EARTHQUAKE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Ikuo TOWHATA Xai HY. oe otList of Contents Note: The contents of this book are classified into three groups which are namely elementary topics with a symbol of 2, advanced topics designated by @Q, and miscellaneous topics accompanied by @*. Readers can choose lecture notes which are important and relevant to their personal interests. They do not have to spend a long time by reading all the pages. PART 0 BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SOIL MECHANICS Lecture Note -1.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL o Lecture Note -1.2 CONSOLIDATION AND VOLUME CHANGE, o Lecture Note -1.3, SHEAR DEFORMATION AND STRENGTH 2 Lecture Note -1.4 Lecture Note -1.4 DILATANCY (SHEAR-INDUCED VOLUME CHANGE) AND UNDRAINED CONDITIONS oO PART 1 SHAKING AND DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF SOFT GROUND Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Lecture Note 0.0 OBJECTIVES OF EARTHQUAKE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING o Lecture Note 0.1 PROBLEMS LYING IN EARTHQUAKE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING o Lecture Note 0.3, GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING EARTHQUAKES ‘asf Lecture Note 0.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM TO SHOW RELATION- SHIP BETWEEN GEOTECHNICAL SEISMIC PROBLEMS tam Chapter 2 SEISMOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE Lecture Note 1.0 RUPTURE OF FAULT AS A CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKE e Lecture Note 2.0 REGIONS WHERE BIG EARTHQUAKE IS LIKELY TO OCCUR e Chapter 3 WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC MEDIUM Lecture Note 3.0.0.1 EARTHQUAKE WAVES : S WAVE oe Lecture Note 3.0.0.2 EARTHQUAKE WAVES : P WAVE Oo Lecture Note 3.0.0.3 IDEALIZATION OF VERTICAL WAVE PROPAGATION a Lecture Note 3.0.1 VERTICAL PROPAGATION OF “S” WAVE IN LEVEL GROUND oOLecture Note 3.0.1.1 Lecture Note 3.0.2 Lecture Note 3.1 Lecture Note 3.2 Lecture Note 3.3, Lecture Note 3.4 Lecture Note 3.5, SOLUTION OF S-WAVE PROPAGATION IN REAL NUMBERS eo Question 1 EARTHQUAKE WAVES : RAYLEIGH WAVE EARTHQUAKE WAVES : LOVE WAVE RESPONSE OF ELASTIC GROUND TO SURFACE EXCITATION WAVE TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION AT INTERFACE, CALCULATION OF SEISMIC WAVE ENERGY Chapter 4 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS Lecture Note 4.0 Lecture Note 4.1 Lecture Note 4.2 Lecture Note 5.0 Lecture Note 5.1 Lecture Note 5.2 Lecture Note 5.3 Lecture Note 5.3.0.1 Lecture Note 5.3.0.2 Lecture Note 5.3.1 Lecture Note 5.3.2 Lecture Note 5.3.3 INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE MOTION REVISED EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY INSTRUMENTAL DETERMINATION OF SEISMIC INTENSITY EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDES TIME HISTORY OF GROUND MOTION EFFECTS OF LOCAL SOIL CONDITION ON MAXIMUM ACCELERATION SOME FAMOUS EARTHQUAKE MOTION RECORDS, GROUND MOTION DURING 1985 MEXICAN EARTHQUAKE POWER OF ACCELERATION TIME HISTORY DISTANCE FROM SOURCE OF EARTHQUAKE ESTIMATION OF INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE MOTION ESTIMATION OF DURATION OF EARTHQUAKE MOTION Chapter 5 DYNAMIC RESPONSE ANALYSIS Lecture Note 6.0 Lecture Note 7.0 Lecture Note 7.0.1 Lecture Note 7.0.1.1 Lecture Note 7.0.2 Lecture Note 7.0.3 Lecture Note 7.1 Lecture Note 7.2.0 Lecture Note 7.2.1 Lecture Note 7.3 Lecture Note 7.4.1 Lecture Note 7.4.2 RATE-DEPENDENT BEHAVIOUR OF CLAY SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPLEX ANALYSIS TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSES IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN AND TIME DOMAIN NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION NEWMARK'’S 6 METHOD. INTRODUCTION TO SEISMIC RESPONSE ANALYSIS AMPLIFICATION OF MOTION IN SURFACE ALLUVIUM SIGNIFICANCE OF OUTCROP MOTION SEISMIC RESPONSE OF MULTI-LAYERED GROUND AMPLIFICATION OF MOTION AT THE TOP OF HILL ANALYSIS ON HILL-INDUCED AMPLIFICATION 2 “BO Bes GeBog eo% 8 ~% Bo o0 B BG &&O °Lecture Note 7.4.3 Chapter 6 QUAS! Lecture Note 8.0 Lecture Note 8.0.1 Lecture Note 8.1 Lecture Note 8.2 CALCULATED AMPLIFICATION EFFECTS OF HILLY TOPOGRAPHY STATIC LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS ISMIC COEFFICIENT MODIFIED METHOD OF SEISMIC COEFFICIENT VERTICAL MOTION DIRECTION OF SEISMIC INERTIA FORCE IN DESIGN Chapter 7 FIELD INVESTGIGATION Lecture Note 9.0 Lecture Note 9.1 Lecture Note 9.2 Lecture Note 9.3, Lecture Note 9.4.0 Lecture Note 9.4.1 Chapter 8 DYNAMIC RESPOD Lecture Note 10.0 Lecture Note 10.1 Lecture Note 10.2 Lecture Note 10.3 Lecture Note 11.0 Lecture Note 11.1 Lecture Note 11.2 Lecture Note 11.3.1 Lecture Note 11.3.2 Lecture Note 12.0.0 Lecture Note 12.0.1 Lecture Note 12.0.2 Lecture Note 12.1 Lecture Note 12.2 Lecture Note 12.2.1 FIELD INVESTIGATION ON SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY SUSPENSION-TYPE DOWNHOLE SURVEY CROSS-HOLE SURVEY CORRELATION BETWEEN SPT-N and Vs SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD FOR SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION STACKING TECHNIQUE TO REMOVE NOISE, FROM SIGNAL SE OF COMPLEX-MODULUS MODEL. COMPLEX STRESS-STRAIN MODELING DAMPING RATIO IN SOIL DYNAMICS AND CRITICAL DAMPING RATIO DAMPED OSCILLATION OF COMPLEX-MODULUS MODEL FORCED OSCILLATION OF COMPLEX-MODULUS MODEL. WAVE PROPAGATION IN COMPLEX-MODULUS MEDIUM SOLUTION OF REAL NUMBERS IN COMPLEX-MODULUS GROUND OUTCROP AMPLIFICATION IN COMPLEX- MODULUS GROUND NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF EQUATION OF MOTION NEWMARK'S & METHOD EQUIVALENT LINEAR MODELING THEORY OF FOURIER SERIES EXPANSION (Part 1) THEORY OF FOURIER SERIES EXPANSION (Part 2) DYNAMIC ANALYSIS WITH EQUIVALENT LINEAR MODEL EXAMPLE OF EQUIVALENT LINEAR ANALYSIS, DECONVOLUTION OF EARTHQUAKE MOTION 3 e eo Qa Qa * % QBBO B “BB &*000Lecture Note 12.3 FURTHER REMARKS ON EQUIVALENT LINEAR MODEL Chapter 9 LABORATORY TESTS ON DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SOILS Lecture Note 13.0 RESONANT COLUMN TEST OF SOILS a Lecture Note 14.0 FACTORS THAT AFFECT MODULUS AND DAMPING OF SAND 2 Lecture Note 14.