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OF SAI:DI
EGYPTIAN COLLOQUIAL
ARABIC
by
ABDELGHANY A.jKHALAFALLAH
1969
MOUTON
THE HAGUE PARIS
Copyright 1969 in The Netherlands.
Mouton & Co. N.V., Publishers, The Hague.
No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm,
or any other means, without written permission from the publishers.
PREFACE
linguistics, have helped in making this, the first descriptive grammar of saSi:di,
possible.
Lehn of the University of Texas, I owe much of the most
To Professor Walter
helpful suggestions.
I am profoundly grateful to Professor Archibald A. Hill, to whom I owe not only
excellent counsel and instructive suggestion but also much of training in structural
linguistics.
have helped me fare safely through the hazardous linguistic adventure of describing a
language for the first time.
a student of the late Professor E. Bagby Atwood, whose loss was a blow
to all
I am
who knew him. I owe much of my early orientation in linguistics to Professor Atwood.
The warmth of his friendship is unquenchable in the stream of days.
To a great scholar from Brown University I owe much of the encouragement and
help needed for the accomplishment of this work.
Preface 5
PART I: PHONEMICS
Introduction H
1. The Phonemes of saSiidi 13
2. Suprasegmentals 15
4. Consonants 25
5. Emphasis 27
6. Phonotactics 32
7. Morphophonemic Alternation 40
PART II : MORPHEMICS
10. Pronouns 76
11. Pronominals 77
12. Particles 79
PART IE SYNTAX
:
18. Interrogation
103
Appendix to Phonotactics
m
PART 1
PHONEMICS
12 PHONEMICS
1. The occurrence of the sequence /?iC 1 C 2 -/, where the speech of group 1 has C C2-
t
'trotting').
5. Quotations from Alqur?a:n, Alhadi:th as well as classical poetry and prose are
pronounced in accordance with everyday speech.
Group 1 and group 2 are social dialects, in contrast with the geographical dialects
distinguished above. Further possible dialect classification is not pertinent here, and
accordingly is not discussed.
0.2.1. This study is based primarily upon the author's speech and that of his wife,
both of whom belong to group 1 of southern sa<ii:di. My wife comes from the village
of AlSukaliyyi, about eight miles north of my native village, Sizbet ?ilbu:sa, which is
about 330 miles south of Cairo. She belongs to a family where saSi:di is spoken and
she spent her life up to the age of eighteen between Cairo and her native village.
Other sa1i:di informants from groups 1 and 2 were contacted in the field through
trips to various parts of Upper Egypt during the collection of the corpus.
0.3.1. The corpus was collected over a period extending from 1958 to 1965 from my
own speech and that of my wife, as well as that of other saShdi informants contacted
in the field. It was collected by:
a) Recordings of and notes on daily conversations and stories, as well as checking
with my wife and other native informants on points where self-deception was sus-
pected;
(b) Exploring all mathematical possibilities of combinations of segmentals to expand
the range of coverage of the corpus to the farthest possible limits.
1. THE PHONEMES OF saSkdi
1.1. SEGMENTALS
1.1 1. Consonants
"3
*
-a "3
o "c3 Pharyngeal
Bilabial
IS
i)
Alveolar
J Velar
Uvular
Glottal
$ Q
Stops
voiceless t k ?
voiced b d g
Affricates
voiceless 5
voiced J
Fricatives
voiceless f s s X n h
voiced z t 5
Nasals m n
Lateral 1
Trill r
Semivowels w y
1.2.1. Vowels
high i u
mid e o
low a
14 PHONEMICS
1.2.2. Co-vowels
1.3.1. Juncture
1.3.2. Stress
Primary /'/ ;
Non-primary /"/.
1.3.3. Pitch
m
121
jlj lowest
2. SUPRASEGMENTALS
2.1. JUNCTURE
2.1.1.1. The segmental sequence /salado:/ can be spoken with any of the following
pitch patterns
A. 1 . The first syllable is spoken on a medium pitch which is maintained through the
second syllable.
2. The third syllable is spoken on a higher pitch followed by a downglide to a lower
2 3 1
pitch than that of the first two syllables, before silence. /saSado:/, spoken in this
manner, is a declarative statement: 'they helped him'.
B. 1. The first two syllables are spoken on the same pitch as in Al.
2 33
2. The higher pitch of the third syllable glides upward before silence. / sa<iad6 :
/,
2.1.1.2. Comparing the two pitch patterns of /saiado:/ described above we find:
1. The pitch on the third syllable in pattern A gradually moves downward and gra-
dually fades.
2. The pitch on the third syllable in pattern B moves upward and abruptly stops.
The downturn and upturn of pitch described above form a contrast which will be
symbolized: A /#/, B /||/.
1. /?ada/ may be spoken on medium pitch, /hu:/ on high pitch, and /-mak/ on medium
pitch.
2. The medium level is maintained through /taSa/.
3. Between the end of /galamak/ and the beginning of /taSa/ there is a ritardando
without tonal glide.
4. /xudu/ is spoken with high pitch on the first syllable and a gradual downglide of
pitch on the second syllable before silence.
16 PHONEMICS
The ritardando without tonal glide described in 3 signals a third saSndi juncture
which will be symbolized by /|/.
sound(s) in varying degrees. /#/ co-occurs with silence; /||/ and /|/ may or may not
co-occur with silence.
2 2
la / dlr+bev#/ lb l Aty#l
Ha Atd+sey^/ lib /xldJeyV/
Meanings
2 31
/ miabu:+naja:/ 'didn't his father speak gently to him?'
2 31
/ miSabu:na+ja:/ 'didn't our father come to him?'
2.2. DEFINITIONS
2.2.3. Syllable the minimum syllable in saSi:di is CV, the maximum: CCVCC or
CCV:C.
2.2.4. Syllable boundaries (1) the occurrence of a juncture always indicates the
beginning of a syllable; (2) in the absence of juncture syllable boundaries are pre-
SUPRASEGMENTALS 17
2.3. STRESS
A B
/Pajal/ 'date' or 'end of life' /Pajal/ 'greater'
the first syllable in items A is more prominent than the second, whereas the second
syllable in items B is more prominent. These and other minimal pairs in saSkdi make
it necessary to recognize a phoneme /'/ which may be referred to as 'primary stress'.
2.3.2. The weaker grade of stress in items A and B above will be referred to as "non-
forms.
syllable with the primary stress in multisyllabic microsegments, as well as the definite
article /?il-/ in post-junctural position.
18 PHONEMICS
2.3.5. The position of stress in the mierosegment. With the exception of 49 minimal
pairs in the corpus, stress in the mierosegment falls on:
(1) A long vowel (no mierosegment has more than one long vowel); if none, then
(2) On the last VCC; if neither (1) nor (2) occurs, then
(3) On the first syllable.
Examples
(1) /xalaga:tu/ 'his clothes'
2.3.6. Geminates (within the mierosegment) resulting from the assimilation of /l/ of
the definite article /?il-/ or /t/ of the verbal prefixes /tit-/, /Pit-/, /nit-/, /yit-/ to a fol-
lowing consonant do not affect position of stress in the mierosegment to which /?il-/
2.4. PITCH
2.4.1. A saSi:di monosyllabic utterance such as /Pa:/ 'yes', can be spoken in several
ways depending on the accompanying terminal juncture. If the accompanying ter-
minal is /#/, /Pa:/ can be spoken in a low register of voice with no particular impres-
sion of either medium or high pitch and with the down turn connected with /#/. This
in
low pitch may be referred to as pitch /I/. When /?:#/ is spoken in this way, it
expresses desire to hear more of what is said, or that what is heard is agreed to.
2.4.2. /Pa:/ may also be spoken on a noticeably high register of voice with either the
333
upturn connected with /[|/: /?a:||/, which is spoken usually as a question asking
231
repetition of an utterance, or the downturn connected with /#/: which is an /Pa: #/,
answer in the affirmative to a question. This high pitch may be referred to as pitch /3/.
2.4.3. /Pa:/ may be spoken on a pitch that is neither as low as /l/ nor as high as /3/.
222 231
This medium pitch may be referred to as pitch /2/: /Pa: |
ji #/ 'Yes! he came'.
2.4.5. Within the limitation of three pitch phonemes, there are 27 theoretical possible
sequences. But the pitch sequences that actually occur are given in the following table
which also shows the tactical behavior of the pitch phonemes
1 i
2 i
j.
2 2
i
1 J J.
3 2
3 3
2 2
2 3 1
3 2
3 3
3 3 3
2.4.6. Types of intonation contours. The sequences attested may be classified into
general types
(1) Level intonation: /111/, /222/, /333/
(2) Rising-sustaining intonation: /122/, /133/, /233/.
2.4.7. The domain of the intonation contour is the macrosegment. Within the macro-
segment, every syllable, except the first and the last which may be spoken on two
Pattern
1. Level
i i i
2 2 2
2. / ?amar||/ 'did he order?' question expressing mild surprise.
3 33
3. / gatto: 'did they rob him?' question expressing amazement
||/
2. Rising-sustaining
20 PHONEMICS
1 2 2
1. / nssiyya:li[|/ 'in the pocket?' (yes/no question)
13 3
2. / yasa:ter||/ 'form expressing hope (for safety)
2 3 3
3. / nassafathi||/ 'did she dry it (f.)?' (echo question)
3. Rising-returning
12 1
1. / hayiwsal rad #/ 'an answer will come'
13 1
2. / ?itta:men Ji #/ 'the eighth has arrived' (emphatic statement)
2 3 2
3. / we:n #/ 'where?'
13
yd sa:mey
2
'Samey!' vocative
4. / #/
4. Rising-falling
2 3 1
1. / Pillama juwwa #/ 'the crowd is inside'
2 3 1
2. / PiSmilha kdi #/ 'do (m.s.) it (f.) this way!' (mild command)
2 3 1
3. / Iwad makatabsey #/ 'the boy did not write'
2.4.9. Expanded pitch sequences. Only two pitch sequences occur in expanded forms
/231/ may be expanded into /1231/, /132/ into /1321/.
Conditioning factors
1 2
1. In /1231/, the occurrence of an initial syllable marked by [^] (e.g., [?issila:n
3 1
/
13
massag'g&la nagalu
2
talali:s lg'alla
1
hni #/
'it was the workers who moved the grain sacks here'
/
12
maka:nu Jabado:ha labarra #/
3 1
3.1.
3.1.1. The sa5i:di vocalic system comprises 20 minimally contrastive vocalic nuclei:
5 short non-emphatic, 5 short emphatic, 5 long non-emphatic, and 5 long emphatic.
3.1.3. The uneconomical nature of solutions (1) and (2) is obvious. Solution (2)
assumes that the vowel is either emphatic or non-emphatic, thus bypassing the prob-
lems of classification and simultaneity or succession of emphasis. The writer's
preference is for solution (3).
Solution (3) sets up 7 phonemes [for 20 in (1) and 12 in (2)]. Length will be classified
as a co-vowel occurring sequentially only in post-vocalic position /:/, emphasis as a
co-vowel occurring simultaneously with syllabic nucleus /_/.
3.1.4. The following diacritical marks, used throughout this study, will be used in
describing the allophones of vowel phonemes
V = any vowel
V = unusually short
V: = vowel occurring before length
V = vowel co-occurring with emphasis
V: = vowel occurring before length and co-occurring with emphasis
V = tense
V = lax
V* = fronted
V > = backed
22 PHONEMICS
V A
= raised
Vv = lowered
V = nasalized
Y - - = pre-stress syllable
is always stressed)
3.2.1. The co-vowel of length has an extra long allophone [T] in the environment V:#
(e.g., [so:] 'a game of sticks', shorter allophone [] in the environments
V:+ (e.g.,
[ja-+xamsi] 'he got five' and V:C(+) (e.g., [xa'ltu] 'his aunt', [:] elsewhere.
