Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594

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Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology

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Performance of shotcrete containing amorphous fibers for tunnel

applications
Jun-Mo Yang a, Jin-Kook Kim a, Doo-Yeol Yoo b,
a
Steel Structure Research Group, POSCO, 100, Songdogwahak-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21985, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Architectural Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The role played by a number of fiber properties (like fiber length, content, type, hybridization, tensile
Received 27 September 2016 strength and energy-absorption capability or toughness) is investigated in this paper with reference to
Received in revised form 14 January 2017 shotcrete mixes containing amorphous fibers with random atomic arrangement (well known for their
Accepted 23 January 2017
excellent corrosion resistance) and conventional hooked steel fibers. Several prismatic beams and plates
Available online 31 January 2017
were cast by varying the above-mentioned properties. Compared to steel fiber-reinforced concrete
(SFRC), amorphous metallic fiber-reinforced concrete (AFRC) exhibits a higher flexural strength, but a
Keywords:
lower residual strength in tension after first cracking, a lower energy-absorption capability, and a higher
Fibers
Shotcrete
rebound ratio during the spraying process. The rebound is favored by the fiber ball in the case of amor-
Flexure phous fibers, while a relatively small number of steel fibers gives shotcrete a more cohesive behavior dur-
Toughness ing the spraying process. Amorphous fibers are, therefore, more suitable for quick repairs (for instance, in
Field application sewerage pipes), whenever quick hardening and good short-term mechanical properties in tension are
sought for, together with corrosion resistance.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction installation, structural fibers are incorporated and fiber reinforced

Many tunnels have been bored using the NATM (New Austrian
Tunnelling Method) concept. Although the stability of tunnel struc-
tures is guaranteed within the NATM concept by the rock itself,
typical cases involve tunnel supports such as rock bolts, shotcrete,
and so on. As it is well known, shotcrete is cast by means of a pro-
cess in which compressed air forces mortar or concrete through a
hose and nozzle onto a surface. Shotcrete can play the role of a
structural component within a very short time, and can be used
to freely construct not only extremely thin elements but also very
thick elements without any formwork. Therefore, shotcrete is
being adopted in a wide range of construction projects including
the repair and rehabilitation of concrete structures, the building
of tunnel linings, and the stabilization of rock and soil slopes.
In the earlier days of shotcrete application, a wire mesh was
placed prior to applying shotcrete to prevent cracking of the shot-
crete layer. The wire mesh was difficult to install and resulted in a
shadowing effect, leading to the formation of large voids in
regions where shotcrete may hardly penetrate the wire mesh itself.
In order to overcome the problems associated with wire-mesh
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dyyoo@hanyang.ac.kr (D.-Y. Yoo).
shotcrete (FRS) is used in almost every tunneling project around
the world. It is well known that in cementitious composites
and namely in shotcrete fibers can effectively improve crack
resistance, residual strength (after cracking), energy-absorption
capability, and impact/fatigue/high-temperature resistance, as
well as durability (Balaguru and Shah, 1992; ACI, 2005; Bamonte
et al., 2016).
Numerous fiber types are available for commercial and experi-
mental use. The basic fiber categories include steel, glass, synthetic,
and natural fiber materials (ACI, 2001). Each fiber has its own
unique merits and faults for each field application, and users gen-
erally have multiple options. Lately, a new type of fiber material
has been developed, specifically amorphous metallic fibers
(Fig. 1), which fall under the steel fiber category but have totally
different mechanical properties compared with conventional steel
fibers. Amorphous fibers have attracted attention from civil and
architectural engineers due to several advantages, including a
higher tensile strength, corrosion resistance, and a larger number
of fibers per unit volume compared to ordinary steel fibers; thus,
many studies on amorphous metallic fiber reinforced concrete
(AFRC) are being performed (Choi et al., 2014; Dinh et al., 2016;
Hameed et al., 2009; Won et al., 2012; Yoo et al., 2016b). High-
performance amorphous fibers improve crack control (thanks to
their high tensile strength) and reduce corrosion effects (thanks

