697540

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JSIXXX10.1177/1028315317697540Journal of Studies in International EducationLee

Article
Journal of Studies in International Education
2017, Vol. 21(2) 170190
Circulating East to East: 2017 European Association for
International Education
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PushPull Factors of Chinese DOI: 10.1177/1028315317697540
https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315317697540
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Students Studying in Korea

Se Woong Lee1

Abstract
Every year, substantial numbers of students choose to study abroad, and China is one
of the largest exporters of international students. Interestingly, instead of choosing
English-speaking countries, increasingly more Chinese students are choosing nearby
Asian countries as their destination to study abroad, particularly Korea. Despite
this emerging trend, little is known regarding why Chinese students have begun to
choose Korea and its universities or their level of educational satisfaction with their
study-abroad choices. Extrapolating from the pushpull model, this study utilized
a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods to examine factors
affecting students choice to study in Korea. Notably, this study concluded that
although low institution selectivity is a strong pull factor, that selectivity is also a
determinant of students study-abroad satisfaction. This study contributes to the
limited research by exploring the distinct pushpull factors of Chinese students who
are studying in AsiaEast to Eastparticularly in Korea.

Keywords
Chinese international student, decision-making, Korea, pushpull model, study
abroad, study-abroad satisfaction

Introduction
For the past several decades, globalization has been an emerging force in higher edu-
cation (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2009; Altbach & Knight, 2007; Naidoo, 2006).
According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Developments

1University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA

Corresponding Author:
Se Woong Lee, University of Missouri, 202 Hill Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
Email: sewoong.lee@missouri.edu
Lee 171

(OECD) 2015 annual report, not only has the total number of students pursuing an
education across national borders doubled from 2 million in 2000 to 4 million in 2013,
but the list of countries from which those students originate has also become more
diverse (OECD, 2015). Asian students represent 53% of all international students
worldwide. Although many of these students continue to seek educational opportuni-
ties in English-speaking countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom,
Australia, and Canada (OECD, 2015), over the past 10 to 15 years, many Asian stu-
dents have begun to circulate within Asia. Considering cultural affinities, geographical
convenience, affordability, and similarities across systems of education, increases in
inter-Asian circulation are unsurprising (OECD, 2015). As Asian countries have
emerged as new international education players, the share of the international student
market choosing the United States as a destination for tertiary education has dropped
from 23% in 2000 to 19% in 2012. By contrast, by 2012, the share of international
students who chose an Asian country as an educational destination had grown by more
than 140% compared with 2000 (OECD, 2015).
Among countries that have participated in this growing trend, South Korea (here-
after referred to as Korea) has benefited the most from this change. Korea has long
been recognized as a country that sends its students abroad; however, among OECD
countries, Korea has grown the fastest in terms of attracting international students
for tertiary education, increasing from 3,963 in 2000 to 86,878 in 2012, approxi-
mately 43 times greater in slightly more than a decade (Korean Education
Development Institute [KEDI], 2010; Cho & Palmer, 2013). The vast majority of
international students fueling this increase originated in neighboring Asian coun-
tries, particularly China. In 2012, 89% of the international student body in Korea
comprised Asian students; of this portion, Chinese students composed 71% (OECD,
2015; Sugimura, 2009).
Despite these substantial numbers, limited research has been conducted to under-
stand why there has been such an influx of Chinese students into Korea, which, in
addition to being a non-English-speaking country, has a long track record of sending
students abroad (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology [MEST], 2008). To
explore this trend, this study used a combination of quantitative and qualitative
research methods. Theoretically, this study utilized Altbachs (1998) pushpull model
to explore the factors affecting students choices to study abroad. Notably, however,
rather than merely adopting the traditional pushpull model, this study expanded on its
framework by conducting in-depth, in-person interviews to capture the unique eco-
nomic, social, and political forces within China that push students to study in a neigh-
boring country to pursue their education. Simultaneously, the study also focuses on
identifying distinct factors within Korea that draw students. Based on the key themes
generated from qualitative research and previous literature, this study developed a
survey to identify these factors and measure their significance in influencing or deter-
mining a students choice to study in Korea.
Considering these approaches and perspectives, the following research questions
guided the study:
172 Journal of Studies in International Education 21(2)

Research Question 1: What are the distinct pushpull factors affecting Chinese
students decisions to study in Korea?
Research Question 2: How important are these distinct pushpull factors in influ-
encing students decisions to study in Korea?

In addition, there is a body of literature suggesting that students tend to be satis-

fied with their study-abroad experience if their desired choice and expectations prior
to going abroad are met (Arambewela & Hall, 2009; Arambewela, Hall, & Zuhair,
2006). In recognition of this relation, the study further proposes to determine the
degree to which students preconceived pushpull factors correlate with their satis-
faction with studying in Korea. Therefore, the study examines the following ques-
tion as well:

Research Question 3: What is the relation between the pushpull factors and stu-
dents satisfaction with studying in Korea?

