as any substrate geometry can be
clad.
The technique based on direct powder injection into the melt pool has the advantage of
possible deposition of a wide range of a alloys either by using a chosen alloy as powder or
by a blend of powders with the required composition. A slightly larger laser beam diameter
than the powder nozzle improves the powder utilisation.
For coating larger areas, a broad track-width is advantageous, with fewer overlaps.
Absorbing coating layers or sand blasting of the substrate increases the cladding rate.
Laser cladding with wire, band or paste is a material efficient process compared to blown
powder cladding. If wire cladding is combined with a MIG power supply, the cladding rate
increases more then four times compared with the laser alone.
A coaxial nozzle powder feeder showed some advantage compared with side blown
powder technology concerning the powder utilisation and directional effects.
Laser cladding is very complex because the processing parameters are numerous.
Models of the laser cladding process are a useful tool to avoid undesired dilution and an
understanding of the phenomena in the interaction zone.
13
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heating of the blown powder material in the laser cladding process. Conf. Proc.
Of 5" Conf. On Laser Materials Processing in the Nordic Countries, Nolamp 4,
Sep 6-8, 1995, Oslo, Norway
19. Oilier, B, Pirch, N, Kreutz, E.W, Schluter , Gasser, H, Wissenbach, K., Cladding
With Lasers Radiation: Properties and Analysis. DGM Informationsgesllschft
mbH (Germany), pp. 687-692, 1992.
20. Lugscheider, E, Oberlnder, BC, Leising, S.E., Influnce of Laser Cladding

Parameters on the Microstructure and Properties of Claddings. Surface
Modification Technologies V Edited by T.S Sudarshan and J.F Braza. The
Institute of Matreials. 1992 Aachen University of Technology, Templergrabbe
55, D-5100 Aachen, Germany. pp 880-888.
21. Vilar, S, Neto,D., Interaction Between the laser Beam and the Powder Laser
Alloying and Cladding. Conference proceedings 'CALE() 98 November 16-19,
1998 Orlando,FL USA. D180-D187.
22. Sahour, M.C, Vannes, A.B, Pelletier, J,M., Laser Cladding By Powder Injection:
Optimazation Of The Processing Conditions. Journal De Physique IV, Vol 1.
Dec 1991. Pp C7-51-C7-54.
17
H.Gedda: Chapter II-Energy Redistribution During CO, Laser Cladding
Chapter II
Energy Redistribution During CO2 Laser

Cladding
Is
H.Gedda: Chapter II-Energy Redistribution During CO2 Laser Cladding
Energy Redistribution During CO2 Laser

Cladding
H.Gedda*, J.Powell+, G.Wahlstrm**, W-B. Li*, H.Engstrm*,
C.Magnusson*.
* Lule University of Technology, Division of System and Manufacturing Engineering,

S-971 87 Lule, Sweden Phone: +46 920 91169, E-mail: Hans.Gedda@mb.luth.se
+ Laser Expertise Ltd., Acorn Park Industrial Estate, Harrimans Lane, Nottingham NG7
2TR, U.K.
** Duroc AB, Industrivgen 8, S-90130 Ume Sweden
Abstract
This paper examines the factors that effect the efficiency of the CO, laser powder cladding
process. By theoretical calculation and experimental work it has been possible to identify how
much of the original laser energy contributes to the cladding process and how much is lost to
the surrounding environment by reflection, radiation, convection etc. Every aspect of energy
redistribution has been analysed and quantified and this has lead to a deeper understanding of
the process. The paper concludes with a number of suggestions for improving the efficiency of
blown powder laser cladding.
Keywords: Laser cladding, Laser processing, Energy redistribution, Surface treatment
19
1 Introduction
Laser cladding is a method of welding one metal onto the surface of another. There are two
basic techniques:
1. Single stage or blown powder cladding: This involves blowing the cladding metal
powder into a laser generated melt pool on the surface of the substrate. (see figure 1).
This process is easily automated and has widespread commercial applications [1-3].
2. Two stage or pre-placed powder cladding: In this case a bed of powder is layed on the
surface on the substrate and the laser subsequently passes over it (see figure 1). This
process is difficult to automate and has limited commercial applications [4].
Blown powder
particles
AF
111 Substrate
Clad layer Wig
Preplaced cladding
material
Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of laser cladding processes [5].
This paper considers the efficiency of the blown powder cladding process by analysing how
much of the laser energy contributes to the cladding process and how much is lost to the
surrounding environment by reflection etc.
20
2 Theoretical Discussion
An energy balance for laser cladding can be expressed as follows:
P tot PC+PL (1)
Where:
Prot = the output power of the laser
Pc he power utilised in melting the cladding material and welding it to the surface of
the substrate.
PL = the power lost by reflection, radiation, convection etc.
Pc in equation 1 can be expanded as follows:
Pc= Pp+Ps (2)
-Where:
P, -= the power utilised in melting the cladding powder.
Ps =- the power utilised in melting the surface of the substrate in order to achieve a
clad/substrate weld.
P, in equation 1 can be similarly expanded:
PL PAPB+PDPEPFPG (3)
Where:
PA = Power reflected off the surface of the clad zone.
P = Power reflected off the powder particles as they approach the weld pool.
P,= Power lost by radiation from the cladding zone.
P, = Power lost by convection from the cladding zone.
P, = Power lost by conduction from the clad zone to the substrate.
PG = Power absorbed by the powder particles which do not enter the cladding
melt pool.
Figure 2 gives a visual representation of equation 3. Of course these "losses" are to some
extent necessary to the cladding process. It is not possible to heat a metal to well above its
melting point without having radiant or convective thermal losses. A liquid sitting on a
comparatively cool solid will always lose heat by conduction etc. For the purpose of this
discussion however, it must be taken that any influence which could minimise PA, PE, PD, PE,
P, or PG would increase the efficiency of the cladding process. This reduction in any of the
factors of equation 3 would, of course, increase the proportion of the power available to the
cladding process.
21
P Laser beam
Powder stream
PD
Figure 2. The redistribution of laser power during the cladding process
The aim of commercial cladding is to cover the surface of one metal with another at the lowest
cost. Clad depths are usually stipulated and the biggest cost element of the process is laser time.
Therefore the simple aim of commercial cladding can be expressed as follows:
To cover metal A with a known thickness of metal B at the fastest possible rate
with a high quality interfacial bond.
Returning to equation 2 it is clear that the process can be speeded up if there is an increase in
the laser power available for melting the cladding material Pi,. The requirement here would be
to melt enough powder to achieve the correct clad thickness at a faster linear speed. Also an
increase in P, must not be employed to melt the substrate to a greater depth. The process must
be accelerated to achieve the same (minimum) substrate melt depth at a higher process speed.
To summarise:
The efficiency of laser cladding could be improved by minimising any of the losses
in equation 3. This would lead to an increase in P, and the process could be
accelerated to produce the same clad depth with a minimal depth of substrate
melting.
The following experimental section details an investigation to identify the relative magnitude
of the components of Pc and P,
22
3 Experimental procedure
3.1 General
The substrate material used in this study was (SS 2172) steel with the following composition.
Table1. Steel composition (substrate)
C Si Mn P V N Fe
wt % 0.16 0.22 0.94 0.014 0.022 0.06 0.009 98.6
The cladding material was cobalt based with the following composition.
Table2. Cladding powder composition
Cr C Si Mo Ni Fe Co
wt % 27.2 0.27 1.0 5.5 2.3 0.3 63.4
The laser used was a Trumpf CO. laser with a maximum output power of 12 kW. The
shielding/carrier gas employed to propel the powder was argon. The substrate specimens were
grit blasted before cladding was carried out.
A number of different experimental and theoretical analyses were carried out to estimate the
relative importance of the components of equation 2 and 3. These are described separately
below.
3.2 The power absorbed by or reflected off the powder cloud above the clad zone
During the cladding process the laser beam must travel through the powder cloud in order to
reach the cladding zone (see figure 2). A proportion of the laser energy is reflected off the
powder cloud and is lost to the cladding process. Another portion of the incident energy is
absorbed by the particles but some of this energy is also lost to the process because not all the
heated particles join the cladding melt pool.
A simple experiment was set up to discover what proportion of the original laser power would
penetrate the powder cloud (see figure3 below). A commercially available "power probe" was
used to measure the laser power with and without the powder stream turned on. The powder
flow rates were typical of the cladding process as were all the other process parameters. The
average results from several such tests are presented in Table 3. The energy absorbed by the
powder cloud was directly measured by measuring the average temperature rise of the powder
after it had passed through the beam (see figure 3). The power reflected off the powder cloud
could then be easily calculated as shown in table 3.
23
Laser
Brans
Powder
Particles
Insulated
.4 calorimeter
Power reading
Figure 3. The experimental arrangement for the analysis of the absorption and
reflection of the energy by the powder cloud.
Table3. Power absorbed and reflected by the powder cloud
Laser output Powder flow Post powder Total power Power Power
Power* rate cloud power reflected and absorbed Reflected
absorbed by by powder off powder
the powder cloud cloud (PB)
cloud
(Watts) (g/min) (Watts) (Watts) (Watts) (Watts)
5300 35 4800 500 106 (2.0%) 394 (7.4%)

