Turbine Performance Paper Great S05 - Performance PDF

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5. Steam Turbine Performance
IP = 90-94%
HP = 88-90%
Fossil
Reheat
LP = 90-91%
Saturation
LP = 87%
HP = 82% Line
LP = 85%
Nuclear Reheat
Nuclear Non-Reheat
Steam Turbine 5. Performance 1 / 93

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1 Heat Balance 2
2 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies 15
3 Factors Affecting Cycle Performance 21
4 Thermal Kit 65

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Major Parameters Affecting Steam Turbine Performance
Heat Balance Steam Turbine Performance
Thermodynamic Efficiency Mechanical (Fluid Dynamic) Efficiency

Working fluids Section efficiencies (in terms of energy conversion)
Throttle pressure and temperature (enthalpy) Throttling losses occurred in valves
Throttle flow (specific heat) Stage losses (profile, secondary flow, leakage loss)
Advanced airfoil shapes for nozzle and bucket
Steam Cycles
Advanced vortex blades
Reheating (non-, single-, double)
Exhaust loss, and interface loss
Regenerating
Exhaust pressure Mechanical and electrical losses
Bearing loss
The amount of enthalpy drop
Generator loss
Others
Air preheating
Power for auxiliary system in plant
Fan power
Desuperheating
Power for a lube oil pump
Part load operation mode
Others
LSB
Makeup flow
Pressure drop in boiler and extraction lines

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Turbine (Generator) Output [1/2]
Required generator output = plant net output + plant auxiliary loads.
Steam turbine output = generator output + generator electrical losses + turbine generator mechanical losses.
Historically, turbines have been designed to have 5% margins above required rated steam flows and
pressure to provide for manufacturing tolerances and variations in flow coefficients.
Therefore, the steam flow is 5% greater than that required for rated output with rated steam pressure (normal
pressure).
Under VWO-NP (VWO, normal pressure) condition, the turbine generator output is approximately 104% of
rated.
The pressure margin is included to operate safely and continuously at 105% of rated pressure (overpressure)
with VWO.
Under VWO-OP (VWO, overpressure) condition, the turbine generator output is approximately 109% of rated
and the main steam flow is 110% to 111% of rated.

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Turbine (Generator) Output [2/2]
Recent trends indicate that some manufacturers are not including all of the 5% steam flow margin. The
designer may want to include only a part of the steam flow margin with consideration of the full over-pressure
operation margins.
The designers should specify that the turbine be capable of operation at VWO-OP because operators
typically attempt to operate at those conditions.
The designer needs to design the steam generator and balance of plant equipment to support the VWO-OP
conditions if he has included them in the establishment of the steam turbine generator rating.
Designing for the VWO-OP condition is recommended even if not included in the rating definition, because
significant output increase can be achieved at little cost by being capable of operating at VWO-OP.

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Typical Power Plant Steam Flow
Main Steam
Steam Stop V/V Crossover

Generator
Control V/V
Front
HP IP LP Gen Exciter
Standard
Ventilation
Cold V/V
Reheat
Reheat
Stop and
Reheater
Intercept
V/V Condenser
Hot Reheat

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Heat Balance
Fossil, 700 MW, 3500 psig/1000F/1000F

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Heat Balance
Fossil, 500 MW, 2400 psig/1000F/1000F

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Heat Balance
Nuclear, 1000 MW

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Heat Balance
Heat balances are provided by the turbine manufacturer.
Cycle performance is represented in the heat balance diagram which shows the steam/condensate flows,
pressures, temperatures, and enthalpies. These parameters are used to determine equipment design
conditions.
A complete heat balance provides enough information to balance the energy distribution.
Heat balance diagram also indicates ELEP and UEEP, generator losses and net generator output.
On the basis of this information, the engineer can perform an energy balance for the major equipment
associated with the turbine, feedwater, condensate, and heat rejection systems.
A number of heat balance computer programs are commercially available. However, it also can be performed
by hand calculation.
Hand calculation, which is time consuming caused by iteration, is instructive because it permits the engineer
to gain an understanding of the interrelationships of the various equipment.

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Establishing a Heat Balance

10%P
3%P
Reheater
Main Steam 3%P BFPT BFPT = 82.6%
99
86
51 99
2 1
HP IP LP Generator
3
5 4 6
Condenser
2.0 in.Hga
3%P 6
5 86
20 2
3%P 6%P 6%P 6%P 6%P 20
21 21
Make Up
SSR
6%P
4
51
54
52
52 54
HTR7 HTR6 BFP HTR5 HTR4 HTR3 HTR2 HTR1

SPE
(DA)
-3F 0F 2F 2F 5F 5F
10 F 10 F 0F 10 F 10 F 10 F 5F
BFP = 87%

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Typical Assumptions Made in Establishing a Heat Balance
1. The boiler feed pump suction conditions will be the temperature and pressure of the deaerator. Boiler feed
pump discharge pressure is 125% of the turbine throttle pressure.
2. The boiler feed pump efficiencies will vary with load as follows:
Condition BFP Efficiency
VWO-OP, VWO-NP, and rated load 84%
75% of rated 83%
50% of rated 67%
25% of rated 40%
3. For a turbine cycle with a motor-driven boiler feed pump, the variable speed coupling efficiency will vary with
load as follows:
Condition Coupling Efficiency

VWO-OP 85%
VWO-NP, and rated load 82%
75% of rated 76%
50% of rated 73%
25% of rated 68%
The combined motor and transmission efficiency will vary with load as follows:
Condition Motor and Transmission Efficiency
75% of rated 93%
50% of rated 92%
25% of rated 89%

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Typical Assumptions Made in Establishing a Heat Balance
4. For a turbine with a turbine-driven boiler feed pump exhausting to the main condenser, the BFPT(Boiler Feed
Pump Turbine) will operate at an exhaust pressure 0.5 in.Hga greater than the exhaust pressure of the main
turbine. BFPT expansion efficiencies will vary with load as follows:
Condition BFPT Efficiency
75% of rated 78%
50% of rated 77%
25% of rated 77%
The pressure drop in the extraction line to the BFPT is 3% of the inlet pressure.
At low loads, the BFPT will require steam from a source of higher pressure than is available in the
crossover line. Below approximately 0.35 TFR(Throttle Flow Ratio), the BFPT takes steam as required
from the main steam line.
5. There is a pressure drop between the turbine stage and the extraction flange. This value is typically 3% of
stage pressure. A pressure drop also occurs from the turbine extraction flange to the heater. This value is
usually 3% or 5% of the extraction flange pressure. For extractions at a turbine exhaust or at the crossover
pipe, no pressure drop due to an extraction flange exists, only an extraction line pressure drop.
6. There is a pressure drop from the HP turbine exhaust to the intercept valves of the IP turbine because of hot
and cold reheat piping and the reheater. This value is normally taken to be 10% of the HP turbine exhaust
pressure.
7. The condensate leaving the condenser will be at saturation temperature corresponding to the turbine
exhaust pressure.
8. The condensate will be considered to be saturated liquid at the heater inlet and outlet temperatures.
9. Calculations will consider the feedwater downstream of the boiler feed pump as compressed liquid.

Approximate Flow Distribution for Typical HIoPE
Regenerative/Reheat Cycles
1. The reheater flow is approximately 90% of the throttle flow.
2. The BFPT extraction flow from an IP to LP turbine crossover is 4% to 6% of the throttle flow.
3. The turbine exhaust flow is 65% to 75% of the throttle flow, with the remaining flow being taken for heating
the feedwater and driving the BFPT.
4. Rules of thumb, when the temperature rise across a heater is known:
a. For the low pressure (LP) heaters and deaerator, the extraction flow is approximately 1% of throttle flow
for each 14F temperature rise.
b. For the high pressure (HP) heaters, the extraction flow is approximately 1% of throttle flow for each 10F
temperature rise.
5. If a heat balance is available for other than the desired load, ratio the extractions by the ratio of the throttle
flows for a first guess. However, these may differ up to 30% from the final calculations.