Literature Review
The Dynamics of Korea and Chinas Higher Education
Although long known as a leader in sending students abroad, Korea has also played
host to a growing number of international students in recent years (OECD, 2015).
According to the KEDI (2015), the number of foreign students studying at Korean
universities increased dramatically from 3,693 in 2000 to 22,526 in 2005 and 49,270
in 2007. In 2015, that number reached 91,332. Of this population pursuing higher
education in Korea, the vast majority are from nearby Asian countries, particularly
China. In 2015, among the 91,332 foreign students studying at Korean universities,
Asian students represented 86.8% (79,257), including approximately 68% from China
(KEDI, 2015). To better understand this emerging trend, it is important to first under-
stand the economic, social, and policy changes occurring within Korea and Chinas
higher education contexts that have contributed to the increases.
In Korea, government and institutions have made a concerted effort to recruit
Chinese students to study in Korea. Beginning in the early 2000s, the Korean govern-
ment introduced a series of policy initiatives focused on recruiting more foreign stu-
dents. These measures stemmed from a desire to counterbalance Koreas own shrinking
population of domestic students. The most representative policy was the Study Korea
Project, which encouraged foreign students to enroll in Korean universities (Byun &
Kim, 2011). The initiative primarily targeted Chinese students. The project com-
menced with a goal of recruiting 50,000 international students by 2010. The govern-
ment ran education fairs, and individual institutions undertook rigorous efforts in
China; consequently, the goal was met in 20082 years early. In addition, private
institutions located in smaller cities outside the Seoul metropolitan area worked to
aggressively recruit international students, particularly students from China. These
Lee 173

private institutions relied heavily on college tuition and fees as their primary source of
revenue and thus believed that an infusion of tuition fees from Chinese students was
directly linked to their survival (Byun & Kim, 2011). Consequently, the number of
Chinese international students studying in Korea grew more than 28 times, increasing
from approximately 1,832 Chinese students in 2001 to approximately 52,226 in 2015
(KEDI, 2015).
Simultaneously, the higher education context in China also contributed substan-
tially to the trend. Significantly contributing to the increase in the number of Chinese
international students was the countrys recent economic growth, the governments
decision to expand the number of students whom China sent abroad, and its inade-
quate supply of Chinese universities. Dating to the early 1980s, Deng Xiaoping made
a deliberate decision to expand the number of Chinese students studying abroad to
strengthen the countrys economy and prosperity. Since then, a considerable number
of Chinese students have studied overseas. In addition to fostering economic reform
and growth, the number of Chinese students studying abroad has increased substan-
tially in the last two decades. Consequently, China has now become the largest
exporter of international students (OECD, 2015). Among a variety of factors, how-
ever, the factor deemed to have had the greatest effect on Chinese students decisions
to study abroad has been the inadequate supply of universities in their home country
(Zhao & Guo, 2002).
After the Cultural Revolution had run its course, the Chinese national college
entrance examination (the Gaokao) was reintroduced in 1977. In 1977, there were only
220,000 spaces available; 30 years later, the number of spaces had grown to 5.6 mil-
lion. Despite this expansion of the Chinese higher education sector, 6 million vacan-
cies in the Chinese higher education system existed, whereas approximately 9 million
students take Chinas national college entrance examination every year (Levin, 2010).
This disparity contributed not only to a fierce competition among students on the
Chinese national college entrance examination but also to a reality that a substantial
number of students will fail to secure placement within the Chinese higher education
system. Therefore, to secure competitiveness in the job market, many Chinese stu-
dents have chosen to search outside of Mainland China to secure postsecondary
degrees and to experience high-quality education (Davey, 2005; Yang, 2007). Thus, it
is not surprising that many Chinese parents invest up to one third of their income
(Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002) to financially support their childs decision to study abroad.
Overall, all of the features mentioned above, that is, government support, severe com-
petition to enter college, job market conditions, and parental support, have contributed
greatly to the increasing number of Chinese students studying abroad (Duan, 1997).
Chinese students decisions to study in Korea are affected by the complicated and
dynamic contexts of both Korea and China. The majority of the literature on interna-
tional students (both in Western and non-Western countries) has attempted to under-
stand the factors influencing students decisions regarding where to study; for a
theoretical framework, these studies have generally relied on the pushpull model.
The next section examines and addresses the literature that explores international stu-
dents pushpull factors.
174 Journal of Studies in International Education 21(2)