5300 45 4660 640 119 (2.2%) 521 (9.8%)
5000 35 4510 490 102 (2.0%) 388 (7.8%)
5000 45 4370 630 117 (2.3%) 513 (10.2%)
4700 35 4200 500 101 (2.1%) 399 (8.5%)
4700 45 4150 550 116 (2.5%) 434 (9.2%)
Average 2.2% 8.8%
(approx 2%) (approx 9%)
* Measured by the powder probe but with zero powder flow.
** Percentages are approximate
It is clear from table 3 that we now have an approximate value for P, for the commercial
parameter range covered here:
PB= 9"01.r (4)
One other component of equation 3 can also be identified from table 3 after the same
parameters were used for actual cladding. This parameter is 130, the level of power absorbed by
particles which do not enter the cladding melt pool.
24
A number of cladding trials were carried out and these showed that, over this range of
parameters, the proportion of particles which formed the clad track was 60%( The range was
57%-63%). Then it can be concluded that 40% of the heat collected by the powder cloud (2%
see table 3) does not contribute to the cladding process.
i.e. PG = 0.8 % (5)
3.3 The power lost by radiation from the cladding zone (Pp).
The total energy radiated from the clad pool can be calculated from the pool temperature,
surface area and emissivity. If the emissivity of the liquid metal pool is taken as equal to one
then the calculation is simplified and the maximum possible radiation power can be estimated:
PD = Cr T4A (6)
Where
a is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.7*10-8 Wm-2K-4)
is the surface temperature of the melt (K)
A is the area of the melt surface (m2)
In this case the surface temperature of the melt was approximately 2300 K and its surface area
was 32 mm2. The value of 2300 K has been chosen because it is half way between the melting
point (1700 K) and the boiling point (3000 K) of the material
This gives a maximum value for P, of
Pd= 5.7 *10-8 *(2300)4 * 32 *10-6 = 51 Watts (7)
1% of P 50 (8)
3.4 Power lost by convection from the clad zone (PE).
The cladding zone is a molten alloy with a surface temperature of., 2300 K
and a surface area of 32 mm2 . This melt is exposed to a stream of argon which carries the
powder to the clad zone. The argon flow was measured and found to have an average flow
velocity of 4.3m/sec.
The rate of convective cooling of a hot body exposed to a cooler gas is given by:
Q=11.AAt Watts (9)

Where:
h = heat transfer coefficient
A = surface area of the hot body
At = The difference in temperature between the body and the cooling gas.
Evaluation of h from a standard text on the subject [6] gives us a value of approximately 100
W/m2K.
25
Q= 100 *(,T* 0.0032 )* 2000 (10)
PE = 5.6 Watts (11)

Or PE = 0.1%P 0 (12)
3.5 Power reflected off the surface of the clad zone (PA).
Calorimetry was employed to measure the heat input to each clad sample (Pm). From this
measurement it is possible to measure the power reflected off the cladding zone in the
following way:
PA = Pa+PDPEPG+P.) (13)
Table 4 shows the results from the calorimetric measurements taken at different laser powers
and powder feed rates
Table4. Calorimetric measurements
Laser output Powder flow Power input to Power % input

Power rate clad sample (Ph) to sample
(Watts) (g/min) (Watts)
5300 35 1990 37.5 %

5300 45 1886 35.5 %
5000 35 2043 41.0%
5000 45 2147 43.0%
4700 35 1938 41.0%
4700 45 1730 37.0 %
Average 40 1955 39.0%
From our earlier results:
P A = 100 (9+1+0.1+0.8+39) (14)
PA = 50.1% (15)
In summary it can be said that the clad zone reflects approximately half of the laser energy.
This high reflectivity value confirms the work of other authors in the field [7] who suggest that
the onset of melting is associated with a rise in material reflectivity. It is assumed that this is
because a molten surface in an inert atmosphere (in this case argon) is smooth and oxide free.
This smooth, oxide free surface acts as a better reflector than the solid, rough, oxidised surface
which exists before melting.
26
3.6 The power utilised in melting the clad layer to the substrate (Pa)
Blown powder laser clad layers usually have a cross sectional geometry similar to that shown in
figures 4 and 5.
Heat affected zone
Melted substrate
Figure4. The cross sectional geometry of a blown powder laser clad layer. Note: the melted substrate and
cladding material are mixed together during the process.
As figure 4 demonstrates, the production of a clad layer usually involves melting the surface
layers of the substrate. The amount of substrate melting can range from minimal to levels
where the clad layer is really a dilute alloy of the substrate and cladding material. For this
reason cladding which involves substantial substrate melting is called laser surface alloying.
Melted
6.2 mm
substrate
Figure 5. Macrographs of a typical laser clad sample in cross

