Weight regulation and satiety

Project WEIGHTY

Marjatta Salmenkallio-Marttila; VTT Technological Research Centre of Finland

• Leila Karhunen; Department of Clinical Nutrition, University of Kuopio •
Ingibjörg Gunnarsdottir; Unit for Nutrition Research, University of Iceland &
Landspitali-University Hospital, Reykjavik • Anette Due; KVL The Royal
Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen • Maria Johansson,
University of Lund, Functional Food Science Centre, Lund

Nordic Functional Food - a healthy choice

Hanasaari, September 6, 2007
 Weight regulation and satiety - Background

• During the past 20 years, obesity has risen dramatically

→ increased risk of adverse health consequences
→ reduced quality of life
• Overweight and obesity are thought to be important risk
factors for many chronic diseases like
• type 2 diabetes,
• cardiovascular disease and
• many cancers

• The identification and communication of food properties

that are linked with body fat accumulation may help in
prevention and management of overweight and obesity

• Supply of functional foods with weight regulation related

health claims may
• increase consumption of healthy foods
• contribute to the improvement of public health
• lead to decreased healthcare costs
 Obesity is increasing rapidly …
Obesity,
population percentage

30 − 27
23
25 −

20 −
15
15 −

10 −

5−

0−
1976-1980 1988-1994 1999
 Lihavuus

…and is predicted to rise steadily

IOTF, 2003
 Regulation of food intake

Genes
Physiological state Habits,
experiences
Peripheral Knowledge,
systems attitudes Hedonics

Biological Environmental
Energy balance Brain Mood
regulation and individual
regulators
Culture Social
situations
Food intake
Economy Rhythm
Physical Food
activity
 Regulation of food intake
- to maintain the body at a stable weight
Short-term regulation
• within meal-to-meal basis
• determines the quantity and quality of food eaten during single meals and
days (i.e. timing, size and composition of meals)
Long-term regulation
• from days to weeks
• modulates the sensitivity of short-term regulation of food intake
=> maintenance of energy balance and body weight at the long term
Short- and long-term regulation act through
distinct but interacting systems.

Niswender & Schwartz,

Cummings & Overduin, J Clin Invest 2007. Havel, 2001 Front Neuroendocrinol, 24,1-10, 2003
 Basically it is a question of energy balance…

Energy stores = Energy intake - Energy expenditure

1% difference over 1 year

Intake 1 000 000 kcal, expenditure 990 000 kcal
→ Weight gain = 1.2 - 1.7 kg
Food properties affecting satiety and weight control

• Amount / portion size

• Energy density
• Macronutrient composition
• Glycemic index
• Bioactive compounds
• Structure
• Sensory quality
• palatability
 Energy density

= amount of available energy per weight of food (kJ or kcal/ g)

• Important factor in the regulation of energy intake

• Main factors affecting energy density
• Macronutrients
• fat 38 kJ/g (↑), protein 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates 17 kJ/g
• Water (↓)
• Dietary fibre (↓)
• Sweeteners
 Energiatiheys

Effect of fat content (% of energy) and Energy density on

food intake (kg/week) and energy intake (MJ/day) in a 7 day experiment

14
13
12
11 20 %
kg/week
10 40 %
MJ/day
9 60 %
8
7
6
Ruoka
Food Energia
Energy Ruoka Energia
Food Energy
Energy density Energy density
"natural" same
Stubbs et al. 1995 ja 1996
 Different macronutrients have different effect on satiety

• Effect on satiety:
• protein > carbohydrate > fat

How full do you feel? How satisfied do you feel?