The PushPull Factors in Decisions Regarding International Students

Destination
The complicated dynamic between home and host countries simultaneously affects
students decisions to study abroad. In trying to better understand this dynamic, much
of the previous literature has utilized the pushpull model, which provides valuable
information regarding the flow of international students (Altbach, 2004) and interna-
tional students choice of country (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002).
The pushpull model initially was introduced by Lee in 1966 to understand factors
that influence migration. Since that time, education researchers have used its frame-
work to understand the factors influencing international students study-abroad desti-
nations. The pull factors are the educational expectations of a host country that
possesses attractive socioeconomic factors with which to recruit international students.
These factors include knowledge and awareness of the host country, recommendations
from friends and relatives, cost concerns, academic environment issues, social links,
and geographic proximity (Altbach, 2004; Altbach etal., 2009; Mazzarol & Soutar,
2002). The push factors include, in particular, students dissatisfaction with educa-
tional opportunities in their home country that exerts pressure to leave and pursue
education elsewhere. Sources of this dissatisfaction may include more attractive
courses overseas, difficulty in being accepted at a home university, courses that are
unavailable at home, desire to develop a better understanding of the West, and inten-
tion to migrate (Altbach, 2004; Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002). Taken together, these push
pull factors not only affect students selection of a host country but also students
selection of a particular institution (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002).
Students from different countries often report different pushpull factors. For exam-
ple, Taiwanese students often choose to study in the United Kingdom because of the
international acceptability and recognition of UK higher education as a tremendous ben-
efit to their long-term investment. Conversely, European Union students choose a UK
higher education institution for the opportunity to learn not only the English language
but also UK cultural traditions (Davey, 2005). Mazzarol and Soutar (2002) examined the
influencing pushpull factors of international students and concluded that Chinese stu-
dents perceived a better understanding of [the] West as the most important factor in
deciding to study overseas, whereas international students from India, Indonesia, and
Taiwan reported that the most important factor in choosing to study abroad was over-
seas course better than local [sic]. In addition, Chinese students tend to value the recom-
mendations of relatives, parents, and friends; geographic proximity to China; and social
links more than students of other nationalities (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002).
Few studies that utilize the pushpull model have developed and identified distinct
and contextual factors that influence students decision to study abroad. For example,
one study proposed that students study-abroad decision could be significantly influ-
enced by a city or countrys image (Mara Cubillo, Snchez, & Cervio, 2006). Other
research has observed that alignment of religion between the host country and their
home country has had a positive influence on students study-abroad decisions (Singh,
Schapper, & Jack, 2014).
Lee 175

Although the pushpull model has most often been applied to understand the trends
and patterns of international students choices, this model has primarily been used to
examine students who predominantly valued and selected English-speaking countries
such as Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States (Agarwal & Winkler,
1985; Sirowy & Inkeles, 1985). Therefore, it is not surprising that research examining
international students choices and decisions to pursue an international education in
Asian countries and their institutions has emerged only recently (Aphijanyatham, 2010;
Singh etal., 2014; Yusoff, 2012). Less is known regarding the unique pushpull factors
of students engaging in East to East circulation. Considering that increasingly more
students are now choosing Asian countries as their study-abroad destination, it seems
prudent to explore the distinct pushpull factors of this growing group of international
students (e.g., Li & Bray, 2007; Padlee, Kamaruddin, & Baharun, 2010).

International Students and Study-Abroad Satisfaction

Understanding the pushpull factors of international students can help not only tailor
the recruitment strategies that attract talented international students but also guide
administrators in higher education to better serve, meet, and understand the needs of
international students who are already studying in their country. Understanding these
pushpull factors can also help higher education leaders understand and recognize the
unique challenges and satisfactions of those international students (Arambewela etal.,
2006; Memon, Salleh, Baharom, & Harun, 2014). As Scott (1997) noted, studying in
a foreign country is similar to jumping into cold water (emphasis added). Students
face a variety of challenges not only in academics but also in everyday living (Perrucci
& Hu, 1995). Unfortunately, many of these challenges often result in less satisfying
college experiences (Zhao, Kuh, & Carini, 2005), which eventually negatively affect
students retention and ultimate graduation. Furthermore, considering that a satisfied
student population can positively influence other potential international students from
their home country (Kotler & Fox, 1995), many institutions are attempting to improve
their competitiveness within the international education market by focusing on satisfy-
ing the needs and demands of international students.
The literature examining this context in Korea observed that the friendliness of
Koreans, fluency in the Korean language, and relationships with faculty and Korean
friends all positively affected Chinese students institutional adaptation (Cho & Jon,
2009). Much of the literature in Korea, however, focuses on either Chinese students
living adjustment or the present condition of internationalization in Korean higher
education (Rhee, 2006). Although research is limited, students are more likely to be
satisfied with their study-abroad experience if their initial choices and requirements
are met (Arambewela & Hall, 2009; Arambewela etal., 2006). Nevertheless, the rela-
tion between pushpull factors and satisfaction has not been thoroughly examined in
these newly emerging countries. At the outset of this study, no research had yet inves-
tigated students satisfaction with their initial choice of schools in Asian countries,
which is the driving force to study abroad in the first place. Given that student satisfac-
tion increases when perceived choices and expectations align with experience, it is
176 Journal of Studies in International Education 21(2)

critical to examine not only the factors influencing students study-abroad decisions
but also the relation of those factors to study-abroad satisfaction. Thus, to improve our
understanding of the new trends in international student mobility, this study has used
the pushpull model to investigate the factors affecting Chinese students decisions
and how these factors are linked to the satisfaction of students studying in Korea.