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2017.01.012
0886-7798/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
86 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594
Nomenclature
P applied load
L clear span length
b beam width
h beam height
T toughness at the deflection point of d (L/600 or L/150)
fMOR flexural strength
to their corrosion resistance), to the advantage of shotcrete dura-
bility. Furthermore, amorphous fibers are flexible and pliable
between the fingers; therefore, amorphous metallic fiber rein-
forced shotcrete (AFRS) can be handled with conventional spraying
devices.
This study investigates the applicability of AFRS in tunnel appli-
cations. To this end, the effects of variables such as the length, ten-
sile strength, and quantity of amorphous fibers were examined
because of their role in guaranteeing the performance of AFRCs.
Additionally, the strength and ductility class of AFRC were investi-
gated according to the European Specification for Sprayed Concrete
(EFNARC, 1996). Finally, a field application test of AFRS was per-
formed in the building site of a real tunnel.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials and mixture proportions
In this study, fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) without an accel-
erator and FRS with an accelerator were mixed in the laboratory
and in the field, respectively. The mixing proportions used in this
study are provided in Table 1. In the case of the laboratory FRC
mix, a water-to-cement ratio (W/C) of 0.426 was adopted. Type 1
Portland cement was employed. The mass ratio of sand and aggre-
gates (sand + gravel) was 0.60. Coarse aggregates, with a specific
mass of 2.69 kg/m3 and a maximum size of 10 mm, were used. Fine
aggregates were washed and had a specific mass of 2.59 kg/m3. The
target slump value was 120 20 mm with an air content of 4 1%.
Polycarbonate superplasticizer was added to achieve the target
slump value for each mix. In the FRS mix, the materials and mix-
ture proportions used within the real tunnel construction site were
Fig. 1. Amorphous metallic fibers.
fD600 residual flexural strength at deflection of L/600
fD150 residual flexural strength at deflection of L/150
TD150 toughness at deflection of 2 mm (L/150)
Lf fiber length
Wf fiber weight
fts fiber tensile strength
employed, and they were similar to those used in the laboratory.
The water-to-cement ratio (W/C) was 0.44 and the target slump
value was 150 20 mm. A high-strength cement-based mineral
accelerator was employed, providing excellent early age strength
development and a lower rebound of shotcrete (Won et al.,
2013). The properties and chemical components of the hardening
accelerator are listed in Table 2.
To investigate the flexural performance of FRC, five types of
amorphous fibers in addition to hooked fibers (coming in bundles)
were used. The properties of the fibers are reported in Tables 3 and
4, as declared by the producers. If the cooling rate exceeds a certain
critical value, the random atomic microstructure typical of the liq-
uid state remains frozen in the solid state. The atoms solidify in a
non-equilibrium phase and the so-called amorphous alloys are
obtained. Because of the different atomic microstructure compared
with the so-called crystalline alloys, completely different physi-
cal, chemical, and mechanical characteristics are obtained. Amor-
phous alloys have excellent strength, toughness, friction
resistance, and corrosion resistance against moisture and other
severe environments.
As a precondition to produce high-quality FRCs, the fibers have
to be adequately dispersed. In order to evaluate the dispersibility
of the amorphous fibers, a wash analysis of fresh AFRC was
tested according to KS F2411 (2010), and its detailed process can
be explained as follows. After 50 l of AFRC were mixed with an
amorphous fiber volume percentage of 0.5% (=36.0 kg/m3) based
on the lab mix proportion in Table 1, 7 l of fresh AFRC was mea-
sured using a vessel to measure the air content of concrete. The
measured AFRC was poured into a 0.09 mm sieve and was washed
with water. The remaining materials in the sieve after washing
were dried for 12 h in an oven and then all the amorphous fibers
were sorted out with a magnet and weighed. The analytical wash-
ing test was repeated three times (Table 5). The average amor-
phous fiber volume percentage measured from 7 l fresh AFRC
was found to be 0.493% (=35.5 kg/m3) with a standard deviation
of 0.00802%. This result indicates that the dispersion of AFRC is
good. Using an identical mixture, a 100
100
400 mm3 beam
specimen was cast. After curing for one week, the dispersion state
of the amorphous fibers within the hardened beam specimen were
observed via CT (Computed Tomography) scanning at a nearby
hospital. As shown in Fig. 2, the dispersibility of AFRC was gener-
ally good.
2.2. Test setup and procedure to analyze the effects of fiber properties
2.2.1. Beam specimens
To evaluate the effects of fibers properties on the flexural per-
formance of FRC, four-point flexural tests were performed accord-
ing to ASTM C1609 (2012). Three prismatic beams were cast for
each variable with a cross-section of 100
100 mm2 and a length
of 400 mm. The prismatic beams were cured in a room at 23 1 C
with a relative humidity of 60 5% for the first day after concrete
casting. After 1 day, all of the samples were demolded and cured
 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594 87

Table 1
Mix proportions.

