Vineet Mediratta

Asstt. Prof .,UPES

 A Generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy by using the principle of magnetic induction.
This principle is explained as follows:

It is based on the principle of production of dynamically (or

motionally) induced e.m.f (Electromotive Force).

Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced

e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction. This e.m.f. causes a current to
flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
 The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on:
the strength of the magnetic field,
the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field,
the speed at which the conductor is moved, and
the length of the conductor within the magnetic field

The basic essential parts of an electric generator are :

a magnetic field
conductor or a group of conductors
motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
 An elementary generator consists of
a wire loop placed so that it can be
rotated in a stationary magnetic field.

This will produce an induced emf in

the loop.

Sliding contacts (brushes) connect

the loop to an external circuit load in
order to pick up or use the induced
emf.
 The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field.

The pole pieces are shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the
magnetic field as close as possible to the wire loop.

The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called theARMATURE.

The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings called SLIP
RINGS. They rotate with the armature.

The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride
against the rings.

The generated voltage appears across these brushes.

 A single-turn rectangular copper coil abcd moving
about its own axis in a magnetic field provided by
either permanent magnets or electromagnets. The
two ends of the coil are now joined to split-rings
instead of two slip rings , which are insulated
from each other and from the central shaft. Two
collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) press
against the slip rings.
 A single-loop generator with each terminal connected to a
segment of a two-segment metal ring is shown in figure below.
 The two segments of the split metal ring are insulated from each
other. This forms a simple COMMUTATOR.
The commutator in a dc generator replaces the slip rings of the
ac generator. This is the main difference in their construction.
The commutator mechanically reverses the armature loop
connections to the external circuit. This occurs at the same
Instant that the polarity of the voltage in the armature loop
reverses. Through this process the commutator changes the
generated ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage as shown in the
graph. This action is known as commutation.
 The effects of commutation are shown in the figure below.
 The voltage developed across the brushes is thus pulsating and
unidirectional (in one direction only). It varies twice during each
revolution between zero and maximum. This variation is called
RIPPLE.

A pulsating voltage, such as that produced in the preceding

description, is unsuitable for most applications.

Therefore, in practical generators more armature loops (coils) and

more commutator segments are used to produce an output voltage
waveform with less ripple.
 The commutator must now be divided into
four parts since there are four coil ends.
The graph in figure shows the ripple effect
of the voltage when two armature coils are
used.
Since there are now four commutator
segments in the commutator and only two
brushes, the voltage cannot fall any lower
than at point A. Therefore, the ripple is
limited to the rise and fall between points
A and B on the graph.
By adding more armature coils, the ripple
effect can be further reduced. Decreasing
ripple in this way increases the effective
voltage of the output.
 Practical generators use many armature coils.

A Multiple coil armature (adding coils to the armature) decreases the ripple
voltage in the output of a dc generator, and increases the output voltage.

They also use more than one pair of magnetic poles.

The additional magnetic poles have the same effect on ripple as did the
additional armature coils.

In addition, the increased number of poles provides a stronger magnetic field

(greater number of flux lines). This, in turn, allows an increase in output voltage
because the coils cut more lines of flux per revolution.
 Nearly all practical generators use
electromagnetic poles instead of the
permanent magnets used in the elementary
generator.
The electromagnetic field poles consist of
coils of insulated copper wire wound on
soft iron cores, as shown in the figure. The
main advantages of using electromagnetic
poles are:
(1) increased field strength and
(2) a means of controlling the strength of
the fields. By varying the input voltage, Four-pole generator
the field strength is varied. (without armature).
By varying the field strength, the output
voltage of the generator can be controlled.
Constructional Features
of DC Machines
General arrangement of a dc machine
 Stator
Stator frame or Yoke
Pole Core & Pole Shoe
Field Winding
Enclosure/End Cover Plates
Carban Brush & Brush holder
Rotor (Armature)
Armature Core
Armature winding
Commutator
Bearings
 The stator of the dc motor has poles, which
are excited by dc current to produce
magnetic fields.

In the neutral zone, in the middle between

the poles, commutating poles are placed to
reduce sparking of the commutator. The
commutating poles are supplied by dc
current.

Compensating windings are mounted on the

main poles. These short-circuited windings
damp rotor oscillations. .
DC motor stator with poles visible.
 The poles are mounted on an iron core
that provides a closed magnetic circuit.

The motor housing supports the iron

core, the brushes and the bearings.