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1 Heat Balance
2 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies
3 Factors Affecting Cycle Performance
4 Thermal Kit

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Steam Turbine Performance

The Rankine cycle, the basic cycle used for electric power generation, mainly consists of four components:
steam generator, turbine, condenser, and pump.
The performance of a power plant is influenced not only by the steam turbines, but also by the choice of
steam turbine cycle.
Thermal efficiency of the cycle can be increased either by reducing the condenser pressure or by
increasing the turbine inlet pressure and temperature.
The principal cycle considerations are those of regenerative feedwater heating by turbine extraction steam
and of reheating.
The performance of the steam turbine is governed by the losses occurred in it.
% %
46 0.88 in.Hga
Plant Net Efficiency Based on HHV

Plant Net Efficiency Based on LHV 45 43
Double
3 reheat
44 42
1.9 in.Hga
300 bar/600C
4 41
43 Single
USC reheat
2 42 40
1 120C
1.15
250 bar/540C
41 130C
39 1.25
Excess Air Discharge Main Steam Reheat Back

Flue Gas Condition Pressure
Temperature

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T
TH 3
qin
QH
qin wturbine
qin
W

QL 2
wpump
TL 1 4
qout
W QH QL Q s
th 1 L
QH QH QH

. ( 100% ,
).

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Stage Efficiency
Stage efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work produced by the

stage to the thermal energy available.
h p1
1
h1 h2
st
h1 h2 s
Useful Energy
(Stage Work)
Available Energy
Nozzle profile loss

Bucket profile loss
Secondary flow loss +
leakage loss
p2
2
b
2s a Stage Loss


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Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies

IP Turbine Section Efficiencies
h h
545 psia
534 psia
IP = 90-94% Pressure drop in

HP = 88-90% intercept valve (2%)
92.7%
89.1%
91.2% 180 psia
LP = 90-91% 175 psia
Saturation 1378.2 h
Line
1367.1 h
Pressure drop in the IP
Fossil Reheat 1364.6 h exhaust hood, the cross-over
pipe, or the LP turbine inlet
Nuclear Reheat
1361.0 h
Nuclear Non-Reheat
s s

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Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies

In general, HP turbine efficiency includes the losses occurred in the stop valves, control valves, and HP
exhaust hood.
Blade profile loss increases with blade length. However, the amount of secondary loss is not changed,
although blade length increases. This is same for the leakage loss. Therefore, stage efficiency increases with
blade length(height).
For this reason, the efficiency of HP turbine is lower than that of IP turbine.
LP turbine has longer blades, but its efficiency is lower than IP turbine. This is because the last several
stages of LP turbine are operated in the wet steam region. Typically, every 1% of wetness gives a 1% loss in
isentropic efficiency.
The efficiency of nuclear HP turbine is lower than that of fossil HP turbine because of moisture loss. This fact
is same for LP turbines.
Nuclear LP turbine uses moisture removal buckets to reduce the moisture loss as well as water droplet
erosion.
The turbine section efficiencies may have different values because the losses occurred at the interface are
included or not.

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1 Heat Balance
4 Thermal Kit

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Effects of Cycle Parameters

Base
A. Condenser Pressure, in.Hga 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Relative net output (kW) 2,914 --- -4,073 -9,078 -14,091
Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) -31.3 --- 44.1 99.0 154.8
B. Pressure Drop in Boiler (including piping
15 17 19 21
to the turbine), %
Relative net output (kW) 346 --- -345 -732
Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) -4.0 --- 3.9 8.3
C. Pressure Drop in Reheater, % 5 7 9 11
Relative net output (kW) 1,403 --- -1,445 -2,935
Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) -17.8 --- 18.3 37.1
D. Pressure Drop in Crossover Pipe, % 0 3 5 7
Relative net output (kW) --- -1,824 -3,037 -4,318
Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) --- 19.7 33.2 46.8
E. Boiler Steam Temperature, F 950 1,000 1,050 1,100
Relative net output (kW) -35,474 --- 34,585 68,738
Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) 118.9 --- -106.0 -202.9
F. Use of Air Preheater Yes No
Relative net output (kW) --- 8,291
Relative net heat rate (Btu/kWh) --- -88.3
Data is produced using the fossil power plant, 726 MW, 3500 psig/1000F/1000F

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1. Superheating [1/3]
Equivalent Equivalent Cycle Equivalent Cycle

T Carnot Cycle Hot Temperature T
Hot Temperature
3
2 2
1 4 1 4
s s
[Ideal Rankine Cycle for a Typical Nuclear Power] [Ideal Rankine Cycle for a Typical Fossil Power]
The higher the equivalent cycle hot temperature, the greater the cycle efficiency.
The average temperature where heat is supplied in the boiler can be increased by superheating the
steam.

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The overall efficiency is increased by

superheating the steam. This is because the
mean temperature where heat is added T
increases, while the condenser temperature 3
remains constant.
Increasing the steam temperature not only 3

improves the cycle efficiency, but also reduces
the moisture content at the turbine exhaust end
and thus increases the turbine internal efficiency. heat
added
2
The turbine work out is also increased by
4
superheating the steam without increasing the
boiler pressure. 1 heat 4
lost
When the superheating the steam is employed in s
the cycle, the important thing is that the quality
of the steam at the turbine exhaust is higher than
90%.

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Evolution of Rankine Cycle
T
Ultra Supercritical
Supercritical
1960
1940s
Early 20th century

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2. Condenser Pressure [1/3]
Except for choked turbine exhaust conditions, the lower the turbine exhaust pressure, the higher the
cycle efficiency.
HR
KW
HR 60%
1
100 Throttle Flow Rate
KW = change of generator kW 70%
Turbine heat rate, Btu/kWh

output, %.
HR = change of heat rate, % 80%
90%
T 100%
3
4.5
Condenser
Pressure
3.5 (in.Hga)
p4
2 p4
2.5
2 1 4
1
4
Turbine output, kW
a a b s

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195
2 F-40.0"LSB D-11 steam turbine for GE 207FA,
1800 psia / 1050F / 1050F
Steam Turbine Output, MW
190
2 F-33.5"LSB
2 F-30.0"LSB
185
180
175
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Condenser Pressure, in.Hga

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[Exercise 5.1]
2.5 in.Hga 700 MW, heat rate 7826 Btu/kWh.
4.5 in.Hga 7980 Btu/kWh
. .
[Solution 1]
.
HR
KW
HR
1
100
HR = {(79807826)/7826}100 = 1.97%
KW = 1.97/(1+1.97/100)= 1.93%
[Solution 2]
HR = Q/W Q = 700,000 kW 7826 Btu/kWh = 5,478.2106 Btu/hr
W = Q/HR = 686,491 kW
W = {(700,000686,491)/700,000}100 = 1.93%

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3. Increasing Steam Pressure [1/5]
The cycle maximum temperature is constant.
Increased boiler pressure has a higher mean

temperature of heat addition. T
3 3
However, the temperature of heat rejection is
unchanged.
c
Usually, the amount of the cycle work is not

changed although boiler pressure is increased. increase in qin
This is because the amount of the increased work
(top side) and the amount of the decreased work 2
decrease in qin
(right hand side) caused by pressure increase is
2
almost same.
1
4 4
decrease in qout
However, the amount of heat rejected is
decreased. Thus, the cycle efficiency increases a b b s
with boiler pressure.
The only one drawback is that the quality of the

exhaust flow become worse.