The Present Study

According to Altbachs (1998) pushpull model, studying abroad is a complex and
dynamic process in which some international students are pushed by unfavorable con-
ditions in their home countries to study abroad, whereas others are instead pulled by
the perceived favorable conditions of potential host countries and institutions. Based
on this model, prior literature has been able to identify and understand a range of dis-
tinct external factors that drive students to leave their home countries and factors that
attract those students to study in their new host countries (Li & Bray, 2007; Mazzarol
& Soutar, 2002; Wilkins, Balakrishnan, & Huisman, 2012). Unlike in the past, when a
majority of students have typically chosen English-speaking and Western countries as
their study-abroad destinations, increasingly more students are now circulating within
Asia. To better understand this new trend and the unique factors that influence students
to study in non-English-speaking countries, this study not only expands on Altbachs
(1998) pushpull model but also conducts qualitative research to identify the unique
push factors within China and the unique pull factors in Korea that together drive
Chinese students to study in Korea. Moreover, by investigating the relation between
these pushpull factors and satisfaction, governments and institutions can strategically
emphasize the factors that are more strongly associated with student satisfaction.
Considering that this emerging trend is also occurring in other non-Western countries
such as Japan, Malaysia, and other Asian countries, which have all seen an increasing
number of Chinese international students, this novel approach provides meaningful
implications not only for Korean educational and political leaders but also for other
emerging countries attempting to compete in the global market to recruit more inter-
national students.

Method
This study used a mixed methods approach to explore the dynamics of East to East
circulation among Chinese international students, specifically in Korea. Given the
lack of previous research on international students choices to pursue a college educa-
tion in non-English-speaking countries, rather than simply applying traditional push
pull factors as identified in the literature, this study first conducted in-person interviews
with Chinese students to develop insights and identify unique factors that influence
their choice to study in Korea (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Creswell, 2003). Based on the
key themes generated from analysis of the interviews and building on the Korean
Education and Employment Panel (KEEP) survey1 (Lee & Shouse, 2011) and insights
from the literature (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002), this study developed a survey that was
Lee 177

able to identify factors and measure their significance with regard to influencing the
choice to study abroad as well as how those factors affect study-abroad satisfaction.
The survey was also pilot-tested on several Chinese international students, who pro-
vided valuable suggestions to improve wording as well as insights regarding items to
add to the survey.

Qualitative Research
The first phase of this study utilized qualitative analysis to better understand whether
there are unique sources of information or factors that influence Chinese students
choices to study abroad (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Using snowball sampling methods
(Merriam, 2009), this study conducted semistructured, in-depth interviews with six
Chinese international students who were studying in Korea during the 2010-2011 aca-
demic year. Of these students, two were from language institutions and four were from
undergraduate institutions. The goal of these interviews was to develop a better under-
standing of the factors that had influenced their choices to study abroad, particularly
in Korea. The open-ended interactive interview asked the following questions:

1. What are the factors that influenced you to leave China (push factors)?
2. What are the factors that influenced you to study in Korea (pull factors)?

Interviews were conducted with individuals, pairs, or small groups of Chinese interna-
tional students who were studying in Korea. The interview, which lasted approxi-
mately an hour, was conducted in the language (Mandarin, Korean, or English) with
which students felt most comfortable to yield more candid conversations. In addition,
the interviews were attended by a Chinese translator whose native language was
Mandarin. Interviews were transcribed into Korean and English and analyzed with the
participants consent. To better understand the emerging themes, the study also con-
ducted follow-up interviews with the participants to examine their perspectives in
more depth and to conduct member checks (Creswell, 2003).

Quantitative Research
In the second phase of the study, quantitative data were collected and analyzed to better
understand the pushpull factors affecting Chinese students studying in Korea. A total of
21 questions and two open-ended questions were developed and delivered to 670 interna-
tional students from China who were enrolled in 37 universities in Korea during the 2010-
2011 academic year. To account for regional differences, the study sampled students from
different provinces of Korea. Of the surveys collected, 633 were utilized after eliminating
37 defective forms. The reliability of the overall survey was .92. Internal consistency
using Lee Cronbachs (1951) coefficient alpha (Cronbachs ) was computed at 0.89, sug-
gesting a high level of internal consistency (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).
Descriptively, the data included 368 males (58.1%), 265 females (41.9%), 376 stu-
dents from the Seoul Metropolitan Area (59.4%), and 233 students from rural areas
178 Journal of Studies in International Education 21(2)

Table 1. Descriptive Characteristics of the Sample.

Variables n %
Gender
Male 368 58.1
Female 265 41.9
Major
Arts and humanities 99 15.7
Social science 378 59.7
Science and engineering 87 13.7
Fine arts and physical education 27 4.3
Korean language level
No skill 61 9.6
Beginner 124 19.6
Average 196 31.0
Slightly above average 172 27.2
Advanced 62 9.8
Fathers academic background
Primary education 22 3.5
Middle or high school 230 36.3
Two- to 3-year college degree 158 25.0
Bachelors degree 217 34.3
Other 6 0.9
Mothers academic background
Primary education 20 3.2
Middle or high school 287 45.3
Two- to 3-year college degree 158 27.0
Bachelors degree 151 23.9
Other 4 0.6
Current academic program
Language institutions 114 18.0
Undergraduate 404 63.8
Graduate 80 9.0
Other 35 9.2
Region
Seoul Metropolitan Area 376 59.4
Rural area 233 36.8
Utilized Recruitment Agency
Yes 430 67.9
No 203 32.1