section. (see also figure 4)
27
H.Gedda: Chapter 11-Energy Redistribution During CO2 Laser Cladding
Pa, the power utidised in melting the cladding material and welding it to the surface of the
substrate can be calculated as follows:
P,= Avp(CpAt + AHm) (16)
Where:
A = The melt cross sectional area (m2)
= The Cladding speed (m/s)
= The Density of the material.
Cp -= Specific heat capacity of the material.
At -= The difference between the average melt temperature and ambient
AH, = Specific heat of melting of the clad melt.
Taking approximate average values of these variables in the case of our experiments gives
following:
A = 3.4*10-6m2
= 0.015 (m/sec)
p = 8020 kg/m3
Cp = 500 J/kg K
At = 2000K
AHm = 300 kJ/Kg
P,= 3.4*10*0.015*8020*(500*2000+300*103)
P,= 530 Watts
These values give us a typical value of P, of r-lt 500 W or 10 % of Pro,
3.7 Power lost by conduction from the clad zone to the substrate
This value is easily established by subtracting (Pa) from the total power absorbed by the
workpiece (P1.). Taking average values:
PF= Pc "'-' 30%1350, (17)
28
4 Discussion
Figure 6 presents schematics of the redistribution of energy during the laser cladding process
(approximate percentages).
% of power
Raw Power of beam (5 kW) (Pt,) 100%
Power Reflected off the workpiece (PA) 50%
Power Re radiated from the workpiece (P,) 1%
-100%
Power Reflected off particles (P,) 9%
Power absorbed by the Process (P,+13,) 40%
Power absorbed by the cladding process 40%
Power used to melt the Clad layer (P,) 10%
Power absorbed in heating the substrate (P r) 30%
Figure 6. Schematic of the redistribution of energy during the cladding process
Our calculations show that two of the variables included in equation 3; PE and P, are
negligible as they account for less than 1 % of P (see equation 5 and 12). 13, also accounts for
only 1% of Pto, and can therefore be ignored.
29
The major mechanism of energy loss to the process is that of reflection from the melt pool and
the powder cloud. Reflection off the melt pool is a function of the condition of the melt
surface. As this melt is produced in an inert atmosphere it experiences no surface oxidation and
thus has a high reflectivity. Dilution of the inert shroud gas with an oxidising agent would
decrease this reflectivity but may have disruptive consequences on the stability of the process
and the metallurgy of the clad track. Overlapping such deliberately oxidised tracks could also
prove problematic.
The reduction of reflective losses from the powder cloud is comparatively easy. All that is
necessary is an increase in the average particle diameter. During its passage through the laser
beam the particle interacts with and reflects light over an area equal to its cross sectional area
(nr2) rather than half its surface area (27cr2). This because the shadow cast by any particle has an
area of itr2 where r is the particle radius. A particle of twice the original radius would cast a
shadow four times as big but would have eight times the mass (mass oc rs). Thus it is clear that,
for a set mass flow rate, larger particles interact with (and reflect) less of the beam. This is of
course only useful within certain limits as the cladding process will break down if the particles
are too large.
5 Conclusions
Of the powder absorbed by the cladding process (40%) three quarters is used in heating the
substrate and only the remaining quarter (10% of the original laser power) is employed in
melting the cladding material. From this it is clear that a pre heat involving a cheaper energy
source than a laser would improve the economic efficiency of the process. Such a preheating
method might employ flame, plasma, oven or induction techniques.
1) In commercial blown powder cladding the laser power is eventually re distributed as

follows:
a) 50 % is reflected off the cladding melt
b) 10% is reflected off the powder cloud
c) 30% is used to heat the substrate
d) 10% is used to melt the clad layer
2) Reflections off the powder cloud could be reduced for a given mass flow rate if the
powder particle size was increased (within certain limits above which the process
would break down)
3) The proportion of laser energy required to heat the substrate could be reduced by
exploring in pre heat method which uses a cheaper energy source (flame, plasma,
induction etc)
4) Acting upon 2 or 3 above could improve the cost effectiveness of laser

cladding.
30
6. References
1. Oilier, B., N, Kreutz, E.W, Schluter, Gasser, H,. Wissenbach, K.
(1992)Cladding With Laser Radiation: Properties and Analysis. DGM
Informationsgesllesheft mbH (Germany), pp. 687-692.
1. Li, W.B., Engstrm, H., A Model Of Laser Cladding By Powder Injection.

(1996) Pre heating of the blown powders and powder redistribution of the laser
beam. Conf. Proc. Of MSMIVI '96. June 11-13, Beijing, China.
3. Sahour, M.C, Vannes, AB, Pelletier, J,M., (1991) Laser Cladding By Powder
Injection: Optimisation Of The Processing Conditions. Journal De Physique
IV, Vol 1. Dec. pp C7-51-C7-54.
4. Powell, J., Laser Cladding. PhD Theses. Imperial College of Science and
Technology, Dept. Of metallurgy, London, UK, (1983).
5. Riabkina-Fishman, M., Zahavi,J. Laser alloying and cladding for improving

surface properties, Applied Surface Science (Netherlands), vol. 106, no. 1-4, 1
Oct. 1996
6. Porier, D.R., Geiger, G.H. Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing. Heat

Transfer and The Energy Equation. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
(1994). ISBN 0-87339-272-8.
7. Bloehs, W., Grnenwald, B., Dausinger, F., Hgel. Recent progress in laser
surface treatment: I. Implications of laser wavelength. Journal of laser
applications 8 (1996) pp 15-23.
31
H.Gedda: Chapter III-A process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG and CO2 Laser Cladding
Chapter III
A Process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG

and CO2 Laser Cladding
32
H.Gedda: Chapter III-A process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG and CO, Laser Cladding
A Process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG

and CO2 Laser Cladding
H.Gedda*, J.Powell+, A.Kaplan*.

S-971 87 Lule, Sweden Phone: +46 920 91169, E-mail: Hans.Gedda@mb.luth.se
2TR, U.K.
Abstract
Blown powder laser cladding is a cost effective way of producing a surface layer to withstand
wear and corrosion. However, the cladding process is slow. Therefore is it of great interest to
investigate how much of the laser power is used in the cladding process and how much is
reflected etc. In this investigation an Nd:YAG and a CO3-laser have been compared as energy
sources for the process. Every aspect of the energy redistribution during cladding has been
analysed. The main energy loss to the process for both lasers is by reflection from the melt pool
and the powder cloud. It was found that the Nd:YAG laser cladding process is approximately
twice as energy efficient as the CO, laser cladding process.
Keywords: Laser cladding; Laser processing, Energy redistribution, Surface treatment
1 Introduction
Blown powder laser cladding involves projecting a stream of metal powder (in an inert gas jet)
into a laser generated melt pool on the surface of a metal substrate (see fig 1).
Powder particles
Figure 1. Blown powder laser cladding [1].
33
The result of this process is a clad track of the cladding metal on the substrate. Such tracks can be
overlapped to cover areas of the substrate with a harder and/or more corrosion resistant surface.
The process is not energy efficient as a large proportion of the incoming laser power is reflected or
reradiated from the cladding zone as shown in figure 2.
Powder stream
Figure 2. The redistribution of laser power during he cladding process

P,
(see text for definition of PA etc).
A power balance for laser cladding can be expressed as follows:

Pt.= Pc+Pt (1)
Where:
P,0,= the output power of the laser
Pc = the power utilised in melting the cladding material and welding it to the surface of
the substrate.
P, = the power lost by reflection, radiation, convection etc.
P, in equation 1 can be expanded as follows:
Pc= P,,+Ps (2)
Where:
= the power utilised in melting the cladding powder.
Ps = the power utilised in melting the surface of the substrate in order to achieve a
clad/substrate weld.
P, in equation 1 can be similarly expanded:
PL = PA+PB+131)+PE+PF+PG (3)
34
H.Gedda: Chapter III-A process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG and CO2 Laser Cladding
Where:
PA = Power reflected off the surface of the clad zone.
P, = Power reflected off the powder particles as they approach the weld pool.
P, = Power lost by radiation from the cladding zone.
PE = Power lost by convection from the cladding zone.
P, = Power lost by conduction from the clad zone to the substrate.
PG = Power absorbed by the powder particles which do not enter the cladding melt
pool.
Figure 2 gives a visual representation of equation 3. Of course these "losses" are to some extent
necessary to the cladding process. It is not possible to heat a metal to well above its melting point
without having radiant or convective thermal losses. A liquid sitting on a comparatively cool solid
will always lose heat by conduction etc. For the purpose of this discussion however, it will be
taken that any influence which could minimise PA, PB, P, PE, P, or P would increase the
efficiency of the cladding process. This reduction in any of the factors of equation 3 would, of
course, increase the proportion of the power available to the cladding process.
Earlier work by the present authors [2] quantified the individual elements of equations 1,2 and 3
for CO, laser cladding. The results of that work concluded that the laser power was redistributed
in the following proportions:
Power reflected off the workpiece (P) = 50%

Power reradiated from the workpiece (P0) = 1%
Power reflected off the particles (PB) = 9%
Power absorbed by the process (Pc+13,) = 40%
100%
Of the power absorbed by the process (40%) three quarters of it was employed in simply heating
the substrate and only the remaining 10% of the original laser power was used to melt material to
produce a clad layer.
This present work involves repeating this quantification of the power redistribution for Nd:YAG
and CO, laser cladding in order to compare the efficiency of the two types of laser for this process.
These experimental trials were carried out at a laser power of approximately 3 kW for both types
of laser. This allowed a direct comparison of the lasers and also a confirmation of the previous
published results [2] at a different power level (the earlier work was carried out at a power level of
5 kW).
35
2 Experimental work
2.1 General
The substrate material used in this study was (SS 2172) steel with the following composition:
Table I. Steel composit'on (substrate)
C Si Mn P V N Fe
wt % 0.16 0.22 0.94 0.014 0.022 0.06 0.009 98.6
The cladding material was cobalt based with the following composition:
Table 2. Cladding powder composition
Cr C Si Mo Ni Fe Co
wt % 27.2 0.27 1.0 5.5 2.3 0.3 63.4
The substrate specimens were grit blasted before cladding was carried out. The laser used was a
Rofin Sinar RS 6000 CO3-laser with a maximum output power of 6 kW and the Nd:YAG-laser
was a Haas Laser HL 3006 D 4 kW. The powder feeder was a TECFLO TM 5102. The
shielding/carrier gas employed to propel the powder was argon.
2.2 The power absorbed by or reflected off the powder cloud above the clad zone
During the cladding process the laser beam must travel through the powder cloud in order to
reach the cladding zone (see figure 2). A proportion of the laser energy is reflected off the powder
cloud and is lost to the cladding process. Another portion of the incident energy is absorbed by the
particles but some of this energy is also lost to the process because not all the heated particles join
the cladding melt pool.
A simple experiment was set up to discover what proportion of the original laser power would
penetrate the powder cloud (see figure3 below). A commercially available "power probe" was
used to measure the laser power with and without the powder stream turned on. The powder
flow rates were typical of the cladding process as were all the other process parameters. The
average results from several such tests are presented in table 3. The energy absorbed by the powder
cloud was directly measured by measuring the average temperature rise of the powder after it had
passed through the beam (see figure 3). The power reflected off the powder cloud could then be
easily calculated as shown in table 3.
36
4 Laser Beam
Powder
Particles
Insulated
4 Calorimeter
Figure 3. The experimental arrangement for the analysis of the absorption and
reflection of the energy by the powder cloud.
Table 3. Power absorbed and reflected by the powder cloud irradiated by the tao types of laser
Laser Laser Powder Post Total power Power Power

type output flow powder reflected absorbed Reflected
Power * rate cloud and by powder off powder
power absorbed by cloud ** cloud (P,)
the powder **
cloud ** (Watts)
(Watts) (g/min) (Watts) (Watts) (Watts)
Nd:YAG 2743 30 2506 237 18 224

(100%) (91%) (9%) (1%) (8%)
CO, 2695 30 2457 238 22 218
(100%) (91%) (9%) (1%) (8%)
* Measured by the power probe but with zero powder flow.
** Percentages are approximate
It is clear from table 3 that we now have an approximate value for P, (the power reflected of the
powder cloud) for the parameter range covered here:
P, = 8 % Ro, for the Nd:YAG laser and the CO, laser (4)
One other component of equation 3 can also be identified from table 3 after the same parameters
were used for actual cladding. This parameter is PG , the level of power absorbed by particles which
do not enter the cladding melt pool. A number of cladding trials were carried out and these
showed that, over this range of parameters , the proportion of particles which formed the clad
track was 60%( The range was 57%-63%). Then it can be concluded that 40% of the heat
collected by the powder cloud (1% P,o, see table 3) does not contribute to the cladding process.
i.e. PG = 0.4 % Pto, for both types of laser (5)
37
2.3 The power lost by radiation from the cladding zone (PD).
The total energy radiated from the clad pool can be calculated from the pool temperature, surface
area and emissivity. If the emissivity of the liquid metal pool is taken as equal to one then the
calculation is simplified and the maximum possible radiation power can be estimated:
P0 = cr (6)
Where:
cr is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.7*10-8Wm-2K-4)
T is the surface temperature of the melt (K)
A is the area of the melt surface (m2)
In this case the surface temperature of the melt was approximately 2300 K [2] and its surface area
was 19 mm2.
This gives a maximum value for P, of:

Pp= 5.7*10-8 *(2300)4 *19*10-6 = 30 Watts (7)
13,-= 1% of P,o, for both the Nd:YAG and the CO,-laser (8)
2.4 Power lost by convection from the clad zone (PE).
The cladding zone is a molten alloy with a surface temperature of= 2300 K
and a known surface area. This melt is exposed to a stream of argon which carries the powder to
the clad zone. The argon flow was measured and found to have an average flow velocity of
4.3m/sec.
The rate of convective cooling of a hot body exposed to a cooler gas is given by:
Q=hAAt Watts (9)
Where:
h = Heat transfer coefficient
A = Surface area of the hot body
At = The difference in temperature between the body and the cooling gas.
Evaluation of h from a standard text on the subject [3] gives us a value of approximately 100
W/m2K.
Q = 100 * (7r * 0.00252 )* 2000 (10)