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT MODULUS AND DAMPING OF CLAY lad Lecture Note 15.0 SHEAR MODULUS OF SAND IN DRAINED SHEAR @ Lecture Note 15.1 EF! OF STRAIN AMPLITUDE ON SHEAR MODULUS @7 Lecture Note 15.2 EFFECTS OF EFFECTIVE STRESS ON SHEAR MODULUS OF SAND oo Lecture Note 16.0 DAMPING RATIO OF SAND 2 Lecture Note 17.0 RATE DEPENDENT NATURE OF CLAY e Lecture Note 17.1 EFFECTS OF PLASTICITY ON CYCLIC BEHAVIOR OF CLAY OF Lecture Note 17.2 EFFECTS OF DENSITY ON SHEAR MODULUS. OF CLAY Lecture Note 17.3 EFFECTS OF AGE ON SHEAR MODULUS OF CLAY Lecture Note 17.4 EFFECTS OF STRAIN AMPLITUDE ON SHEAR MODULUS OF CLAY 2 Lecture Note 17.5 DEGRADATION OF SHEAR MODULUS OF CLAY - Lecture Note 18.0 DAMPING RATIO OF CLAY eo Lecture Note 18.1 EFFECTS OF CONSOLIDATION TIME ON DAMPING OF CLAY Lecture Note 19.0 G-r AND h-y CURVES OF UNDISTURBED SAMPLES a Lecture Note 19.1 YNAMIC DEFORMATION OF GRAVELLY SOILS oe Lecture Note 19.2.1 COLLECTING UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLES a Lecture Note 19.2.2 FREEZING TECHNIQUE OF SAND SAMPLING a Lecture Note 19.2.3 EXTENT OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE Oe Chapter 10 SIMPLE STR STARAIN MODELS Lecture Note 20.0 HYPERBOLIC STRESS-STRAIN MODEL a Lecture Note 20.1 RAMBERG-OSGOOD MODEL e Chapter 11 APPLICATION OF SEISMIC INERTIA FORCE Lecture Note 20.2.0 CALCULATION OF EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED DISPLACEMENT 2 Lecture Note 20.2.1 CORRELATION BETWEEN RESIDUAL DISPLACEMENT, BASE ACC ERATION AND BASE VELOCITY Lecture Note 20.2.2 RELATIONSHIP BET" MIC COEFFICIENT ANDLecture Note 20.2.3, Lecture Note 20.3.0 Lecture Note 20.3.1 Lecture Note 20.3.2 MAXIMUM ACCELERATION DURING EARTHQUAKES BRIEF ANALYSIS ON SEISMIC COEFFICIENT EQUIVALENT TO MAXIMUM ACCELERATION SEISMIC EARTH PRESSURE SHAKING TABLE TEST ON SEISMIC EARTH PRESSURE COMPARISON OF STATIC AND SEISMIC ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURES, Chapter 12 SEISMIC FORCES ON STRUCTURES Lecture Note 20.3.3 Lecture Note 20.3.4 Lecture Note 20.3.5 Lecture Note 20.3.6 Lecture Note 20.4 ANALYSIS ON SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION SEISMIC DESIGN OF EMBEDDED PIPELINE, AMPLIFICATION; SOIL COLUMN VERSUS, SPRING-MASS MODEL. RIGOROUS COMPARISON OF SOIL COLUMN AND EQUIVALENT SPRING-MASS MODEL. SEISMIC WATER PRESSURE ON WALL, ‘Chapter 13 SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF SLOPES AND EMBANKMENTS, Lecture Note 20.5.1 Lecture Note 20.5.2 Lecture Note 20.5.3 Lecture Note 20.5.4 Lecture Note 20.5.5.1 Lecture Note 20.5.5.2 Lecture Note 20.5.5.3 Lecture Note 20.5.6 Chapter 14 LANDS! Lecture Note 20.5.6.1 Lecture Note 20.5.6.2 Lecture Note 20.5.6.3 Lecture Note 20.5.6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SEISMIC FAILURE OF ARTIFICIAL. EMBANKMENT EXAMPLE OF SLIDING FAILURE OF EMBANKMENT DUE TO EARTHQUAKES, EXAMPLE OF SLUMPING OF EMBANKMENT DUE TO EARTHQUAKES STATISTICS ON TYPES OF SUBSIDENCE OF EMBANKMENT DUE TO EARTHQUAKES, ALLOWABLE SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT — GENERAL PRINCIPLE — INQUIRY ON ALLOWABLE SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT PRINCIPLE OF DISPLACEMENT-BASED SEISMIC DESIGN OF EARTH STRUCTURES IMPORTANCE OF REINFORCEMENT AT TOE OF SLOPE EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDES YUNGAY CITY DESTROYED BY FARTHQUAKE-INDUCED DEBRIS FLOW TSAOLING LANDSLIDE IN TAIWAN OTHER LANDSLIDES IN TAIWAN 5 Qa a ° ° Q * *%* B® BQ EB B oCLecture Note 20.5.6.5 MITIGATION OF SEISMIC LANDSLIDE DISASTERS a Lecture Note 20.5.6.6 EARTHQUAKE INDUCED SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES Lecture Note 20.6.1 TOPICS RELATED TO FAULT oO Lecture Note 20.6.2 EXAMPLE OF REVERSE FAULT o Lecture Note 20.6.7 TUNNEL AND EARTHQUAKE FAULT ie Lecture Note 20.6.9 TECTONICALLY-INDUCED GROUND SUBSIDENCE INTO SEA DURING STRONG EARTHQUAKES IN KOHCHI, JAPAN PART2 LIQUEFACTION Chapter 15 FEATURES OF LIQUEFACTION-INDUCED DAMAGE Lecture Note 21.0 SEISMIC LIQUEFACTION : INTRODUCTION o Lecture Note 21.0.1 HISTORY OF PROBLEMS AND RESEARCH TOPICS CONCERNING LIQUEFACTION a Lecture Note 21.1 DAMAGE CAUSED BY LIQUEFACTION o Lecture Note 21.2 SUBSIDENCE OF EMBANKMENT DUE TO LIQUEFACTION @ Lecture Note 21.3 FLOATING OF EMBEDDED FACILITIES oo Lecture Note 21.4 LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF RETAINING WALL o Lecture Note 21.5 LATERAL MOVEMENT OF LIQUEFIED SLOPE o Lecture Note 21.6.1 LIQUEFACTION-INDUCED SUBSIDENCE OF RIVER DIKES o Lecture Note 21.6.2 LESSONS FROM 2000 TOTTORIKEN-SEIBU EARTHQUAKE @ Lecture Note 21.7 EARTHQUAKE INDUCED GROUND SUBSIDENCE Oe Lecture Note 21.8 EARTHQUAKE MOTION RECORDED ON LIQUEFIED GROUND a Lecture Note 21.9 MISCELLANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHS OF LIQUEFACTION 6 Lecture Note 21.10 SUMMARY OF CASE HISTORIES. a Chapter 16 MECHANISM OF ONSET OF LIQUEFACTION Lecture Note 22.0 MECHANISM OF LIQUEFACTION eo Lecture Note 22.1 SAND BOILING a Lecture Note 22.2 DISSIPATION OF EXCESS PORE WATER PRESSURE a Lecture Note 22.2.1 PALEOLIQUEFACTION Lecture Note 22.2.2 EXCAVATION OF BURIED SAND BOIL Lecture Note 22.3 UNDRAINED SHEAR TESTS OF SAND a Lecture Note 22.3.0.1_ - TORSION SHEAR DEVICE WITH HOLLOW CYLINDRICAL, SPECIMEN a Lecture Note 22.3.1 CONSOLIDATION AFTER LIQUEFACTION a Lecture Note 22.4 LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL AND SURFACE GEOLOGY = & Lecture Note 22.5 EFFECTS OF AGING ON LIQUEFACTION STRENGTH OF FILL eLecture Note 22.6 Lecture Note 23.0 Lecture Note 23.0.1 Lecture Note 23.0.2 Lecture Note 23.1 Lecture Note 23.2 Lecture Note 23.3 Lecture Note 23.4 Lecture Note 23.4.1 Lecture Note 23.4.2 Lecture Note 23.4.3 Lecture Note 23.4.4 Lecture Note 23.4.4.1 Lecture Note 23.4.5 Lecture Note 23.4.6 PLecture Note 23.4.7 LIQUEFACTION IN NATURAL DEPOSIT OF LO‘ SIGNIFICANCE OF CYCLIC TRIAXIAL TESTS ON LIQUEFACTION DEGREE OF SATURATION AND SKEMPTON’S B VALUE DEGREE OF SATURATION AND SKEMPTON’S B VALUE SIGNIFICANCE OF