(36.8%). More than half of the participants (67.9%) used recruitment agencies. Of the
students, 63.8% were undergraduate students, 9% were graduate students, and 18%
were attending language institutions (see Table 1).
Lee 179

Using the information from the survey, this study conducted descriptive analysis to
determine how much each distinctive pushpull factor influenced students decisions
to study in Korea. In addition, to examine the influence of pushpull factors on stu-
dents study-abroad satisfaction, this study conducted multiple regression analysis.
The dependent variable in the multiple regression model was the self-reported item
of students satisfaction with the study-abroad experience. Students were requested to
indicate the extent of their satisfaction with studying in Korea on a 5-point Likert-type
scale. An example item was My study-abroad experience in Korea lives up to my
expectations. The study also controlled for a variety of influential covariates to miti-
gate any possible bias and to provide meaningful information regarding the relations
between students pushpull factors and their satisfaction. Specifically, the study
accounted for students background information such as gender, proficiency in Korean,
socioeconomic status (measured by parents education level), and the institutions
location.
In addition, because satisfaction is a multidimensional concept and is likely to be
influenced by other experiences (such as the relationship with faculty and institution
facilities), to account for these factors, the study conducted an exploratory factor anal-
ysis on five satisfaction survey items. Using a principal components analysis with
varimax rotation (Comrey & Lee, 1992), two latent constructs emerged. The first con-
struct identified in the analysis was interpreted as satisfaction with institutions facili-
ties. This index comprises the average of two items measuring (on a 5-point scale on
which high values indicate a higher level of satisfaction) students reported satisfac-
tion with their institutions facilities. Questionnaire items included (a) I am satisfied
with the overall facilities in my institution and (b) I am satisfied with the classroom
and library facilities in my institution ( = .79). The second factor identified in the
analysis was interpreted as satisfaction with institutions experience. This index
comprised the average of three items measuring (on a 5-point scale) students reported
satisfaction with their experience at the institution. The questionnaire included (a) I am
satisfied with my relationship with my peers at the institution, (b) I am satisfied with
my relationship with the faculty at my institution, and (c) I am satisfied with the
counseling and consultation services offered by the International Office at my institu-
tion ( = .74). By including students perceived satisfaction with their institutional
experience and institutional facilities, this study was able to better capture the relation
between pushpull factors and students overall study-abroad satisfaction. Detailed
information is presented in Table 2.
In sum, using multiple regression analyses, this study examined the association
between pushpull factors and students satisfaction while accounting for various
covariates. The analytic equation utilized in this study is as follows:

Yi = 0 + 1 X i + 2 PUSHi + 3 PULLi + 4SFi + 5SEi + i .

Yi is a dependent variable, and X i includes the basic demographic and socioeco-

nomic information of Student i. The term PUSHi indicates Student is push factors,
PULLi represents Student is pull factors, SFi represents the students satisfaction
180 Journal of Studies in International Education 21(2)

Table 2. Factor Analysis of Students Satisfaction.

Satisfaction with Satisfaction with

institutions facilities institutions experience
I am satisfied with the school 0.882
facilities.
I am satisfied with the classroom and 0.895
library facilities of my institution.
I am satisfied with my relationship 0.710
with my peers.
I am satisfied with my relationship 0.848
with the faculty in my institution.
I am satisfied with the counseling and 0.808
consultation in the International
Office in my institution.
Eigenvalue 2.614 1.055
Variance (%) 52.273 21.093
Cumulative variance (%) 52.273 73.366
Cronbachs 0.794 0.743
Approximate 2 943.116***

***p < .001.

with the institutions facilities, SEi represents the students satisfaction with the insti-
tutions experience, and i is an error term.
Finally, this study conducted multiple imputation techniques to adequately address
missing values in the analyses. The multiple imputation approach is known to effec-
tively address missing values in the data set (Royston, 2005).

Results
Qualitative Findings
The majority of the traditional pushpull factors were observed to be significant influ-
ences on Chinese students choice to study in Korea. Notably, throughout the interview
phase, students expressed more pull factors than push factors in the decision to study in
Korea. In other words, from the students perspective, Koreas pull factors more strongly
influenced their decisions to study in Korea than Chinas push factors. After making con-
nections among ideas and analyzing the interviewees responses, the study identified
three key themes that were not mentioned in the traditional pushpull literature as sig-
nificant factors but were important to the respondents. These consistently occurring
themes included the Korean Wave, institutional selectivity, and recruitment agencies.