The rotor has a ring-shaped laminated

iron core with slots.

Coils with several turns are placed in

the slots. The distance between the

two legs of the coil is about 180

electric degrees.
 The rotor has a ring-shaped laminated iron
core with slots.

The coils are connected in series through the

commutator segments.

The commutator consists of insulated copper

segments mounted on an insulated tube.

Two brushes are pressed to the commutator

to permit current flow.

The brushes are placed in the neutral zone,

where the magnetic field is close to zero, to
reduce arcing.
 A drum-type armature is shown in the figure.
The armature windings are placed in slots cut in a drum-shaped iron core.
Each winding completely surrounds the core so that the entire length of the
conductor cuts the main magnetic field. Therefore, the total voltage
induced in the armature is great.
This accounts for the almost universal use of the drum-type armature in
modern dc generators
Complete Rotor of a dc motor.
 About Commutator
The commutator switches the current
from one rotor coil to the adjacent coil,

The switching requires the interruption

of the coil current.

The sudden interruption of an inductive

current generates high voltages .

The high voltage produces flashover

and arcing between the commutator
segment and the brush.
 Rotation
Ir_dc/2 Ir_dc Ir_dc/2
Brush Pole
winding
Shaft

|
1
2
8

3
N 7
S
6 4
5

Insulation Copper
Rotor Ir_dc segment
Winding

Commutator with the rotor coils connections.

Cutaway view of a dc motor.
 The armature winding is very important element of a machine,
as it directly takes part in the conversion of energy from one
form into another
The winding must be designed with the most advantageous
utilization of the material in respect to weight and
efficiency.
The winding should provide the necessary mechanical,
thermal and electrical strength of the machine to ensure the
usual service life of 16-20 years.
Lap winding is suitable for comparatively low voltage
but high current generators where as Wave Winding is used
for high voltage ,low current machines.
In lap winding the finish of each coil is connected to the
start of the next coil at the adjacent segment
In wave winding the finish of coil is connected to the
start of another coil well away from the fixed coil.
Characteristics of Lap and Wave winding
Lap Windings
1.The armature winding is divided into as many parallel paths as the
number of poles.
2.If the total number of armature conductors is Z and P is the
number of poles, then,
Number of conductors/path = Z/P
3.E.M.F. generated = E.M.F. per parallel
= average e.m.f. per conductor Z / A
4.Total armature current, Ia = P current per parallel path
Characteristics of Lap and Wave winding
Wave Winding
1.The armature winding is always divided into two parallel
paths irrespective of the number of poles present in machine.
2.If the total number of armature conductors is Z and P is the
number of poles, then,
Number of conductors/path = Z/2
3.E.M.F. generated = E.M.F. per parallel
= average e.m.f. per conductor Z / A
4.Total armature current, Ia = 2 current per parallel path
Let
= flux/pole in Wb
Z = total number of armature conductors
P = number of poles
A = number of parallel paths = 2 for wave
winding
= P for lap winding
N = speed of armature in r.p.m.
Eg= e.m.f. of the generator = e.m.f./parallel path
D.C.Generators - Types
 (a) Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets are
energised from an independent external source of DC current.

(b) Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energised
by the current produced by the generators themselves. Due to

residual magnetism, there is always some flux present in the

poles. When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f and hence

some induced current is produced which is partly or fully

passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual

pole flux.
A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied
current from the output of the generator itself is called a
self-excited generator. There are three types of self-
excited generators depending upon the manner in which
the field winding is connected to the armature, namely;
(i) Series generator;
(ii) Shunt generator;
(iii) Compound generator
In the series-wound generator,
shown in figure, the field windings
are connected in series with the
armature. Current that flows in the
armature flows through the external
circuit and through the field
windings. The external circuit
connected to the generator is called
the load circuit
Armature current, Ia = Ise = IL = I(say)
Terminal voltage, V = EG - I(Ra + Rse)
Power developed in armature = EgIa
Power delivered to load
= EgIa Ia2 (Ra + Rse ) = Ia [ Eg Ia(Ra Rse)]
= V Ia or VIL
 A series-wound generator uses very low resistance field coils,
which consist of a few turns of large diameter wire.