3.2.2. The co-vowel of emphasis has different allophones with different vowels (see
5.1 below).
3.2.4. All vowels have allophones of the type V when they occur before
/:/ and/or
with /_/, V* after front consonants and V* after back consonants, of the type V in the
environment NVN, V in the environments -V+, - -V#, i - - and V v
Y(+)
(except /a/) with low pitch, /a/ has an allophone of the type V< with high pitch.
3.2.5. Specific allophones of saSi:di vowels. The following are the specific allophones
of short and long saSi:di vowels:
the saSi:di vocalic system 23
[I:] elsewhere
[E:] elsewhere
[iE>] V:# /ja:/ 'he came to him'
[a] CVC(-f) /natsi/ 'a lie'
elsewhere
tu] V(Q(+) /sufey/ 'look (f.s.)!'
Ml
elsewhere
[9:]J
4. CONSONANTS
4.1.1. All consonants have fortis allophones in post-junctural position before stressed
vowels.
4.1.2. All consonants have lenis allophones in the environments VC#, VC-#.
4.1.3. Stops, voiceless and voiced, are released prejuncturally after stressed vowels,
4.1.4. Before front vowels: (1) /cjsy/ have pre-palatal allophones; (2) /kg/ have
post-palatal allophones.
4.1.5. Before back vowels: (1) /t d n 1/ have post-dental allophones; (2) /s z r/ have
post-alveolar allophones.
4.1.6. Stops and fricatives are aspirated or unaspirated, in free variation, in post-
junctural position before stressed vowels. Fricatives and resonants have the allophone
in the environments V:C#, VC#.
4.1.7. Stops
(1) Have allophones of the type C in the environment VC-#.
(2) Voiced stops have the allophones C & C before voiceless consonants.
(3) Voiceless stops have the allophones C & C before voiced stops.
4.1.8. Affricates, /j/ has the allophone C before voiceless stops, C & C before voiceless
fricatives.
4.1.9. Fricatives
(2) Voiceless fricatives have the allophones C & C before voiced stops and voiced
fricatives.
(3) Voiced fricatives have the allophone C before voiceless stops and voiceless
fricatives.
4.2.
The following are specific allophonic distributions not covered by the above observa-
tions:
(1) /m/ has the labiodental allophone [irj] before /f/ (e.g., /mfattes/ 'inspector').
(2) /n/ has the velar allophone [rj] before /k g x g"/ (e.g., /yungol/ 'he copies', /yunxol/
'he sifts (powder)').
(3) /w/ has the allophone [u] in post-junctural preconsonantal position (e.g., /wka:li/
'inn').
5. EMPHASIS
Li-JJ clScWflcrc
-i
[A] -Y F # /batah/ 'he hurt the head'
F Y(+) i - /frasart/ 'I counted'
fYs# /xat/ 'line'
r_< i f
[a =]J
elsewhere
M m Y+
YCC(+)
/rubbu+ze:n/ 'mix
/rubblu/
it (m.) well!'
'mix (m.s.) for him!'
rYf(+) /lusna/ 'we got confused'
l"T tat
Y-# /xattitu: line (pi.) it (m.)!
[*:][ elsewhere
EMPHASIS 29
The saii:di phoneme /t/ has two emphatic allophones which require special treatment:
[t] denti-alveolar
[t] and [t] are in complementary distribution in the following environments : ([s],[z]
On the basis of the over-all distribution of [t] and [\] in my corpus, the following
observations may be made
(1) [t] and [t] are partially in complementary distribution.
(2) Wherever [t] occurs even in the environments mentioned above it can be
replaced by [t] without the least distortion of speech.
(3) A saii:di speaker uses [t] in all environments in certain social circumstances
(e.g., speaking to Lower Egyptians). If in the same circumstances he uses [t] it will be
with the purpose of showing that he is saii:di.
Emphasis has two distinct domains of spread: domain 1 : the syllable; domain 2: the
morphological word (stem + maximum number of bound forms).
30 PHONEMICS
a major juncture, in syllables with emphatic nuclei, have emphatic, partially or com-
pletely de-emphasized allophones, in free variation.
(2) QurPanic and literary quotations, as well as certain classicisms, used in sa<ii:di,
(1) Segmental morphemes prefixed to noun stems (e.g., /Pil-/), adjective stems (e.g.,
/Pa-/), and verb stems (e.g., /yu-/), select emphatic allomorphs when prefixed to em-
phatic or partially emphatic stems. 1 Examples:
* "Emphatic stem" = stem with emphasis co-occurring with its vowel nucleus or nuclei; "partially
emphatic stem" = stem with initial syllable having emphatic vowel nucleus.
EMPHASIS 31
(2) Segmental morphemes suffixed to noun stems (e.g., /-a/ allomorph of the feminine
morpheme), adjective stems (e.g., /-i:n/ plural morpheme), and verb stems (e.g., /-horn/
3.pl. non-subject pronoun), select emphatic allomorphs when suffixed to emphatic
stems. Examples:
/xadra/ 'green (f.s.)'
saSirdi vowels: (1) do not cluster with themselves; (2) occur as syllabic nuclei with or
/a/ in four items : /ba/ a form expressing wonder, /xa/ 'take (2.m.s.)', /wa/ form expres-
sing disagreement, /ta/ 'O.K.'
/u/ in one item: /su/ 'look' (2.m.s.).
/bisali/ 'onion'
/kasra/ 'robbery'
/hablu/ 'his rope'
(4) Vowels with / :/ and/-/ do not occur in microsegments of the structure CV. Vowels
with / :/ or with /:/ and /-/ do not occur in microsegments of the structure CVCC,
CCVCC or in the environment - -- VCC(+)C-.
(7) Syllables beginning with clusters of two consonants occur only initially in a
microsegment.
(8) Long vowels occur before and/or after geminates, short vowels occur stressed or
unstressed medially before and/or after geminates in the microsegment (in which
geminates occur only medially).
(9) Any consonant may occur before or after any long vowel. /?/ occurs in the
environment CV:# in two items: /?a:/ 'Yes!', /?:/ 'what'. /5/ occurs initially in the
environment CV:C# in one item, /ce:s/ 'clumsy' (m.s.). /?/ and // do not occur in the
environment V:C#.
( 1 0) Any consonant may occur before or after any short vowel, stressed or unstressed.
In the environment VC# /?/ does not occur, // occurs in one item /MS/ 'lying'.
/w/ after /a i: a/
(d) in the environment CV (post-juncturally)
/w/ and jyl occur before /i a a: i a u/,
/w/ before /e: i: a:/, jyj before /u o: u:/.
(2) Occurrence of /w/ and jyj with pre-stress vowels
(a) in the environment VC(+)- - -
/w/ and jyj occur after /i a i a/;
(b) in the environment V(+)C- - -
jwj and jyj occur after /a i a/
34 PHONEMICS
/-wa/ /-wu/
/-wek/ /-wey/ /-wak/
/y/: occurs pre-juncturally after /e e/, and in the sequences (emphatic or non-empha-
tic):
/-yi/ /-yu/
/-yek/ /-yey/ /-yak/
(2) Initial and final clusters have a maximum membership of two consonants.
Medial clusters consist maximally of three consonants.
(3) Patterns of consonant clusters
initial: C^C^-
medial: -C^^, -C 1 C 2 -, -C 1 C 1 C 2 -, C 1 C 2 C 3
final: -C 1 C 2 .
6.6. GEMINATES
>>
>>>>><
CO >CO
& b rJ A? 00
><
1 & >> e?
& S X Gas
fc St S:
&
ft:
<H CO >CO 13 60 N "SO >,
u a a 1 CO >W 8 iS
+3 ^ 3 "3)13 !
Se H P i> >^
a B.S S
C*H a
CO 5 a >s,-S 1 % f.
a s a a a a a e s 1 a
a 1 x a s 3
cr "B u-
w
1
X> *d N
60 ta -bo
tss
-sa "BP xi
>
?*"> > nri
27 tP
'g
1
1
'a 'c T
N N N e N m n S N
N X >fi 3 aN N
cr-
60 M 60 g> 60
60
60 ton
c*h
Of)
to
bO
>> a2f X60 OC
cr
13 TJ d "9 t 'd
13 M ^
T3 CO >(/) X id a X 00 a-gs-Hl^,
X> S3 ^> ^ -g 13 60 e,
.O
J-H il
a eS 'wS >S X
S s9
13
>d
a *M CO
a a 8 a iS f1 >,
X x c x M g X
X t CO
>o
xo
>co
X >co
13
SCO
~&0 $ as >S
t*
>C0
CO X 60 S2, a b S
c+-< ts a x a jB % M
n-.
'a
fe
%a a
cv fi-
M M
X 13
Ch co xo aa X 60 a a a
-t- M X 43 43 CO cr
1
" >> b 1" &
s * "68
& s
g CO >{/}
g 43
X g 43
g 60 N V >,
S K 5S.
1 III
13
2>
1-gs-g U.
s
GO
43 43 43 43 43 43 - 43 43 " S 43 43 43
*
a -a
43 43 "O 60 N jS,-6Bi?
43 43 43 *) 43 - 43
**-< CO 43 "d a la a *s *
a u .B-S
a a a a a 12
3 <52 S3
t*-* s+-<
"S3 x *a 43 53 m n Sa,
5
!?
sS ts & >ts s # a 3 * t: S
.<_ M cu U-i CO HO
PHONOTACTICS
-a
X
8 '
S3 "SO cr
E
*
45
T3
T3
M
6B Si
<t3 ( s
s SSEa
1 T3 en N SE5
x3
M fa
fa
fa
60
Xl
60
60 g>
M
>>
X)
a
T3 B 60
73 T3 XI
X sialic
X 6 _ XX X
60
X X5
a
x fa S3
1
X
s fa
x
X
X w
X2
SS .S3
60
"O 60
3
X a
O "a
60
1 a
o Scat:
o
u
38 PHONEMICS
i
X
"So "3
5
6 S
am cv is
T3
60
5 T3 T3 T3 T3
x t(5 60 -OS ir
a 5 *t) 60 N
2 K
O
K
O
60 N
x ></)
9 e 82
u- 1
PHQNGTACTICS
Tables I, II, III, and IV indicate all attested consonant clusters in saSixli.
Medial clusters of the pattern -C 1 C 2 C 3 -
/tfk tfh tfl ktm ktl ksr ftl fsh fsl fst fs3/
tsh tsk tzk
/fzr fjx stl sgr stm ski xtm nsr nsr htk hdr hjr hml/
/btl bdr gsm zkr g'sl Skm Sfs Ssr Sdk Sdh <igl msk mhh mdg ntr nsl/
/nsr nxl ndk ndh ndr ngl nzh ltx 1km lfz lbd 1dm Igf lgm wsl wgf wzn/
/rtl rkt rkz rfs rbt rdh rdm rgt rgl rgl rmh/
7. MORPHOPHONEMIC ALTERNATION
7.2.
Shifts of stress occur in accordance with the rules mentioned in 2.3.5. above.
(1) Quantitative:
Shortening of long vowels. A long vowel in the microsegment alternates with the
corresponding short vowel when the microsegment is followed in close transition by a
sequence including a long vowel or -VCC, where -V is other than the long vowel in the
microsegment
(2) Qualitative:
(a) In monosyllabic microsegments /e/ alternates with /i/, /o/ with /u/ when the
MORPHOPHONEMIC ALTERNATION 41
(b) In microsegments stressed on the penult and ending with /i/, /i/ alternates with
/a:/ when followed in close transition by a sequence of the structure C~CV(C).