STRESS RATIO STRESS RATIO IN THE FIELD LIQUEFACTION CURVE, FIELD AND LABORATORY STRESS RATIO EFFECTS OF STATIC SHEAR STRESS ON RESISTANCE AGAINST LIQUEFACTION IMPORTANCE OF TWO-WAY LOADING IN CYCLIC SHEAR WITH INITIAL STATIC STRESS EFFECTS OF Ko CONSOLIDATION ON RESISTANCE AGAINST LIQUEFACTION LIQUEFACTION RESISTANCE OF SAND UNDER K, CONDITION EFFECTS OF CONFINING PRESSURE ON LIQUEFACTION RESISTANCE, EFFECTS OF IRREGULAR LOADING ON RESISTANCE AGAINST LIQUEFACTION CORRECTION OF STRESS RATIO WITH DEPTH EFFECTS OF MULTI-DIRECTIONAL SHEAR ON LIQUEFACTION RESISTANCE OF SAND Chapter 17 BEHAVIOR OF SOIL UNDERGOING CYCLIC UNDRAINED LOADING Lecture Note 24.0 Lecture Note 24.2 Lecture Note 24.3 Lecture Note 24.4 Lecture Note 24.5 Lecture Note 24.5.1 Lecture Note 24.6 Lecture Note 24.7 Lecture Note 24.8 Chapter 18 IN-SITU TESTS ON LIQUE! Lecture Note 25.0 Lecture Note 25.1 LIQUEFACTION RESISTANCE OF DENSE SAND CYCLIC UNDRAINED SHEAR OF CLAY DOES CLAY LIQUEFY? LIQUEFACTION OF TAILING MATERIAL EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXCESS PORE WATER PRESSURE AND NUMBER OF LOADING CYCLES SIMPLE A‘ MENTS OF PORE PRESSURE RISE CORRELATION BETWEEN STRAIN ENERGY AND EXCESS PORE WATER PRESSURE * BB BB BE EB #&Q7oeBbo B BE *&%*BB CORRELATION BETWEEN SHEAR STRAIN ENERGY AND EX- CESS PORE WATER PRESSURE ENERGY CORRELATION OF PORE PRESSURE AT STATES OF SHEAR STRESS ION POTENTIAL OF SUBS ILS USE OF SPT FOR ASSESSING LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL SPT-N OBSERVED IN NIIGATA CITY 7 ® e Qa aLecture Note 25.1.1 Lecture Note 25.2 Lecture Note 25.2.1 Lecture Note 25.3 Lecture Note 25.4.0 Lecture Note 25.4.1 Lecture Note 25.5 Lecture Note 26.0 ASSESSMENT OF LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL ASSESSMENT OF LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL BY SPT-N BEFORE 1995 CALCULATION OF FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST LIQUEFACTION ISSUES FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF CODE REVISED DESIGN PREDICTION OF LIQUEFACTION AFTER 1995 (Part 1; Design load) REVISED DESIGN PREDICTION OF LIQUEFACTION AFTER 1995 (Part 2; Resistance against liquefaction) FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST LIQUEFACTION AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY ON LIQUEFACTION RESISTANCE, Chapter 19 POST-LIQUEFACTION BEHAVIOR OF SANDY GROUND Lecture Note 26.1 Lecture Note 26.1.1 Lecture Note 26.2.0 Lecture Note 26.2.1 Lecture Note 26.2.2 Chapter 20 IMMEDIATE DETECTION OF LIQU! Lecture Note 26.3.0 Lecture Note 26.3.1 Lecture Note 26.3.2 Lecture Note 26.3.3 Chapter 21 PERMANENT DISPLACEM! Lecture Note 27.0 Lecture Note 27.0.1 Lecture Note 27.1 Lecture Note 27.2 Lecture Note 27.3 Lecture Note 27.4 GROUND SUBSIDENCE AFTER LIQUEFACTION REPEATED LIQUEFACTION EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH HYPERBOLIC MODEL EXAMPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT OF LIQUEFACTION RESISTANCE BY MEASURING SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY, ‘ACTION DAMAGE AND EMERGE! ACTION SPECTRUM INTENSITY IMMEDIATE DETECTION OF SUBSOIL LIQUEFACTION BY USING SPECTRUM INTENSITY (SI) - PRINCIPLE - IMMEDIATE DETECTION OF SUBSOIL LIQUEFACTION BY USING SPECTRUM INTENSITY (SI) - EXAMPLE - LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF LIQUEFIED SUBSOIL LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF QUAY WALL INDUCED BY SUBSURFACE LIQUEFACTION SMALL SHAKING TABLE TESTS ON LATERAL DISPLACEMENT ROLE PLAYED BY GRAVITY BEHAVIOR OF SURFACE DRY CRUST LARGE SCALE SHAKING TABLE TESTS. 8 (ts) [sine [e) 13) e T / DEFORMATION OF LIQUEFIED SUBSOIL BEBB 0 0Lecture Note 27.5 NEED FOR TESTS ON EX LY LOOSE SANDY DEPOSITS e Lecture Note 27.6 SHAKING TABLE TESTS ON EXTREMELY LOOSE DEPOSIT Lecture Note 27.7 SHAKING TABLE TESTS ON DISTORTION OF CAISSON QUAY WALL DURING EARTHQUAKES a Chapter 22. PREDICTION OF PERMANENT DISPLACEMENT DUE TO LIQUEFACTION Lecture Note 28.0.0 MODE OF DISPLACEMENT aQ Lecture Note 28.0.1 PRINCIPLE OF MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY Lecture Note 28.0.1.1_ PRINCIPLE OF LAGRANGEAN EQUATION OF MOTION Lecture Note 28.0.2 ENERGY THEORY ON FLOW OF LIQUEFIED SUBSOIL e Lecture Note 28.0.3 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLE AND ITS EULER’S DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION Lecture Note 28.0.4 PREDICTION OF LATERAL DISPLACEMENT a Lecture Note 28.1 CLOSED FORM SOLUTION OF MAXIMUM POSSIBLE DISPLACEMENT aQ Lecture Note 28.2 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF SOIL MASS UNDERGOING LATERAL FLOW Lecture Note 28.3 EXAMPLE PREDICTION OF LATERAL DISPLACEMENT Qa Lecture Note 28.4.0 PARAMETRIC STUDIES ON LATERAL DISPLACEMENT Lecture Note 28.4.1 THREE DIMENSIONAL PREDICTION OF LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF LIQUEFIED DEPOSIT “ Lecture Note 28.5 GLACIER AS SEEN FROM AIRCRAFT Oe Lecture Note 28.6.1 DRAG FORCE OF EMBEDDED PIPE IN LIQUEFIED MODEL GROUND. a Lecture Note 28.6.2 RATE-DEPENDENCY OF LIQUEFIED SAND a Lecture Note 28.6.3 ‘FECTS OF SHAKING ON BEHAVIOR OF LIQUEFIED SAND Q Lecture Note 28.6.4 ATTEMPT TO MEASURE VISCOSITY OF LIQUEFIED SAND IN SHEAR TESTS a Lecture Note 28.6.5 VISCOSITY OF LIQUEFIED SAND MEASURED IN a SHEAR TESTS Lecture Note 28.6.6 OBSERVED RATE OF STRAIN DURING LIQUEFACTION- INDUCED GROUND DEFORMATION a Lecture Note 28.7.0 THREE-DIMENSIONAL DYNAMIC ANALYSIS ON LIQUEFACTION-INDUCED PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF GROUND Lecture Note 28.7.0.1 EXAMPLE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS ON, LIQUEFACTION-INDUCED PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF GROUND. e Lecture Note 28.7.0.4 LATERAL LOAD ON PILE FOUNDATION EXERTED BY LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF LIQUEFIED GROUND a Lecture Note 28.7.0.5 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE EXERTED BY SURFACE 9Lecture Note28.7.1 Lecture Note28.7.2 Lecture Note 28.7.3 UNLIQUEFIE SOIL ON FOUNDATION OF STRUCTURES = @. DEFORMATION ANALYSIS BASED ON STRAIN POTENTIAL ANALYSIS ON SEISMIC DEFORMATION