The voltage output increases as the load circuit starts

drawing more current. Under low-load current
conditions, the current that flows in the load and through
the generator is small. Since small current means that a small
magnetic field is set up by the field poles, only a small
voltage is induced in the armature.
 If the resistance of the load decreases, the load current
increases. Under this condition, more current flows through
the field. This increases the magnetic field and increases the
output voltage.
A series-wound dc generator has the characteristic that
the output voltage varies with load current. This is
undesirable in most applications. For this reason, this type of
generator is rarely used in everyday practice
 In this, field winding is connected
in parallel with the armature
conductors and have the full
voltage of the generator
applied across them. The field
coils consist of many turns of
small wire. They are connected in
parallel with the load. In other
words, they are connected across
the output voltage of the armature.
Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh
Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish
Terminal voltage, V = Eg - IaRa
Power developed in armature = EgIa
Power delivered to load = VIL
 Current in the field windings of a shunt-wound generator is
independent of the load current (currents in parallel branches are
independent of each other). Since field current, and therefore field
strength, is not affected by load current, the output voltage remains
more nearly constant than does the output voltage of the series-
wound generator.

In actual use, the output voltage in a dc shunt-wound generator

varies inversely as load current varies. The output voltage decreases
as load current increases because the voltage drop across the
armature resistance increases (E = IR).
 In a series-wound generator, output voltage varies directly
with load current. In the shunt-wound generator, output voltage
varies inversely with load current.

A combination of the two types can overcome the

disadvantages of both. This combination of
windings is called the compound-wound dc generator.
 Compound-wound generators have a series field winding in
addition to a shunt-field winding, as shown in figure. The shunt
and series windings are wound on the same pole pieces. They can
be either short-shunt or long-shunt as shown in figures. In a
compound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series
field. When series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to
be commutatively-compounded. On the other hand if series
field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be
differentially compounded.
Series field current,
Ise = Ia = IL + Ish

Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh

Terminal voltage,
V = Eg - Ia(Ra + Rse)

Power developed in armature = EgIa

Power delivered to load = VIL

Series field current, Ise = IL

Terminal voltage, V = Eg - IaRa - IseRse

Power developed in armature = EgIa
Power delivered to load = VIL
It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when
current flows. Obviously, its value will depend upon the
amount of current flowing and the value of contact resistance.
This drop is generally small.
Copper losses

These losses occur due to currents in the various windings of

the machine.
(i) Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
(ii) Shunt field copper loss = Ish2 Rsh
(iii) Series field copper loss = Ise2 Rse
Iron Losses
(i) Hysteresis loss

(ii) Eddy current loss

Eddy current loss, Pe = KeBmax2 f 2t2 V watts

Constant and Variable Losses

The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c. motor) may be sub-

divided into
(i) constant losses (ii) variable losses.
(i) Constant losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all
loads are known as constant losses. The constant losses in a
d.c. generator are:
(a) iron losses
(b) mechanical losses
(c) shunt field losses
(ii) Variable losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are called
variable losses.
The variable losses in a d.c. generator are:
(a) Copper loss in armature winding ( Ia2Ra)
(b) Copper loss in series field winding ( Ise2Rse)
Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses
 Mechanical efficiency Electrical efficiency
(iii) Commercial or overall efficiency

Clearly c = m X e
Unless otherwise stated, commercial efficiency is always understood.

A - B = Iron and friction losses

B - C = Copper losses
 Commutation is the process by
which a dc voltage output is taken
from an armature that has an ac
voltage induced in it.

A dc voltage is applied to the load

because the output connections
are reversed as each commutator
segment passes under a brush.
for proper commutation, the coil
short-circuited by the brushes must
be in the neutral plane.
 All current-carrying conductors produce magnetic fields. The
magnetic field produced by current in the armature of a dc generator
affects the flux pattern and distorts the main field.

This distortion causes a shift in the neutral plane, which affects

commutation. This change in the neutral plane and the reaction of the
magnetic field is called ARMATURE REACTION.
 Shifting the brushes to the advanced position (the new neutral plane)
does not completely solve the problems of armature reaction. The
effect of armature reaction varies with the load current.
Therefore, each time the load current varies, the neutral plane shifts.
This means the brush position must be changed each time the load
current varies.
In small generators, the effects of armature reaction are reduced by
actually mechanically shifting the position of the brushes.
The practice of shifting the brush position for each current variation is
not practiced except in small generators.
In larger generators, other means are taken to eliminate armature
reaction. COMPENSATING WINDINGS or INTERPOLES are used
for this purpose.
 The compensating windings consist of a
series of coils embedded in slots in the pole
faces. These coils are connected in series
with the armature. The series-connected
compensating windings produce a magnetic
field, which varies directly with armature
current.