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Main steam conditions strongly influence

the turbine performance.
9000

At a given maximum cycle temperature,
the turbine performance can be improved
by increasing the main steam pressure.
The higher the steam pressure, the better 8000

Throttle Pressure
the turbine performance.
2400 psia
However, there is a temperature limit 3500 psia

beyond that turbine and boiler will 6 Flows, 30 LSB
become less reliable. Throttle steam 2400 or 3500 psia, 1000F/1000F
7000
Nominal output 700 MW at 1.5 in.Hga
An increase in steam pressure at turbine 200 400 600 800
inlet will increase the cycle thermal
Turbine output, MW
efficiency.
The casing becomes quite thick as the steam pressure increases, and consequently steam turbines exhibit
large thermal inertia. Therefore, steam turbine must be warmed up and cooled down slowly to minimize the
differential expansion between the rotating blades and the stationary parts. Large steam turbine can take
over ten hours to warm up.

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T 3
Tmax, USC
USC
3 3
Tmax, subcritical
Subcritical
Critical
Point
2
2
2
1 4

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Normally, the manufacturing companies indicate the guaranteed and expected performance of steam
turbines.
In the guaranteed performance the steam turbine is specified to produce a certain number of kilowatts while
operating at rated steam conditions, 3.5 in.Hga exhaust pressure, 0% cycle make-up, and other cycle
feedwater heating conditions.
To assure that the steam turbine will pass the guaranteed throttle flow, the turbine is frequently designed for
a steam flow rate larger than the guaranteed value.
This new value is sometimes called the expected steam flow and is usually around 105% of the guaranteed
value. For this reason, the actual output of the turbine is expected to be larger than the guaranteed value.
The turbine is guaranteed to be safe for continuous operation with valve wide open.
Furthermore, the turbine is also capable of operating continuously with VWO and at the same time at 105%
of rated initial pressure.
Under these conditions the expected steam flow would become maximum (approximately 110% of the
guaranteed value) and thus the expected turbine output.

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[ Operating conditions for Korean standard 500 MW fossil power ]
VWO MGR NR 75 50 30

Constant Pressure Operation Sliding Pressure Operation
550,000 541,650 500,000 375,000 250,000 150,000

(kW)
(110%) (108.3%) (100%) (75%) (50%) (30%)
3,757,727 3,684,046 3,335,116 2,389,835 1,564,131 980,271

(lb/hr)
(112.7%) (110.5%) (100%) (71.7%) (46.9%) (29.4%)
(in.Hga) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
(F) 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000

3514.7 3514.7 3514.7 2860.2 1870.2 1152.6
(psia) (100%) (100%) (100%) (81.38%) (54.47%) (32.79%)
3409.3 3409.3 3409.3 2774.4 1814.7 1118.0
1st STA Bowl P.
(100%) (100%) (100%) (81.39%) (54.49%) (32.79%)
(psia)
[97.00%] [97.00%] [97.00%] [97.00%] [97.03%] [97.00%]
1st STA Shell P. 2630.8 2573.8 2309.0 1683.5 1128.0 723.9
(psia) (113.9%) (111.5%) (100%) (72.9%) (48.9%) (31.4%)
18,755 18,390 16,611 9,622 4,125 1,523
FWPT (kW)
(3.41%) (3.40%) (3.32%) (2.57%) (1.65%) (1.02%)

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4. Reheating [1/6]
qRH
T
3 5 3
Turbine
Steam
qH generator qRH
HP LP G
4 qH
Reheater 4
wT
A wT 5
B 6
2 Condenser
wP 2 1
Pump
1 qL 4 6
wP qL
The steam from boiler flows to the HP turbine where it expands and is exhausted back to the boiler for
reheating.
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be improved by reheating on the right hand side of the T-s diagram.
An improvement in cycle efficiency from a single reheat is only 2-3%. Although this is not dramatic, it is a
useful gain which can be obtained without major modification to the plant.

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4. Reheating [2/6]
[Exercise 5.2]
.

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4. Reheating [3/6]
h D
A
A-B-C: Nonreheat
A-B: HP Turbine
B B-D: Reheater
D-E: IP and LP Turbine
4%
E
8%
C 12%
16%

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4. Reheating [4/6]
Schematic of Nuclear Power Plant
2 5
4
7
3 6 G
1
14 8
11 10
13 12 9
1-nuclear reactor, 2-steam generator, 3-HP turbine, 4-moisture

separator, 5-reheater, 6-LP turbine, 7-generator, 8-condenser,
9-condensate pump, 10-LP FWH, 11-LP FWH, 12-BFP,
13-HP FWH, 14-main circulating pump

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4. Reheating [5/6]
Moisture Separator Reheater
To From
Feedwater Main
Heaters Steam
Steam
Main
Dryers
Electrical LP Turbines
Generator Generator
Exciter HP Turbine
Main Steam
To Main
Transformer Condensate
Pump
[ Steam Turbine (APR 1400) ] Condensers

To
Feedwater
Heaters

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4. Reheating [6/6]
Ideal Saturated-Steam Rankine Cycle with MSR (Nuclear)
In an ideal Rankine cycle for saturated steam

with Moisture separator and reheater, steam
T
expands in the HP turbine to pressure p4 and is
reheated to superheated steam (T6<T3).
3 6
It is clear that the equivalent Carnot cycle
temperature is this case is lower than for the
initial cycle. Thus, such steam reheat does not 4
improve the thermal efficiency. 5
2 4-5: Steam separator
5-6: Reheater
Practically, however, thermal efficiency is 1 7 7

improved by using the MSR because of much
less moisture loss in LP turbine caused by an s
improved LP turbine exhaust quality.

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5. Regenerative Feedwater Heating [1/5]
T
4
Turbine
3
4 G
Boiler
5
2
3 2
1 1 5 5 Condenser
1
Pump
a b c d s
If the liquid heating could be eliminated from the boiler, the average temperature for heat addition would be
increased greatly and equal to the maximum cycle temperature.
In the ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, the water circulates around the turbine casing and flows in the
direction opposite to that of the steam flow in the turbine.
Because of the temperature difference, heat is transferred to the water from the steam. However, it can be
considered that this is a reversible heat transfer process, that is, at each point the temperature of steam is
only infinitesimally higher than the temperature of water.

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At the end of the heating process the water enters the boiler at the saturation temperature.
Since the decrease of entropy in the steam expansion line is exactly equal to the increase of entropy in the
water heating process, the ideal regenerative Rankine cycle will have the same efficiency as the Carnot
cycle.
The boiler, in this case, would have no economizer, and the irreversibility during heat addition in the boiler
would decrease because of less temperature difference between the heating and heated fluids.
Unfortunately, however, this ideal process is practically impossible.
Instead, the turbine is furnished with the definite number of heaters to heat feedwater with extracted steam in
some stages.
This improves the cycle efficiency significantly, even though it remains lower than the Carnot cycle efficiency.
This cycle is called as a regenerative cycle.
The heat input in the boiler decreases as the final feedwater temperature increases and the heat rejected in
the condenser getting smaller as the feedwater is heated higher using the extracted steam.

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Reversible heat transfer and an infinite number of feedwater heaters would result in a cycle efficiency equal
to the Carnot cycle efficiency.
The greater the number of feedwater heaters used, the higher the cycle efficiency. This is because if a large
number of heaters is used, the process of feedwater heating is more reversible.
However, each additional heaters results in lower incremental heat rate improvement because of the
decreasing benefit of approaching an ideal regenerative cycle.
The economic benefit of additional heaters is limited because of the diminishing improvement in cycle
efficiency, increasing capital costs, and turbine physical arrangement limitations.
The amount of steam flow into condenser can be reduced dramatically by the employment of regenerative
Rankine cycle.
The LSB problems, such as water droplet erosion and longer active length, could be solved by the
regenerative Rankine cycle, which is made by steam extraction in many turbine stages.
Regenerative Rankine cycle also diminish the influence of the LP turbine, which has worst performance.