OF LIYUTAN DAM IN TAIWAN a ASSESSMENT OF SUBSIDENCE OF RIVER DIKES DUE TO SUBSURFACE LIQUEFACTION BY USING LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS a Chapter 23 MITIGATION OF LIQUEFACTION-INDUCED DAMAGE, Lecture Note 29.0 PREVENTION OF LIQUEFACTION o Lecture Note 29.0.1 PRINCIPLES FOR PREVENTION OF LIQUEFACTION 2 Lecture Note 29.1 MITIGATION OF LATERAL DISPLACEMENT 2 Lecture Note 29.2.0 SAND COMPACTION PILE FOR DENSIFICATION OF LOOSE SAND a Lecture Note 29.2.1 GROUND IMPROVEMENT BY COMPACTION a Lecture Note 29.2.2.0 DYNAMIC CONSOLIDATION a Lecture Note 29.2.2. VERIFICATION OF EFFECTS OF DYNAMIC CONSOLIDATION a LECTURE NOTE 29.2.2.4 RANGE OF SAND DENSIFICATION a Lecture Note 29.3 GRAVEL DRAIN a Lecture Note 29.4 LOWERING OF GROUND WATER TABLE Oo APPENDIX 1 DERIVATION OF COULOMB'S ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE FORMULA APPENDIX 2 CONVENIENT EXPRESSIONS IN INTERNATIONAL CONVERSATIONS 10PART 0 BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SOIL MECHANICS Machu Picchu, PeruGeotechnical Earthquake Engineering %8 Ikuo Towhata Lecture Note -1.1_ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL Soil is classified primarily into two categories which are namely granular materials and cohesive soils The former consists of gravel, sand, and cohesionless silts (Fig.1), while the latter is clayey soils (Fig.2). The mechanical properties of granular soils are governed by the grain-to-grain contact as well as friction. Hence, the magnitude of contact force and the geometrical nature of grain packing play major roles. It should be recalled that the magnitude of contact pressure per unit area of soil is called the effective stress which has been the most important concept in modern soil mechanics. In clayey soils, in contrast, chemical and electrical interactions among clay particles are important as well. Hence, shear strength is activated even at zero effective stress when the past stress-strain history allows it. Liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL), which are called the Atterberg limits in combination, are two measures to evaluate the magnitudes of interparticle actions other than effective stress. The plasticity index, PI, is defined as P/=LL-PL. Roughly speaking, P/ of most clays lies in the range of 40 to 80% with such an exception of (bentonite) group. Particle size is around 200 pm. Fig.2 Electronic microscopic Fig.1 Microscopic photograph of Toyoura sand. photograph of bentonite clay (scale of 3 microns is shown at Another major difference between granular and clayey soils lies in the bottom; Towhata et al., 1993). grain size. The size affects the hydraulic conductivity percent finer Liquefaction of sity sol (Permeability or possibility of ground water to flow 499 2000 Toor-ken Seibu earthquake through soil). In conventional soil mechanics, grains larger than 75 microns are called sand and those larger than 2000 microns (2mm) are gravel. On the other hand, 50 f~—"comy particles smaller than S$ microns are clay in which chemical and electrical forces (cohesion) are important. 4 Pat O37mm Silt is a name of particles between 5 and 75 microns. 01 0.01 O1 1 Being called fine soils together with clay, silt has two Panicle size (mm) Takesig groups. The first one is a plastic silt, including clay _Fig.3 Particle size distribution curve of minerals and having cohesion. The second group is non- silty liquefied soil. plastic; composed of small sand-like grains without cohesion. The difference of two silty soils should be bome in mind. Fig.3 illustrates the particle size distribution of non-plastic liquefied silt (see L.N.9.6). The vertical coordinate denotes the accumulated (weight) percentage finer than the horizontal coordinate, Note that almost 80% of grains lies in the range of silt. The particle size at 50% is called the mean grain size, Dy. Hence, $0% of the total weight of soil is finer than Dg Ref, Towhata,|., Pisit Kuntiwattanakul and Kobayashi,H. (1993): "A Preliminary study on heating of clays to examine possible effects of temperature on soil-mechanical properties", Soils and Foundations, Vol.33, No.4, pp.184-190.Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering %8 Ikuo Towhat Lecture Note -1.2. WEIGHT AND DENSITY OF SOIL ‘The specific gravity, designated by G,, stands for the mass density of minerals that compose grains divided by that of water. Hence, one unit volume of soil grain has a weight of G,y,.. Since most soil grains are made up similarly of silicate minerals, G, of many soils, whether sandy or clayey, lies in the range of 2.6 to 2.75. The weight of soil is important in calculating the underground pressure. When the weight of soil per unit volume, 7 , is known, the overburden pressure (the vertical stress or the vertical compressional force per unit area) at the depth of z is given by o, = yz. The range of y is roughly around /.4 when soil is dry, and is /.9 to 2.0 or more under the ground water table. Soil is called water-saturated when the void space among solid particles is fully occupied by water; without air or gas bubbles. The extent of water-saturation is expressed by the degree of saturation; Sr. Sr=/.0 when fully saturated, and Sr=0 when dry. Accordingly, the unit weight of soil is calculated by Volume: Weight: Gre SY o ) - : fe yo Te 4 (1-s.)