I'll when final in the microsegment alternates with /a/ before /+/ and when /+/
is lost.
(c)The sequence /ey/ when final in the microsegment alternates with /i/ before /+/
and when /+/ is lost. Examples:
/sa:ley/ 'always'
,
(d)The sequence /ow/ when final in the microsegment alternates with /u/ before /+/
and when /+/ is lost. Examples:
/zallagow/ 'they trapped'
/zallagu+lhara:mey/ 'they trapped the thief
7.4. EPENTHESIS
7.5. ELISION
In a sequence ending with /-V:CeC/, /e/ is elided when the sequence comes in close
transition with another sequence beginning with V-~V:-. Examples:
/Sa:mel/ 'worker'
/?a:mlu/ 'his worker'
/Samle:n/ 'two worker's
42 PHONEM1CS
C 1 V, when, at the loss of /+/ the resulting geminate includes an emphatic coda and a
partially emphatic onset.
1. /galb/ 'heart'
/galf+fa:yeg/ 'a contented heart'
2. /<ianz/ 'goat'
/?ans+sa:yxi/ 'an old goat'
3. /talg/ 'bullet'
(1) /sabat+dakka:/
/sabaddakka:/ 'the other (fellow's) basket'
(2) /xabas+sabSi/
/xabassabSi/ 'he took seven (in his palm)'
(3) /balah+Sa:l/
/baM<ia:l/ 'good dates'
(4) /katalat+zge:m/
/katalazzge:m/ 'she killed a mouse'
(5) /dalag+kfa:yi/
/dalakkfa:yi/ 'he poured enough (of any liquid)'
(6) /masak+graib/
/masag'g'ra:b/ 'he caught a crow'
MORPHOPHONEMIC ALTERNATION
60
s
w
2 N N N N N
N N N N N
60 60
SO 60
s
I.
a
a
U
44 PHONEMICS
H S3
fa
MORPHOPHONEMIC ALTERNATION 45
(1) /?/ is dropped when /+/ is lost in the environment /-C+?V/. Examples:
/naxl+?abu:/
/naxlabii:/ 'his father's palm groves'
(2) The sequence /PV-V is dropped when /+/ is lost in the environment /V+?V/.
1
Examples: ^
/hadda+Paxii:/
/haddaxu:/ 'he soothed his brother'
7.9. REDUPLICATION
(1) Final single consonants in monosyllabic microsegments of the structure CVC are
reduplicated on coming into close transition with suffixes of the structure V, VC or
CV(C).
Examples: /xaddu/ 'his cheek'
/xaddhi/ 'her cheek'
The only exceptions to this rule are: /kal/ 'he ate' and /xad/ 'he took'. Examples:
MORPHEMICS
8. saSkdi MORPHEMIC SEGMENTS
8.1.1. Stress
(a) The citation forms of morphologically minimal words (consisting of a stem mini-
mally CV) occur with a stress morpheme which contains a primary stress and a
preceding plus.
(b) The citation forms of morphologically nonniinimal words occur with a stress
morpheme which contains a primary stress which
as with the morphologically
minimal word
falls on the syllables of the word in accordance with the statements
given in 2.3.5. as well as a preceding plus.
8.1.2. Intonation
8.2.1 Stems
Noun and verb stems are bimorphemic units, each consisting of:
(1) a root made up exclusively of consonants,
(2) a vocalic pattern which consists of at least one vowel.
Consonantal roots as well as vocalic patterns consisting of more than one vowel are
by definition discontinuous morphemes. Other form classes than nouns and verbs
have stems which consist of contiguous phonemic sequences.
50 MOS.PHEM1CS
8.2.2. Affixes
1 unmarked unless
In the present discussion of saSi:di morphemics (and syntax), stress will be
relevant to the point discussed.
9. FORM CLASSES IN sa<ii:di
(3) Verbs: inflected for aspect, mood, tense, voice, subject and object reference.
(4) Pronouns: inflected for person, gender and number.
(5) Particles : some particles are inflected for allocation.
9.1. NOUNS
Nouns in saSkdi may be divided into the following six sub-classes on the basis of
distributional similarities displayed in the selection of allomorphs of the plural
morpheme {L} (arranged on the basis of number of stems in each subclass):
/-0/ 2
/-i:n/ 3
/-i/ 4
/-a:n/ 5
/-a/ 6
Tables VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, and XI show the singular and plural patterns in sa<ii:dr
(2) Noun 2, Noun 4, Noun 5 and Noun 6 form the plural by addition of the plural
suffix and changes in the vocalic pattern of the singular stem.
(3) There is overlapping of singular general patterns (e.g., the pattern C 1 VC 2 V:C 3
appears with Noun 1 (8) and Noun 3 (5), but this fact does not present a problem
insofar as the vocalic sub-patterns are different.
(4) There is overlapping of singular vocalic sub-patterns (e.g., C,C2 a:C 3
sub-pattern
appears with Noun 1 (7) and Noun 4 (3)). A singular sub-pattern may have several
plural sub-patterns (e.g., singular sub-pattern Cia:C 2 eC 3 Noun 2 (11)). Several
singular sub-patterns may have one plural sub-pattern (e.g., Noun 2 (20)). This type
(b)Names of persons (other than those which function as adjectives) and borrowed
words which form the plural by addition of the plural suffix /-a:t/ and automatic
morphophonemic alternation. Examples
1. Names Plural
/Pihmad/ a male name /?ihmada:t/
/fa:tma/ a female name /fatma:t/
2. Borrowed words
/sort/ 'short trousers' /sorta:t/
(c) Feminine stems which are formed by addition of /-i/ or /-a/ (allomorphs of {F})
to the masculine singular stem. They form the plural by addition of the plural suffix
/-a:t/ and automatic morphophonemic alternation (but participles (active and passive)
with (or without) the feminine suffix /-i/ or /-a/ form the plural with /-i:n/ and auto-
matic morphophonemic alternation). Examples:
Apart from automatic vowel alternation, the following observations may be made
about dual forms.
(1) The allomorphs /-i/ and /-a/ of {F} alternate with /-t/ before /-e:n/. Examples:
(2) Final /-y/ in monosyllabic stems of the structure CVC is reduplicated before /-e:n/.
Examples:
/xay/ /xayye:n/ 'two brothers'
/hay/ /hayye:n/ 'two snakes'
9.1.5. Gender
(2) noun stems in which the feminine gender is signalled by the feminine morpheme
{F} which has the following allomorphs:
(a) /-0/: with feminine stems in which gender is not overtly indicated (e.g., /ra:s/
'head');
(b) /-i/: with non-emphatic noun stems and emphatic noun stems ending with the
sequences
-Vyyi (e.g., /battaniyyi/ 'blanket')
-CV:Ci (e.g., /dama:ni/ 'collateral')
(c) l-t-l : when followed in close transition by suffixes of the structure V(C): (e.g.,
/tiffahte:n/ 'two apples'
Nominal
Sub-class Singular Plural
/mdarrsi/ 'woman teacher' /mdarrsa:t/
Noun 1
/baka:n/ 'place' (m.) /bakana:t/
Noun 2 /ra:s/ 'head' (f.) /ru:s/
/berj/ 'tower' (m.) /bru:j7
/ze:ni/ 'good' (f.) /zeni:n/
Noun 3 /xara:ba/ ruin' (f.) /xarabi:n/
/mayyet/ 'dead' (m.) /mayytim/
/wahiyyi/ 'oasis inhabitant' (f.)
Noun 4 /wahiyyi/ or /wahiyyi:n/
/wa:hey/ 'oasis inhabitant' (m.)
9.1.6. Definiteness
saSi:di nouns are inflected for definiteness either overtly by prefixing /?il-/ to the noun
stem or covertly by:
(1) Class membership: as is the case with proper nouns:
(2) Position: (a) as head of a genitival nominal phrase, (b) filler of the head slot
after the vocative particle /ya/, (c) as head of a nominal construct.
9.1.7. /?il-/ has the allomorph PiCjCj where Ct represents any dental, alveolar or
palatal consonant (except //). It has the allomorph /li-/ before noun stems beginning
with CC-, /I-/ elsewhere. Examples:
9.1.8. Inflection of nouns for definiteness and allocation are as elsewhere in sa?i:di
mutually exclusive.
9.2. ADJECTIVES
There are four sub-classes of adjectives, classified on the basis of distributional simi-
larities displayed in the selection of the plural suffix (arranged on the table on the
basis of the number of stems belonging to each sub-class).
ISI Adjective 2
Adjective 3
H Adjective 4
In tables XII, XIII, and XIV, of adjective subclasses, N = noun; numbers in paren-
theses refer to singular general patterns.
9.2.1.1. Adjective 1 comprises stems of noun 3. Examples:
(2) Adjective 2 forms the plural by addition of /0/ and variation in the vocalic
pattern of the singular stem.
(3) Adjective 3 forms the plural by addition of the suffix /-i/, variation in the vocalic
(2) show plural form when modifying dual and plural nouns. Examples
Dual /g'etg:n wasSi:n/ 'two wide fields'
9.2.2.2. Definiteness
(1) Adjectives may or may not agree with nouns in definiteness in post-nominal
position. Examples:
/lkalb wa:Ser/ 'thedog is fierce'
/lkalb lwa:Ser/ 'the dog (which is) fierce'
(2) In pre-nominal position adjectives do not show agreement with nouns in definite-
ness. Examples:
/wa:Ser lkalb/ 'the dog is fierce'
(1) /wa:fied/ 'one' agrees with the modified noun in gender and definiteness. When
definite, /wa:hed/ occurs only in post-nominal position (e.g., /?irra:jel lwa:hed/ 'the
one man').
(2) /tne:n/ 'two' occurs before plural nouns (e.g., /tne:n faSali/ 'two workers') and
after dual nouns (e.g., /sabate:n tne:n/ 'two baskets'). /tne:n/ agrees with the modified
noun in definiteness (e.g., /?issabate:n ?ittne:n/ 'the two baskets'.
(3) Cardinal numerical adjectives from 3 to 10 occur with plural nouns, in pre- or
post-nominal position. In post-nominal position 3 to 10 agree with the modified noun
may or may not agree with the
in definiteness, whereas in pre-nominal position they
modified noun in definiteness. Cardinals from 3 to 10 are not inflected for gender.
Examples
/xamas byu:t/ 'five houses'
/lxamas sajara:t/ 'the five trees'.
(4) Cardinal numerical adjectives from 11 upward are uninflected, and occur:
(a) definite or indifinite in pre-nominal position, with indefinite singular nouns.
Examples
/hda:ser be:t/ 'eleven houses'
/lihda:ser be:t/ 'the eleven houses'.
(b) definite in post-nominal position with plural definite nouns (e.g., /libyu:t linda:ser/
(3) Ordinal numerical adjectives from 1 1 upward occur in post-nominal position and
agree with the modified noun in definiteness
min ge:ru/ 'a man better understood than others'). The phrase of comparison occurs
in post-nominal position. The adjective agrees with the noun in number and gender.
(2) Other adjectives than participials form the comparative with the comparison
morpheme {Pa} prefixed to the comparative stem of the adjective. Adjectives with the
prefix /Pa-/ occur in post-nominal position, may or may not agree with the noun in
definiteness, and are not inflected for number or gender.
9.2.4.2. The superlative degree:
The comparative adjective with /Pa-/ signals the superlative degree in the following
positions: (a) pre-nominal (e.g., /Pabrad yo:m/ 'the coolest day'); (b) pre-nominal,
followed in post-nominal position by /fi-/ phrase (e.g., /Pabrad yo:m fissaher/ 'the
coolest day in the month').
9.2.4.3. Adjectives which form comparison by a phrase signal the superlative degree
Superlative adjectives are inflected for allocation /Pasmarhom/ 'the brownest of them'.