PE = 3.9 Watts
Or PE = 0.1% P,0, for both Nd:YAG and 032-laser (12)
38
2.5 Power reflected off the surface of the clad zone (PA).
Calorimetry was employed to measure the heat input to each clad sample (P.). From this
measurement it is possible to measure the power reflected off the cladding zone (PA) in the
following way:
P, = 1 ror ( PB+P+13E+PG+P.) (13)
Table 4 shows the average results from the calorimetric measurements over a range of process
parameters.
Table 4. Calorimetric measurements (average values)
Laser Laser output Power input to Power % input

type Power (P.,) clad sample (P.) to sample
(Watts) (Watts)
Nd:YAG 2743 1367 49%

CO, 2695 1044 39%
From our earlier results: PA = 100 (8+1+0.1+0.8+49) (Nd:YAG)
PA = 41.1 % (Nd:YAG)
PA = 100 (9+1+0.1+0.8+39) (CO2)
PA = 51.1 % (CO,)
So far this is the first time that the measurements from the two types of laser have shown an
appreciable difference. In summary it can be said that, for the CO3-laser, approximately half of the
laser power is reflected from the cladding zone. For the Nd:YAG laser this value is reduced to
approximately 40%. These generally high reflectivity values confirm the work of other authors in
the field [4] who suggest that the onset of melting is associated with a rise in material reflectivity.
This is because a molten surface in an inert atmosphere (in this case argon) is smooth and oxide
free. This smooth, oxide free surface acts as a better reflector than the solid, rough, oxidised
surface which exists before melting. It is well known [5] that metals have a lower reflectivity for
the 1.06pm radiation of Nd:YAG lasers that for the 10.61..tm radiation of CO, lasers and this is
confirmed by the above results. As we will see later in this paper, this reduction in reflectivity for
the Nd:YAG laser results in a marked increase in process efficiency when cladding as compared to
a CO, laser.
39
H.Gedda: Chapter Ill-A process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG and CO, Laser Cladding
2.6 The power utilised in melting the clad layer to the substrate (Pa)
Blown powder laser clad layers usually have a cross sectional geometry similar to that shown in
figures 4 and 5.
Heat affected zone
Clad layer
"77/v2> Melted
substrate
Figure 4. The cross sectional geometry of a blown powder laser clad layer. Note: the melted substrate and
cladding material are mixed together during the process.
As figure 4 demonstrates, the production of a clad layer usually involves melting the surface layers
of the substrate. The amount of substrate melting can range from minimal to levels where the clad
layer is really a dilute alloy of the substrate and cladding material.
Melted
6.2 mm
substrate
Figure 5. Macrographs of a typical laser clad sample in cross section

(see also figure 4).
Pa, the power utilised in melting the cladding material and welding it to the surface of the
substrate can be calculated as follows:
P,= Avp (CpAt + (18)
Where:
A = The melt cross sectional area (m2)
v = The Cladding speed (m/s)
p = The Density of the material melted.
40
H.Gedda: Chapter II!-A process Efficiencv Comparison of Nd: YAG and CO, Laser Cladding
Cp Specific heat capacity of the material melted.

L'l.t The difference between the melt temperature and ambient
L\Hm == Specific heat ofmelting of the clad melt.
In order to evaluate P, accurately for both the C02 and the Nd:YAG laser a set ofcladding trials
were carried out. Laser power and focusing conditions were kept identical for the two lasers (2700
W, 5 mm beam diameter). Powder flow rates of30, 40 and 50 g/min were employed at cladding
speeds of 0. 7, 0.8, 0. 9, 1.0, 1.2 andl.4 m/min.
From all these tests an average for P, was calculated for both types oflaser. Figure 6 shows cross
sections of clad traces produced by both types oflasers at a powder flow rate of40 g/min and
speeds of0.7, 1.0 and 1.4 m/min.
a) C02 laser
,
-
' '<'
<vv ; '
'
N,,..,., >.-,,tA
0.7 m/min LO m/min 1.4 m/min

b) Nd:YAG laser
0.7 m/min 1.0 m/min 1.4 m/min

Fig11re 6. Clad cross sections at increasing process speed for bot/, types oj laser. aser power 2800 W, laser
spot diameter 5 1111n, powder J/0111 rate 40 g/111in
41
H.Gedda: Chapter II1-A process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG and CO, Laser Cladding
It is clear that a substantial amount of substrate was melted in each case. On average the melt was
found to consist of a 40% substrate; 60% clad material mix for the CO, laser and 55% substrate and
45% metal mix for the Nd:YAG laser. As a simplification, the material properties necessary for
equation 18 were taken as being for a 50:50 mixture of cladding material and substrate.
p = 8020 kg/m3
Cp = 500 J/kg K
.Hm = 300 kJ/Kg
From these values and a melt temperature of 2300 K [2], the values for P, for the two types of laser
were:
Pc (Nd:YAG) = 506 W (19)
Which represents 18% of
Pc (CO,) = 266 W (20)
Which represents 9.5 % of P50,
This is a remarkable result. Here we can se that the Nd:YAG laser melts approximately twice as
much material its CO, counterpart.
In our earlier work [2] we found that for a CO, laser at a power of 5 kW only 10% of the laser
power was used to melt metal during cladding. This result is confirmed here for a different set of
process parameters. For the Nd:YAG laser however, the proportion of the laser power involved in
melting is almost double the CO, value. Section 2.5 revealed that 50% of the CO, laser light was
reflected from the clad zone as compared 40% for the Nd:YAG laser. It seems then, that the
difference of 10% is almost exclusively given over to material melting and this represents a
doubling of the energy available for melting.
2.7 Power lost by conduction from the clad zone to the substrate (Pr).
This value is easily established by subtracting (Pc) from the total power absorbed by the workpiece
(P.). Taking average values:
(Nd :YAG) 12F = P,,,- Pc 30%P,0, (21)
(CO,) PF = Ph,- P c = 28%P. (22)
This is the result which would be expected given that all extra laser power which joins the
process when an Nd:YAG laser is used is involved in the melting process , (see previous section).
42
3 Discussion
Figure 7 presents schematics of the redistribution of energy during the laser cladding process for
both types of laser.
CO2 Nd: YAG

% of power % of power
Raw Power of beam (-3 kW) (Ptot) 100% 100%
Power Reflected off the workpiece (PA) 50% 40%
Power Re radiated from the workpiece (I'D) 1% 1%
100%
Power Reflected off particles (PB) 8% 8%
Power absorbed by the Process (Pc+PF) 40% 50%
Power absorbed by the cladding process 40% 50%
Power used to melt the Clad layer (Pc) 10% 20%
Power absorbed in heating the substrate (PF) 30% 30%
Figure7. Schematic of the redistributions of energy during the laser cladding process.
(percentages are approximate)
For the sake of clarity PE (convective losses) and P,

(lost powder losses) have been left out of
figure 7 as their contribution to the energy balance is negligible.
43
H.Gedda: Chapter III-A process Efficiency Compatison ofNd:YAG and CO, Laser Cladding
The most important feature of figure 7 is that, although the power absorbed by the process
increases only from 40% to 50% when C02 and Nd:YAG lasers are compared, the power
employed in melting material increases by a factor of 2 from 10% to 20 %. This doubling ofthe
energy efficiency of the process is clearly demonstrated in figure 8 which compares a low speed
(0.7 m/min) C02 laser clad sample with an Nd:YAG laser clad sample carried out at twice that
speed (1.4 m/min).
a) C02 laser 0,7 m/min b) Nd:YAG laser 1.4 m/min