Because the compensating windings are

wound to produce a field that opposes the
magnetic field of the armature, they tend to
cancel the effects of the armature magnetic
field.
 Another way to reduce the effects of
armature reaction is to place small
auxiliary poles called "interpoles"
between the main field poles, as shown in
the figure.
The interpoles have a few turns of large
wire and are connected in series with the
armature.
Interpoles are wound and placed so that
each interpole has the same magnetic
polarity as the main pole ahead of it, in
the direction of rotation.
The field generated by the interpoles
produces the same effect as the
compensating winding.
This field, in effect, cancels the armature
reaction for all values of load current by
causing a shift in the neutral plane
opposite to the shift caused by armature
reaction.
 When a dc voltage is applied to the field windings of a dc generator,
current flows through the windings and sets up a steady magnetic field.
This is called FIELD EXCITATION.
This excitation voltage can be produced by the generator itself or it can be
supplied by an outside source, such as a battery.
A generator that supplies its own field excitation is called a SELF-
EXCITED GENERATOR.
Self-excitation is possible only if the field pole pieces have retained a
slight amount of permanent magnetism, called RESIDUAL
MAGNETISM. When the generator starts rotating, the weak residual
magnetism causes a small voltage to be generated in the armature.
This small voltage applied to the field coils causes a small field current.
Although small, this field current strengthens the magnetic field and
allows the armature to generate a higher voltage. The higher voltage
increases the field strength, and so on. This process continues until the
output voltage reaches the rated output of the generator.
 The figure below depicts a typical DC
Machine magnetization curve.

Note that the armature voltage is non-

zero when no field current is present.
This is due to the residual magnetism
of the core.

The dashed lines are called the field

resistance curves; they are a plot of
the voltage that appears across the
filed winding versus the field current.

Thus the slope of the line is equal to

the total filed circuit resistance, Rf.
Magnetization characteristics - -- shows the relationship
between the field current If and generated emf E at no load
and at constant speed..

Internal characterstic--- shows the relationship between the

emf generated Eg at no load and the armature current Ia.

External characteristic --- shows the relationship

between the terminal voltage V across load and current IL
flowing in the external load circuit.
Problem 1 : An 8 pole , lap wound d.c generator has 120
armature slots . The useful flux per pole is 40 mWb and the
number of conductors per slot is 4 . Calculate the speed of the
generator to give 230 V on open circuit . If the voltage drops
to 220 V on full load and if each conductor can carry 240 A ,
then find the rated output of the generator.

Ans : N : 719 r.p.m

Rated output : 422.4 kW
 Problem 2:

(a) The armature of a 6 pole d.c. machine has 125 turns at 1000
rpm . The e.m.f. genrated on open circuit is 500 V . Find the
useful flux per pole when armature is (i) lap connected and (ii)
wave connected .
(b)For the same value of useful flux per pole and considering lap-
connected armature , determine the speed of the machine to
generate an e.m.f. of 600 V on open circuit.
Ans : (a) (i) = 0.12 Wb/ pole (ii) = 0.04 Wb/ pole
(b) N = 1200 r.p.m.
Problem 3 : A DC Shunt generator delivers 190 A at a terminal
voltage of 240 V . The armature and shunt field resistances are 0.02
and 60 respectively.The core losses and mechanical losses total
900 W . Calculate
(a) Total Cu losses (b) H.P. of the Prime mover (c) overall ,
electrical and conversion efficiecncies.
Ans : Total Cu losses : 1712.7 watts
H.P.of the prime mover : 64.63
Overall = 94.6 %
Conversion efficiency c : 98.1 %
Electrical e : 96.4 %
Problem 4 : A 20 kW , 250 V DC Shunt Generator has
Armature and field resistances of 0.1 and 125 resp.
Calculate the total armatute power developed when running
(i) As a generator delivering 20 kW output.
(ii) As a motor taking 20 kW input.

Ans : (i) 21.17 kW

(ii) 18.9 kW

Note : This Problem will be solved after DC motor study

Problem 5 : A d.c shunt generaor delivers an output of 100 kW at
500 V when running at 800 r.p.m. The armaute and field resistances
are 0.1 and 100 resp. Calculate the speed of the same machine
when running as a shunt motor and taking 100 kW input at 500 V .
Allow 1 volts per brush for contact drop

Ans : 732.6 rpm

Note : This Problem will be solved after DC motor study

THANK YOU