:
9.3. VERBS
saSi:di verbs may be divided into the following sub-classes on the basis of vocalic
pattern relationship between the perfective and the imperfective stems of the third
singular masculine forms. Each sub-class is labelled by the type of nucleus of the stem
final syllable of the imperfective form
1
Few active participial adjectives compare with the prefix /?a-/ (e.g., ,/Panjah/ 'more successful').
58 MORPHEMICS
/i:/ Verb lb J
/e/ Verb 2
/a/ Verb 3
/u:/ Verb4
/o/ Verb6
The following symbols are used in tables XV-XIX, which represent the verb sub-
classes.
Unless otherwise indicated, verb stem = third singular masculine perfective aspect
stem, which is unmarked.
(2) The first vowel in bisyllabic perfective stems in forming the imperfective aspect
is either (a) reduced, when the stress shifts to the prefix. Example
(b) remains unchanged (e.g., all the quadriliteral stems of Verb 2).
9.3.3.1. Aspect:
9.3.3.1.1. The position of the pronominal affix indicates aspect, which is either
perfective or imperfective. Pronominal suffixes indicate the perfective aspect, pro-
nominal prefixes indicate the imperfective aspect. Apart from indicating aspect,
pronominal affixes indicate subject and object. Subject pronouns indicate person,
gender and number of the subject: three persons, one gender (feminine), and one
number (plural).Masculine gender and singular number categories are unsignalled.
9.3.3.1.2. The following two paradigms illustrate this point:
ma Qtilrf -t _t
1 s. masakt -t -t _
2. Imperfective form
3.H1.S. yimsek Jl ill jjCJV * VI-
(2) Comparing the and the imperfective subject pronouns, we notice that if
perfective
the vowel in the prefixal segments of the imperfective set is eliminated as an epenthetic
vowel, the two sets may be combined as follows
Allomorphs
Morpheme Perfective Imperfective
3.m.s. {y} -0 y-
3.f.s. {t} -at t-
2.m.s. {t} -t t-
(4) /yu-/, /tu-/, /nu-/ occur before imperfective stems of the structure QC20C3 ; /y-j,
/t-/, /n-/ occur before imperfective stems beginning with the sequence CV-, 1 /yi-/,
9.3.3.1.4. Object reference. Verbs are inflected for object reference. Object pronouns
indicate person, gender and number of the object: three persons, two genders and one
number (plural). Singular number as well as gender in the plural forms is unsignalled.
(2) /-hum/ and /-kum/ have the allomorphs /-horn/, /-kom/ before major juncture.
(3) First singular /-ni/ has the allomorph /-ney/ before major juncture.
(4) First plural /-ni/ has the allomorph /-na/ before or at the loss of /+/.
(5) On the syntactic level non-subject pronouns fill the object slot in declarative
verbal sentences, by occurrence in close transition with verb stems inflected for sub-
ject reference (i.e., verbal construct). Non-subject pronouns fill the modifier slot in a
nominal construct (see 14.2 below).
2
Pronominal prefixes beginning with /t-/ have allomorphs beginning with /?i-/ when prefixed to
stems beginning with /t-/ or /d-/ (e.g., t-r^da:grow/ /?idda:grow/ 'you (pi.) try').
:
form classes in saSi:di 61
9.3.3.1.6. Mood.
(A) The imperative mood.
(a) saSkdi verb stems are inflected for the imperative mood3 which is indicated by the
prefix {?i}. The imperative stem is that of the imperfective aspect. {?i} has the fol-
lowing allomorphs
1. /?u-/ before stems of the structure CCoC;
(b) The imperative stem is inflected for gender (feminine) in the shape of the suffix
/-i/ (/-ey/ before major juncture) and number (plural) in the shape of the suffix /-u/
(b) With stems of the structure CiC 2 eC 3 /sta-/ is prefixed to the imperfective aspect
stem /-sta-/ to the perfective aspect stem. Examples:
(c) With stems of the structure C,aC 2 aC 3> the desiderative forms are
8
/ji/ 'he came' has no imperative form; /ha:t/ 'bring (m.s.)' and /taSa:li/ 'come (m.s.)' are inflected
9.3.3.1.7. Tense.
(1) Durative: indicated by prefixing /S.a-/ to the imperfect ive aspect form (e.g.,
(2) Future: indicated by prefixing /ha-/ to the imperfective aspect form (e.g.,
(1) The passive voice (perfective) is indicated by /Pit-/ prefixed to perfective aspect
stems other than stems of the structure C C 2 eC 3
1 (e.g., /Pif^gasam/ : /tgasam/ 'it
(2) The passive voice (imperfective) is indicated by /yit-/ (/yi- -Pit-/, see 7.8 above)
prefixed to perfective aspect stems other than those of the structure daC 2 C i, 1 aC 2 a,
QCjeC^, C 1 aC 2 aC 3 (e.g., /yitna:sas/ 'it is filled' (/na:sas/ 'he filled').
(e.g., /sreb/ 'he/it (m.) drank' : /tsarab/ 'it [e.g., tea] was drunk').
Perfective /?itta:xad/
Imperfective /yitta:xad/
5
Future tense may be expressed by /ra:ygh/ 'going to' + the imperfective aspect form of the verb
(e.g., /ra:ygn yjey/ 'he will come').
form classes in saSi:di 63
is j-b-j or /-u:-/, j-v.-j alternates with /-ayya-/, /-u:-/ with /-awwa-/. Examples:
(lc) In triliteral stems of the structure C 1 C 2 eC 3 (e.g., /sreb/ 'he/it drank'), /-e-/
alternates with /-a- -a-/ (e.g., /sarrab/ 'he caused to drink'). When -C 3 is /y/, it is
dropped:
/drey/ 'he got accustomed'
/darra/ 'he caused to get accustomed'
Apart from the vocalic change which the stem may undergo, there are the following
morphophonemic changes which occur when the stem comes in close transition with a
suffix.
(2)The sequence /-ey/ final alternates with /i:/ before suffixes of the structure C,
CV(C):
/hdey/ 'he became quiet'
/hdkni/ 'we became quiet'
(3) The prefixes, /Pit-/, /yit-/, /tit-/, /nit-/, have allomorphs of the type CiC^ where Q
represents /t d s z s j/ when in close transition with stems starting with any of those
consonants (e.g., /yijjallad/ 'he endures').
(4) /yi-/ has the allomorph /y-/ when in close transition with stems beginning with
the sequence CV- (e.g., /ykallem/ 'he talks (to)').
(5) /Pit-/ has the allomorph /t-/ when in close transition with stems beginning with
the sequence CV- (e.g., /llama!/ 'it (m.) was made').
64 MORPHEMICS
"3 ^
Ph
C3 u
Hu
u>u
$ u
>
O u u o u o
e
B > > > u>> >
o u u u
3
PL,
5 1 a
C3 C3 (J ay
Ph
x>
UUU JO U u
el
uo uuo
B d (4
3
uuuuu u u o go ouuuu UUU
o
&H as
"a
3 3 Oh ? W tS !(' S
3fl S
3;^
.5
^ <3 irt 3 *-< ^ si ctf' 3i
a oi !
s oo .x j_g_<? _n <S iS. t. -S. =5. -25 5. -9. 5.
B R
a a T3
1
s
3 s.
a a. CO
>.x?
<*M J-f
g g a a a
S'a
1a 5 o * -c '5 *
_?s X)
o 1 B II ^ 8 "3. 1 2 e
Ph
III:||| |1 !"l OS C3 t R
on -a
60 JO ^ i3 ^ "J3 ^2 H b,
g a.9
box -S.
5?
S iis a
jf jr n C S59
J<
i
*
i
3 k
C X)
si
XI
r? til
bO
PS
SP'C
P.
a
XI X)
is
35
3
60
B
<*
BSCS ,? ^ H 4'(irf r?
(3
Ph
<J $ o ^ o"u" o o u V.
ji
3
00
>
Ph > nU
CO
u
> > O>O >
J
> > > O>>
u u u UUU u
2 m n ^0
3 a
8Z
Ph
form classes in saSirdi 65
ctf
3 cs
PL,
13 r? O O O y O3
ii 4lfcat!
111."!*
r ? ctf.
"Srt 1*
r?U yS ^" "
ctf dyy y J dy y \3 d d ^ u q qjo o
Ph
'fUU
U S S U Una C4
r
d
ctf
3
uuuou o'uo UOOOUUUOUUOOOUU d
o
Ph
ytjjSS^tS
Tlctfctfcci.
g>j2X) eioS SSI'S 73
11
1 i
illili'P'^
&? s 1
el? sis
ctf.
-3 >M
,ctf ^
C
3
-5
P3
ctf
mS
C3
ctf ctf
Cfl
jtf.
"3, +j
1
r C
g 1
CS if
CS d 1
S .3 H Ctfl S3 .2
S3 X X CYj
S '
-a
a
.
g 1
c 73 *,
o
o3 -s
a o
<u 3 g
"ctf
- ") - ~3
">
BO 60 9"oa
3 n-H "Ti
O
4)
6 V I o a i *
g| S3
ft
ctf
o
(Jh
M a
- a
ctf ctf
I! s.- . ^j-TS- ctf
c S ctf
J3 -
O ctf
a
~s :
s N. .
3
60 333 Si? *
b'i b'
s a 1 73 3.
&m a
u m m 3M ,s, ;Q
<* 73 73 s
->3,
cat cd
so
a
in
3 3 3 ^ 5 J 3 U rf y ^ 3 3 5- jjy,
a -
3 3 o 4
ctf
j O
j U(J
a a 3= U ou
yyyy
y y
y,y a U
^ oOU uOuJjOo OUJ
PM
X)
3
I
Uuu J jojvl^^yylyl^^^^j^^^^
r
ctf ctfcJy y y
ctf 5^ ^
OOOUUUUOUOUUUUOOOUOOQUUUO 000
y^ ^y
> >
o ^y u
uo o
ctf
Ph
> u > yu jy>> >
y >> u
>
> 0" u>>ouu o
o o
u>> o > > o>>o>> >
uoo o u 000000 o
&B o o tN m x-i p~
3 7
66 MORPHEMICS
O u
> y. nU u u >> u
o uJ 5
u uuuu u uu u u
ouu
yM B yN o v. u youuu J 9.
3 3 3 3
tS
uou H % =i >3 =5 uu uuuuu ou"
ta es
uuo
1"< IH
u uu uuuuu uu
"a g
>> >> ? & p Jo P 3 a a
N >C 60 60 X> J*! X> S3 a 3
8
S
S
3 a 8
m a
CO
3 <e Ob" H * J
9 a O
3 X) s s 60
T3 & j3 nj ST
5 T3
So!
a
3
^Ha !?!
a
1
43
a
X xfl (S wi
r ?u o
u
1 i
uuuu , 3i y s s O
uu uuuuu uou uou uuu <i
s o .y ^ Rj
u"u
>> u>
>O
u
u uu u > 5
u
> >
UU
>>
>>:
u uu UU u u
at X>
1 8 Z
form classes in saSirdi 67
uouu o do
^> > > >>>
O rJrf^.UO yooo
>N >M >M >M
uuu
>>>
>O>>>O>>>O>>
oooo
>>>>
duu
>>>
o uuoo'uoduouuu' ouuu udd
o
Ofd^yd^y^ Jo" J
cQ to id
J * | J d 3 d I J <i d d o d d d d dud
nJ co
UUO'JUOUUUUUU'JOUU d ddd
Ji h -a 43 c H
'
f
" & l: ^2 o
a eog--C'T3 Ct3 ca
43
S' J3
ca
cdi to 111
a a & MMM S3 cr
o
o
43
i 1
43
s
a
W
a o
43
is; -S3
CS 3>
c
vJos.