| air 0 where y,, is the unit weight of water (9.8kN/n') and “e" is called void ratio which is the ratio of open void volume among solid es, Sy, grains against the volume of solid phase; see Fig.1. Moreover, the ‘water content is defined by means of weight ratio; a water content w = ratio of weights of water and solid = &. Q) : 1 Gy In practice, soils under the ground water table is safely assumed to ‘be 100% saturated with water; Sr=/.0 in Eq.1. y L.N-1.3 will deal with the effective stress which stands for the Fig. | Definition of void ratio. magnitude of contact forces between soil grains. The effective stress plays an extremely important role in soil mechanics because the behavior of soil is strongly affected by the effective stress. In contrast, the conventional kind of stress, which is the magnitude of force per unit area of soil and is referred to as the total stress, is of secondary importance. The overburden pressure as mentioned above is one of the total stresses. The mechanical behavior and, for example, liquefaction resistance of sand are deeply affected by the density. Denser packing of grains improves the behavior of sand. This feature cannot be fully accounted for by void ratio (e) because any sand is similarly very weak when the state of packing is as loose as possible, irrespective of the value of void ratio. Therefore, a new parameter which is called the relative density (Dr) was introduced. Dr=0% when sand is in the loosest state (void ratio e = e,.,), and Dr=100% when sand is in the densest state (ee,.,) D,= a x 100(%) @) Values of ¢,., and ¢,,, are determined by several specified methods under zero overburden pressure. For example, soft placing of dry sand or sedimentation in water for the loosest grain packing (e,,,) and continued shaking for the densest state (e,,,). Contrary to common misunderstanding, the state of packing looser than e=e,., is still atainable by placing sand with a few percent of water content. Note that the states of loosest and densest packing change with increased effective stress. The state of €=€y., (Dr=0%6) is looser than the state of loosest packing under 100 kPa.Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering %8 tkuo Towhata Lecture Note -1.3 EFFECTIVE STRESS AND PORE WATER PRESSURE. Sand at a depth of 100m has greater shear rigidity and strength than the same type of sand at the ground surface. Although this difference may be partly due to density and geological history, its major cause is the strong contact forces between sand particles. Since the slipping at particle-to-particle contacts is a frictional phenomenon (Fig.1), the greater contact forces make slippage difficult to oceur, and increase the overall shear rigidity and strength. Hence, sand at a deep elevation is reinforced by the generation of high contact forces due to the weight of overlying soils. The difference between the effective stress and the conventional (total) stress is found in the consideration of pore pressures. Pore pressure means the pressure of air and water in the pores (void among solid grains). When soil is saturated with water, pore air pressure is not of concern, and pore water pressure is designated by “u.” Since pore water is one of the constituents of soil, the overburden pressure (vertical total stress) includes pore water pressure effects Pore water pressure does not affect the generation of frictional resistance at contact points as illustrated in Fig.1. To understand this, compare the same sands; one is situated at the ground surface and the other upon the seabed at 10,000 m depth. Clearly, the former has null total stress and the latter 100 MPa. In spite of the high total stress, the seabed sand is soft due to null contact pressure. Note that pore water pressure at 10,000 m depth is 100 MPa which is equal to the total vertical stress. The idea of effective stress, o, was introduced to understand the above discussion. With “' “ as a symbol of effective stress; N A O-o-u () i INE |S \ ) contact force : frictional resistance At the seabed, therefore, the effective stress is 100MPa- 100MPa=0MPa and the behavior of seabed sand is similar to sand at the ground surface. Eq.1 is valid not only for the vertical stress but normal stresses in any directions. Shear stress does not Fig-1 Illustration of role played have an idea of effective stress because pore water pressure does _by intergranular contact force. not have a shear component. a Whitman (unfortunately, the author cannot find out the original literature) illustrated the significance of effective stress. Fig.2 studies the force equilibrium on a soil column. The weight of the column with a unit cross section is equal to the total stress, o. This is in equilibrium with the vertical components of pore water pressure, fircosas and those of contact forces, SN ,00s6; in which N, is the magnitude A of contact force and @ as well as 8, is the direction. The summation and integration are made along AA’ which is a curved bottom of the soil column that passes through pores and the granular contact points but never goes into grains. Another force equilibrium shows that the integration of pore water along AA” is equal to the pore pressure, wu, in a planar top of BB’ (4B and 4’B’ <1), om us SN; 0088; Q) By comparing Eqs | and 2, o= BN; 20s 8; )) ‘Thus, effective stress means a summation of granular contact forces per unit area in the direction of interest. _Fig.2 Whitman’s interpretation of physical meaning of effective stressGeotechnical Earthquake Engineering %8 Ikuo Towhata Lecture Note -1.4 CONSOLIDATION AND VOLUME CHANGE. Volume of soil varies with the effective stress. More accurately, the size of space (called void or pore) among solid grains decreases when the grain-to-grain contact forces increase. This has long been a problem in soft clayey deposits subjected to surcharge or pumping of water. Both kinds of human activity increases the effective stress and induce the ground subsidence. This i called primary consolidation. Terzaghi's classic theory of consolidation settlement hypothesized that the volume change of soil is proportional to the increase of the vertical effective stress. More precisely, however, itis not the case. A semi-logarithmically linear relationship as in Fig.1 is used in practice. 1) When consolidation starts from a state of slurry (mud) and the effective stress, P’, increases continuously, the state of soil follows a linear path, ABCG, in Fig.l. Soil in this process is called normally consolidated; the current stress is the highest as so far experienced. This is the case in alluvial plane where sedimentation occurs continuously. 