Assignment on Analog Systems

and Applications
Rajneil Baruah
B.Sc(H)Physics
5015
2nd Year
Submitted to Dr. Rimple Poonia

March 26, 2017

Contents
1 Photodiodes 2
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Working of photodiodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Application of Photodiodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Light Emitting Diodes(LEDs) 5

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Working Principle of LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Advantages of LED over conventional incandescent lamps: . . 6
2.4 Applications of LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Solar Cell 7
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Working of a Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4 Uses of Solar Cell: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Tunnel Diode 9
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 Advantages of Tunnel Diode: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4 Applications: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

5 Schottky Diode 11
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2 Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3 Uses of Schottky Diode: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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1 Photodiodes
[1]

1.1 Introduction
The interest in light sensitive devices has been increasing at an exceptional
exponential rate in recent years. The resulting field of optoelectronics is
receiving a great deal of research interest as efforts are made to improve
efficiency levels. Light sources offer a unique source of energy. This energy,
transmitted as discrete packages called photos, has a level directly related
to the frequency of the travelling light wave as determined by the following
equation:
W = hf joule (1)
where h is called Plancks constant is is equal to 6.624 1034 joule-second.
It clearly states that, since h is a constant, the energy associated with an
incident light wave is directly related to the frequency of the wave. The
frequency is, in turn, directly related to the wavelength(distance between
successive peaks) of the wave by the following equation:
v
= (2)
f
where,
= wavelength (m)
v = velocity of light, 3 108 (m/s)
f = frequency of the traveling wave (Hz)

The wavelength is usually measured in angstrom(A) or in, micrometres(m),

where:

1A = 1010 m
1m = 106 m
The wavelength is important because it determines the material to be used
in the optoelctronic device. The relative spectral responses for Ge,Si, and Se
are provided in Fig.(1) The visible spectrum is included with an indication
of the wavelength associated with the various colours.

1.2 Working of photodiodes

Due to the photosensitivity of the materials, free electrons are generated.
The number of free electrons generated in each material is proportional
to the intensity of the incident light. Light intensity is a measure of the

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Figure 1: Relative spectral response for Si,Ge,and Se as compared to that of the
human eye.

amount of luminous flux falling in a particular surface area. Luminous flux

is normally measured in lumen)(lm) or watts. The two units are related by:

1lm = 1.496 1010 W

The light intensity is normally measured in lm/ft2 , footcandles (fc) or W/m2 ,

where
1lm/ft2 = 1fc = 1.609 109 W/m2
The photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of op-
eration is limited to the reverse-bias region. The basic biasing arrangement,
comstruction, and symbol for the device appear in Fig.(1.2). We know that
the reverse saturation current is normally limited to a few microamperes.
It is due solely to the thermally generated minority carriers in the n- and
p-type materials. The application of light to the junction will result in a
transfer of energy from the incident traveling light waves(in the form of pho-
tons) to the atomic structure, resulting in an increased number of minority
carriers and an increased level of reverse current. This is clearly shown in
Fig(1.3) for different intensity levels.The dark current is that current that
will exist with no applied illumination. Note that the current will only re-
turn to zero with a positive applied bias equal to VT . In addition Fig.(2)
demonstrates the use of lens to concentrate the light on the junction region.

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 [3]

Figure 2: Symbol and basic biasing of photodiode

Figure 3: Photodiode characteristics and I vs fC .

The almost equal spacing between the curves for the same increment
in luminous flux reveals that the reverse current and the luminous flux are
almost linearly related. In other words, an increase in light intensity will
result in a similar increase in reverse current. A plot of the two to show
this linear relationship appears in Fig.(3) for a fixed voltage V of 20V. On
a relative basis, we can assume that the reverse current is essentially zero n
the absence of incident light.

1.3 Application of Photodiodes

The following are the applications of photodiodes:
1. Detection of optical signals.
2. Demodulation of optical signals.
3. Used in electronic counters.
4. Used in speed reading of computer punch cards.