'43
<*H
60 O
a - V. S 1
o a , S3 a
_<L>
r3 a3 5" ao va 2> 60
^o u,3 S 8 .H> o " 'B 1 g tL J2 .
C 5 e ca
. 1 .1 2, % a ,
s=
_ MI-
43 43 Si ,'3'i I
S' a ?=. 9
S3"
a3 -eb
siE 2 ^,35 .a -a 2 1,
>! i4 )-< w >-i s Oh Dl, 60 -s a_^ 3|1i a 1
o
o d ooooo^ooooooy.
4S a 1
V.
c3 Is
o
y Of ddd ddddgy o o
OOOO do d
r4 iH
odd dddddddddddddd
do ooo
o
o
o
> i-l
oM oM oM
M O >:
ooo
>>>
do d
> d ooo odd ddd
d > >>> >>> >>>
d o ooo ddd r*
ooo
-rt
3 o
MORPHEMICS
uu u
CO
>> >
yu u
>> >
uu u
% >> >
o uu u
uy u
uu
03 ij
u
H
Of
>
u
CO
3
co uo o
o
"3
g^u III
O T? IS
Isi >,
ea U
so <2 -a g
03 03
b, * * os 3
s iS'cS? a a a a a
o
o
60
3 a
a
si
p-.S
o
2
60
B
'
K 8 2 "S
1 8. ^ B o co
-
o * * t/2
1-4
^l?^~03i
"3
I i
a 1 S3,
cs a "Q
60
a a a* -3 -
B
S3 It
uu '- .'" -
1 m m (3 pj c3 c3 ^
pm
ci
3
CO uuuuuuu
>> >
uu
>>
y
>
uu y
uu
>>
u
>
g
yy u
8 o
form classes in saSkdi 69
s a
e a P. -4 P. -'-i
Ph uuuu
a u u o >
.3 UXJUU uyuu"
s
M
uuu>.o
>>>o>
UUUUP
> > > > > uuug
o uuuuu uuuu
a - a fi
a.s .a .-? 3 r? 3
s 4 .s 4
s p. p. ^^uu ju
<j J H % d o J o u v o J 5. % .%
r
!/5 UUUUUUUUUUUOUUUU
3
S
3 =
9
a
*
/^
|"u
rrl C <a
60 'g
i
*
1
3 s "a - S"2a
a -a <o o tJ
o "O a - - "3
o s 03 J
60 eat
J
0> >* cdi T3 ,)
3
60
g 4J
-
flji . s & I
3
I'll
X Sea csi
3
3
60
S3
,uuuu
1 uUu s^%aouyoyooo
uJ ? u o u u u Ju o 555 1
r
-"4
r
3
50 UUOQUUUUUUUOUOQU
u
> jy y
S3
Ph uu>>,> u 5
o > y > >>uuu
M M >
9. o u ..uuuo
U" >-
S >>> > > > >>> u u
o ou uuu uuuuu u u
3 o <
r-4 m ^J- <n ^h oo o\ O <n
8
70 MORPHEMICS
u a
y u
u u uu
> > >>
u u yo
3
s
y p. i
ouuu 0*
-a Ba a" s"~g"h 9 9 U
.5i J3 y> aj
+i ^ y y
.H
3 a2
-fl '
I !P 2'
m 1
J s s
ffl
o
3 - 2
1-
TO
S n S3'
I* 4> eS ,
bo
.3 S
T3 on >oo |
si g s sc
>y -a y
4
uy5
U as ii s 5 b s
QUU uuuuuyy'yy
O pU
y>y>
>>u> yyyu
> > > >
uuuu uuuu
8 o Nm^ >n
form classes in sa<ii:di 71
u
a
es
n U U =u9
u r; l>
u >- > U ^U
> uu U > o >
o o U uuu r4 (H
u uJ
y
a
s yoo"y y >,u u
;3 3 3 3 w
s etj
UUUUu9u*
'.v ,..
c3 UUUQUU UO
uoVj a
t/5 uuuu
O
& H a '3
UU3w3ecdS s a.
^ , .
u=
t p3 |
CO xc
S| I If ii^j*
X X5 X
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a a 60
Q a w
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2
Cl
60 S> ~ .
60
-H
8 3
*-
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| o
J *3 60 to :
I
.3 .IA -5 31
ail s as
g J 1
cd 3 gJ'
bo
3
em
a
m n .rail U M n *3, _
du 99 u
y 9 J v" J 9 y
a!
u 9.
uu uuu uuuu
% C3 C3
uu
!Si
co u
u
J>9">1
uu uuuu
>>>>
u >> u uuuu
u9
>>
g
u uu
^3
s .3 (N in tN tN
2 6
gz zzzz
72 MORPHEMICS
.-4u
u">
>>;u >
uuu
y r?u
^3 C ^3
sj .5, JS
>
a
3 s o 3
S ei' V.
3 j <S
UU
uu u
M CS
>u>
a (3
hm <t
g J
7,
FORM classes in saSi:di
H 05 S3 H pa
74 MORPHEMICS
u9 uuu uuu
>>> >>>
>, > >*
>.>.% o 9 >~ > y 9, guu u u u
8* T-i
>^9>
u
>
U9 >>> >>>
eJ <K
u TO "9 >>>>>>
uuu
uuu
O % ?U U U i %
uuu
U o
%U U% 9
<L> <D (U
>, >,
uuu
% r
%%OU uuu
>,Uquy 9uu
uuSyouoo.yuooou uuu
>>>>>>
uuu
O- O cj 03 pS PS -
^ N
s b 8 |
w
c3 6
"S3
o o O $ 5 T3
.. s
35 so 44 -
cr i
o3i kJ
pjt Oi pS PSi PS pS PS PS Pi
N 60 M w >( 60
P>> >i
V.
a 1
,
Its a 1^1S ^5
33
3 p O 5 ^3
* 8 _ H S M
8 '3.
f, jI
h W CO
cdi fl St
ctJ to to
to cj-iOjnida](jct!d 0i C3
^ (3 ffj
, , ,uu uuu
IrTU U U <Z <& cd
uuu
uuu uuu
-.*.ou?
9 9 uuu 9 9. 9 u u
uuu
uu ci3 to* ra cS
Vs Ss Vj Bj C3
$22
uu
> > >>> uuu
uuu >>>
> u uu
ft
uuu uuu
>>>uu u
>
u u99 uu
>> uuu
>> >
H
u uu u s- uuu uu uuu" uuu
"3
o a
5
form classes in saSi:di 75
si
P*
>>
C3 cd
y u
Of
43
uou 3
4s
I
3
CO
oyy o
-1
co
CO
2 -3'
II
Q> [L
O
>H, 60 60
X
> X
w W
T3 P3
g
a o
"J 9,
J3 J*"
H . IS.
E
CO
P*
I
J3
3
CO OUQ 3
CO
Pi
>o>
>u>
uoo
>> o B So coa
3h H CO H
10. PRONOUNS
10.1.
10.2.
The following are the pronouns which occur as free forms and may occur as one-word
sentences.
Person Gender Number
3.m.s. hu: h- -u:
Final /-i/ alternates with /-a/, final /-ey/ with /-i/, final /-ow/ with /-u/ before or at the
loss of /+/. Examples:
ll.l.
General characteristic: filling the subject slot in verbal and non-verbal sentences.
11.2. DEMONSTRATIVES
(1) /da/ 'this'and /da:k/ 'that' occur freely before and after members of other form
classes, in post-and pre-junctural positions, /da/ has the alternant /di/ before major
juncture. /da:k/ occurs in close transition with pronominal free forms in the following
shapes:
3.m.s. daik^hu: dakka:
3.f.s. hi: dikki:
3 pi. humma dokkumma
Occurrence of /da:k/ in close transition with other pronominal free forms is rare in the
idiolects described in this study.
(2) /?adi/ 'this' (seen object), and /?awwi:n/ 'that' (seen object) when uninflected,
occur before nouns. When inflected for allocation, /?adi/ and /?awwi:n/ occur before
nouns, pronominal free forms, nominal and prepositional phrases and constructs.
Only when inflected, /?adi/ and /?awwi:n/ occur as one-word sentences.
/Padi/ has the alternants /?ada-/ when in close transition with pronominal free
11.3. INTERROGATIVES
(c) as one-word sentences, with the exception of /?inn-/ which occurs in close
transition with the following pronominal free forms.
(3) /kad/ occurs initially in questions including /ka:m/, /?e:/ or /mi:n/. Examples
(5) /ke:/ functions as a linker in the environment noun + ke: + noun (e.g., /hsa:n ke:
lbarg/ 'a horse like lightning (i.e., speedy)').
(6) /ke:/, /me:ti/, /le:/, /we:n/ function as adverbs when occurring in post verbal
position: /ruht we:n/ 'where did you (m.s.) go?'
11.4.
The relative /?illey/ 'who', 'which', 'that', whoever', 'whatever' (1) occurs in initial
position in syntactic structures of which /Pilley/ is immediate consituent; (2) does not
occur with sentence pitch peak.
12. PARTICLES
Particles as distinct from nouns and verbs do not contain the immediate con-
stituents : a consonantal root and a vocalic pattern.
Sub-classes of particles
12.1. PREPOSITIONS
(1) Prepositions are inflected for allocation by the same set of pronominal suffixes
which indicates allocation with the nouns.
(2) Prepositions, inflected or uninflected, may occur before (a) definite or indefinite
nouns, (b) nominal phrases.
(3) Prepositions inflected for allocation occur before pronominal free forms and as
one- word sentences.
(4) Prepositions may be divided into two sub-groups on the basis of distribution of
uninflected prepositional forms.
12.1.1. Sub-group 1
Members do not occur pre-juncturally, and normally do not occur with sentence pitch
peak. They occur before nouns, nominal constructs and phrases, and interrogatives.
/bi-/ 'with'
/fi-/ 'in'
/Send/ 'at'
/Sali/ 'on'
/men/ 'from'
/mia/ 'together with'
/li-/ 'to'
(2) l-i'l in /bi-/, /fi-/, /li-/ is dropped when in close transition with a sequence begin-
ning with CV-, and alternates with /-i:/ when inflected for allocation. Examples:
(3) /li-/ has the allomorph /la-/ when in close transition with a following member of
sub-group 2:
/lawara/ 'backward'.
(4) /iali/ has the allomorph /ia-/ before the definite article /?il-/:
(5) /-i/ in /<tali/ alternates with /-e:/ and /-n/ in /men/ is reduplicated when inflected for
allocation:
/laleihom/ 'on them'
/minnak/ 'from you (m.s.)'.
12.1.2. Sub-group 2
Members may occur pre-juncturally, with sentence pitch peak, and with the same
privileges of occurrence as members of sub-group 1 (but not before them or before
other members of sub-group 2), with the exception of /be:n/ which occurs before
other members of sub-group 2.
/taht/ 'under'
/be:n/ 'between'
/gidda:m/ 'in front of
/fo:g/ 'on', 'above'
/jamb/ 'beside'
/wara/ 'behind'
/Pay/ 'any'
/hawalem/ 'about'
/Silya:t/ 'most'
(4a) /kol/ occurs before definite and indefinite singular and plural nouns
/kol ra:Jel/ 'each man'
v
/kol ?irrijj a:li/ 'all (the) men'
(4b) /baSd/ occurs before definite and indefinite singular and plural nouns
(4d) /hawale:n/ occurs before definite and indefinite dual nouns as well as cardinal
numerical adjectives, definite or indefinite
12.3. LINKERS
/bas/ 'only'
/?illi/ 'except'
/wi/ 'and'
/walli/ 'or'
1
Linkers (1) do not occur before major juncture, or with sentence pitch peak;
(2) link nouns, verbs, pronouns, phrases, clauses, sentences;
(4) /wi/ has the allomorph /w-/ before sequences beginning with CV-.