Mix W/C (%) S/a (%) Gmax (mm) Unit weight (kg/m3) Fiber (kg/m3) SP (%) AC (%) Slump (mm) Air (%)
W C S G
Lab test 42.6 60 10 200 470 971 660 AMF 29 0.7 0 120 20 41
AMF 36 0.8
AMF 42 0.9
SF 42 0.7
AMF21SF21 0.8
Field test 44.0 60 10 203 461 973 656 AMF 37 1.0 5.0 150 20 41
SF 37 0.8

Note: W/C = water-to-cement ratio, S/a = weight ratio of sand to total aggregate, Gmax = maximum size of gravel, W = water, C = cement, S = sand, G = gravel, AMF = amor-
phous metallic fiber, SF = steel fiber, SP = superplasticizer, and AC = accelerator.

Table 2
Properties and chemical components of the accelerator.

Component Type Specific gravity pH Chemical components (%)

CaO Al2O3 Na2O SO3
C12A7 Powder 2.78 11.7 40.06 32.30 1.69 16.71

Table 3
Geometrical and mechanical properties of fibers.

Fiber Length Equivalent Width Thickness Slenderness Tensile strength Elastic modulus Density
(mm) diameter (mm) (mm) (mm) (Lf/de) (MPa) (GPa) (g/cm3)
AMF1 30 0.24 1.60 0.029 125 1400 140 7.2
AMF2 20 0.24 1.60 0.029 83 1400 140 7.2
AMF3 15 0.17 1.00 0.024 88 1400 140 7.2
AMF4 30 0.26 1.41 0.037 115 1600 140 7.2
AMF5 30 0.24 1.37 0.032 125 1850 140 7.2
SF1 30 0.50 60 1250 210 7.8

Note: AMF = amorphous metallic fiber, SF = steel fiber, Lf = fiber length, and de = equivalent diameter.

Table 4 2.2.2. EFNARC test

Comparative properties of amorphous metallic and steel fibers.
Properties Amorphous metallic fiber
Acid/alkali resistance High
Electrical conductivity High
Composition Amorphous metal (Fe, Cr)80 (P, C, Si)20
in a water tank at 23 1 C until they were tested (28 days). As
shown in Fig. 3, a uniaxial load was applied using a universal test-
ing machine, with a maximum capacity of 300 kN at a rate of
0.4 mm/min. To measure the mid-span deflection, a steel frame
embracing the specimen, provided with two linear variable differ-
ential transformers (LVDTs) was installed in such a way that the
displacements were measured at mid-depth along the sides of
the specimens. The clear span length was 300 mm, i.e., three times
the specimen depth, and a load was applied until an average mid-
span deformation of 2 mm was achieved.
To evaluate the performance of AFRC compared to steel fiber-
Steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) based on the European Specification
Low
for Sprayed Concrete (EFNARC, 1996), several tests were performed
High on cylinders, on beams and on plates, to measure the compressive
Alloy strength, the uniaxial tensile strength in bending (called also flex-
ural strength) and both the biaxial tensile strength in bending and
the fracture energy. With regard to the compressive strength tests,
thirty cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and a
height of 200 mm were cast and tested. A uniaxial compressive
force was applied by means of a universal testing machine with a
maximum capacity of 1000 kN. Displacement control was adopted
at a rate of 0.1 mm/min. For the flexural beam tests, a total of six
prismatic beams were cast (three beams for each variable) with a
cross-sectional dimension of 75
125 mm2 and a length of
600 mm. The beams were tested under third point loading on a
450 mm span. A uniaxial load was applied at a deformation rate
of 0.25 mm/min until a deflection of 0.5 was achieved and at a rate
of 1.0 mm/min until a deflection of 4 mm achieved. For the plate

Table 5
Washing analysis test result of fresh AFRC.

No. Volume of AFRC (cm3) Amorphous metallic fiber

Weight (g) Volume (cm3) Volume fraction, Vf (%)
1 7000 253 35.1 0.502
2 248 34.4 0.492
3 245 34.0 0.486
Ave. 249 34.5 0.493
St. dev. 4.04 0.561 0.00802