Korean Wave (Hallyu). Many of the students first learned of or became interested in
Korea through its movies, dramas, and music. For more than 20 years, there has been
Lee 181

a growing interest among Chinese people in Korean cultural products. This phenom-
enon is called the Korean Wave (also known as Hallyu). Because Korean music,
drama, and movies have become popular in China, the Korean Wave has played a
pivotal role in motivating and inspiring Chinese students to visit or study in Korea.
One female student in a language institution explained this point well:

I have seen almost all of the famous Korean TV series. While watching those movies and
dramas, I got interested in Korea and its culture. Although I do not speak any Korean
language, I definitely wanted to come here. This was the reason I got interested in Korea,
and that is why I am here. Many of my friends are not so different from me.

Institutional selectivity. Many students mentioned that unlike universities in traditional

Western countries, some of the institutions in Korea had a relatively lax admission
process, which was another attractive factor for Chinese students. Because many Chi-
nese students are unfamiliar with the Korean language, many Korean postsecondary
institutions also encourage Chinese students to enroll in a language institution before
attending college. As explained by one of the male undergraduate students,

If you try to go to the US, England or Australia, you need to have TOEFL test scores or
you need to take the college entrance exams of those countries, which is a real challenge
for me. Interestingly, many of Koreas institutions only ask for high school graduation
papers and Korean language proficiency test scores, nothing else. This was a big merit. If
you have not studied Korean, that is all right too. Universities usually have their own
language institution. If you attend their language institution for two years, you not only
become proficient in Korean, but you also are more likely to be accepted to that institution.

Recruitment agencies. Previous literature documented that recommendations and opin-

ions from parents or friends have a significant influence on students study-abroad
destinations. Recent research that evaluates Chinese students study-abroad experi-
ences, however, has noted the critical role that recruitment agencies can play in stu-
dents choices of where to study abroad (Pimpa, 2003; Wu, 2014). In many cases,
these agencies base their recommendations on factors such as a students financial
situation or academic ability. One female undergraduate student recounted her experi-
ence in this manner:

A recruitment agency is common for many students in China who want to study abroad
no matter where you want to go. However, unlike students who want to go to Western
countries, where students can gather information and apply by themselves, it was difficult
for many of us to apply to Korean institutions without their [recruitment agency] help.
Mainly because most of the Korean institutions webpages and their application processes
are written in Korean. Only a few institutions provide English webpages and information
regarding applications. That is why we have no choice but to use a recruitment agency.

In sum, traditional pushpull factors such as the absence of a study field, cost, location,
and recommendations from friends or family appear to be equally important to Chinese
182 Journal of Studies in International Education 21(2)

students choosing to study in Korea. In addition, however, institutional selectivity, the

Korean Wave, and recommendations from agencies emerged and were deemed to be
important to the Chinese student population in Korea as well. Based on the interviews and
pushpull models, this study identified four push factors: the fierce competition for
Chinese college entrance (Push 1), the quality of Chinese higher education (Push 2), the
absence of ones study field (Push 3), and job market conditions in China (Push 4). In
addition, this study identified eight pull factors: the Korean Wave (Pull 1), geographic
location (Pull 2), the quality of higher education in the host country (Pull 3), inexpensive
cost to study abroad (Pull 4), parents and friends recommendations (Pull 5), recruitment
agency recommendations (Pull 6), selectivity of the institution (Pull 7), and job market
vision (Pull 8). These pushpull factors were then utilized in the survey phase of the study.

Quantitative Findings
Push Factors
Consistent with prior literature, push factors, including fierce competition for Chinese
college entrance, the quality of Chinese higher education, the absence of ones study
field in China, and the job market conditions in China, were deemed to be important
among Chinese students studying abroad in Korea. Among these factors, fierce competi-
tion for Chinese college entrance (M = 3.68, SD = 1.80) was the most influential. This
factor, in turn, was followed by the job market conditions in China (M = 3.57, SD = 1.67)
and the quality of Chinese higher education (M = 3.03, SD = 1.68). The absence of ones
study field (M = 2.27, SD = 1.54) was the least influential factor (see Table 3), which is
not surprising considering the expansion of the higher education system in China.

Pull Factors
Among the pull factors, including the Korean Wave, geographic location, the quality
of higher education in the host country, lower costs to study abroad, parents and
friends recommendations, recruitment agency recommendations, the selectivity of the
institution, and job market vision, the selectivity of the institution (M = 3.08, SD =
1.11) and parents and friends recommendations (M = 3.01, SD = 1.18) appeared to be
the most influential in students choices to study in Korea. This result aligns with the
prior literature that determined that parents and friends recommendations often have
a considerable influence on students choices to study abroad (Mazzarol & Soutar,
2002; Yang, 2007). In a departure from students perspectives gathered in the inter-
views, however, the Korean Wave (M = 2.03, SD = 1.10) appears to be the least influ-
ential predictor of student choice (see Table 4).

Relations Between PushPull Factors and Student Satisfaction

As indicated in Table 5, greater satisfaction with institutional facilities and greater
satisfaction with the institutional experience were each positively related to overall
Lee 183

Table 3. Chinese International Students Push Factors.