/baSd/ 'after'
/gabl/ 'before'
/kullma/ 'whenever'
/ialasa:n/ 'because'
/law/ 'if
/lammi/ 'when'
(1) Only /baSd/, /gabl/, and /law/, occur before/!/ and /#/.
(2) /baSd/, /gabl/ and /<ialasa:n/ are inflected for allocation.
12.5. ADVERBS
/bard/ 'also'
/barra/ 'outside'
/brob/ 'perhaps'
/dilwak/ 'now'
/kama:n/ 'moreover'
/kdi/ 'thus'
/gawey/ 'very'
/sa:ley/ 'always'
/juwwa/ 'inside'
/xa:les/ 'much'
/hni/ 'here'
/hna:k/ 'there'
(1) All adverbs occur (a) pre-juncturally, (b) as one-word sentences, (c) modifying
verbs and adjectives by position before or after the verb or the adjective.
(2) /bard/ /barra/ and /juwwa/ are inflected for allocation in which case final /-a/
alternates with /-a:-/:
(3) /barra/ and /juwwa/ may function as nominals in declarative non-verbal sentences
with the constituents: noun + phrase of comparison + noun:
/barra Pazfat min juwwa/
'(to be) outside (e.g., a congested hall in warm weather) is worse than (to be) inside'
12.6.
The emphatic particle /ma/ occurs in initial position of the sentence, normally in
close transition with the following item.
12.7.
The negative particle /mis'/ has the variant /-ey/ which occurs suffixed to verbal forms,
/mis/ does not occur before major junctures.
12.8.
I?a:j 'yes' and /la:wal/ 'no' occur initially in the sentence, before /|/ and may occur as
one-word sentences.
12.9.
/ya/, the vocative particle fills the predicate slot in a vocative sentence or the modifier
slot in a vocative phrase, /ya/ does not co-occur with sentence pitch peak.
part in
SYNTAX
13. saSi:di SYNTACTIC UNITS
(1) Consists of one word, phrase, clause or a sequence of these units occurring with a
minimum of one intonation contour ending with either or /#/.
(2) Occurs between silence and or /#/ or after one and before another of these
two junctures with or without intervening single bar(s).
(1) Consists of one word, phrase or a sequence of these units occurring with one
intonation contour ending with /|/, /||/ or /#/.
(2) Occurs between silence and /|/ or after /|/ and before /|/, /||/ or /#/.
13.5.
The clause, the phrase and the word may constitute a sentence by occurrence with a
pitch contour ending with /||/ or /#/.
88 SYNTAX
13.6. ABBREVIATIONS
14.1.
adj + int
+ NCt n
2 NP 2 - + adj
n
ND + adj
adj + ND
NCt + adj
adj +NCt
NPX + adj
(NP X - n + n)
3 NP 3 - n + NP 2
(NP 2 - NCt + adj)
ND + NP 2
(NP 2 - NCt + adj)
ND + ND} in appositive relationship
(6) /?illey/-phrase, in which the relative /Pilley/ fills the head slot.
90 SYNTAX
14.2.
(3) The head slot is first in position with the exception in NP2 of the slot sequence
M + H where the less rigid slot sequence of NP 2 permits the head to occupy the
second position.
(4) The head in NP t is unexpandable, whereas the modifier is expandable by the
addition of modifier(s) or /?illey/-phrase.
(5) The head in NP2 is expandable by the addition of modifier(s) or /?illey/-phrase;
the modifier is expandable by intensifiers.
(6) The head and the modifier in NP 3 are expandable by the addition of modifier(s)
or /?illey/-phrase. /?illey/-phrase, however, does not occur in NP 3 after a head of
the type n.
(7) Slot sequence in /?illey/-phrase is rigid; the modifier slot may be filled by:
(a) adjectives,
(b) verbs
(c) verb (Pred) + noun (O)
(d) verbal, adjectival, adverbial, prepositional and nominal (NP2 ) phrases.
(8) The vocative phrase consists of a head (noun or NPJ and modifier (the vocative
particle /ya/).
14.3.
/li:^kom/ 'to you (pi.)'). A prepositional construct may function as adverbial when
it modifies an adjective or a verb. Examples:
15.1.
15 2.
The dependent clause: lexically linked with other clause(s) in the sentence by a sub-
ordinating conjunction.
16. MAJOR SENTENCE TYPES IN sa<u:di
(1) Snla. With a noun or a nominal as the filler of the predicate slot. Examples:
2 3 1
(a) / na:zer midrasi #/ 'headmaster'
n n
S_ P
Snla
2 3 1
(b) / rayyes lmirkab #/ 'the skipper of the sailing boat'
n ND
S P
Snla
2 3 1
(c) / lgawa:leb dokkumma #/ 'those bricks'
ND demonstrative (pi.)
S P
Snla
MAJOR SENTENCE TYPES IN SaShdi 93
2 3 1
(d) / Pinnesr malik ?itte:r #/ 'the eagle is the king of birds'
ND n ND
t ^hpT"
S P
Snla
2 3 1
t ^~Np~r
S
-P
Snla
(2) Snlb. With adjective or adjectival as the filler of the predicate slot. Examples:
2 3 1
2
(b) / tilli:s lgalla Pffli starltuV/
n ND /?illey/-phrase (adjectival)
^NP^
I
S
Snlb
'the sack of grain which I bought'
(3) Snlc. With adverbial phrase as the filler of the predicate slot. Example:
2 3 1
I adv P
S P
Snlc
(4) Snld. With prepositional phrase as the filler of the predicate slot. Example:
2 3 1
(1) Nouns
(2) Pronominal free forms
(3) Pronominals
(4) NP l5 NP 3
(5) an /?illey/-phrase
Snlb of the type S(ND)+P(adj) and Snld of the type S(ND)+P(prep P) can be
spoken with the order of S + P reversed. The decision of assigning the constituents
in this case is based on the following observations
(1) Sentence pitch peak in Snl falls on the filler of the predicate slot or one of its
constituents.
(2) When the order of slots is reversed, the sentence pitch peak moves back with
the predicate slot. Examples
2 3 1
2 3 1
B2 Bi Ai A2 A3 A4 A5
/bald Pisset dya:r ?ittu:b lwa:tya gawi dokkumma |
Pllli gidda:mak/
'some of these six low brick houses in front of you (m.s.)'
modifiers (b) adjectives other than numerals. Nominal modifiers do not show agree-
ment with the noun head.
(4) Position A3 is occupied by intensifiers.
(5) Position A4 is occupied by demonstratives which agree with the noun head in
gender and number.
(6) Position A6 is occupied by modifying phrases, an /?illey/-phrase or a preposi-
tional phrase.
16.1.4.2.1. The subject slot in Snl may be expanded by linking more than one
nominal with /wi/, /ya ... ya/, /la . . . wala/, /laki:n/.
16.1.4.3. Expansion of the predicate slot in Snl.
2 3 1
NP
> f
\
S P
'the man is a very eloquent speaker'
I
P
'the man is a more eloquent speaker than others'
(c) Adjective in the superlative degree, in which case the adjective and the noun head
reverse positions. The noun head may or may not be followed by a prepositional
phrase. Example:
2
/ ?irra:jel ?lfsaft xati:b fubalad'#/
adj n prep P
'
'
NP
I
P
'the man is the most eloquent speaker in the town'
(2) The predicate slot may be expanded by the usage of the linkers: /wa/, /ya ... ya/,
/la ... wala/, /laki:n/.
Examples:
2 3 1
Snl / ?amwa:lu kati:ri #/
'his wealth is great'
2 3 1
/ ?amwa:lu ka:nat katirri #/
'his wealth was great'
2 3 1
/ lSa:gba "undkom #/
'a greeting on happy occasions'
(1) Sn2 has a predicate slot filled by the vocative particle /ya/, and a subject slot which
may be filled by: (a) a noun, (b) NPi (c) an /?illey/-phrase.
(2) Sn2 normally occurs with a rising-returning intonation contour. Example:
2 3 2
/ ya sa:mey #/ 'Samey!' (male name)
voc. pi. ND
P S
Sn2
2 3 2
the object slot (e.g., / giilt ya wad #/ T called the boy');
2 3 2 2 3 1
(e) after the verb in an interrogative verbal sentence (e.g., / kalt |
ya wad #/
'did you eat?', addressing a boy).
MAJOR SENTENCE TYPES IN saSMi 97
16.3.1. Subtypes
(1) Has two obligatory slots: (S)ubject and (Pred)icator and one optional slot:
(0) bject.
(2) Is normally spoken with a rising-falling intonation pattern.
(3) The following is a minimal manifestation of Svl
2 3 1
which consists of a verb in the perfective aspect inflected for subject reference.
16.3.2.1. Slot fillers in Svl.
(a) nouns
(b) pronominal free forms
(c) subject pronouns
(d) pronominals
(e) NP 1; NP 2 , and NP 3
(f) /?illey/-phrase
1
A declarative verbal sentence may include a predicator which takes two objects e.g.,
2 3 1
2 3 1
/ lawwag limzairel #/
VCtl ND
Pred S
Svl
(3) The object occurs in post-predicator position whether the predicator is post-
subjectival or initial.
(4) In one case slot order in Svl is unchangeable: when Svl is one word, (VCt2),
the constituents of which are:
S vl
~
Pred S O
verb subj pronoun obj pronoun
sa:mah- -at- u
2 3 1
2 3 1
Pred +S+
one optional:
O.
(1) The predicator slot: verbs inflected for the imperative mood.
(2) The subject slot: subject pronouns (2.m.s., 2.f.s., 2 pi.).
(3) The object slot (a) object pronouns, (b) pronominals (demonstrative), (c) nouns,
:
(d) NP l5 NP 2 or NP 3 ,
(e) an /?illey/-phrase.
2 3 1
/ ?ijri
gawa:m #/ 'run (2.m.s.) quickly!'
pred adv
2 3 1
/ daldel min fo:g #/ 'throw (2.m.s.) (e.g., the rope) from above!'
pred prep adv
prep P
2 3 1
/ si:l dakka: Pilli fissandii:g #/ 'carry (2.m.s.) that (m.) which is in the box!'
pred demon- /?illey/-phrase
strative
O
(b) if a noun, as in the subject slot in Snl.
17. NEGATION
In Snl
(a) /mis/ occurs in pre-predicatival position without any restriction as to the type
of predicate:
2 3 1
Snl (neg.)
2 3 1
PLN demon- M
stratives
j
S~~^ P
Snl (neg.)
2. a multiple predicate
NEGATION 101
2 3 1
ND PLN modifiers
S P
Snl (neg.)
'the boy is neither smart nor enlightened'
(c) /-sey/, the allomorph of /mis/, occurs as a suffix with all form classes, /ma/, the
emphatic particle, may precede an item which is suffixed by /-sey/, according to the
following patterns
1. if the predicate is one word it occurs between /ma/ and /-sey/:
2 3 1
/ likta:b ma |
jadi:d |
sey #/ 'the book is not new
ND PLE M PLN
Snl (neg.)
2. if the predicate is an NP, the head occurs between /ma/ and /-sey/
2 3 1
/ ?irra:jel ma |
nazir |
si lmidrasi #/ 'the man is not the headmaster'
ND PLE head PLN M
NP,
S
Snl (neg.)
(d) The adverb /wa:sel/ 'at all' occurs only in negative predicates in post-adjectival
position. /wa:sel/ presupposes /mis/ or /ma/ and /-sey/
2 3 1
2 3 1
/tekki dha:nV/
'do not (2.m.s.) eat fat!'