Note: Ave. = average flexural strength and St. dev. = standard deviation.
88 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594
Amorphous
metallic fibers
Fig. 2. CT scanning of AFRC beam specimen (Vf = 0.5%).
P
Steel
frame
Prismatic
LVDT
beam
Fig. 3. Four-point flexural test.
tests, a total of four plate specimens were cast (two plates for each
variable) with the following dimensions: 600
600
100 mm3. As
shown in Fig. 4, each plate specimen was simply supported on its
four edges with a clear span of 500 mm, while a center point load
was applied at a deformation rate of 1.5 mm/min through a contact
surface of 100
100 mm2 until reaching a center deflection of
25 mm.
2.2.3. Field test
The tests on shotcrete containing amorphous fibers were per-
formed in a building site, where the boring of a tunnel was in pro-
gress. A total of 8 m3 of ready-mixed FRCs (4 m3 for each fiber)
containing 37 kg/m3 amorphous and hooked fibers (roughly 0.5%
by volume) were manufactured at a batch plant near the tunnel
construction site. The procedures for field testing of shotcrete are
summarized in the following. Fresh properties, such as the slump
and air content, of the ready-mixed FRC were first examined. Then,
FRC was poured into the shotcrete machine and sprayed inside the
tunnel (Fig. 5b). Afterwards, the shotcrete rebound test was per-
formed. After spraying 1 m3 of shotcrete onto the walls and ceiling,
P
Plate
specimen
Steel plate
(100 x 100 mm)
600 mm
100 mm
500 mm
600 mm
Fig. 4. Plate test according to the EFNARC (EFNARC, 1996).
the rebounded shotcrete (material that did not adhere to tunnel
surface and fell to the ground), was collected and weighed with
an electronic scale (Fig. 5c). The rebound ratio was thus calculated
by the following equation
Rebound ratio % total weight of rebound material kg
=total weight of shotcrete kg
100 1
Finally, specimens for the compressive and flexural tests were
cast. In order to prepare the compressive strength test specimens,
shotcrete was sprayed into basins that were 800
800
300 mm3
in size; cores (diameter 100 mm and height 200 mm) were
extracted from the shotcrete in the basins, to prepare the cylinders
to be tested in compression. For the tests on beams, the shotcrete
was sprayed directly into prismatic molds (size: 150
150

550 mm3). Later, all the specimens were cured in the lab, at
T = 23 1 C and RH = 50 5%.
3. Experimental results and discussion
3.1. Effects of fiber properties on the flexural behavior of FRC
3.1.1. Effect of fiber length
A comparison of the flexural load versus the mid-span deflec-
tion curves for AFRC beams can be seen in Fig. 6, and several flex-
ural parameters are summarized in Fig. 7. In Fig. 7, the flexural
strength was calculated by means of the formula Pmax.L/bh2, which
is based on the assumption that the material be perfectly rigid-
plastic. Herein, Pmax. is the maximum applied load, L is the clear
span length, b is the beam width, and h is the beam height. Three
prismatic beams were measured for each variable (Fig. 6ac), and
the average curves were recorded (Fig. 6d). It was evident that
the load carrying capacity of AFRC under flexure was improved
by increasing the length of the fibers. This was consistent with
the findings reported by Yoo et al. (2016a). They noted that the
flexural strength of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC)
increased with an increase in fiber length given an identical fiber
diameter and volume fraction. Image analysis applied to the spec-
imens after being tested explains why increasing fiber length (for
the same fiber volume fraction and diameter) favors flexural
strength: longer fibers more effectively bridge the cracked
 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594 89

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5. Procedures for field application of shotcrete in tunnel linings: (a) before applying the shotcrete; (b) shotcrete spraying; and (c) evaluation of the rebound-concrete
mass.

Lf = 15 mm Lf = 20 mm

(a) (b)

Lf = 30 mm
Lf = 30 mm

Lf = 20 mm

Lf = 15 mm

(c) (d)
3
Fig. 6. Effect of fiber length on the average flexural load versus deflection curves of AFRC at fiber weight of 36 kg/m (Vf = 0.5%) and fiber tensile strength of 1400 MPa; (a)
Lf = 15 mm, (b) Lf = 20 mm, (c) Lf = 30 mm, (d) average data.

surfaces. In the case of amorphous fibers, fiber-to-matrix bond
improves further because these fibers have smaller cross-section
and higher slenderness (=length-to-equivalent diameter ratio),
leading to the increased total bonded surface.
If it was assumed that the first cracking point corresponded to
the limit of proportionality (LOP) and was mostly influenced by
the matrix tensile strength as opposed to fiber properties (Yoo
et al., 2016c), Fig. 6d reveals that the use of longer amorphous
fibers would be more effective in increasing the load carrying
capacity immediately after matrix cracking. Based on this result,
AFRC beams incorporating longer amorphous fibers with lengths
(Lf) of 20 and 30 mm exhibited deflection-hardening behavior,
while beams that included amorphous fibers with a shorter length
(Lf) of 15 mm exhibited deflection-softening behavior. Therefore,
both the residual flexural strength (fD600 and fD150) and toughness
(TD150) values increased with an increase in fiber length. The resid-
ual flexural strengths, fD600 and fD150, were calculated based on the
formula, PDL/bh2, where PD is the applied loads at the deflections of
L/600 and L/150, respectively, and the toughness (TD150) is the area
under the load versus the deflection curve at the deflection of
L/150. For example, the highest toughness values were found to
be 15.7 N m for beams with 30 mm fiber lengths, approximately
73% higher than that of beams with 15 mm fiber lengths. Conse-
quently, it was noted that the use of long amorphous fibers was
more effective toward improving the flexural performance of con-
crete than short ones.
90 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594

