SCIENCE 10

DETERMINING THE LAYERS OF THE EARTH

The crust is the outermost layer that is also called lithosphere. It consists of continental and oceanic
crust. The temperature ranges from 0oF on the surface to 1,600oF below. Its thickness is about 3-5 miles
under the oceans and 25 miles under the continents. The boundary between the crust and the second layer is
called Mohorivicic Discontinuity or Moho.

The mantle is located below the crust. The temperature is 1,600oF at the top and 4000oF near the
bottom. It is approximately 1,800 miles thick. Composition is iron, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, oxygen,
and silicate compounds. It is very hot and composed of dense rocks that moves like thick, hot asphalt due to
extreme temperature. Asthenosphere is the upper layer of the mantle below the lithosphere. It is partially
molten, plastic-like material that flows slowly.

Next to the mantle is the outer core. The outer core is in liquid form because the material is so hot. It
is composed of liquid iron and nickel. As the earth rotates, the liquid core spins creating the earths magnetic
field. Next to the outer core is the inner core. Inner core is the innermost or the centermost layer. It is
composed of solid iron and nickel. It does not move but vibrates in place. Moreover, it has high temperature
and high pressure.

SEISMIC WAVES

Seismic waves are waves of energy created by earthquakes that travel through rocks in all directions
from where the ground breaks. Seismograph is used to pick up these waves all over the world. Seismic
waves are categorized into 2:

1. Body waves are those seismic waves that travels through earths interior that is further subdivided into p-
waves and s-waves

a. P-waves primary waves, this wave moves faster and travels parallel to the direction of propagation. It
has a compression and dilation (moved apart), hence, it is also called compression wave.

b. S-waves secondary waves, this wave moves slower than p-wave. It has a transverse or shear motion.
The shear motion of each particle is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Note: Both p-waves and s-waves travel in solids. However, only p-waves can travel in liquids.
2. Surface waves are waves that travel over the surface of the earth. These waves are slower, thus arrive after
both the p-wave and s-wave. Surface waves are responsible for most of the damage and destructions
associated with earthquakes.

a. Rayleigh waves make us feel like the ground is rolling. This is also called up-and-down motion.

b. Love waves make us feel like the ground is shaking. This is also called side-to-side vibration.

PLATE TECTONICS

The lithosphere is made up of the Earths crust and the upper most part of the mantle. Together, they
form a rigid, brittle layer floating on top of the mantle.

Alfred Wegener (1880-1930), a German scientist, hypothesized in late 20th century that there is a
super continental called Pangaea that is broke into smaller pieces that slowly drifted away from one another
and moved to their present location. This theory is called Continental Drift Theory. However, he could not
explain what makes it moving; hence it was rejected by many scientists. Despite of all rejections, he
continued to study to find out the strong force that made as basis for todays theory, the plate tectonics.

Plate tectonics theory states that the earths lithosphere is divided into large continent-sized plates
that are constantly moving. How fast? It moves 12 inches per year. The theory also states that the
lithosphere is broken into large slabs called plates. Plates carry the oceans and continents on top of them.
 The line separating one plate from another is called boundary or margin. There are 3 types of plate
boundaries.

1. Convergent where plates collides

2. Transform where plates slide pasts one another
3. Divergent where plates move apart

Volcanoes and mountains form as a result of convergent and transform boundaries. Earthquakes and
tsunamis occur at convergent and transform boundaries. Fissures, cracks, and rifts in the surface occur at
divergent boundaries. Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent boundaries on ocean floor.

Plates are moved by convention currents in the mantle. Convention currents transfer heat through
fluids (both liquids and gases). A cycle of rising and sinking causes the plates on top of the mantle to
eventually move. The rock eventually cools and sinks back through mantle. Heat from the core causes solid
mantle rock in the lower mantle to rise slowly toward the top. This causes the plates on top to lift and move.

TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

The terms translational equilibrium mean that the object is either stationary/at rest or moving at
uniform speed along a straight line. It is achieved when the forces acting on an object cancel out, therefor,
the net force is zero. Tension a pulling force with a use of a string on a rope.
Example 1. A fish hanging by its mouth on a string has a weight of 10N. The weight of the fish is a
downward force acting on it. At the same time, there is on the string an upward force, the tension which also
happens to be equal to 10N.

a. b.

We draw the force acting on an object while representing the object (or its center of gravity by a dot
called free body diagram (FBD).

Equilibrant the force that counteracts the cummulative effect of the other force acting on an object.
It is the force that balance the net force acting on an object.

Example 2.

A. B.

A. The equilibrant is 15N to the left.

B. The equilibrant is 5N to the left.

Translational equilibrium touches on Newtons First Law of Motion also known as Law of
Equilibrium. It states that: an object that is at rest tends to remain at rest, and an object in motion tends to
remain in uniform motion for as long as there is no net force exerted on it.

An object that is at rest and remains at rest is called static equilibrium. Ex. Sleeping dog, a balloon
stuck on the ceiling, a cake on the table. Any moving objects that keeps moving with uniform motion is
called dynamics equilibrium. Ex. A sky diver at a terminal velocity, a car cruising on a highway, a man
running at a constant speed

EQUILIBRIUM AND ITS COMPONENT METHOD

Component Method:

OBSERVE KNOW CONCLUDE USE

An object is
at rest. Newtons The sum of Fx=0
First Law of all forces
Motion must be And
An object is
zero.
moving at Fy=0
constant
velocity.
Sample Problems

1. Find the normal force of a ball at rest on the floor given that the W of the ball is 25N.
a. b.
FBD:

Fx Fy

/right/ = /left/ /up/ = /down/

0=0 N=W

N = 25N

2. Find the tension of the box pulled by a string on the floow if the coefficient of kinetic force between
the box and the surface is 0.35. Weight of the box is 30N.
a. b. FBD

Formula for kinetic friction:

Fk =(0.35)(30N)

= 10.5N

Fx Fy

/right/ = /left/ /up/ = /down/

Fk = T N=W

10.5 N = T N = 30N