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Heat Rate Impact of Alternative Feedwater Heater Configurations
HARP means that steam extraction to a heater above reheat point.
If HARP is involved in the cycle, the percentage of reheat flow to main steam flow is 75 to 80% instead of 85
to 92% as with the earlier designs without HARP.
When HARP is included in the cycle, the cycle efficiency is improved because feedwater temperature
becomes higher.
No. of Feedwater
Cycle HARP Heat Rate Benefit
Heaters
7 No Base Case
Single Reheat 8 No +0.2%
(4500 psi, 1100F/ 1100F) 8 Yes +0.6%
9 Yes +0.7%
8 No Base Case
Double Reheat 9 No +0.3%
(4500 psi, 1100F/ 1100F/1100F) 9 Yes +0.2%
10 Yes +0.5%

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Single Reheat Cycle with HARP
HARP: Heater Above Reheat Point
SSR: Steam Seal Receiver, SPE: Steam Packing Exhaust

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6. LSB
LSB strongly influence the turbine

performance. 9000

The length of the LSB is determined by the
number of exhaust flows.
LSB = 26
8000
In general, the longer LSB, the lower the full- 30
load heat rate. 33.5
6 Flows, 2400 psia / 1000 F/ 1000F

However, under the part-load operation, Nominal output 700 MW at 1.5 in.Hga
7000
turbines having longer LSB deteriorate more
rapidly in performance.
200 400 600 800
Turbine output, MW

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7. Pressure Drop in Reheater System
The total reheater pressure drop includes 2

the pressure drop associated with the
cold reheat piping from HP turbine
exhaust to the reheater section of the 1
Turbine Heat
boiler, the reheater section of the boiler Rate
itself, and the hot reheat piping from the
Change, %
0
reheater to the IP turbine intercept valves.
A typical design value for total reheater -1

system pressure drop is 10% of the HP Output
turbine exhaust pressure.
-2
For a 1% decrease in reheater pressure

drop, the heat rate and output improve -3
5 10 15 20
approximately 0.1% and 0.3%,
respectively. Reheater pressure drop, %

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8. Pressure Drop in Extraction Line [1/2]
10%P
3%P
Reheater
Main Steam 3%P BFPT BFPT = 82.6%
99
86
51 99
2 1
HP IP LP Generator
3
5 4 6
Condenser
2.0 in.Hga
3%P 6
5 86
20 2
3%P 6%P 6%P 6%P 6%P 20
21 21
Make Up
SSR
6%P
4
51
54
52
52 54
HTR7 HTR6 BFP HTR5 HTR4 HTR3 HTR2 HTR1

SPE
(DA)
-3F 0F 2F 2F 5F 5F
10 F 10 F 0F 10 F 10 F 10 F 5F
BFP = 87%

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8. Pressure Drop in Extraction Line [2/2]
The extraction line pressure drop occurs between the turbine stage and the reheater shell.
For extractions not at turbine section exhausts (HP exhaust and IP exhaust), 6% of the turbine stage
pressure is a typical design pressure drop.
Three percent is the drop across the extraction nozzle, and 3% is for the extraction piping and valves.
(Extraction nozzle pressures are typically 2% to 3% lower than the shell pressure. Heater operating
pressures are typically 3% to 5% lower than the nozzle pressure.)
For extractions at the turbine exhaust section, no extraction nozzle loss occurs and the total pressure drop is
3%.
The higher the extraction line pressure drop, the worse the cycle heat rate.
For a 2% increase in extraction line pressure drop for all the heaters (from 6% to 8%), the change in output
and heat rate would be approximately 0.09% poorer.

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9. Makeup Flow
The makeup is necessary to offset the steam losses in the cycle and losses in the boiler associated with
boiler blowdown and steam soot blowing.
Typical amounts of the steam used for makeup are from 1% to 3% of the throttle flow.
Boiler blowdown is necessary to maintain proper boiler chemistry.
Consideration should also be given to process extractions that involve less than 100% return of condensate.
The makeup water is typically supplied to the condenser hot well, increasing the total flow through the
heaters and pumps, and therefore must be heated in the feedwater cycle on the way to the boiler.
This additional flow results in higher feedwater heater thermal duties and therefore higher extraction flows,
and higher pump power requirements.
This results in a negative effect on cycle performance.
The effect of makeup on net turbine heat rate is approximately 0.4% higher per percent makeup. The effect
of makeup on output is approximately 0.2% lower per percent makeup.
These values are based on boiler blowdown at saturated conditions at the boiler drum pressure.

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10. Air Preheating [1/3]

Air Preheater Using Steam Coil
Air
Air Heater Preheater
Furnace Steam
Gas Out
Coil
Air In
Gas Pulverizer Primary Air Forced Induced

Recirculating Fan Draft Fan Draft Fan
Fan

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The combustion air is heated by flue gas leaving the boiler prior to entering the boiler in order to improve
boiler efficiency by lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Preheating of the combustion air prior to air heater is used to keep the flue gas exit temperature above its
dew point temperature.
The water dew point occurs at approximately 120F, and the flue gas dew point varies with the quantity of
sulfur trioxide in the flue gas. The acid dew point occurs at a higher temperature than the water dew point.
If the flue gas temperature falls below the dew point temperature, sulfuric acid which can damage the air
heater and flue gas duct is formed.
LP extraction steam or hot water from the turbine cycle is often used as the preheating source. These
heating sources are readily available and minimize the impact on the turbine cycle because the
thermodynamic availability of the supply source is low.
The air preheater steam supply is often supplied from the deaerator extraction point which is normally the
IP/LP turbine crossover point.
If the air preheater has steam coils, crossover steam is used directly and condenses in the preheater.
If the air preheater use hot water, saturated water from the deaerator is supplied to the air preheater.
The condensate is either pumped back to the deaerator, returned to the condenser, or returned to an
intermediate LP feedwater heater point such as flash tank (
, ).

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11. Condensate Subcooling

Condensate subcooling is the cooling of the cycle condensate in the condenser hot well below the saturation
temperature corresponding to the turbine exhaust pressure.
Condenser are normally specified to provide condensate at the condenser saturation temperature (0F
subcooling).
When subcooling occurs, the duty on the first feedwater heat increases, causing the extraction flow to the
heater to increase.
This decreases the turbine output and increases the turbine heat rate.
.024
.023
Heat Rate Increase, %
.022 Correction for 5F

.021 Condensate Subcooling
.020
.019
.018
.017
.016
.015
.014
.013
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Throttle Flow, %

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12. Spray Flows for Desuperheating [1/2]
One method used to control the main steam and reheat steam temperatures is desuperheating by the spray
water into steam.
The source of spray water is typically boiler feed pump discharge for main steam spray, and an interstage
bleed off the boiler feed pump for reheat spray.
Alternatively, the spray water is taken from after the final feedwater heater.
Both main steam and reheat steam spray flows have an adverse effect on the turbine heat rate when the
spray water is taken from the boiler feed pump discharge.
The reason for this, in the case of main steam spray, is that the spray flow evaporates in the boiler and
becomes part of main steam flow. However, it bypasses the HP feedwater heaters, thus makes the cycle
less regenerative (using only five feedwater heaters).
In the case of reheat spray, the effect on heat rate is worse because cycle becomes less regenerative and
reheat spray flow bypasses the HP turbine and expands only through the reheat turbine section; thus, for the
steam flow that is reheat spray, the cycle is nonreheat.