2) The diagram in Fig.1 should be called “e-logP’ diagram” but conventionally called e-logP diagram. Anyway, the horizontal coordinate stands for either the effective vertical stress or the mean of three effective stresses in orthogonal directions (effective mean principal stress).. 3) When the effective stress is held constant at B, the process of secondary compression occurs and the volume decreases with time. Then loading resumes at D and the clay follows the path of DEC. Until E, the volume change is relatively small; after yielding at E, soil becomes normally consolidated. 4) decrease of stress on CF is called unloading. The void ratio (or soil volume) does not come back to the original level at A. Thus, deformation of soil is irreversible. Then, the reloading from F back towards C follows a path similar to CF; after C, normal consolidation Void ratio, starts again towards G. e 5) Soil in CFC is called overconsolidated. Overconsolidated soil is thus characterized by minor volume change upon loading, The overconsol- idation ratio is defined by P. OCR = (Ever highest effective stress)/{ Present effective stress) = = 6) The resemblance of DEC curve and FCG is noteworthy.; significant volume contraction starts after an intermediate point, Note that this nature was induced by different mechanisms which are secondary logis (effective stress) compression (ageing) for DEC whereas stress history of unloading Fi» | so called “e-logP” and reloading for FCG diagram on consolidation Primary consolidation is generated by compression of grain structure of of soil. soil due to change of effective stress. Little is known about secondary compression in contrast. Fig.2 shows that secondary compression was accelerated by heating due possibly to thermal excitation of H,0 molecules which are electrically absorbed on surface of clay mineral. Predominani'y primary eonsoidation = 152] 3 Secondary B50] 3 compression “ Fi28) | rere | Tt ea 30 so 700-300 opera tine in nae Elapsed time in minutes Fig.2 Acceleration of secondary compression by heating of clay (Towhata et al., 1993) Towhata,., Pisit Kuntiwattanakul, Seko,l., and Ohishi,K. (1993): "Volume change of clays induced by heating as observed in consolidation tests", Soils and Foundations, Vol.33, No.4, pp.170-183.PART 1 PROBLEMS ON SHAKING OF SOFT GROUND UNDERGOING EARTHQUAKE LOADING Statue of Buddhism at Ajanta, India.Chapter | INTRODUCTION ‘Chan Chan archaeological site in North PeruSoil Dynamics %4 Tkuo Towhata Lecture Note 0.0 OBJECTIVES OF SOIL DYNAMICS Soil dynamics is concerned with the following topics: 1) Prediction of ground vibration during earthquakes. 2) Prediction of residual deformation of ground and earth structures that remain after shaking. 3) Study on stress-strain-strength characteristics of soils undergoing cyclic loading. 4) Subsurface exploration by generating and observing a propagation of ground vibration. 5) Application of above products to study on behavior of seabed subjected to sea-wave loading. 6) Another application to ground vibration caused by machine and traffic loading. In the past experiences, such earthquake-related damages as loss of lives and properties as well as malfunctioning of facilities were induced by either a total collapse of structures or their unacceptably large deformation. Those collapse and deformation in turn were induced by either a strong shaking or a ground deformation which is not recovered after an earthquakes and remains permanently. Therefore, the topics 1) and 2) above are concerned with the prediction of the extent of damages. It has been found that the ground shaking and the residual deformation that remains after shaking are strongly affected by the stress-strain behavior of soils. Since soil is a nonlinear material, there is no proportionality between stress and strain. The deformation characteristics, and of course the strength, vary drastically by the magnitude of effective stress, history of stress application in the past (normal or over consolidation), age, rate of loading (to some extent), material strength of soil, among others. Thus, the basic understanding of soil behavior requires us to do much efforts experimentally. Consequently, many stress-strain models of soils have been proposed by a number of research people. Even though any appropriate stress-strain model may be available, identification of parameters included in the model at a specified site is a further difficulty. We run tests in the field or collect soil specimens of a good quality (this is already a big topic of study) for laboratory testing. The employed model may or may not be able to handle the complicated stress-strain behavior. The collected information may be representative of the whole ground (case of uniform ground) or indicates the behavior of a small specimen (case of. heterogeneous ground). To date, many computer codes have been developed that can calculate the earthquake shaking of ground and earth structures. They appear to be reasonable when the studied ground condition is relatively stiff. That means the prediction is reasonable when the strain in soil is small and the nonlinearity is not significant. Conversely, computation on soft soil deposits have been poor. There is no general way to relate the predicted nature of ground shaking and the extent of damage. Many kinds of facilities are of different causes of damages, which cannot be taken. care of by a single or a limited number of seismic parameter(s). In summary, there are still so many problems in soil dynamics that require further studies. We should hence bear in mind that what are being discussed today at many occasions might be discarded in the next decade.Soil Dynamics %6 Ikuo Towhata Lecture Note 0.1 PROBLEMS LYING IN SOIL DYNAMICS (1) Dynamic stress-strain behavior of soil + Technique of field investigation to determine soil properties + Good quality of soil sampling + Methodology of laboratory soil testing to determine soil properties + Effects of fines content on soil properties + Effects of stress history + Effects of ageing which laboratory tests on young reconstituted specimens overlook + Effects of coarse constituent (gravel) which were out of