2000 2000

1600
Pinta-ala (mm*min)

Pinta-ala (mm*min)
1500

1200
1000
800

500
400

0 0

protein carbohydrate fat bread (reference)

 Fat

• High fat intake can promote the development of obesity by several

different mechanisms:
• Palatability - delicious flavour and mouthfeel
• Less need of chewing - eaten faster
• Volume/weight of food
• Weaker satiating effect
• Excess fat is stored
• carbohydrate and protein stores are more closely regulated
• Degree of saturation and chain length affect the satiating effect of fats
• PUFA > MUFA, SFA
• Medium chain triglycerides > long chain triglycerides
• diglycerides > triglycerides
• Fat substitutes
• Can decrease both fat and energy intake
 Protein

• Several mechanisms have been proposed for the satiating effect

of proteins:
• Stimulation of several satiety mediating hormones (insulin,
glucagon, cholekystokinin)
• Some amino acids (e.g. trp, tyr) precursors for satiety increasing
mediators
• Increased heat generation after meal (thermogenesis)

• Protein has also been shown to promote weight regulation after

weight loss
 Protein
95
90
Paino, kg

85 Traditional
Perinteinen
weight

80 Proteiini
Protein

75
70
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
viikko
weeks
Weight loss on traditional (CH 58, F 30, P 12 E%) and
high protein diet (CH 45, F 30, P 25), 50 obese subjects

Skov ym. Int J Obes 1999;23:528-36

 Protein

0
m uutos (% )

-2
-4
change

Traditional
Perinteinen
-6
Atkins
Atkins
P ainon

-8
Weight

-10
-12
0 3 6 9 12
months
kuukausi
Weight loss with traditional (HH 60, R 25, P 15 E%) and Atkins
diet (very low CH), 63 obese subjects.
Foster ym . NEJM 2003;348:2082-90.
 Different protein sources can have different effects on satiety
and energy intake

• E.g. the milk proteins casein (slow) and whey (fast) appear to
have different effects on satiety
• Fish protein has been shown to give higher satiety than lean
meat or chicken

• Caused by differences in protein digestion

Uhe, Collier & O’Dea 1992. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 122, 467-472.
 Carbohydrates

• The satiating effect of carbohydrates is caused by

• Changes in blood glucose
• Changes in liver metabolism
• Secretion of satiety hormones like insulin, GLP-1 and amylin
• Stimulation of mouth and throat by high fibre carbohydrates
• Slowed gastric emptying and absorption of nutrients by high
fibre carbohydrates
 Glycaemic index
Glucose, mg/dl ”FAST” Glucose, mg/dl
”SLOW”
40 40
White bread
20 20
Spaghetti

0 0

-20 -20
0 20 40 50 90 110 120 150 0 20 40 50 90 110 120 150
time
Aika, min time
Aika, min
Change in blood glucose following ingestion of carbohydrate (50 g) in
white bread or spaghetti. Glycaemic index is measured as surface area
below the glucose curve in comparison to standard white bread or glucose.
(Granfeldt ym. Eur J Clin Nutr 1991)
 Glykemiaindeksi

Effect of high and low glycaemic index diet on energy intake (laboratory)
or body weight on weight loss diet or free diet

Measured Number of High GI Low GI

variable papers
Laboratory Energy intake 28 4,1 MJ 3,3 MJ

Weight loss Weight 3 - 4,8 kg - 6,2 kg

diet
Free diet Weight 4 - 0,50 kg - 0,55 kg

Raben A. Obes Rev 2003, meta-analysis

 Glykemiaindeksi

Energiy density (kcal/g food) is correlated to satiety,

rate of absorption of carbohydrates is not

Satiety Satiety
600 600 Low fat,
500 500 high water,
400 400 high fibre
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
80 100 120 140 160 180 1 1,5 2 2,5 3
Glucose response (”GI”) Energy kcal/ g

Effect of different types of bread on satiety (238 kcal each)

Holt ym. JADA 2001
 Bioactive compounds

• Little data on long term effects

• Caffeine
• coffee, tea, cola nuts, and cacao beans
• thermogenic properties
• stimulates lipolysis
• a regular daily intake also produce a slight weight loss
• Catechins
• Green tea
• increase thermogenesis and fat oxidation
• Capsaicin
• hot spices like red pepper, tabasco sauce, mustard and ginger
• potential effect on thermogenesis and fat oxidation by enhancing
sympathetic activity
 Food structure

• Affects rate and extent of food digestion, rate of gastric

emptying and absorption of nutrients
• Solid foods with intact tissue structures are digested slowly
and cause a stronger feeling of satiety than well
homogenized food structures or liquids
• Whole grains > crushed grains > coarse flour > fine flour
• Whole fruit > puree > juice
• Raw carrots > cooked carrots
• Large pieces of meat > minced meat
• Dense bread > porous bread
• Solid food/ viscous food > liquid food