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12. Spray Flows for Desuperheating [2/2]
.7

.6
desuperheating flow, %
.5
Correction for 1%
Load Correction Reheat Steam Desuperheat

Heat Rate Correction Reheat Steam Desuperheat
.4
Load Correction Main Steam Desuperheat
Heat Rate Correction Main Steam Desuperheat
.3
.2

.1

0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Throttle flow, %

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13. Removing Top Heaters [1/2]
Feedwater heaters may need to be removed from service due to tube leaks.
Removing the top heater(s) from service eliminates turbine extraction for these heaters and increases steam
flow through the remaining sections of the turbine.
For a given throttle flow, turbine output increases because of the increased steam flow and cycle heat input
increases because of the lower final boiler feedwater temperature.
The turbine and cycle heat rates are poorer when removing the top heaters from service.
Some power plants are designed for removal of the top feedwater heaters to increase net plant output.
In this case, the boiler has higher heating duty because the boiler produces the steam having same throttle
steam conditions with maximum continuous rating under the condition with the lower final feedwater
temperature.
The turbine would need to be designed to accommodate the higher HP turbine exhaust pressure, increased
shaft power requirements in the IP and LP turbines, increased electric power generation, and increased
steam flow in the LP turbine last stage.
If the turbine specification requires increased output with removal of top heaters, the manufacturer may have
to select a larger last stage blade than optimal.
For existing units, the steam loading limit on LSB may prohibit increased output.
The engineer or operator should check with the turbine manufacturers literature or contact the manufacturer
directly for limitations on operation with heater removed from service.

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13. Removing Top Heaters [2/2]
[ Effect on turbine cycle performance with removal of top heater from service]
Case
Parameter
(500 MW, 7 feedwater heaters) Heater 7 out of
All heaters in service
service
HP turbine output, kW 151,400 142,823
IP and LP turbine output, kW 379,583 416,512
Generator and mechanical losses, kW 8,707 9,206
Net turbine output, kW 522,316 550,129
Net turbine heat rate, Btu/kWh 8,001 8,136
Final feedwater temperature, F 482 413
Turbine cycle heat input, MBtu/h 4,179 4,476
Turbine cycle heat rejection, MBtu/h 2,373 2,574
Steam loading on LSB, lb/h/ft2 14,233 15,459
When the heater removed from service, the HP turbine output decreases because turbine expansion
is reduced as a result of higher exhaust pressure caused by the greater cold reheat flow.
However, the output of the IP and LP turbine increases significantly because of increased steam flow.

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14. Feedwater Heater Design Parameters [1/6]
A closed feedwater is a heater where the feedwater and the heating steam do not directly mix.
Open feedwater heaters (deaerators) directly mix the feedwater and the heating steam.
A closed feedwater heater may consist of three zones: the desuperheating zone, the condensing zone, and
the drain cooling zone.
All closed heaters have a condensing zone where the feedwater is heated by the condensation of the
heating steam.
Feedwater heaters that receive highly superheated steam require a desuperheating zone to reduce the
steam temperature to approximately 50F above saturation temperature before it enters the condensing
zone.

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A desuperheating zone may not be required

for heaters that receive heating steam with
less than 100F superheat. Drain
Cooling Desuperheating
Zone Zone
Usually, a drain cooler is also included in a Condensing Zone
feedwater heater to recover the heat
contained in the drains before the drains leave TSAT Extraction
the heater.
Temperature
The feedwater heater performance is
(Negative) TTD
determined by DCA (drain cooler approach)
and TTD (terminal temperature difference).
DCA
The DCA is the difference between the Feedwater Outlet
temperature of the drains leaving the heater Extraction Steam Inlet
and the temperature of the feedwater entering
the heater. Feedwater Inlet Extraction
Steam Outlet
The TTD is the difference between the
saturation temperature at the operating Travel Distance
pressure of the condensing zone and the
temperature of the feedwater leaving the [ Temperature profile for a closed feedwater heater ]
heater.

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By decreasing the DCA of a heater, cycle efficiency is improved while the heater surface area is increased,
resulting in higher capital cost.
The practical minimum DCA for an internal drain cooler is 10F. But, the minimum practical limit is 5F for an
external drain cooler.
The heater may have a negative TTD when the temperature of the feedwater leaving the heater is higher
than the saturation temperature of the condensing zone because of the desuperheating zone.
If the desuperheating zone of the heater is removed, the feedwater temperature leaving the heater would be
less than the saturation temperature, resulting in a positive TTD.
The practical lower limit of TTD on a heater without a desuperheating zone is +2F.
The negative TTD limit for a heater with a desuperheating zone depends on the amount of superheat in the
extraction steam entering the heater.
The lower the TTD and DCA, the higher the cycle efficiency and the larger the heater surface area.
The more efficient cycle results in a lower heat rate and reduced fuel consumption, while the larger surface
area of a heater results in a higher capital cost.

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1.0010
1.0005
Net turbine heat rate
Heater 6
correction factor
1.0000
0.9995
Heater 7
0.9990
TTD varied independently from
0.9985
base for each heater
0.9980
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
TTD, F
[ Effect of TTD on net turbine heat rate Heater 7 (500 MW)

cycle, HP heaters 6 and 7 ]

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1.0015
1.0010
correction factor
1.0005
1.0000
0.9995
0.9990
TTD for LP heaters 1,2,3, and 4
0.9985 varied as a group from base
0.9980
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TTD, F
[ Effect of TTD on net turbine heat rate Heater 7 (500 MW)

cycle, LP heaters 1, 2, 3, and 4 ]

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1.00025
1.00020
correction factor
1.00015
1.00010
1.00005 DCA varied on closed heaters 7, 6,

4, 3, and 2 as a group. External
1.00000 heater 1 drain cooler DCA
remained fixed.
0.99995
Heater 5 is the deaerator.
0.99990
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
DCA, F
[ Effect of DCA on net turbine heat rate Heater 7 (500 MW)

cycle ]

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Economic Efficiency Improvement

How to best apply the capital funding available on a power plant project is a critical question for the plant
designer.
The cost basis of technological improvements must be known to make an economic evaluation in todays
competitive marketplace.
One open literature investigated that the ranking of several technology improvement steps for better plant
efficiency. From least cost to highest cost per efficiency improvement, million US$ / % net LHV efficiency,
these were.
1) Reducing condenser back pressure, 4.6

2) Increasing to 8th extraction point feedwater heater, raising feedwater temperature, 5.7
3) Raising main steam temperature and reheat steam temperature, 12.3
4) Raising main steam temperature, 12.7
5) Using separate BFPT instead of main turbine driven pump, 14.2
6) Raising main steam pressure, 39.1
7) Changing from single to double reheat, 56.7
8) Using separate BFPT condenser, 60.7

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1 Heat Balance
4 Thermal Kit
Data is provided based on a GE steam turbine having output of 412 MW and main
steam condition of 2,400 psig/1,000F/,1000F. The turbine is a reheat, tandem
compound, four-flow with 26LSB.

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Turbine Thermal Kit
The turbine thermal kit is provided by the turbine manufacturer and consists of numerous characteristic
curves those are used to determine the steam turbine performance for various steam cycle conditions.
These curves are used to develop computer programs or to perform hand calculation of steam turbine
performance.
In addition, the turbine thermal kit includes correction curves that can be used to adjust actual turbine test
data to design or guaranteed turbine performance conditions.
These correction curves facilitate the comparison of actual performance to guaranteed performance.
The turbine manufacturer should supply a complete set of these curves to permit the adjustment of all cycle
parameters that may vary between guaranteed conditions and actual operating conditions.
These correction curves should be obtained and their use understood prior to conducting the performance
test.
In addition, turbine test procedures should be developed and agreement reached on their use prior to testing.
These procedures should illustrate methods of adjustment to reference conditions.

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Turbine Thermal Kit
Characteristic curves Correction curves

Extraction stage shell pressures versus flow to the
following stage
Gland leakage and mechanical losses
Expansion lines Throttle pressure correction
HP turbine internal efficiency Throttle temperature correction
HP turbine expansion line end points Reheat pressure drop correction
Reheat turbine internal efficiency Reheat temperature correction
Reheat turbine expansion line end points Exhaust pressure correction factors
Correction to expansion line end points
Exhaust loss curve
Generator losses
First-stage shell pressure versus throttle flow
This information can be used to estimate changes in unit performance at off-design conditions.
These estimations can be performed by hand. However, some calculations can be lengthy, and if several
conditions are being evaluated, a detailed computer model is typically used with this information to predict
the performance of the actual turbine purchased.