7.09 20 7.09 20
fMOR fMOR
7 7
5.99 14.9 15.73 f D600 6.00 15.73 f D600
6 5.41 16 f D150 6 16 f D150

Toughness (Nm)
Toughness (Nm)
T D150 12.23 T D150
Strength (MPa)

Strength (MPa)
5 5
12 12
4 9.1 3.48 4 3.48
3.04
3 8 3 8
2.16
2 1.58 2
4 4
1 0.68 0.58 1 0.54 0.58
0.38
0 0 0 0
15 20 30 29 36
Fiber length (mm) Fiber amount (kg/m3)

Fig. 7. Effect of fiber length on the flexural parameters of AFRC at fiber weight of Fig. 9. Effect of fiber amount on the flexural parameters of AFRC at fiber length of
36 kg/m3 (Vf = 0.5%) and fiber tensile strength of 1400 MPa. 30 mm and fiber tensile strength of 1400 MPa.

3.1.2. Effect of fiber amount

Figs. 8 and 9 illustrate the effect of fiber amount on the flexural AFRC
performance of AFRC beams with long fibers (Lf of 30 mm). The
flexural performance improved noticeably by increasing the quan-
tity of amorphous fibers because additional fibers bridged cracked Hybrid-FRC
surfaces, leading to an increased resistance to crack propagation
and widening. An increased flexural strength and gradual decrease
in the post-peak load carrying capacity were observed for beams
with a higher quantity of fibers. It was interesting to note that SFRC
AFRC with a smaller quantity of long fibers (Lf = 30 mm and
Wf = 29 kg/m3) exhibited higher flexural strength and toughness
values, compared to that with a higher quantity of short fibers
(Lf = 15 mm and Wf = 36 kg/m3). Therefore, with longer fibers, the
amount of fibers required to achieve a certain level of flexural per-
formance in concrete members may be reduced with economic
Fig. 10. Effect of fiber type and hybridization on the average flexural load versus
benefits. deflection curves of concrete at fiber weight of 42 kg/m3 (Vf = 0.540.58%).

3.1.3. Effects of fiber type and hybridization 10 35

31.7 fMOR
The implication of fiber type (amorphous fibers vs. hooked steel 8.96 29.75
f D600
fibers) and hybridization (21 kg/m3 amorphous fibers + 21 kg/m3 8 7.53
30
f D150
24.5

Toughness (Nm)
steel fibers) on the flexural behavior of concrete are provided in
Strength (MPa)

25 T D150
Figs. 10 and 11. Higher flexural strengths (fMOR) were obtained 6 5.32 5.39 5.37
4.95 20
for AFRC than that of SFRC, primarily due to the small cross- 4.27
sectional area of the amorphous fibers; nearly 16 times more fibers 4 3.34 15
were incorporated over steel fibers even when the fiber weights 10
(Wf) were identical (Won et al., 2012). Due to its larger bonding 2 1.21
5
area with cement matrix, amorphous fiber exhibited higher maxi-
mum pullout load than the hooked fiber, although it had a lower 0 0
bond strength (Won et al., 2013). For example, the fMOR of AFRC AFRC SFRC Hybrid-FRC
was found to be 8.96 MPa, approximately 66% higher than that of Specimen

Fig. 11. Effect of fiber type and hybridization on the flexural parameters at fiber
weight of 42 kg/m3 (Vf = 0.540.58%).

SFRC. On the other hand, substantially higher toughness (TD150)

Wf = 36 kg/m3
and residual flexural strength values at the deflection point of
L/150 (fD150) were found for SFRC than that of AFRC. This was
due to the fact that since most of the amorphous fibers were frac-
tured prior to complete pullout (Fig. 12), because of the poor resis-
Wf = 29 kg/m3
tance to shear force by its very small cross sections, a much steeper
decrease in the post-peak load carrying capacity was obtained for
AFRC as compared to SFRC, which exhibited fiber pullout without
breakage (Yoo et al., 2016b). According to the reasons, the
hybrid-FRC exhibited intermediate values for fMOR and TD150
between those of AFRC and SFRC, since the amorphous fibers were
efficient in improving flexural strengths, but led to a steeper
Fig. 8. Effect of fiber amount on the average flexural load versus deflection curves decrease in post-peak load carrying capacities due to their fracture.
of AFRC at fiber length of 30 mm and fiber tensile strength of 1400 MPa (Wf = 36 kg/
m3 ? Vf = 0.5% and Wf = 36 kg/m3 ? Vf = 0.4%).
Furthermore, Nayar and Gettu (2015) recently reported that an
 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594 91