Fig11re 8. A de,nonstration oj tlze do11bling oj the process speed possible when 11sing an Nd: YA G rather tlwn
C02 laser. (The po11Jder feed rate was increased fro,n 30 gl,nin for tlze C02 laser to 50 g/,nin for the
Nd: YA G laser b11t the laser pouier (- 3k vV) and spot size (5 111111) were kept constam.)
The doubling of the process efficiency shown in figures 7 and 8 would not be possible if the
"powder absorbed in heating the substrate" (PF -see fig 7) changed as more power was absorbed
by the process. P F remains steady (in this case at 30%) because it is determined by the amount of
power the substrate needs to absorb before surface melting is initiated. This is a threshold value,
which will not charge with increasing absorptivity. This being the case, any increase in absorbed
power will be entirely available to the melting process.
The C02 laser results given in fi gure 7 are almost identical to the earlier published figures from
experiments carried out at 5 kW on different equipment [2). It is therefore possible to say that
these results are typical of multi kilowatt laser cladding.
44
4 Conclusions
1. Ignoring the trivial contributions of convective and radiative cooling etc, the laser power
applied to the cladding process is redistributed in the following ways:
Laser type
CO, Nd:YAG
Power reflected off the cladding melt 50% 40%
Power reflected off the powder cloud 10% 10%
Power used to heat the substrate 30% 30%
Power used to melt the clad layer* 10% 20%
*This value includes powder and substrate melting.
2. Nd:YAG lasers are approximately twice as energy efficient as CO, lasers for cladding in the
range of parameters covered in this paper ( and by implication, the higher power (5 kW)
range covered in our earlier work [2]) i.e. given the same laser power, Nd:YAG lasers are
capable of approximately double the cladding rates of CO, lasers.
3. As a large proportion (30%) of the laser power is consumed in heating the substrate it is
likely that substrate pre heating by a cheaper power source* would improve the
profitability of laser cladding. (* flame, plasma, induction etc).
5 References
1. 011ier, B., N, Kreutz, E.W, Schluter, Gasser, H,. Wissenbach, K. (1992)Cladding

With Laser Radiation: Properties and Analysis. DGM Informationsgesllesheft mbH
(Germany), pp. 687-692.
2. Gedda, H., Powell, J., Wahlstrm, G., W-B, Li., Engstrm, H., Magnusson,
C.Energy Redistribution During CO, Laser Cladding. Approved for publication in
Journal of Laser Application March 2002.
3. Porier, D.R., Geiger, G.H. Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing. Heat

Transfer and The Energy Equation. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
(1994). ISBN 0-87339-272-8.
4. Bloehs, W., Grnenwald, B., Dausinger, F., Hgel. Recent progress in laser surface
treatment: I. Implications of laser wavelength. Journal of laser applications 8 (1996)
pp 15-23.
5. Steen, W.M. Laser Material Processing. Laser surface treatment. Second eddition,
1998 ISBN 3-540-76174-8.
45
H.Gedda: Chapter 1V-Laser Casting and Laser Clad Casting: New process for rapid prototyping and production
Chapter IV
Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting: New

processes for rapid prototyping and
production.
46
H.Gedda: Chapter IV-Laser Casting and Laser Clad Casting: New process for rapid prototyping and production
Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting: New

processes for rapid prototyping and
production.
J.Powelr, H. Gedda*, A.Kaplan*.
2TR, U.K.

S-971 87 Lule, Sweden Phone: +46 920 91169, E-mail: Hans.Gedda(dmb.luth.se
Abstract
This paper presents preliminary experimental results from two new processes:
1. Laser casting involves a process similar to blown powder laser cladding but the final
product is not joined to the substrate. The substrate surface therefore acts as a mould in
a laser casting process and the eventual casting retains the topological features of the
substrate.
2. Laser clad-casting involves the production of clad tracks which are welded as usual to a
substrate but which are laid down between machined copper blocks. The eventual clad
track therefore has its cross sectional profile detennined by the blocks which are
removed after completion of the cladding process. In this way clad tracks with large
depth to width ratios can be achieved with pre determinated cross sections.
Keywords: Laser cladding, Laser processing, Laser casting, Laser clad-casting
47
1 Introduction
This paper presents the preliminary results of an experimental program investigating two new
processes: Laser casting and laser clad casting. As a technique, laser casting is similar to blown
powder laser cladding but the aim in this case is to produce a "clad" layer which is not fused ro
the substrate. The resulting "clad " layer retains the topological features of the surface of the
substrate which effectively acts as the mould in a casting process. An example of the detached
"casting" and its mould is presented in figurel.
"'
Fig11re 1. A Laser casting and the 111011/d it was prod11ced wit/1. (Process parameters:
laser 3 kW (Nd: YAG), dadding speed 0. 8 111/min, powder feed (cobalt alloy)
80glmin)
During laser clad-casting the clad track is welded to the substrate as usual but the cross sectional
profile of the track is detem1ined by copper blocks which act as moulds and are later removed.
An example of such a clad-cast track is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2. A clad cast track on the edge oja sa,nple
(Process parameters: laser 3,5 kW (CO:z), cladding speed 0. 7 111/min, powderfeeding 45 glmin)
The reminder of this paper will discuss these two processes separately.
48
2 Laser casting
The experimental set up for laser casting is similar to that for blown powder laser cladding.
Schematics of both processes are presented in figure 3.
Laser beam Powder feed
Unmelted layer of
powder particles
Interfacial melting between the No interfacial

clad layer and substrate melting
3a. Laser Cladding 3b. Laser Casting
Figure 3. Comparison of laser cladding and casting
From a process parameter point of view there are only three differences between the two
techniques
1. The powder mass flow is higher for clad casting, typically 2 or 3 times the flow needed
for cladding under the same conditions
2. The powder feed nozzle is much nearer the melt pool than it is for cladding
3. The laser beam is defocused to approximately twice the original diameter normally
used for cladding (in this case from 4 to 8 mm diameter).
This reorganisation of the powder delivery and power density has a fundamental effect on the
process which prevents the substrate from melting. This effect is demonstrated in figure 3.
Figure 3a shows that, during blown powder laser cladding, the laser beam directly irradiates
both the surface of the molten cladding material and the substrate. The result is the
establishment of a fusion line beneath the original surface of the substrate. This ensures good
adhesion of the clad layer as it is welded to the substrate.
In the case of laser casting (figure3b) the powder flow conditions are such that a layer of
unmelted powder builds up immediately in front of the molten cladding zone. This has two
effects:
49
1. The powder layer shields the substrate from direct laser heating and thereby inhibits
substrate melting.
2. The powder layer cools the lower part of the melt by becoming melted into it.
Another important influence on the temperature distribution in the melt is the shadowing
effect of the powder cloud. The powder cloud absorbs energy from the incident laser beam
and casts an increasingly dense shadow over the melt pool as the mass flow rate is increased.
Also, the upper particles in the powder cloud cast a shadow over the lower particles [1]. The
particle cloud therefore tends to transport energy from the laser beam towards the top part of
the melt (where the hotter upper particles land) and away from the lower part (where the
cooler, shadowed particles land).
All of these effects reduce the ability of the cladding melt-laser combination to melt the
substrate. The result is a "clad" layer which is not welded to the surface of the substrate.
3 Experimental Procedure
3.1 General
For the purposes of the experimental runs the following equipment and materials were
employed:
Laser model: Haas Laser HL 3006 D (4 kW) Nd:YAG. Laser power 3 kW