scope in conventional soil testing + Modeling of nonlinear stress-strain behavior (2) Dynamic response of ground + Effects of local geology and topography on dynamic response + Analytical / numerical techniques that predict dynamic response of ground + Running 1-dimensional or 2-dimensional analyses on 3-dimensional topography. + Determining representative in-situ soil properties in nonuniform soil conditions + Idealization of real ground for analysis + Efficient method of analysis : reliable and easy to use + Soil-structure interaction + Technique of model testing; shaking table and centrifuge (3) Resistance of soil against liquefaction + Determination of resistance against liquefaction + Effects of fines content, stress history, aging, previous minor shaking + Sampling of loose sand in situ + Corelation between local geology and probability of liquefaction (4) Behavior of sand / ground after liquefaction * Ground subsidence after dissipation of pore water pressure + Prediction of large deformation of ground in horizontal direction + Strength of sand at large deformation + Effects of ground movement on buried facilities (5) Use of ground vibration for subsurface exploration * Seismic reflection / refraction surveys + Seismic geotomography Downhole survey + Use of surface wave * Correlation between measured information and other soil properties + Microtremor (6) Prediction of earthquake risk + Cause of damage in various facilities + Microzonation + Local geology and topography (7) Miscellaneous + Behavior of soil under nonseismic cyclic loading : traffic and sea wave. + Mitigation of traffic ground vibration + Submarine landslideSoil Dynamics %6 Ikuo Towhata Lecture Note 0.3 GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING EARTHQUAKES, Recent earthquake events have been studied in detail and many points have been made. Consequently, it has been found that two phenomena should be studied; namely amplification of shaking and liquefaction. () Problems induced by shaking include the following issues; Amplification of motion in soft alluvial deposits #x883P OR MICAS 52RD 40M Effects of local soil conditions and topography on amplification SAR PE> SR: Anse tN SCRE Permanent (residual) deformation of earth structures +#iBM9OAASER: (580307) Landslide sy Different causes of seismic failure in different types of facilities MRM BOREIZENO ME Keo TRS; for instance, inertia force tRtt71, deformation of surrounding soil MDAMOE etc. Conventionally, earthquake engineering has been working on the intensity of acceleration ‘MBE at the bottom of surface structures. This is because d’Lambert principle states the equivalence of the acceleration and the inertia force. It is, however, apparent that the acceleration does not account for the deformation/strain of the ground. Some people, therefore, prefer to use the earthquake velocity i#8€ in place of acceleration, although the physical significance of velocity is not clearly understood. Dynamic soil-structure interaction #088 £ 38% £ OBOE 5 HFA Fault movement BR (2) Liquefaction causes the following problems and poses topics of study; Effects of local geology on liquefaction potential SAS BARR LO FTRETE Ic BIST RA: type of soil OME, age of soil HARDEE Loss of bearing capacity 348 NOM and subsidence of surface structure 20°F - 8 ViA% Floating of embedded structure #BMieMOme Loy Boiling of sand and water 94RD £98k Consolidation and subsidence ER E6480" Liquefaction is the build-up of excess pore water pressure iA MMBUKEE due to cyclic shear loading. When this pore pressure dissipates MIXX like consolidation of clayey deposits, the volume of sand decreases and ground subsidence ##88%'F occurs. Lateral flow of ground 94755768) Liquefied ground flows laterally and deforms in the meantime, causing damage to many underground facilities. This is the most recent topic of study and many people are trying to demonstrate the cause of lateral flow as well as to predict the amount of flow. Soil-structure interaction #88 ¢ iE O18 fe Prevention of liquefaction aMEORRAL Mitigation of liquefaction-induced damage BBOBR It is still difficult to prevent liquefaction over a vast area where networks of lifelines areinstalled 3475-4 YBOL 5 GEARS TRUCE DIET SORARTHS. It is also expensive, or impossible in developed urban areas #87HISH TRACT CCM EBAF SRILA). When this is the case, the bad consequences of liquefaction should be minimized by using several mitigation measures COL 5 /08@. ARMLORAIES CEBROM, BHERE<< DAS TELIBARERRSSoil Dynamics %5 Tuo Towhata Lecture Note 0.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM TO SHOW RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOTECHNICAL SEISMIC PROBLEMS REMOWS Rupture of fault RRBOEM, BMEE CRE Propagation of earthquake motion, decaying with distance ASIC AM input in local soil ¥ EROMMERASOU COME. DoE Young alluvial or manmade sandy $9 TROM, HMAOBARMIHRL TRAE fill, low density PUTER. OO BM TRO ME v Amplification in surface soil, resonance at 5 natural period of surface layer, elongated ee duration of shaking due to free vibration of Liquefaction changes surface soil subsoil to lic ee: mae wnmeaa~ SONAR. Bent [Strong acceleration | Large amplitude of |/Elongated period of | | subsidence of heavy foundation, displacement motion floating of light embedded v structure, lateral flow of soil, Cc a | consolidation settlement. Large inertial force | | maparie at Large ground deformation y eu momR BARMOR MEMMNRB. AG Resonant motion of structures |Collapse of less flexible and ee lless ductile structures MREAPMEMO BAT REL WR Unallowable distortion of linear or embedded structures HRRCNVOED. RERRS LID aes Oscillation of high-rise buildings, sloshing failure of liquid in storage tanks,Chapter 2 SEISMOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE Lion's gate at Hattusas, the ruin of the capital of ancient Hittite Empire, Anatolia, Turkey.Soil Dynamics %1 Ikuo Towhata Lecture note 1.0 RUPTURE OF FAULT AS A CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKE Fig.1 illustrates a traditional causative mechanism of Japanese earthquakes. 