Fiber fracture Fiber pullout

(a) (b)
Fig. 12. Fiber failure mode (Yoo et al., 2016b); (a) amorphous metallic fiber, (b) hooked-end steel fiber.

improvement of residual flexural strengths (fD600 and fD150) for
AFRC were obtained with hybrid amorphous and steel fibers. This
means that the hybridization of two or more types of fibers could
yield synergetic effects with regard to the performance of FRC.
3.1.4. Effect of fiber tensile strength
Fig. 13 shows the strengthening effect of amorphous fibers on
the flexural behavior of concrete, the relevant parameters of which
are summarized in Fig. 14. Although identical fiber quantities (Wf
of 42 kg/m3) were incorporated, specimens with higher strength
amorphous fibers exhibited better flexural performance than their
counterparts, in terms of higher flexural strength and toughness
values. For instance, a toughness of 24.5 N m was observed for a
high fiber strength (fts) of 1850 MPa, approximately 15% higher
than that of fibers with a lower fts of 1600 MPa. Additionally, AFRC
beams with stronger fibers exhibited a steeper load-deflection
curve between the LOP and MOR points compared with those with
weaker fibers. This is because stronger fibers resisted higher tensile
loads prior to fracturing than weaker fibers; beams including
stronger fibers exhibit higher post-cracking stiffness and flexural
strength values than their counterparts (with weaker fibers). Thus,
the use of amorphous fibers with higher strengths is recommended
to improve the flexural performance of AFRC.

fts = 1850 MPa 3.2. Specification of strength and ductility of sprayed FRCs as per
EFNARC

In order to practically employ amorphous fibers within shot-

crete for tunnel linings, the strength and ductility need first to be
specified according to international standards. In this study, the
strength and ductility classes of concrete including 42 kg/m3 amor-
phous fibers were investigated according to the European Specifi-
fts = 1600 MPa cation for Sprayed Concrete (EFNARC, 1996); their classes were
compared with those of SFRC including the same quantity of fibers.
With regard to the strength class, both compressive and flexural
strengths were examined, while both residual strength and energy
absorption capacities (toughness) were investigated to evaluate
their ductility.
Fig. 13. Effect of fiber tensile strength on the average flexural load versus deflection
curves of concrete at fiber weight of 42 kg/m3 (Vf = 0.58%).
3.2.1. Effect of fiber type on the strength class
The compressive and flexural strengths of the concretes con-
taining amorphous and steel fibers are reported in Tables 6 and
10 30 7. Regardless of fiber type, the compressive strength of concrete
8.96 fMOR
24.50 f D600 increased with age due to its hydration, which was consistent with
7.68 25 prior studies (Khan et al., 1995; Aslani and Nejadi, 2013). The SFRC
8 21.31 f D150
Toughness (Nm)

T D150 cylinders exhibited slightly higher compressive strength values

Strength (MPa)

20
6 5.32 than those of AFRC cylinders at all ages; however, both samples
4.32 15 were specified as the same strength class of C48/60 according to
4 EN 206 (EFNARC, 1996). The primary reason for the slightly
10
reduced strength obtained for AFRC could be attributed to a greater
2 1.35 1.21 5 amount of fibers, which increased the porosity (by entrapping
some air) and in the case of AFRC could hardly be adequately
0 0 dispersed. Song and Hwang (2004) also reported a decrease in
1600 1800
compressive strength for high-strength concrete when a high vol-
Fiber strength (MPa)
ume content of steel fibers was incorporated. By contrast, the flex-
Fig. 14. Effect of fiber tensile strength on the flexural parameters at fiber weight of ural strength of AFRC beams was higher than that for SFRC beams
42 kg/m3 (Vf = 0.58%). due to a higher quantity of fibers, which was consistent with the
92 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594

Table 6
Compressive strength of sprayed concrete with amorphous metallic and steel fibers.

Compressive strength (MPa) Strength class

3 days 7 days 28 days
Ave. St. dev. Ave. St. dev. Ave. St. dev.
AFRC 32.6 0.49 42.5 0.85 48.7 0.15 C48/60
SFRC 36.6 0.45 47.5 0.82 52.6 1.84 C48/60

Note: Ave. = average compressive strength and St. dev. = standard deviation.