M SD
Fierce competition for Chinese 3.68 1.80
college entrance
Job market conditions in China 3.57 1.67
Quality of Chinese higher 3.03 1.68
education
Absence of study field in China 2.27 1.54

study-abroad satisfaction in Korea. In other words, students who reported being satis-
fied with their institutions facilities and experience were more likely to have reported
greater satisfaction with studying in Korea. In addition, students studying outside of
the Seoul metropolitan area also displayed greater satisfaction. This finding aligns
with the limited extant qualitative research that has observed that unlike Chinese stu-
dents who are studying in the Seoul metropolitan area, Chinese students outside of
Seoul are attracted by the low tuition, low living expenses, and greater scholarship
opportunities that institutions in those areas tend to offer (Lee, 2012).
Simultaneously, although none of the push factors were determined to have a sig-
nificant effect on student satisfaction, two pull factors, the selectivity of the institution
and job market vision, were determined to be significantly related to student satisfac-
tion. In particular, students who chose Korea because of its prospective job market and
vision reported their study-abroad experience to be more satisfactory. Although previ-
ous findings demonstrated that low institution selectivity was an important pull factor
in the decision to study in Korea, counterintuitively, that selectivity negatively affected
student satisfaction.

Discussion
Historically, students from developing Asian countries have chosen developed Western
countries, specifically English-speaking countries, as study-abroad destinations. As
researchers have continued to examine this phenomenon, they have identified unique
factors and developed theories regarding what influences students decisions to study
abroad and where the students choose to study. In recent decades, however, the land-
scape of international higher education has changed dramatically. Rather than choos-
ing English-speaking countries to pursue higher education, increasingly more Asian
students are choosing nearby countries as their study destinations. Although a body of
literature exists describing international student mobility (e.g., Altbach 2004; Lee &
Tan, 1984; Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002), much less is known regarding international
students studying in non-English-speaking and developing counties. This study con-
tributes to the field of education by expanding our understanding of international stu-
dents who are engaging in East to East circulation, particularly students choosing to
study in Korea. More specifically, this study fills a gap in the literature by contributing
184 Journal of Studies in International Education 21(2)

Table 4. Chinese International Students Pull Factors.

M SD
Selectivity of institution 3.08 1.11
Parents and friends recommendations 3.01 1.18
Job market vision 2.99 1.05
Lower costs to study abroad 2.93 1.06
Geographical location 2.88 1.18
Quality of higher education in Korea 2.73 1.07
Recruitment agency recommendation 2.52 1.22
Korean Wave 2.03 1.10

to the existing pushpull model by identifying unique pushpull factors that drive
students to study in non-Western and non-English-speaking countries, a focus that has
previously been neglected in the literature. Moreover, by examining the relation
between students choice factors and study-abroad satisfaction, this study contributes
to a more comprehensive understanding of how students choices affect study-abroad
satisfaction.
Students in this study appeared to be attracted to the low selectivity of Korean insti-
tutions and reported that their parents and friends had a significant influence on their
choice to study in Korea. Although the critical role parents and friends play in Chinese
students study-abroad decisions has been well documented (Yang, 2007), none of the
previous research documented the role of the institutions selectivity in students
study-abroad decisions. Consistent with findings from in-person interviews, the low
selectivity of institutions was observed to be a strong pull factor. Notably, the most
attractive pull factor, the low institution selectivity, played a detrimental role in stu-
dents later study-abroad satisfaction. Specifically, multiple regression analysis
revealed a negative correlation between low institution selectivity and study-abroad
satisfaction. Although this finding may initially appear to be counterintuitive, an
undergraduate students response from the qualitative research helps to provide
context:

Most of the students are intrigued by the fact that you do not need any Korean language
test scores or need to take Koreas national college entrance test to attend a Korean
college. However, this also allows for many under-qualified Chinese students to enter the
schools. Since these students, some of them, have no interest in studying and do not know
any Korean, they give not only negative impressions about Chinese international students
overall but also evoke feelings of resentment and frustration to Chinese students who are
serious about studying in Korea. I, too, feel under-qualified sometimes when I am
studying with them.

This implies that Korean institutions may need to closely examine the ramifications
of lowering the bar for international students. Although lowering the bar may improve
the recruitment of more Chinese students and therefore ease the institutions financial
Lee 185

Table 5. Relation Between PushPull Factors and Students Satisfaction.

B SE
Constant .086 .218
Gender .026 .053
Institutions region .125* .055
Korean proficiency .011 .023
Fathers level of education .038 .036
Mothers level of education .056 .039
Push factors
Fierce competition in Chinese college entrance .006 .020
Quality of Chinese higher education .001 .025
Absence of study field in China .024 .026
Job market condition in China .006 .023
Pull factors
Korean Wave .045 .026
Geographical location .023 .026
Quality of higher education in Korea .009 .032
Inexpensive cost to study abroad .016 .030
Parents and friends recommendation .009 .024
Recruitment agencys recommendation .025 .023
Selectivity of institution .066* .026
Job market vision .095** .033
Satisfaction with institutions experience .149*** .039
Satisfaction with institutions facilities .826*** .054