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3. Expansion Lines
HP Turbine
Turbine expansion lines, drawn on Mollier diagram, are sT pT pB

lines depicting the thermal state of the steam that has Pressure Drop through
different thermal state as it expands through the turbine. hT Control Valves
These lines are developed based on throttle, governing TT Exit from Governing
stage, and reheat conditions to determine the steam Stage
p1
enthalpy at the various extraction points on the turbine.
p1
Parallel Expansion
These lines are used in conjunction with a heat balance Line
and the extraction stage shell pressure curves or constants AE Partial Flow
to establish the extraction pressure at which to read the Expansion Line
expansion line enthalpy for a given extraction point in the Design Flow
AE
turbine. Expansion Line
ELEP
In a thermal kit, the expansion line for the HP turbine is pX

given only for the steam expansion downstream of the first ELEP
stage. hXS pX
A pressure drop from turbine throttle conditions of

hXS
approximately 3% is usually indicated to describe pressure
losses between the main stop valve and the HP turbine
bowl conditions.
[ Expansion lines for HP turbine ]

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3. Expansion Lines
h p0 p1
T0
1 p2
2
p3
3 p4
Available Energy
4 p5
5 p6

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3. Expansion Lines
HP Turbine
The assumption of 3% is typical for turbine

operation in partial arc admission mode.
Valve Loop Basis (True Curve)
The steam entering the turbine then expands from
Heat rate
the HP turbine bowl conditions to the exhaust
conditions of the first stage. Mean of Valve Loop Basis
Turbine heat balance developed on the basis of

this assumption are considered to be on a locus- Valve Point Basis
of-valve best points basis. This heat balances (Locus-of-valve best points)
describe heat rates assuming an infinite number of
small valves having a 3% pressure drop. 0 20 40 60 80 100
Generator output
Actual turbine performance is shown on a valve loop basis heat rate curve. This curve reflects the steam
throttling effect as the steam passes through a partially closed steam admission.
The throttling pressure drop reduces the available energy of the steam as the throttled admission steam
expands across the control stage.
Depending on the steam turbine manufacturer, curves of heat rate effect due to control valve position are
provided in the thermal kit.

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3. Expansion Lines
HP Turbine
An alternative method of representing turbine heat rate impact due to turbine valve losses at part load is by a
mean of valve loop method.
This method is an approximation of the heat rate impact illustrated on the valve loop basis curve and
represents a mean of the turbine heat rate and passes through the valve loop curve.
For units operating with constant throttle pressure in partial arc admission mode, the pressure ratio through
the control stage is not constant.
As a result of the variation in pressure ratio, the available energy across the stage and the control stage
efficiency vary with throttle steam flow and conditions.
Therefore, expansion lines at different flow conditions for the control stage are not parallel to one another.
However, HP turbine stages downstream of the control stage operate with essentially constant pressure ratio,
and their expansion efficiency is essentially constant.
Therefore, at lower steam flows, the expansion line of the HP turbine stage group downstream of the control
stage is typically described as a straight line that is drawn parallel to the VWO expansion line.

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3. Expansion Lines
Reheat Turbine
The expansion line for the reheat turbine (IP and LP Pressure Drop Through
turbines) typically includes a 2% pressure drop between sm sIV pIV p Intercept Valves, 2%
B
the reheat stop valve inlet and IP turbine bowl to account
hIV
for the pressure drop across the stop/intercept valves. hm TIV
For Machines with No

In addition, for combined HP/IP turbines, the steam Leakage Entry
leakage from the HP turbine is mixed with the hot reheat hm = hIV
steam to determine the reheat bowl steam conditions. sm = sIV
Expansion Line
AE
The steam then expands through the IP turbine to LP
turbine.
pX= 1.5 in.Hga

The steam exiting the IP turbine is often conveyed to the
pX= 1.0 in.Hga
LP turbine through a crossover pipe.
ELEP1.5 in.Hga
hXS ELEP1.0 in.Hga
A 2% allowance for crossover pipe pressure drop is
typically included by the turbine manufacturer to ELEP 1.5 in.Hga to
determine the LP turbine inlet conditions. 1.0 in.Hga
[ Expansion lines for reheat turbines ]

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3. Expansion Lines
Reheat Turbine
On a Mollier diagram, the turbine expansion line is drawn to a ELEP.
ELEP is plotted at the turbine back pressure used as the basis of the heat balance and represents a
complete expansion of the steam to the condenser pressure.
However, the steam leaving the LP turbine never actually reaches ELEP steam conditions because there is
exhaust loss occurring in the LP exhaust hood.
The actual exhaust condition, referred to as UEEP, is calculated as the sum of the ELEP and the exhaust
loss.
Since the stages upstream are unaffected by the exhaust loss, the expansion line describing the steam
condition in the IP and LP turbine stages is drawn to the LP turbine ELEP.
This permits determination of the steam condition for the reheat turbine extractions.
The expansion line for the IP turbine is essentially a straight line.
However, the expansion line for the LP turbine exhibits a curvature or varying slope. This variation in the
expansion line represents efficiency degradation caused by moisture loss.

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4. HP Turbine Internal Efficiency

85
The HP turbine internal efficiency represents the overall
HP Turbine Internal Efficiency, %

efficiency of it and is applied to the calculation of the 80
available energy from the turbine throttle conditions to 75

the HP turbine exhaust pressure.
70
A composite of the effect of throttle valve pressure drop, 65

first-stage efficiency, and HP turbine stage group
60
efficiency are represented by this curve.
55
Since the curve is drawn using the assumption of locus- 50

of-valve best point, the curve does not reflect the .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
throttling losses of partially open control valves for flows Throttle Flow Ratio (TFR)
above the throttling flow ratio of the first admission. This curve is on a valve best point basis.
TFR = (throttle flow at any steam conditions)/ (VWO
throttle flow at same steam conditions)
These throttling losses are small at high load because of
the relatively small portion of flow that is throttled Apply the efficiency from this curve to the available
compared to the flow that is passing through the valves energy from the turbine stop valves to the HP turbine
exhaust.
those are fully open.
Break in curve is first admission point, throttling
control occurs at all lower throttle flow ratios.
However, as load is decreased, a greater portion of For off-rated steam conditions use equivalent TFR.
turbine flow becomes throttled, further impacting turbine
Off rated flow ( p / ) rated
efficiency. TFReq
Design flow ( p / ) off rated
[ HP turbine internal efficiency, GE ]
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4. HP Turbine Internal Efficiency
Turbines are provides with a limited numbers of

valves, some of those are operated in unison.
The throttle flow ratio at first admission point
with respect to the number of admission is
The actual number of valves and turbine admission
approximately as follows:
is a function of the mode of operation and the
manufacturers design practice. 1 admission (full throttling) ------ 1.0
2 admissions ----------------------- 0.85
Steam flow control at throttle flow ratios below the 3 admissions ----------------------- 0.60
first admission point is accomplished by throttling 4 admissions ----------------------- 0.35
process using valve(s).
8 admissions ----------------------- 0.30
[ Throttle flow ratio at
In this mode, all flow to the turbine is throttled which first admission point, GE ]
results in a decrease of efficiency.
Because of throttling losses at lower loads, the

throttle flow ratio at the first admission has a
significant impact on performance at loads below
this point.

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5. HP Turbine ELEPs
This curve is limited to 1330

applications with rated steam
conditions and further based on 1320
HP Turbine ELEP, Btu/lb

the assumption of a 10%
reheater pressure drop from HP
1310
exhaust to intercept valve.
1300
The curve is provided as a quick
reference for the leaving 1290
enthalpy of the steam exhausting
the HP turbine.
1280
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Intercept Valve Pressure 100 psia
The HP turbine efficiency curve
discussed previously provides a This curve assumes a pressure drop of 10 percent from high pressure
turbine exhaust to intercept valve. These high pressure expansion line
more versatile method for
end points cannot be used for other pressure drops.
determining expected HP turbine
exhaust conditions.