Powders: Stellite 8 (Cobalt base), Deloro Alloy NO 35 S (Nickel base), ASP 60 (Iron base).
(The powder chemical compositions are presented in table 2-4 below)
Powder feeder: TECFLO TM 5102.
Powder feeding: 80-110 g/min
Powder feed gas: Argon
Process speed: 0.6-1.0 m/min
Substrate (mould): single and cross-hatched "V" shaped groves with an internal angle of 90
with depths of 2,4 and 6 mm. The mould chemical composition is presented in table 1 below.
Chemical Composition
Table1. Steel composition (mould)
C Si Mn P V N Fe
wt % 0.16 0.22 0.94 0.014 0.022 0.06 0.009 98.6
Melting point (Tm) = 1773 K
Table2. Co based powder composition
Cr C Si Mo Ni Fe Co
wt % 27.2 0.27 1.0 5.5 2.3 0.3 63.4
Powder size 45-150m (Tm) 1459-1656 K
50
Table3. Fe based powder composition
Cr C V Mo Fe Co
wt % 4.2 2.3 6.5 7.0 69.5 10.5
Powder size 45-150m (Tm) = 1473-1573 K
Table4. Ni based powder composition
Cr C Si B Ni Fe
wt % 3.7 0.4 3.5 1.6 86.5 2.0
Powder size 38-106mm (Tm) = 1223-1423 K
3.2 Laser casting: results and discussion
Laser casting involves a large number of inter dependant process variables such as; laser beam
power and diameter, process speed, powder type, substrate type, powder mass feed rate and
particle speed etc.
This introductory paper will not therefore, attempt to map out the whole process. Our aim
here is to demonstrate that which is easily achievable and to point out areas of difficulty.
Figures 1 and 4 show successful examples of the process for single and cross hatched grooved
substrates. Cross sections of these two samples are shown in figures 5 and 6 and these clearly
show that the castings are close to 100% dense. (The actual figures are 95% for these two
cross sections). Although these two samples involved a correct balancing of the process
parameters, much poorer results are achieved if certain guidelines are not followed. These
guidelines are presented in the following notes.
a b c
Figure 4. Sucessful laser clad-casting of cross hatched grooves, a) substrate (mould), b) substrate and
casting, c) casting. Process parameters: laser power 3 kW (Nd:YAG), beam diameter 5 mm, process speed
0.8 m/min., Ni based powder, powder flow 80 g/min (in argon), inter-track distance 3inm.
51
Fig11re 5 a polished and 1111etched Fig11re 6 a polished and 11netched cross

cross section oj the sm11ple s/1011111 section oj the sa111ple s/1011111 in flg11 re 4
in flg11re 1 showing the 95 % showing the 95% density oj the casting
density oj the casting
Powder mass flow rate
If the powder mass flow rate is excessive the melt will rest on a bed of powder rather chan the
substrate. The resulting "cast" will therefore not cake on the features of the mould. An
example of this is presented in figure 7.
Fig11re 7 an exmnple oja casting which jailed d11e to

excessive po111der ,nassjlow rate. (process parameters
as jig 1 except powder 111ass .flow rate increased to
110 g/111in)
If the powder mass flow rate is too low then the excess laser energy will melt the surface of
the substrate (either directly or by conduction through the melt pool). In this case the clad
Iayer will be welded to the substrate and it will not be possible to separate the two later.
Process speed I laser power I laser spot diameter.
These three parameters are inter related in their effect on the process and can be described as a
function of the energy density:
p
Energy density = - (1)
VD
Where P is the laser power, V the process speed and D the laser spot diameter. Generally as
PIVD is increased there is a tendency for increased welding of the clad layer to the substrate.
52
As P/VD is decreased there is a tendency for the melt not to contact the substrate. In this case,
as for excessive powder, the casting bears no relationship to the mould.
Powder and substrate type
In our investigations we found that the easiest and best quality results were achieved with the
nickel based alloy. Tables 1-4 reveal that, of the three powder alloys, the nickel based alloy has
a melting point (= 1400 K) which is furthest removed from that of the substrate (= 1800 K).
This means that the operating window for molten/solid contact between the two materials
without welding would be greater than for the other alloys. Wet contact without welding is
necessary for an accurate casting and this is made easier by a large difference in casting mould
melting point or by melt substrate incompatibility. Other types of incompatibility could be
chemical (i.e ceramic substrate moulds could be used) or thermal (e.g. water cooled substrates
or high conductivity alloys could be used). The difference in performance of the three alloys
used here is clear from figure 8.
The melting point, although important, is not the only powder characteristic governing the
castability of the material. Melt viscosity and surface tension also play a significant role in the
casting process. Both these material properties should be minimised for high quality casting and
this would an interesting topic for future work.
a ) Cobalt based b) Iron based c) Nickel based
Figure 8. A comparison of the casting capabilities of the three alloys tested. Process parameters : 3
kW (Nd:YAG), beam diameter 5 mm, process speed 0.8 ni/min., Ni based powder, powder flow
90 g/min.
3.3 Possible future development
These early results have demonstrated that it is possible to use the laser as a power source to
produce shallow surface casts in high strength alloys. Although the castings take on the
macroscopic surface features of the moulds they are not microscopically smooth. This is
because the outer surface is covered in powder particles which melted immediately before
solidification began. This is an area for future investigation which may involve the use of high
melting point moulds and cladding material with suitable liquid flow characteristics. At this
early stage it is not possible to forecast future applications of this technique although these
may include the production of abrasive surfaces or hard cutting tools. Refinement of the
process could result in the production of stamping dies.
53
4 Laser Clad-Casting
Laser clad-casting is a simple development of standard laser cladding which was stimulated by
an industrial inquiry. The company involved wanted to extend the life of piston rings by
adding a clad layer to the outer diameter. This clad layer was to be of a wear resistant material
and, to prolong life even further, was to be gradually increasing in thickness towards the edge.
The first concern from the laser cladding point of view was the aspect ratio of the clad track.
Generally, blown powder laser cladding gives a single clad track cross section which is a
truncated semicircle as shown in figure 9a. The maximum height of a single clad track is
achieved when the track is semicircular in cross section as shown in figure 9b. This customer
however, required a better aspect ratio than the 2:1 limit of a semicircle. They needed a post
machined aspect ratio of approximately 1:1 as shown in figure 9c: From figure 9c it is also clear
that they required the clad layer deposit to have sides which were diverging from the line of
the substrate at an angle of 10
Clad layer
Machining
line
4111111
a) Standard clad b) Maximum height c) Required clad

cross section clad track (semi circular cross section
cross section)
Figure 9 Standard clad track cross section (a, b) and the required cross section (c)
In order to achieve the clad profile required, copper blocks were machined and clamped to
either side of the substrate as shown in figure 10.
54
3 mm
Substrate
Machined copper
blocks
Clamping
Figure 10. Cross section o the clad cast