Table 7 exhibited the flexural stresses at the deflections between 0.5 and
Flexural strength of sprayed concrete with amorphous metallic and steel fibers (after 2 mm higher than class 3 and class 0, they belonged to class 3
28 days).
and class 0, respectively.
Flexural strength (MPa) Strength class
Ave. St. dev.
3.2.3. Effect of fiber type on the energy absorption class by EFNARC
AFRC 7.66 1.358 C44/55
SFRC 5.24 0.332 C44/55 plate test
The average load and deflection curves up to the deflection
Note: Ave. = average flexural strength and St. dev. = standard deviation.
point of 25 mm can be seen in Fig. 16a. Compared to the uniaxial
flexural test results, the SFRC plates exhibited higher maximum
findings reported by Won et al. (2012) and Nayar and Gettu (2015). loads than the AFRC plates. It has been reported by Kim et al.
However, they were specified as the same strength class of C44/55 (2013) that the highest tensile strength obtained at the bottom
in accordance with EN 206 (EFNARC, 1996). Consequently, it was surface of plain concrete plates is generally higher than that
concluded that although different fiber types (amorphous fibers obtained at the bottom surface of the uniaxial concrete beams. In
vs. hooked fibers) resulted in a variation of strengths in concrete, addition, the first cracking strength of SFRC beams is similar to that
they did not influence the strength class specified by the European of plain concrete beams since it is closely related to matrix crack-
standard EN 206 for sprayed concrete. ing rather than the fiber bridging (Yoo et al., 2016c). From these
two reasons, the first cracking strength of AFRC plates was
expected to be higher than that of AFRC beams. The amorphous
3.2.2. Effect of fiber type on the residual strengths by EFNARC beam fibers included in the plates, aligned in the direction of the tensile
test
The average flexural stress versus deflection curves of AFRC and
SFRC can be seen in Fig. 15. In order to evaluate their residual SFRC
strength class, a classification of residual strength is also presented
AFRC
in Fig. 15 according to the EFNARC (1996). As reported in Sec-
tion 3.1, the AFRC beams exhibited higher flexural strengths and
a steeper decrease in the post-peak load carrying capacity, as com-
pared to the SFRC beams. The residual strengths of the SFRC beams
at all deflection points were slightly lower than class 4, but were
obviously higher than class 3. The AFRC beams exhibited higher
residual strengths at a deflection of 0.5 mm than class 4, whereas
the residual strengths at deflections of 2 and 4 mm were lower
than class 1 and were slightly higher than class 0 due to a steep
decrease in load carrying capacity after the peak point. According
to EFNARC (1996), the beams should maintain a flexural stress
on, or above, a certain boundary of residual strength class at the
deflections between 0.5 and 2 mm. Since the SFRC and AFRC beams (a)