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6. Reheat Turbine Internal Efficiency
94
The reheat turbine internal
efficiency curves are plotted 93
Reheat Temp., F
Reheat turbine thermal

as a function of pressure 1000
ahead of the intercept valve 92
efficiency, %
950
because it relates to steam 900
flow. 91 850
800
90
The turbine efficiency is 750
applied to the available energy 89
700
between the intercept valve
pressure and mixed bowl
88
enthalpy and a reference LP 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
turbine exhaust pressure of
1.5 in.Hga. Intercept valve pressure, 100 psia
Apply efficiency to available energy between intercept valve

pressure and bowl enthalpy (including packing leakage mixture if
any) and 1.5 in.Hga.
ELEP1.5 = hbowl Eff. (AE)
See ASME paper 62WA209 for construction of expansion line
[ Reheat turbine internal efficiency, GE ]

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7. Reheat Turbine ELEPs
1070
Reheat Turbine ELEPs at 1.5 in.Hga, Btu/lb

1060
The end points are plotted as a function of intercept
valve pressure and are based on a turbine exhaust 1050
pressure of 1.5 in.Hga.
1040
This curve conveniently provides the end point 1030

conditions for rated reheat steam temperature;
1020
however, it is not as flexible as the internal
efficiency curve because end points are valid only
1010
for 1,000F reheat steam.
1000
990
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Intercept Valve Pressure, 100 psia
These ELEPs are for heat balance calculations in which
grand leakage steam is used in the feedwater heating cycle.
To obtain the enthalpy of the steam entering the condenser,
read the curve at 1.5 in.Hga and correct to the desired
exhaust pressure, and correct for exhaust loss.

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8. Correction to ELEPs for Exhaust Pressure

0.85
-64 -32 1.5 0 +62
ELEPY=0 - Change in ELEP with o% Moisture, Btu/lb

2.5 4.0
-62 -30 +2 +32 +64
0.5 -60 0.9 -28 +4 +34 4.1 +66

1.6 2.6 4.2
-58 -26 +6 +36 4.3 +68
-56 -24 +8 2.7 +38 4.4 +70
-54 -22 1.7 +10 2.8 +40 4.5 +72
1.0 4.6
-52 -20 +12 +42 +74
1.8 3.0 4.7
-50 -18 +14 +44 4.8 +76
0.6 3.1 4.9
-48 1.1 -16 1.9 +16 +46 5.0
-46 -14 +18 3.2 +48
-44 -12 2.0 +20 3.3 +50

1.2
-42 -10 3.4 +52
2.1 +22
0.7 -8 +24
-40 3.5 +54
-38 1.3 -6 2.2 +26 3.6 +56
-36 -4 2.3 +28 3.7 +58
1.4 -2 3.8
0.8 -34 +30 +60
0.85 2.4 3.9 +62
0
1.5 2.5 4.0
Exhaust Pressure, in.Hga

1. When ELEP at 1.5 in.Hga is in the moisture region, use the following equation:
ELEP = ELEPY=0(0.87)(1-0.01Y)(1-0.0065Y), Y=percent moisture at ELEP at 1.5 in.Hga.
2. When ELEP at 1.5 in.Hga is in the superheat region, multiply the change in ELEP at 0 percent
moisture both by the factor 0.87 and the ratio of specific volume at ELEP under consideration to
the dry saturated specific volume at 1.5 in.Hga.

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9. Exhaust Loss Curve
UEEP = ELEP + Exhaust Loss per unit steam flow
The exhaust loss plus the ELEP

defines the UEEP, that is also Annulus
50
called as TEP (Turbine End Point). Restriction
Loss
40
Gross Hood
Exhaust Loss, Btu/lb of dry

The UEEP is the actual leaving Loss
enthalpy of the LP turbine steam
Total
and includes losses associated 30 Exhaust
with the hood loss, leaving loss, flow Turn-up Loss
and restriction loss or turn up loss. Loss
20
It is clear that the work produced Actual

by the turbine should be 10 Leaving
determined by performing an Loss
energy balance with the use of the
UEEP, not the LP turbine ELEP.
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Sonic
Annulus Velocity, fps

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9. Exhaust Loss Curve

50 23
2 3 4 5 Bucket Pitch Last stage 1
4
Curve length diameter annulus area 5
46
no. (inches) (inches) single flow (ft2)
1 14.3 52.4 16.3
42 1 16.5 57.5 20.7
1 17 52 19.3
38 1 20 60 26.2
Exhaust Loss, Btu/lb of dry flow
2 23 65.5 32.9
3 26 72 41.1
34
4 30 85 55.6
5 33.5 90.5 66.1
30 Van = Annulus velocity (fps)
m = Condenser flow (lb/hr)
= Saturated dry specific volume (ft3/lb)
26 1 Aan = Annulus area (ft2)
Y = Percent moisture at ELEP
22 ELEP = Expansion line end point at actual
exhaust pressure (Btu/lb)
UEEP = Used energy end point (Btu/lb)
18
(1) Read the exhaust loss at the annulus velocity obtained from
the following expression:
14
Van = m(1-0.01Y) / 3600Aan
(2) The enthalpy of steam entering the condenser is the quantity
10 obtained from the following expression:
UEEP = ELEP + (Exhaust loss)(0.87)(1-0.01Y)(1-0.0065Y)
6
(3) This exhaust loss includes the loss in internal efficiency
which occurs at light flows as obtained in tests.
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Annulus Velocity, ft/s

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10. Generator Losses
7
The generator losses are a function of
generator kVA (not kW).
Generator Loss, 1,000

6
5
Therefore, if generator losses at a
kW
power factor other than design is 4
required, the curve should be read at
desired output (in kilowatts) multiplied 3
by the rated power factor divided by
the desired power factor. 2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Generator Output, 1,000 kVA
Generator losses do not include the
511,000 kVA at 45 psig H2 pressure
turbine generator fixed or mechanical
Conductor cooled 3600 rpm
losses.
Note:
Generator losses assume rated hydrogen pressure at all loads.
Generator loss at reduced hydrogen pressure (P) = Loss at rated hydrogen pressure
The mechanical losses should be 11.2(Prated P).
Use generator reactive capability curve to determine generator capability at reduced
accounted for separately and do not hydrogen pressure.
vary with unit load. Turbine generator mechanical losses are not included in the generator loss curve.
If hydrogen and stator liquid coolers are located in the condensate line, the loss
transferred to the coolers is 474 kW les than the generator loss at all loads.

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11. 1st Stage Shell Pressure vs. Throttle Flow
2000
To estimate the first stage shell pressure at

other than rated initial temperature, the 1500
Pressure, psia
following equation should be used to
determine an equivalent throttle flow before
entering the curve. 1000
500
0
m th _ corrected m th _ actual actual 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
design Flow, lbs/hr x 1,000
th _ corrected
m corrected turbine throttle flow, lb/hr
m th _ actual actual turbine throttle flow, lb/hr
actual actual throttle steam specific volume, ft3/lb
design design throttle steam specific volume, ft3/lb

HIoPE
Correction Curves
There are five typical correction curves as follows:
Initial pressure correction
Initial temperature correction
Reheat pressure drop correction
Reheat temperature correction
Exhaust pressure correction factors
The correction curves typically found in a thermal kit are intended to give approximate output and heat rate.
The correction curves are often provided for correction turbine test date to guaranteed conditions.