mould
Cladding was now carried out with the laser and the powder stream aiming into the valley
between the copper blocks. The beam diameter was 4 mm on the substrate surface and thus
irradiated the copper blocks on either side. However, the high reflectivity of the copper
prevented it from melting by direct laser irradiation and its high thermal conductivity
prevented melting by contact with the molten cladding metal. As a result the copper blocks
could be easily removed after the cladding was complete. The clad profile produced by this
method is shown in profile in figure 11.
Figure 11. A cross section of the clad-cast track deposited between copper blocks. (substrate width:
3mm,clad track height: 3.5 mm). Process parameters: powder feed (Nickel alloy) 40 ghnin, cladding
speed 0.5 m/min, laser power 3.5 kW (CO2), beam diameter 4 mm.
Figure 11 clearly shows that the required clad profile has been achieved. The integrity and low
dilution levels of the clad layer are typical of the standard laser cladding process. In this case a
single, high aspect ratio, track has been produced on the edge of a narrow substrate. The depth
of the deposit could of course be increased by overalying another track on this one. The
process could also be extended to the laying of tall, narrow walls on flat substrates to produce
enclosures or stamping tools.
55
H.Gedda: Chapter IV-Laser Casting and Laser Clad Casting: New process for rapid prototyp ng and production
Apart from the ability to produce deep clad layers laser clad casting has two other advantages
over the standard process:
a) The process is more energy efficient than standard laser cladding. In this case 24% of
the laser energy was utilised in the melting process as compared to 20% for standard
laser cladding with an Nd:YAG laser [2] (This value is only 10% for standard CO, laser
cladding [2]).
b) The powder catchment efficiency is higher for clad casting than for cladding. i.e. in
this example of clad casting the powder catchment efficiency was 96 %. (Standard
cladding value 60% [3]). This improves deposition rates and minimises substrate
melting because a greater proportion of the laser energy is involved in melting the
incoming powder. This improvement in powder catchment efficiency is clearly a
function of the valley-like geometry of the clad cast melt zone. A geometry of this type
tends to channel powder into the weld pool rather than allowing it to spray all over the
substrate surface. (Which happens in standard laser cladding).
5 Conclusions
It has been demonstrated that two new laser cladding techniques are possible and that they
may provide novel answers to future production requirements.
Laser casting can be used to produce surface castings in high strength alloys to generate tool
bits or stamping dies etc.
Laser clad-casting can be employed to make clad tracks with large depth to width ratios and
pre determined cross sections.
6 References
I. Li, W.B, Engstrm, H, Powell, J, Tan, Z, Magnusson, C., Modelling of the

pre-heating of the blown powder material in the laser cladding process. Conf.
Proc. Of 5`h Cont.. On Laser Materials Processing in the Nordic Countries,
Nolamp 4, Sep 6-8, 1995, Oslo, Norway
2. Gedda, H. , Powell, J., Kaplan, A. A Process Efficiency Comparison of

NdYAG and CO2 Laser Cladding. Approved for presentation in the
International Conference with the AnnualAssembly 2002.Advanced Processes
and Techonologies in Welding and Allied Processes
Copenhagen, Denmark 24-25 June 2002.
3. Gedda, H., Powell, J., Wahlstrm, G., W-B, Li., Engstrm, H., Magnusson,
C.Energy Redistribution During CO, Laser Cladding. Approved for
publication in Journal of Laser Application March 2002.
56
LUL C A
TEKNISKA
UNIVERSITET
L NR: 2002:13
ISSN: 1402-1757
ISRN: LTU-LIC--02/13--SE
Utbildning
Licentiate thesis
Institution Upplaga
Tillmpad fysik, maskin - och materialteknik 100
Avdelning Datum
Produktionsutveckling 2002-04-03
Titel
Analysis and Development of the Laser Cladding Process
Frfattare Sprk
Hans Gedda Engelska
Sammanfattning
Abstract
This thesis presents an investigation into the laser cladding process using CO2 and
Nd:YAG lasers. The work is divided into four papers:
Paper one is a literature review of the subject of laser cladding. This presents a general
overview of the subject from a practical and theoretical point of view.
Paper two is an investigation about the energy redistribution during CO2- laser cladding.
Experimental absorption measurements by calorimetry were carried out to separate and
analyse how much of the energy is lost by reflection etc. It was found that approximately
60% of the original laser power is lost by reflection.
Paper three extends the work of paper two and compares the process efficiency of
Nd:YAG and CO2 laser cladding. The energy redistribution during cladding has been
analysed for both processes. The Nd:YAG laser cladding process was found to be
considerably more energy efficient than CO2- laser cladding process.
Paper four presents preliminary experimental results from two new processes; Laser
casting and Laser clad-casting. Laser casting is a process similar to blown powder laser
cladding but without the final product joined to the substrate. The substrate acts as a
mould and the casting retains topological features of the substrate. Laser clad-casting
involves the production of a (cont.)
Granskare/Handledare
Kjell Rask
URL: http://epubl.luth.se/1402-1757/2002/13
Universitetstryckeriet, Lule

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Analysis and Development of The Laser Cladding Process

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LULEL

Analysis and Developn1ent of

Department ofApplied Physics and Mechanical Engineering

2002:13 ISSN: 1402 - 1757 ISRN: LTU - LIC - - 02/13 - - SE

Lule, May 2002

Chapter I: An introduction to laser cladding 1

Chapter II: Energy Redistribution During CO, Laser Cladding 18

Chapter III: A process Efficiency Comparison of Nd:YAG

Gedda, H., Powell, J., Kaplan, A. Conference proceedings

Chapter IV: Laser Casting and Laser Clad-Casting: New processes

Powell, J., Gedda, H., Kaplan, A. Conference proceedings

An Introduction to laser cladding

An Introduction to Laser Cladding

2 Techniques of laser cladding

Preplacement of cladding material powder on the substrate (see figure la).

a, Preplaced powder b, blown powder cladding.

Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of laser cladding processes [1] .

Figure 2. Schematic of the overlapping cladding process [7].

P = Laser power (W)

2.2 Laser cladding with preplaced powder

2.3 Blown powder laser cladding

Figure 3. A schematic of the transverse section of a coaxial nozzle [le

Figure 4. Powder delivering system [11].

Well-defined treated region.

Adaptable to automatic processing.

Good fusion bond.

It is easy to blend powder with a desired composition.

The process window is large.

2.4 Cladding with paste bound powders

2.5 Laser cladding by wire feeding

Figure 5. Laser cladding by wire feeding.

3 Theoretical modelling of the laser cladding process

3.1 Pre placed powder cladding

H = (C pi/ + QAV p) + ilp-411+[hA(Ts (1)

H= pV AT + Q,AV p) + Uo-A(T5.4 1+[hA(T, Ta kcIt + KA 1,1 dt (2)

Where K is the thermal conductivity.

6. Depending on the conditions, a number of phenomena (6A-6E) are now possible:

or inal ,to tier surface

Position of the melt front s

2000W incident absorbed power. 8.

Ke inc...-re t..,-.tug dizuttutl

3.2 Blown powder cladding

Figure 7. Operating window for blown powder laser cladding [6].

2. The cladding particles are spheres of uniform size.

Figure 8. The geometry of the laser cladding process [17]

E,= Ea+ER+E,+E, (3)

Energy Input to Any Particle (Ea)

E = (1 D) I (x, y) rt- r 2p e -EL A t (5)

Laser Beam Radius:

inversely proportional to particle size. This is 00.

Figure 9. Pre-heating temperature of powder particles of different

to the powder velocity. This result depends on

Figure 10. Pre-heating of powder particles for

Distance From the Laser Beam Centre:

Figure 11. Pre-heating temperature of particles

4 Influence of process parameters on the cladding process

Powder parameters are:

Size and size distribution of the powder.

Powder feed rate.

Type and amount of protection and transport gas.

The point of injection.

Process parameters are:

Pd= 5.7 10-8 (2300)4 * 32 *10-6 = 51 Watts (7)

Q= 100 (,T 0.0032 )* 2000 (10)

H.Gedda, J.Powell+, A.Kaplan.