2 3 2 2 1
Svl / ?ittilmi:z la katab
wala gara. nhardi #/ |
(3) In Svl with multiple subject /la ... wala/ occurs with the subject:
2 3 2 2 3 1
(4) In Svl and Sv2 with multiple object /la/ occurs in pre-predicator position and
/wala/ occurs before each constituent noun or phrase of the object:
2 3 2 2 3 1
Svl / lwad la sreb wdla ldban wdla ddwa #/ |
2 3 2 2 3 1
Sv2 / wdla kiitba:tak wdla xalagd:tak #/
Id twassex |
(5) With one word Svl and Sv2 /-sey/ and the combination /ma/ and /sey/ occur in
free variation:
2 3 1
Svl / fhrmsey #/ 'he did not understand'
2 3 1
/ mafhimsey #/
/ matilSdbsey #/
18. INTERROGATION
18.1.
18.2.
(1) Change in intonation pattern. In Snl, 2 and Svl, 2 from rising-falling or rising-
returning to rising
2 3 1
2 3 3
/ lhalazo:na mittaxxri || ;
'is the bus late?'
2 3 3
/ ba:rdi ||
'is it (f.) cold?'
2 3 1
2 3 1
Svl / hayizmag #/ 'he will be angry'
2 3 3
/ hayizmag ||
'will he be angry?'
2 3 2
Sn2 / ya dasd:S #/ 'you (m.s.) greedy fellow!'
2 3 3
/ ya dassa:S ||
'(are you) calling me greedy?' (reiterated question)
104 SYNTAX
2 3 1
2 3 1
The interrogative may occur in initial position in Snl and Svl, in final position in Snl,
in pre- or post-predicator position or in final position in Svl.
(3) Snl and Svl may be interrogative by change in intonation pattern and in slot
order:
2 3 1
2 3 1
2 3 1
/ lfarra:s taffah lku:ba sa:y #/ 'the servant filled the glass with
Svl S Pred O x 2 tea'
2 3 3
/ taffah lku:ba sa:y lfarra:s ||/ 'did the servant fill the glass with
Pred Oj 2 S tea?'
19. SAMPLE saSi-.di TEXT
To illustrate the application of the saSiidi syntactic system outlined in this study, the
following sentences are analyzed in terms of the categories I defined. The text is a
sentence contains two or more elements of the same type, the symbols referring to
Literal translation is bracketed. A plus sign is used to separate the immediate con-
stituents of a construction. A colon is to be read as "consisting of".
2 3 1
2 3 2 2 3 1
IC1 prep P
'There was a woman [one woman] who loved money'
2 3 1
genitival relationship)
modifier: /kabi:r/ 'big'.
2 3 1
2
5. / ga:lat InafshiYya blt#/
IC1 (1) IC1 (2)
'She said to herself, "O girl!'"
Vocative sentence two independent clauses, phonologically linked, with /232 231
: 1 #/
intonation contours.
sample saSkdi text 107
2 3 2 2 3 1
6. / nbi:S samna:tey |
wnistari bagara jafta:ni #/
IC1 (1) IC1 (2)
'I sell my cooking fat and buy a lean cow'
7. /
2
nsammmhi
322322 |
winbkShi |
winjawwez waladi bet Hiimdi
31 #/
IC1 (1) IC1 (2) 1C1 (3)
'I fatten it, sell it and make my son marry the Omda's [i.e., the
Mayor's] daughter'
2 3 2 2 3 1
8. / law gallat haya:hi | nudrubha bilSasa:yi #/
DCl ICl
'If she is impolite [lessened her shyness], I beat her with the stick'
Declarative verbal sentence: one dependent clause + one independent clause, with
/232 |
231 #/ intonation contours.
DCl: subordinating conjunction + predicator + object
subordinating conjunction: /law/ 'if
predicator: verbal construct 1
2 3 2 2 3 1
9. / sawwahat lSasa:yi |
kasarat ?innitta:l #/
ICl (1) ICl (2)
'she waved the stick and broke the jar.'
2 3 J
Notes:
1) The object of the following listing is to illustrate the attested consonant clusters in saSiidi.
2) Nouns and adjectives in the tables, unless otherwise indicated, are masculine (m,), singular (s).
3) SaSi:di verbs, whether in the perfective or the imperfective, the active or the passive forms, have
3.m.s. subject pronouns.
APPENDIX TO PHONOTACTICS 1 1
TABLE XX
Initial Consonant Clusters: C C2 -
1
'mi
/tty
/thes/
/thammal/
'you (m.s.) feel'
'was left'
M
W
/sxu:r/
/shu:n/
'rocks'
'plates'
M
Ml
/tzabbat/
/tjalad/
'got dirty'
'was lashed' /sd/ /sda:?/
morning)'
'headache'
mi
/ts/
/tgaty
/tSallag/
'was boiled'
'was hung'
M
M/
/sgu:r/
/sju:n/
'hawks'
'prisons'
/tm/ /tma:ni/ 'assurance (f.)' M/ /sSer/ 'became wild'
/tty /tnasal/ 'was pulled' /sm/ /smeS/ heard'
/tlajam/ 'was embarrassed' Iml /snu:ty 'teeth'
M
/kb/
/ksu:r/
/kba:r/
'parts'
'big (pi.)'
/5k/
/Sf/
/sku:k/
/sfey/
'doubts'
'became well (after
/kd/ /kdeb/ 'told lies' sickness)'
/kS/ /kSu:ty 'heels' /&/ /hu:r/ 'months'
/km/ /kma:m/ 'sleeves' /sty /sbeS/ 'ate enough'
mi /kna:si/ 'trash (f.)' /sd/ /sda:d/ 'strong (pi.)'
'became lean'
mi /mjannem/ 'bully' /rf/ /rfeS/
'matured'
Mil /mgayyar/ 'changed' Ml /rsey/
/wtey/ 'degenerated'
Ml /nfattes/ 'inspect (l.m.s.)' /wt/
/wk/ 'inn
Ml /nsattef/ 'arrange (l.m.s.)' /wka:li/ (f.)'
*became wider'
Ml /nxa:li/ 'wheat crust (f.)' /ws/ /wseS/
/wd/ /wda:n/
Ml /nzalleg/ 'trick (l.m.s.)' 'ears'
'and a dome
Ml Mey/ 'come (l.m.s.)' /wg/ /wgubba/ (f.)'
'and
Ml /nganney/ 'sing (l.m.s.)' /wz/ /wzalla:t/ sins'
/lk/ /lkem/ 'ate too much' /wy/ /wyammu/ 'and towards him'
/I?/ /l?ahly/ 'to my family' /yt/ /ytol/ 'looks (v.)'
M
/rk/
/rta:l/
/rkeb/
'pounds'
'mounted'
/yr/
/yw/
/yrammeh/
/ywaddey/
'trots (v.)'
'takes (to somebody)'
1 16 APPENDIX TO PHONOTACTICS
TABLE XXI
Medial Consonant Clusters: -C X C2 - {Geminates are included)
mi
mi
/lahfl/
/ja:hhi/
'eagerness
'her prestige'
(f.)' M
/gg/
IsV
/yigzaS/
/yiglaS/
'feels disgusted'
'pulls out'
mi
mi
/mahrey/
/yihwa/
'well boiled'
'likes'
m
/zg/
/fiizbem/
/rizgu/
'two parties'
'his earnings'
/bt/ /jibtu/ 'I brought it (m.)' HI /yizgiow/ 'they make noise (by
mi /yibkey/ 'cries' talking)'
mi
mi
/se:bhi/
/ftabbi/
'her grey hair'
'kiss (f.)'
M
/zw/
/muzrey/
/bazwey/
'disgraceful'
'my top (toy)'
mi /libdi/ 'local head dress (f.)' /jt/ /ha:Jtey/ 'my thing (f.)'
mi /yibga/ 'remains' /jf/ Mfi/ 'becomes rough'
mi /yibzel/ 'gives generously' IHI /hajsu/ 'his frivolity'
IHI /yibgey/ 'he bullies others' /Jb/ /fia:jbey/ 'my eye lid'
mi
m
/hajmi/
/hijnu/
'attack
'his
(f.)'
(speedy) camels'
(f.)' liV /yijley/ 'polishes'
M
/Sw/
/yiSra/
/yiSwey/
'becomes destitute'
'barks (v.)'
mi
/lm/
/salSi/
/yilmaS/
'flash (f.)'
'shines'
/Sy/ /yiSyi/ 'becomes sick' /In/ /gulni/ 'said (l.pl.)'
/mt/ /gi:mtu/ 'his worth (f.)' /ll/ /Silli/ 'sickness (f.)'
/ms/
/mh/
/rimsu/
/ysa:mhu/
'his eye lashes'
'forgives him'
M /Ji:rtu/ 'his neighbourhood
(f.)'
/mw/ /samwa:h/ 'a kind of leather' /rz/ /yirzaS/ 'puts down (angrily)'
/my/ /Samyi/ 'blind (f.)' /!}/ /yirjaS/ 'goes back'
/nt/ /santa/ 'bag (f.)' /rg/ /yirkab/ 'likes'
/nk/ /bunku/ 'his type' /rS/ /yirSa/ 'grazes'
/nf/ /manfl/ 'remote place' /rm/ /yirmey/ 'throws'
/ns/ /yinsi/ 'forgets' /rn/ /gurna/ 'height (f.)'
/wy/ /ma:wyi/ '(of water melon) not hil /say^e:n/ 'two goldsmiths'
fresh (f.)' /ys/ /sa:ySu/ 'enduring him'
/yt/ /fa:yti/ 'passing by (f.)' /ym/ /ga:ymi/ 'departing (f.)'
M
mi
/fa:yzi/
/ha:yji/
'a female's
'furious (f.)'
name (f.)' /yy/ /mayyi/ 'water (f.)'
120 APPENDIX TO PHONOTACTICS
TABLE XXII
Medial Consonant Clusters: -C 1 C1 C2 -
/ttb/ /kattbu/
/JVCLLLU li/ 'makp Cm c ^ him /
r
/
/
og,AAl u.iiyiii/ lllcllvC ^pi. ) lllClil
! !
write work
/tts/ /mwattga/ /fmt/ /cifintev/
/
OlllJJ.LwJ' /
'mv hpalth'
lllj 11 Vdl 111
/ttm/ /m^atfmi
/111 1CLLLL111// Mark
vicuiv Cf
\i7V /hhh/ /hannha/
/
Uallilllg./ 'Tipi*
11C1 r1iir"lrc*
UULlva
/ttn/ /mattnn/
/XXI CL L Lll LI/ *malfp
lllCLIVV (m c
l^JJ.l.O.y it (
1L V lit* ^ m /hhn/ / U til llllil/ Ulil UU-Wlva
tighter!' /nnr/ /
UcllllltlJW/ csr\ ml 1 ft oft ri !