88 (a cat fish) whose movement underground causes an earthquake is stabilized by a god (E807) by driving a stone onto the head of the Tokyo fish. Fish from other districts are being warned. The true understanding of the cause of earthquakes started in the second half of the 20th century. It is commonly understood that an earthquake is caused by a rup- ture of a fault in the earth's crust. Fig.2 shows a variety of fault movements; normal, reverse, and strike-slip. The earth crust is continuously sheared or compressed by increas- ing tectonic forces. As the stress in rock increases with time, the strain energy is accumulated. UI- timately the rock is broken me- chanically and the energy is re- leased (Fig.3). Earthquake is the results. Thereafter, the accumu- lation of strain energy starts again towards an future earth- quake. The rock rupture is said to be associated with a generation of electric current. This may be re- lated to many precursors (#13). Measurement of electric current in Greece is making a success in prediction of earthquake. In reality, a whole fault does not rupture in a single event. The first breakage occurs at a place where the factor of safety is smallest. The working stress there is trans- Fig.1 Stabilization of traditional earthquakes (copied from Bolt, 1993). Fig.2 Types of faults (by Bolt). Strain Fig.3 Release of elastic energy after rupture ferred to other portions of the fault, causing another rupture. Thus, the rupture propagates along the fault. Impact is generated from each rupture event and affect the ground surface. With all the impact combined, the ground motion is felt as an earthquake. ‘Terminology : an earthquake hypocenter (#8i#) or focus stands for the place of the first rupture, whilst an epicenter (#8) is the place at the surface just above the focus. B.A.Bolt (1993) "Earthquakes and Geological Discovery," Scientific American Library, ISBN 0-7167-5040-6.Soil Dynamies %2 Tuo Towhata Lecture note 2.0 REGIONS WHERE BIG EARTHQUAKE IS LIKELY TO OCCUR Fig.2 Tectonic plates (Bolt, p.108). Fig.1 reveals the distribution of earthquake epicenters from 1977 to 1986. There are places where earthquake effects are more important than in others. They are around the Pacific Ocean and the area connecting Indonesia and the Mediterranean Sea. However, other areas are of some earthquake probability. In modern seismology, the earth's surface is divided into many plates of crust which travels laterally. Their mutual interaction such as collision, friction, and separation induce an internal stressing that leads ultimately to a rock rupture. Fig.3 demonstrates a causative mechanism at a subduction zone where one of the colliding plates (mostly oceanic) is sinking down into the earth. The continental plate goes up as rebound and generates an “interplate" earthquake. This earthquake usually releases a huge elastic energy. |A single plate undergoes high stress state in its inside. When a rupture occurs, an earthquake is generated. [This is called an "intraplate” earthquake. Its energy is relatively small, but it could occur under a densely Fig.3 Rupture and rebound at a populated area. subduction zone.Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering %9 tkuo Towhata Lecture Note 2.2. RESERVOIR-INDUCED SEISMICITY ‘A unique type of earthquake triggering mechanism is |" found in the reservoir-induced seismicity in which | rising of water level in artificial lakes causes earthquakes. Gupta (1985) showed 44 quakes of this type among which four had magnitude greater than 6; Hsinfengkinan (M=6.0;1962 in China), Kariba (M=6.2; 1963 in Zambia and Zimbabwe), Koyna (M=6.3; 1967 in India; Fig. 1), and Kremasta (M=6.3; 1966 in Greece). The epicenters of reservoir-induced earthquakes are scattered all over the world. It is noteworthy that the gigantic rock slide (275 million m’) at Vajont dam in Italy (1963) was preceded by not only minor slope Fig.] Leakage from Koyna dam (http:// failures but also small earthquakes upon reservoir filling geocities.com seismiestacey/671211/ (Nonveiller, 1987). Gupta (1985) pointed out the dam_leak_1.jpe). Himalaya region does not have this kind of earthquake probably because of the thrust (reverse) kind of tectonic movement. He further mentioned that some reservoir decreased the local seismicity after water impounding. Thus, much is not yet known about the mechanism of reservoir-induced seismicity. Simpson and Negmatullaev (1981) carried out a detailed investigation on the earthquakes in the area of Nurek reservoir in Tadjikistan, Central Asia. The Nurek dam is a 315m high rockfill dam and formed a 40km-long lake in one of the tributaries of the Amu Dary'a river. Fig.2 shows that earthquakes were induced when the reservoir level achieved new maximums. It was pointed out further that the very rapid draw-down of water level in early 1975 induced earthquakes. Thus, the reservoir-induced earthquake is somehow related with the overburden pressure and pore pressure which takes some time to propagate into and affect the rock stability. Of further interest was that the epicenters of the earthquakes migrated from the downstream to the upstream areas around the reservoir. This infers that seismicity is ceased when the strain energy is released and the earthquakes occurs in the newly impounded upstream area. Water depth in reservoir |x. Vine A points of interest Number of earth- quakes in every 10 wateR OEPTH Ow EvenrS/ 10 ots Fig.2 Correlation between number of earthquake events per 10 days and reservoir water depth at Nurek (Simpson and Negmatullaev, 1981). Ref. Gupta,H.K. (1985): "The present status of reservoir induced seismicity investigations with special emphasis on carthquakes," Tectonophysics, 118, pp.257-279. Nonveiller, E. (1987): "The Vajont reservoir slope failure," Engineering Geology, Vol.24, p.499. Simpson,D.W.and Nagmatullaev,S.K. (1981): "Induced seismicity at Nurek reservoir, Tadjikistan, USSR," Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol.71, No.5, pp.1561-1586,