Wholemeal rye bread

 Dietary fibre
Report of a joint WHO/FAO expert consultation 2003

• High intake of NSP (dietary fibre)

decreases the risk of
• Obesity
(convincing decreasing risk)
• Type 2 diabetes
(probable decreasing risk)
• CVD
(probable decreasing risk)
• Cancer
(possible decreasing risk)
 Fibre

• Increases satiety, decreases energy intake and thereby weight

• epidemiological evidence shows the association between high fibre
intake and decreased obesity
• 14 g increase in daily fibre intake → 10% decrease in energy intake

• Mechanisms
• lower energy density
• more satiety signals from the mouth and throut region and the
gastrontestinal tract
• slowered rate of gastric emptying and absorption of food
• decreased amount of absorbed energy
• decreased palatability
 Intake of dietary fibre (g/day)
• Recommended intake of dietary fibre in Finland 25-35 g per day, or 3 g/MJ
(Finnish dietary recommendations 1998)
35

30

25

20
15

10

0
um

Ire in

gd d

k
G ria

SA
rt e

Fi ny
er n
A m

D and
Sw gal
B s

K lan

ar
Po ec

G de
a
nd

o
gi

a
Sp

U
m
u
us

re

m
e
el

nl
rla

en
in
he
et

d
te
N

ni
U

McCleary B.V. ja Prosky L. Advanced Dietary Fibre Technology, 2001

 All these portions contain 5 g of fibre (daily recommended
intake in brackets)

400 g Asparagus 4 heads of lettuce

(2.8 kg) (24 pieces)

2 Apples
(14 pieces)
1 Cucumber
5 Carrots
(6 pieces)
(35 pieces)

1 slice of whole grain

bread (7 slices) 5 Potatoes
(35 pieces)

Leipätiedotus ry
 Grain products as sources of dietary fibre

- Grain products Breakfast + Grain products

Fibre 9 g
Fibre 0.5 g

Lunch

Fibre 9 g Fibre 14 g

Total 23 g
Total 9.5 g

Leipätiedotus ry
Different types of fibres can be used in food products

• increased satiety / decreased hunger reported:

• alginate
• guar gum
• ethyl hydroxy ethyl cellulose
• lupin kernel fibre
• locust bean gum
• pectin
• psyllium
• resistant starch
• pea fibre
• oat fibre
• wheat fibre
• cereal fibre
 Summary

Food product for improved satiety and weight control:

• Low energy density

• Moderate portion size
• High fibre
• Low fat
• Protein rich
• Solid/ soup

• Palatable

• Bioactive compounds
• Low glycaemic index
The following types of claims related to satiety and weight
control have been proposed in Finland:
• Helps with weight control
• Releases energy slowly
• Has a long satiating effect
• Increases the sense of satiety
• Keeps sense of hunger at bay

• Accelerates fat burning

• Firms up the body
• Helps to lose weight and firm up
• Reduces visceral fat
• Reduces build-up of fat
• Increases fat burning in fat cells
• Reduces fat absorption

• Prevents the degradation of starch

• Promotes metabolism
Claims related to weight control and/or a sense of satiety were
made with respect to:
Dietary fibre: Others:

• Flax seeds • Caffeine

• Flour-like nutritive preparations • Calcium
• Inulin • Chromium
• Food supplements containing fibre • CLA
from psyllium and inulin • Green tea extract
• Oat, barley, wheat and rye fibre • Kidney bean extract
• Oat bran • L-carnitine
• Plant fibre • Palm/oat oil fatty acid
• Polydextrose • Proteins
• Sugar beet fibre • Spirulina algae
• Whole grain
 Conclusions

• Some foods have the potential to enhance weight loss or

prevent weight gain
• Incorporating some of these foods in a healthy and
balanced diet could be beneficial for weight maintenance
• The individual effect of each dietary component on weight
control might be too small to result in meaningful changes
in body-composition, but, if the dietary components were
combined, their effects could be significant
• The dietary components should be combined with energy
restriction and increased physical activity to achieve
significant weight loss