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

difficulties in the short run, as we have seen in this study, such policies may have unin-
tended repercussions in the long term. This finding also has meaningful implications
for higher education institutions around the globe by noting that easing or changing
admission processes must be approached with the utmost caution because short-term
recruitment and long-term satisfaction are not necessarily positively correlated.
Furthermore, although initially anticipated to be a significant factor, the Korean
Wave was not determined to be important in students study-abroad decisions.
Although the students in the interview acknowledged that they were first introduced to
Korea through television dramas and music and although the Korean Wave may have
prompted the interest of many Chinese students by helping them become more aware
of Korea, the Korean Wave nevertheless played only a limited role in the study-abroad
decision. As one undergraduate student noted,

I first knew and got interested in Korea because of much of the drama and music, but that
was not the most important factor I used when I made my decision to study abroad.
Though K-pop and Korean drama were amazing, the quality of the education and
affordability was the top consideration when I was searching for a place to study.
186 Journal of Studies in International Education 21(2)

The findings of this study imply that although Chinese students frequently talked
about Korean dramas and K-pop and that for many students, the Korean Wave helped
them to first know and understand Korea, its contributions to students decisions to
study in Korea were in fact trivial. Consistent with prior research (Chen, 2007; Li &
Bray, 2007), students were more likely to respond to the quality of education, parents
recommendations, and the affordability of the education. Thus, government and edu-
cational leaders may wish to use the Korean Wave strategically as a manner in which
to promote awareness of the country while concurrently enhancing and advertising the
quality of the educational experiences students can receive.
Moreover, although the recruitment agency did not emerge as consequential in the
interview responses, that factor was deemed to have a moderate influence on students
study-abroad choices. One explanation for this finding was offered by a student study-
ing at a language institution. She suggested,

There are various recruitment agencies in China right now. Some only dealt with students
who are going to Australia or England, some help you with Korea or Japan. Based on
your interest, you know which recruitment agency you need to go to.

This perspective sheds additional light on the influence of a recruitment agency and
the role such an agency can play (Pimpa, 2003). Students who visit agencies that pri-
marily deal with Korea often visit that agency in pursuit of more information regard-
ing the cost of living and studying in Korea. A student interested in other nations
would visit other agencies that focus on those nations instead. In other words, students
predetermine their study-abroad destinations prior to visiting an agency. This process
may be one of the reasons why although many students use a recruitment agency to
facilitate their study abroad, students did not consider recruitment agencies important
when prompted to name the influential pull factors.
In recent decades, because globalization and internationalization in higher educa-
tion have drawn considerable attention, many higher education institutions have
worked to develop adaptive strategies to stay competitive in the global market (Asaoka
& Yano, 2009; Daly & Barker, 2005; de Wit, 2002). Thus, it is not surprising that
institutions across the world are developing and implementing polices to attract more
talented international students to their educational systems (Verbik & Lasanowski,
2007; Altbach & Knight, 2007). Nevertheless, although a majority of international
students have historically pursued their education in English-speaking countries,
Asian countries have emerged as new players in the internationalization of higher
education by attracting significant numbers of international students from neighboring
countries, particularly China (UNESCO Bangkok, 2013; Verbik & Lasanowski, 2007).
The findings of this study provide meaningful implications not only for the Korean
higher education system but also for systems in neighboring Asian countries that have
also experienced a sudden growth in international student enrollment. These emerging
countries, including Korea, must think carefully about the unique pull factors that
drive students to study in non-Western countries and the push factors from their home
countries that, when combined, can be leveraged to strategically attract more
Lee 187

international students. Simultaneously, it is important to consider the relation between

these pushpull factors and students level of study-abroad satisfaction because simply
strengthening the pull factors may not always promote and guarantee positive out-
comes in the long run.

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

Although this study is among the first to have collected detailed information regarding
Chinese international students studying in the more than 37 universities across Korea,
there are several limitations and considerations to be considered in future research.
First, although pushpull models help us examine external factors that influence stu-
dents decisions to study abroad, such models do not adequately capture and account
for students internal factors such as individual preferences and personal characteris-
tics. Thus, to develop holistic understandings of students choices and decisions
regarding study abroad, future research must account for both external and internal
factors that may influence students decision to study abroad.
Second, although the cross-sectional data set developed in this study provides
unique insights regarding the satisfaction of Chinese international students, the amount
of time that students have studied or stayed in Korea may significantly influence their
satisfaction. Considering that ones satisfaction is not a static concept, but changes and
develops constantly over time, the need for research using longitudinal data sets is
important. Therefore, future research must examine student satisfaction using a longi-
tudinal data set to better understand international students satisfaction.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

Note
1. The Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training developed the Korean
Education and Employment Panel (KEEP) survey to understand students school experi-
ences and their college and career decisions. This study used the KEEP survey as a guide-
line to develop our survey because the KEEP survey not only contains survey items related
to students college decisions and satisfaction but was also constructed to consider Koreas
dynamic higher education context.

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Author Biography
Se Woong Lee is an assistant professor in Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis at
University of MissouriColumbia. His research focuses on developing innovative ways to mea-
sure, evaluate, and improve educational policy and impact issues challenging educators today.
Particularly, his research interests include teacher quality and globalization.