/ttl/ /m^attla
till ACL LL1CL.*hoTTi
11^111// *Hplnvinty Cf 1 thfm' /hhf/ /lahhfn/
/Ictlllll U./ lllcllvC ^lll.o. J llllil 1CC1
/ttr/ /tnnattra
/lllllCLLLl CL// 'raininc*
1 CLli-lllig, Cf
1^1
V
J CctgCl I
/kK/ /raklfSn
/ CLXViV lui/ 'trmlrf
111C11V& fm o. ^
\_lll.O, 1 llllil nim dWdlvCi
kneel!' /bbt/ /jiuutu/ 'hie
lllb 1/>*alr'
i*"*
L.l(Jd,lv
/m/
/fft/ /haflftn/
/
lldllLtl/ lllo IILIIC ClJJ.lUU.llt V-"-*/
/hht/
/
UUjR./ /HclUUJVUlll/ ius-cu. yuu
/na/ /Saffsn/ UCctU ^lil.O.y U.JJUUL it /hhs/
/
UUS/ /
/ rtCl nnOn'n
gClU Ui u.. 11 y 111/ *nir*V Cnl "i th^mf
\IU.}. /bbs/ lldULJoSJ W/ 'cp'-cifY'h (v\\ "i!'
at>clit^li IJJ1.I1
/
/fFs/
/11 /
/caff Sn'lintn / 'fati^h
taiLii (v\\ \ tiivjjjii
Vt*^*y
thfm?' /bbx/ /<!5nnYn\u/
odUUAy W/ lief*
Uaw 1 1*\ I 1 moniifp
lllallulCI
1
/ \P1
/tafffin/
/LCtll 11 U./ fill Tm
1111 ^lll.O. ) it
<; "i 1L Cm
V^lll.^. V / U Lfll/ /so f%h
/oaUUlly w/ / 'Ti"*aAt> CfVl
iveep 1i h;q Sr/aifiTl
wcnvciui
Iff hi /laffhi/
/lu.ll 111/ 'wratrn^H it Cf 'i
9
UVCl JJLlgilLi
Willi rpmpnt
*
with VCillCU.l.1 ! /hhl/
/DDI/ / rrci
/
rVh o^xz
gctUUiU 1
W// * ivi~\ I y\ 1 1 Crtllth 1'
Iff 11
/in/ /coffin/
/bd.ll lU/ lcl \_lll.a,i llllil /DDI/ /sabhru/ 'let (m.s.) him be
UlCUldlCi pdllCULi
/vsiflFnii
AdxillLl// nirlf^ Ctn
111U.C c 1 llllil;
^lll.O. hiTYi I /uai/ u.iiyiii/ Clcctll \JJJ.
/11 Li/ / } /JLIclVi.Ul f 111C111
/ffl/
/111/ /
gdiliU W / aLUp \]Ji.} WUlJvlllg. /drl/
/uus>/ /gd.U.U.&U.ll(Jlll/ ICopctyL IJJl. 1 LllCllli
/ffr/ /saffru/ *let (m.s.) him travel!' /ddh/ /maddhi/ 'stretched it (f.)'
/sst/ /hisstu/ 'his share (f.)' /ddS/ /baddSow/ 'do (pi.) well!'
/ssf/ /gassfu:hom/ *break (pi.) them!' /ddm/ /gaddmow/ 'hurry (pi.) up!'
/ssb/ /nassbu/ 'help (m.s.) him!' /ddn/ /gaddni/ 'equal to us'
/ssd/ /wassdu/ 'let (m.s.) him lie!' /ddl/ /baddlurhom/ 'change (pi.) them!'
/v /wassiu/ 'widen (m.s.) it (m.)!' /ddr/ /baddrow/ 'come (pi.) early!'
/ssm/ /gassmow/ 'divide (pi.)!' /ddy/ /?iddyu:k/ 'the cocks'
/ssn/ /massni/ 'touched our /ggt/ /taggty/ 'his knock (f.)'
/ggd/ /Saggdow/ 'make (pi.) knots!' /lid/ /jalldu/ 'cover (m.s.) it (m.)!'
/earn/ /saasmow/ 'put (pi.) in front!' /11a/ /S!allgow/ 'start (pi.) to cook
/ggn/ /laggnu:hom/ 'tell (pi.) them!' hang (pi.)!'
/ggl/ /5agglu:hom/ 'make (pi.) them /115/ /gallSu:hom/ 'pull (pi.) them out!'
reasonable!' /11m/ /Sallmu/ 'teach (m.s.) him!'
/ggr/ /saserow/ 'light (pi.) a fire!' /rrt/ /garrtow/ 'be (pi.) strict!'
/zzg/ /mazzgu/ 'tear (m.s.) it (m.)!' /rrk/ /barrku/ '(of the camel) let
/zzm/ /Sazzinow/ 'gather (pi.) strength!' (m.s.) it (m.) kneel!'
/zzr/ /fazzrow/ 'auess (nl.)!' /rrf/ /earrfu/ 'make (m.s.) him feel
/jjt/ /friutu/ 'his ownership paper disgusted!'
or his reason (f.)' /rrs/ /garrsu/ 'pinch (m.s.) him!*
/Jjs/ /hausow/ *talk (pi.) nonsense!' /rrs/ /farrsu/ 'clean (m.s.) it (m.)!'
/naiifiu/ 'let (m.s.) him /rrb/ /xarrbu/ 'ruin (m.s.) it (m.)l'
succeed!' /rrd/ /garrdu/ 'don't (m.s.) give him
/jjh/ MaiiM/ 'her gossip' any property!'
/Jib/ /raiibow/ 'talk (pi.) gently!' /rra/ /sarrgow/ 'go (pi.) east!'
/jjm/ /raiimow/ 'throw (pi.) rocks!' /rri/ / farrjuihom/ 'let (pi.) them have a
/JJ1/ /raiilow/ 'act (pi.) like men!' look!'
/fir/ /navirow/ 'prohibit (pi.)!' /rrd/ /farrsu/ 'empty (m.s.) it (m.)!'
liitl /daisftu/ 'his disaster (f.)' /rrS/
/ii i/ /marrSu/ 'cut (m.s.) it (m.) to
!&>/ /rag'^bu:hom/ 'let (pi.) them like pieces!'
(something)!' /rrm/ /narrmu/ 'make (m.s.) him
/sas&fru/ 'make (m.s.) it (m.) abstain!'
smaller!' /wwt/ /siwwtu/ 'his body side (f.)'
/55t/ /PasMtu/ 'its (m.) rays' /wwd/ /xawwdQw/ 'wade (pi.) (in shal-
/55s/ /na5 isu/ <
'let him sleep!'
(m.s.) low water)!*
/55b/ /laSSbu:/ let (pi.)him play!' /wwm/ / gawwmu/ 'wake (m.s.) him up!'
/55d/ /baSSdu/ 'keep (m.s.) him /wwn/ /lawwnu/ 'colour (m.s.) it (m.)!'
away!' /wwl/ /nawwlu:hom/ 'change (m.s.) their
/55m/ /na5Smu/ 'grind (m.s.) it (m.) course!*
to powder!' /wwr/ /sawwru/ 'build (m.s.) a fence
/55r/ /waSSru/ 'make (m.s.) it (m.) round it (m.)!'
difficult!' /wt/
ijj '-i
/xawtu/ 'his sister'
/mmt/ /lammtu/ 'his gang' /wk/ /xayykom/ 'your (pi.) brother'
/mms/ /nammsu/ 'bake (m.s.) it (m.) /wfi/ /favvnu/ 'make (m.s.) it (m.)
well!' leak (of news)!'
/mmd/ /hammdu/ 'keep (m.s.) him at /yyh/ /zavvhi/ 'like her'
bay!' /wb/ /tawbu/ 'cook or cure (m.s.)
/mmS/ /lammSu/ 'polish (m.s.) it (m.)!
5
itfmV
iV \iii.y.
/mum/ /xammnow/ 'try (pi.) to guess!' /wd/ /eavvdu/ 'bind (m.s.) him!*
/mml/ /nammlu/ 'load (m.s.) it (m.)!' /vvc /hawEu/ 'add (m s ^ salt to it
TABLE XXIII
/tk/
/IK/ /hatk/ 'spanHaliyinp' /ftnsn
/
liUJli// 'hpantv'
6
Itfl nif*kin o' Ml/
/bi/ /fasl/ VIUjj 1 V/LJ111
If til
/IS/ 'diving' fori /pa sr/ 'nalacei'
v m ,
/xS/
/Al/ /sax^/ 'calling names'
/kt/
/Kl/ /nokt/
4
fi"ic"ic fn V /xl/
/Al/ /tiaxl/ 'palm trees'
\XXt V hna stino'*
s
/k/
/KS/ /Saks/ W j./ I^VA:* 1 IV fn
'rvtrnnQitp l-xrl
/Al/ /faxr/
/k5/
/Ka/ /nakS/ y\ji kjix Uij y iyiv-.n-i.iig /xw/ /raxw/ 'soft'
with
VV X KXX 1 11 V hpak'
thft UVCIIV /vv/ /fa xv / 'releasing'
/kh7
/KD/ /rnkh/ riding' /fit/
/ni/ /na&t/ U(UU VV vl IV \Jl jv \AXLJ
/km/
/Kin/ /rtr\kTn
/
LJUK1I1// 'miitp
111 cue fnl
^'
vjji,^ ture*
/H/
/Kl/ /5a
/
kl/
atlKl/ 'chnnp fn V /lis/ /Han^ / '^parph fn ^
/?/
/rs>/ /ha?/ IS 1 vrv.ll va /lid/
/nu/ /land/
y
ictiiuy 'death'
'
/?m/
/rm/ /lurm/ 'pnnnino
V Li lining.
1
/fo/
/IS/ /gafs/ v tp lliig
CtiXCO 1 ft tT /nl/
"1/ /falil/ 'hip*
/
Ifvl
/IX/ /nafx/ rt 1r">\S7lTi cr
UlUWIIlg /m/
/hf/ /lahf/ 'Qnatphinff*
kjjLiciivi.11ij.j5
/ia/ /nafd/
/lldiu/ 'psranp
v jv el [J v fn
y^ii .
V
j /hh/ /en nh / 'meteors'
/fW
/ I B/
/laftr/ 'cHtf* flinty'
Li 1 wiling /hm/
/11111/ /fahm/ 'understanding'
/fW
/IZ/ /
I1C1Z/ rvfpcpn/i'n
JJlCOCi <?
Vllig /ht/
/Dl/ /ieht/ 'T Hrnno'Tit'
mi
/ii/ /rafS/
/ran/ 'raisin c'
1 CtiOlllg /hk/
/
U K/ /sabk/ ^ifiininff'
/fn/
/in/ /jem/ cyciiu. /hs/
/DS/ /
Ad.ua/ Uv 11raval'
'Kpf cijr cn
M
/Jm/
/&ajz/
/rajm/
'detaining'
'throwing rocks'
/lm/
/rt/
/Selm/
/hert/
'knowledge'
'I felt confused'
/In/ /Sajn/ 'making paste' /rk/ /werk/ 'thigh'
/jr/
'
TABLE XXIV
Medial Consonant Clusters: -C 1 C2 C 3 -
its./ /vitflu/
/JXVXXW/ 'he spits it (m.)' /rusk/ /yimsku/ 'hold*: it V
/tsh/ /5atsha/ 'her
llvl couch
\*KJ U ALX IX . V
(f 1 /rnlih/
/AA Aim./ /ffflmfthnm/
/
gtllllUllWlil/ VAlVJJ. VYUvd L
/tsk/ /batskQm/ 'your calf (of the /vnmd dow/ 'thfiv
Hlv V fhpw'
vllv W
water-buffalo) /ntr/ /yuntru/ 'throws it (m.) away'
/tzk/ /ratzkom/ 'your (pi.) trotting' /nsl/ /vunslu/ 'duIIs Cm V
it
/ktm/ /viktmow/ 'they keep (a secret)' /n<5r/ /yunsrow/ 'thev saw CwondV
/ktl/ /viktlak/ 'he eives vou Cm s ^ /nxl/ /yunxlu/ 'sifts it Cm ^'
/fix/
/J.JA/ /nnf ixnw/
/ ilLU JAV VY /
'we idle' ^oJJvdxviXlg \JL IUUU )
/stl/ /visthi'tii/ 'thev temtit us Cliter- /lfz/ /villl711 / 'savs it Cm ^*
work)'
/IIM/ /vt ifisTfiw/ 'tliPV ! .PP7p' /wzn/ /v.
Jfl \a/7T11"1
VVZ.U.LI//
/