SFRC
SFRC AFRC
AFRC

Class 4

Class 3
Class 2
Class 1

Class 0

(b)
Fig. 15. Effect of fiber type on the average residual stress versus deflection curves of Fig. 16. Effect of fiber type on; (a) average load versus deflection curve, (b) energy
FRC beams. absorption capacity of FRC plates.
 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594
load, were therefore subjected to higher pullout loads immediately
after matrix cracking than those in the beams; thus, the AFRC
plates were limited to the increase of load carrying capacity, as
compared to the beams, due to the early breakage of amorphous
fibers. On the other hand, the steel fibers were all pulled out with-
out breakage. Additionally, it was well-known that the deflection-
hardening behavior of FRC was more easily obtained under the
biaxial stress state using plate specimens than under the uniaxial
stress state using beam specimens when fibers were pulled out
without breakage (di Prisco et al., 2013). Consequently, a signifi-
cant increase in the load carrying capacity after matrix cracking
was observed for the SFRC plates, as shown in Fig. 16a, compared
to the case of SFRC beams, and much higher maximum load was
obtained for the SFRC plates than for the AFRC plates.
The cumulative energy absorbed by the SFRC plates was similar
to that of the AFRC plates until reaching a deflection of approxi-
mately 3 mm, in which a much higher energy may be absorbed
in the SFRC plates as opposed to the AFRC plates, as shown in
Fig. 16b. This was mainly due to the different fiber failure modes
(breakage for amorphous fibers and pullout for steel fibers). The
EFNARC (1996) specified sprayed concrete as one of three types
in terms of their toughness classification. When the energy absorp-
tion of concrete plates for deflection up to 25 mm was higher than
500, 700, and 1000 J, they belong to class a, b, and c, respectively.
Thus, the SFRC plates were specified as class c, whereas the AFRC
plates may not be specified because their absorbed energy at a
deflection of 25 mm was lower than 500 J.
The typical failure modes of AFRC and SFRC plates can be seen in
Fig. 17. In the case of AFRC plates, cracks were localized in two per-
pendicular directions. On the other hand, SFRC plates exhibited
multiple random cracks due to deflection-hardening behavior.
Multiple random cracks were also observed by Salehian et al.
(2014) for the SFRC plates, and multiple cracking behaviors were
generally observed when hardening behavior was obtained (di
Prisco et al., 2013). Since the tensile stress generated by the point
load at the bottom surface of the plate was identical in the circum-
ferential direction, cracks were randomly generated from weak
points in the SFRC plates.
Based on the above EFNARC beam and plate test results, it is
noted that the application of hooked steel fibers to tunnel lining
shotcrete is more appropriate than that of amorphous fibers.
3.3. Field tests
The rebound ratio of AFRS was found to be 14.7%, which was
higher than that (8.2%) of shotcrete with steel fibers. Due to a high
number of amorphous fibers, fiber ball phenomena may be
Fig. 17. Typical failure modes; (a) AFRC plate, (b) SFRC plate.
93
observed with the naked eye. The surroundings of the fiber ball
possessed an insufficient shotcrete matrix, resulting in reduced
adhesion and a higher rebound ratio for the case with amorphous
fibers. Therefore, to reduce the rebound ratio of AFRS, the fiber dis-
persion should be carefully controlled or chemical admixtures
need to be included that increase the adhesion of the matrix. Addi-
tionally, some amorphous fibers, especially near the circumference
of the nozzle, were randomly scattered without adhesion to the
shotcrete matrix. This may be attributed to the lower density
and flexible characteristics of the amorphous fibers.
The compressive strength of the core cylinders was found to be
21.4 MPa (standard deviation of 2.82 MPa) for the AFRS and
23.0 MPa (standard deviation of 2.63 MPa) for the steel fiber rein-
forced shotcrete (SFRS), respectively. This result was consistent
with the laboratory test results in Section 3.2.1, in which higher
compressive strengths were obtained for SFRC as opposed to AFRC.
The average flexural load and deflection curves of shotcrete pris-
matic beams with cross-sectional dimensions of 150
150 mm2
and a clear span length of 450 mm can be seen in Fig. 18, in addi-
tion to important flexural parameters. As expected, the AFRS
exhibited higher flexural strengths with a steeper decrease in the
post-peak load carrying capacity, resulting in lower toughness
(TD150) values compared to those of SFRS. For example, the tough-
ness of shotcrete with steel fibers was almost 2 times higher than
that of shotcrete with amorphous fibers.
The results of the tests performed in this study suggest that
using amorphous fibers in the shotcrete to be applied to tunnel
surfaces be limited, because of several drawbacks of the material,
such as fairly low residual strength (i.e., after first cracking) and
fMOR = 5.49 MPa
f D600 = 3.15 MPa
AFR-shotcrete
f D150 = 0.51 MPa
T D150 = 40.74 Nm
fMOR = 4.07 MPa
SFR-shotcrete f D600 = 4.01 MPa
f D150 = 3.24 MPa
T D150 = 84.22 Nm
Fig. 18. Effect of fiber type on the average flexural load versus deflection curves of
shotcrete using 150
150
550 mm3 prisms.
94 J.-M. Yang et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 64 (2017) 8594
toughness, as well as fairly high rebound ratios. Alternatively,
amorphous fibers should be applied as repair materials for sewer-
age pipes due to their excellent corrosion resistance (Nayar and
Gettu, 2015).
4. Conclusions
This study examined the effects of various fiber properties on
the flexural performance of FRC. In order to investigate the applica-
bility of amorphous fibers in the shotcretes to be applied to tunnel
linings, the strength and toughness classes for AFRC and SFRC were
also analyzed according to EFNARC (1996). Based on the results
obtained in this project, the following conclusions can be drawn.
(1) The flexural performance of AFRC is improved by increasing
the length, amount, and strength of amorphous fibers.
(2) SFRC exhibits lower flexural strengths, but higher compres-
sive strength, higher residual strengths, and higher tough-
ness compared with AFRC (note that both AFRC and SFRC
specimens belong to the same class for the compressive
and tensile strengths).
(3) In contrast to the uniaxial flexural test results, SFRC plates
provide much higher load carrying capacity and energy
absorption capacity than AFRC plates.
(4) The rebound ratio of AFRS measured is higher than that of
SFRS. Similar to the laboratory test results, higher flexural
strength, but lower residual strength and toughness are
exhibited by field-applied shotcrete containing amorphous
fibers compared with the shotcrete containing steel fibers.
Using amorphous fibers in the shotcrete to be applied to tun-
nel linings looks, therefore, inappropriate, on the basis of the
knowledge accumulated so far. Amorphous fibers, however,
has a potential when added to the cementitious materials
used in repairing and retrofitting concrete structures
exposed to severe environments.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant (13SCIPA01) from Smart
Civil Infrastructure Research Program funded by Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) of Korea government and
Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement (KAIA).
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