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2 Light Emitting Diodes(LEDs)
[2]

2.1 Introduction
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It
is a pn junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable
voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This ef-
fect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding
to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor. LEDs are typically small (less than 1 mm2 ) and integrated
optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern. Appear-
ing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs emitted
low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as trans-
mitting elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls
for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were
also of low intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices,
replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric
readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in
digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in en-
vironmental and task lighting. LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors
to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced
communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent
light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes
are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, and
lighted wallpaper. As of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap
or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

2.2 Working Principle of LED

A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional electric
current. The same process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction emits
light when electrical energy is applied to it). This phenomenon is generally
called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the emission of light
from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The charge
carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons cross
from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region.

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Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while holes are
in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will be
lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy
must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This
energy is emitted in the form of heat and light. The electrons dissipate

Figure 4: The inner working of a LED and band diagram.

energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes but in gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP) semiconductors,
the electrons dissipate energy by emitting photons. If the semiconductor is
translucent, the junction becomes the source of light as it is emitted, thus
becoming a light-emitting diode, but when the junction is reverse biased no
light will be produced by the LED and, if the potential is great enough, the
device will be damaged. The IV Characteristics of LEDs is given in Fig.(6).

2.3 Advantages of LED over conventional incandescent lamps:

1. Low operational voltage and low power consumption.
2. Longer life.
3. Faster ON/OFF switching capability.

Figure 5: The symbol of LED.

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 Figure 6: IV characteristics of LED.

4. Fast actions and no warm up time required.

2.4 Applications of LEDs

1. Used in optical communication.
2. Used in hand calculators, cash registers, digital clocks etc.
3. Used in image scanning of picture phone.

3 Solar Cell
3.1 Introduction
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the solar cell as an
alternative source of energy. When we consider that the power density
received from the sun at sea level is about 100 mW/cm2 (1kW/m2 ), it is
certainly an energy source that requires further research and development
to maximize the conversion efficiency from the solar to electrical energy.
The basic construction of a silicon p-n junction solar cell appears in
Fig.(7). As shown in the top view, every effort is made to ensure that the
surface area perpendicular to the sun is a maximum. Also note that the
metallic conductor connected to the p-type material and the thickness of

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 Figure 7: Cross-sectional view of Solar cell.

the p-type material are such that they ensure that a maximum number of
photons of light energy will reach the junction. A photon of light energy in
this region may collide with a valence electron and impart to it sufficient
energy to leave the parent atom. The result is a generation of free electrons
and holes. This phenomenon will occur on both side of the junction.

Figure 8: Current vs Light and VOC and IOC vs illumination.

3.2 Working of a Solar Cell

In the p-type material, the newly generated electrons are minority carriers
and will move rather freely across the junction as explained for the basic p-n
junction with no applied bias. A similar discussion is true for the holes gen-

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erated in the n-type material.The result is an increase in the minority-carrier
flow, which is opposite in direction to the conventional forward current of
a p-n junction. This increase in reverse current is shown in Fig.(8). Since
V=0 anywhere on the vertical axis and represents a short-circuit condition,
the current at this intersection is called the short-circuit current and is rep-
resented by the notation ISC . Under open-circuit conditions(id = 0), the
photovoltaic voltage VOC will result. This is a logarithmic function of the
illumination as shown in Fig.(8). VOC is the terminal voltage of the battery
under no-load(open-circuit) conditions.
Note, however, in the same figure that the short-circuit current in a
linear function of the illumination. That is, it will double for the same
increase in illumination(fC1 and 2fC2 in Fig.(8)), whereas the change in
VOC is less for this region. The major in increase in VOC occurs for lower
level increases in illumination. Eventually, a further increase in illumination
will have very little effect on VOC , although ISC will increase, causing the
power capabilities to increase.

3.3 Efficiency
The efficiency of operation of a solar cell is determined by the electrical
power output divided by by the power provided by the light source. That
is:
P0(electrical) Pmax(device)
= 100% = 100% (3)
Pi(lightenergy) (area in cm2 )(100mW/cm2 )

Typical levels of efficiency range from 10% to 40% - a level that should
improve measurably if the present interest continues.

3.4 Uses of Solar Cell:

1. Used in wrist watches and hand calculators.
2. Used to charge storage battery in day time and use it during night.
3. used in light metres in photography.