HIoPE
1. Initial Pressure Correction
Change in Kilowatt Load, % Method of Using Curves

6 Load These correction factors assume constant control
Load valve opening and are to be applied to heat rates
5
Rated Load and kilowatt loads at rated steam conditions.
4
Increase, %
1. The heat rate at desired condition can be found
3 by multiplying the heat rate at rated conditions
2
by the following:
1 + % change in gross heat rate
1 100
-5 0 2. The kilowatt load at the desired conditions can
be found by multiplying the kilowatt load at rated
+5
Change in initial conditions by the following:
1
pressure, % 1 + % change in kilowatt load
Decrease, %
2 100
3. These correction factors are not guaranteed.
3
Change in Heat Rate, %
Rated Load 4
2
5 Poorer, %
Load Load
Load 1
Load 6 Rated Load +5
-5 Rated Load
Change in initial Load
1
pressure, % Load
2
Better, %

HIoPE
1. Initial Pressure Correction
The curve allows for the correction of turbine output and heat rate for changes in throttle pressure.
The curve is developed based on holding a constant control valve opening while varying the turbine throttle
pressure.
A similar curve is provided in the ASME PTC(Power Test Code) 6.1, Interim Alternative Test Procedure for
Steam Turbines.
The manufacturer may provide a curve specifically developed for the turbine.
Increased throttle pressure at constant valve opening increases the mass flow to the turbine, which
increases the output of the unit.
The increased throttle pressure improves the turbine cycle efficiency as a result of increased available
energy.

HIoPE
2. Initial Temperature Correction

Change in Kilowatt Load, %
2 Method of Using Curves
Increase, %
Load These correction factors assume constant control
Load 1
Rated Load +50 valve opening and are to be applied to heat rates
-50 Rated Load and kilowatt loads at rated steam conditions.
Change in initial Load
1 Load
temperature, F 1. The heat rate at desired condition can be found
2 by multiplying the heat rate at rated conditions
Decrease, % by the following:
1 + % change in gross heat rate
100
Change in Heat Rate, % 2. The kilowatt load at the desired conditions can
2 be found by multiplying the kilowatt load at rated
Rated Load Poorer, % conditions by the following:
1
Load 1 + % change in kilowatt load
+5 100
-5 Load 3. These correction factors are not guaranteed.
Change in initial Rated Load
1
temperature, F
2
Better, %
Increasing the throttle temperature results in an increased specific volume, a decreased mass flow, and
decreased output.
The increase in throttle temperature increases the available energy to the turbine, increases the turbine cycle
efficiency, and reduces heat rate.

HIoPE
3. Reheat Pressure Drop Correction

2
Rated Load Increase, %
& Load 1
10 15
The decrease in reheater pressure drop
5
results in an increase in turbine output Change in initial
1 & Load
and a decrease in turbine heat rate. temperature, F
Rated Load
2
Decrease, %
HP turbine output increases, and the
HP turbine expansion end point Change in Heat Rate, %
becomes lower. 2
Poorer, %
1
5 All Loads
As a result, the reheater duty increases. 10 15
All Loads
1 Reheater pressure
drop, %
2
Better, %

HIoPE
4. Reheat Temperature Correction

3 Rated Load
The increased reheat temperature results Increase, % Load
in increased turbine output and decreased 2 Load
turbine heat rate. 1
-50 0
+50
Increased reheat temperature does not 1 Change in reheat
impact the amount of main steam flow, temperature, F
Rated Load 2
however, it increases the intercept valve Load
Load
pressure and decreases the amount of 3
Decrease, %
work produced in the HP turbine due to
greater HP turbine exhaust pressure.
Change in Heat Rate, %
2
Poorer, %
However, the reduced HP turbine output is Rated Load
1
offset by the greater available steam Load
Load 0 +50
energy supplied to the reheat turbine and
-50 Rated Load
its increased turbine output. Change in reheat Load
1
temperature, F Load
2
Better, %

HIoPE
5. Exhaust Pressure Correction
A change in LP turbine exhaust pressure results in a 12

697,935 lb/h, 25%
change in available energy. In addition, exhaust losses
and LP turbine exhaust flow are impacted.
8
1,355,163 lb/h, 50%
Increase in Heat Rate, %

Exhaust pressure correction provides an equation to 2,846,828 lb/h, 100%
correct the turbine output. 4
2,049,969 lb/h, 75%
This equation is based on constant heat input and 0

2,980,170 lb/h, VWO-NP
indicates that turbine heat rate is inversely proportional
to the turbine output.
-4
For the case of decreasing exhaust pressure, the

condensate temperature of the first LP heater -8
decreases because it is typically the saturation
temperature corresponding to the turbine exhaust 0 1 2 3 4 5
Exhaust Pressure, in.Hga
pressure.
Values near curves are flows at 2400 psig, 1000F.
These correction factors assume constant control valve opening.
Apply corrections to heat rate and kW loads at 2.0 in.Hga. and
The colder condensate results in an increased 0.0 percent mu.
extraction flow to the LP heater, thus reduced both The percent change in kW load for various exhaust pressures is
equal to (minus percent increase in heat rate) 100/(100 +
exhaust flow and turbine output. percent increase in heat rate)
These factors give change in net turbine heat rate.

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In addition, lower exhaust pressure typically results in higher exhaust loss because of increased exhaust
velocity due to the higher specific volume at the exhaust pressure.
However, these effects are offset by the increased available energy. Therefore, output and efficiency typically
improve with reduced exhaust pressure.
However, as back pressure continues to decrease, the turbine may become choked.
Below the choking pressure, the turbine no longer benefits from increased available energy.
The condensate continues to cool further and heater extraction increases.
Therefore, the output and efficiency can decrease.
The turbine used in the thermal kit becomes choked at approximately 2.0 in.Hga for the maximum flow
condition.
As turbine exhaust flow decreases, the turbine becomes choked at lower exhaust pressures.
The point at which the turbine becomes choked depends on turbine design, exhaust flow, and exhaust
pressure.

HIoPE
18
16 6F32"
14
Power Gain, MW
12
4F38"
10
8 Choking
4F32"
6
4
4F30"
2
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 1.76 2.0 in.Hga
0 2 12 16 19 C
Cooling Water Inlet Temperature

HIoPE
: ()
: 2015.02.11 (Ver.5)
: ebyeong@daum.net
Mobile: 010-3122-2262
: /

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5. Steam Turbine Performance

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 1 / 93

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 2 / 93

Heat Balance Steam Turbine Performance

Thermodynamic Efficiency Mechanical (Fluid Dynamic) Efficiency

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 3 / 93

Turbine (Generator) Output [1/2]

Required generator output = plant net output + plant auxiliary loads.

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 4 / 93

Turbine (Generator) Output [2/2]

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 5 / 93

Typical Power Plant Steam Flow

Steam Stop V/V Crossover

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 6 / 93

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 7 / 93

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 8 / 93

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 9 / 93

Heat balances are provided by the turbine manufacturer.

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 10 / 93

Establishing a Heat Balance

Main Steam 3%P BFPT BFPT = 82.6%

HTR7 HTR6 BFP HTR5 HTR4 HTR3 HTR2 HTR1

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 11 / 93

Condition Coupling Efficiency

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 12 / 93

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 13 / 93

4. Rules of thumb, when the temperature rise across a heater is known:

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 14 / 93

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 15 / 93

Steam Turbine Performance

Plant Net Efficiency Based on HHV

Excess Air Discharge Main Steam Reheat Back

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 16 / 93

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 17 / 93

Stage efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work produced by the

Nozzle profile loss

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 18 / 93

Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies

IP = 90-94% Pressure drop in

LP = 90-91% 175 psia

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 19 / 93

Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 20 / 93

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 21 / 93

Effects of Cycle Parameters

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 22 / 93

Equivalent Equivalent Cycle Equivalent Cycle

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 23 / 93

The overall efficiency is increased by

Increasing the steam temperature not only 3

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 24 / 93

Early 20th century

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 25 / 93

2. Condenser Pressure [1/3]

Turbine heat rate, Btu/kWh

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 26 / 93

2. Condenser Pressure [2/3]

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 27 / 93

2. Condenser Pressure [3/3]

Steam Turbine 5. Performance 28 / 93

3. Increasing Steam Pressure [1/5]

The cycle maximum temperature is constant.