4 Tunnel Diode
4.1 Introduction
The tunnel diode was first introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958. Its charac-
teristics, shown in Fig.(9), are different from any diode discussed thus far
in that it has a negative-resistance region. In this region, an increase in
terminal voltage results in a reduction in diode current. Tunnel diode is
highly doped semiconductor device and is used mainly for low voltage high

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 Figure 9: Tunnel diode characteristics and symbol.

frequency switching application. It works on the principle of tunneling ef-

fect. It is a thin junction diode which exhibits negative resistance under low
forward bias condition. It is also called Esaki diode. Te circuit symbol is
given in Fig.(9).

4.2 Working Principle

According to classical laws of physics, a changed particle in order to cross an
energy barrier should possess energy at least equal to energy barrier. Hence,
the particle will cross the energy barrier if its energy is greater than the bar-
rier and cannot cross the barrier if its energy is less than the energy barrier.
But quantum mechanics states that there exists non zero probabilities that
the particle with energy less than barrier energy will cross the barrier as if
it tunnels across the barrier. This is called tunnel effect.

The probability increases with decreasing barrier energy.

For small forward voltages owing to high carrier concentration in tunnel

diode and due to tunneling effect the forward resistance will be very small.
As voltage increases, current also increases till the current reaches peak
point. If the voltage applied to the tunnel diode is increased beyond the
peak voltage, the current will start decreasing. This is negative resistance
regions. It prevails till the valley point. At valley point, current through
diode will be minimum. Beyond valley point, diode acts as a normal diode.

4.3 Advantages of Tunnel Diode:

1. High speed operation due to the fact that tunneling takes place at speed
of light.
2. It is of low cost and low noise.
3. There is high simplicity in its fabrication.

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4.4 Applications:
1. Used as a very high speed switches.
2. Used as high frequency microwave oscillator.

5 Schottky Diode
[4]

5.1 Introduction
The Schottky diode (named after German physicist Walter H. Schottky),
also known as hot carrier diode, is a semiconductor diode formed by the
junction of a semiconductor with a metal. It has a low forward voltage drop
and a very fast switching action. The cats-whisker detectors used in the
early days of wireless and metal rectifiers used in early power applications
can be considered primitive Schottky diodes.

Figure 10: Tunnel diode characteristics and symbol.

When sufficient forward voltage is applied, a current flows in the forward

direction. A silicon diode has a typical forward voltage of 600700 mV, while
the Schottkys forward voltage is 150 450 mV. This lower forward voltage
requirement allows higher switching speeds and better system efficiency. The
symbol for the Schottky Diode is given in Fig.(10).

5.2 Working Principle

In this diode, metals such as Al or Pt replace the p-type semiconductor. A
metal semiconductor junction formed between a metal and n-type semicon-
ductor creates a barrier or depletion layer known as Schottky Barrier. When
sufficient voltage is applied to the Schottky Diode, current starts flowing in
forward direction. Due to the current flow, a small voltage loss across the
terminals of the Schottky diode occurs. This voltage is known as the voltage
drop.
The metal semiconductor junction can be either non-rectifying or rec-
tifying. The non-rectifying metal semiconductor junction is called ohmic
contact and rectifying one is called non-ohmic contact.

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5.3 Uses of Schottky Diode:
1. Schottky diodes voltage drop at forward biases of around 1 mA is in the
range of 0.15 V to 0.46 V , which makes them useful in voltage clamping
applications and prevention of transistor saturation.
2. Schottky diode are also used as rectifiers in switched-mode power sup-
plies. The low forward voltage and fast recovery time leads to increased
efficiency.
3. Schottky diodes can be used in diode-bridge based sample and hold cir-
cuits.
4. They are also used in grid-connected systems with multiple strings con-
nected in parallel, in order to prevent reverse current flowing from adjacent
strings.

References
[1] Boylestad,Robert L., Nashelsky, Louis Electronic Devices and Circuit
Theory. 10th ed. India: Dorling Kindersly,2011.

[2] Sharma, Kshitij Analog Assignment,India,2017.

[3] https://www.google.co.in/search

[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky diode

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